Some of questions are1. Distridution transformers are connected in configurationa. Star/delta b. delta/star c. star/star d. delta/delta 2.

In radial system, power is fed froma. From one end b. from two ends c.centre d. none 3. !at is capacitance grading". !at is #oltage regulation$. Stinging c!art is used for- table is referred for sag calculation%. &or an e'isting transmission line, t!e string efficiency is ()*. +ow if for same set up, dc is supplied, w!at will be t!e string efficiencya.()* b.more t!an ()* c. less t!an ()* d. 1))* ,. s-in effect depends on frequencya.directly proportional b. in#ersnaly proporsanal c.sqare of frequency d. none (. coefficient of reflection of an open ended line isa. 1 b. -1 c.) d. none .. t!e power loss in an o#erloaded line is mainly due toa. resistance b. capacitance d. inductance d. none 1).#oltage at generation stage is usuallya.11kv b.33-# c.%%-# d.22)-# 11./01 fuses pro#ides best protection againsta. s!ort circuits b. lig!tining c. sparking d. fire 12. resistance switc!ing is used in case ofa. air blast 12 b. bul- oil 12 c. minimum oil 12 d. all types of CB 13. campared to ac, in dc corona loss is1".corona effect is more prominent in weat!er conditions1$.in force #oltage analogy mass is analogus toa. 0 b. L c. 1 d. current 1%.p!ase margin of t!e system is used toa. relative stability b. absolute stabilty c. time response d. frequency response 1,.wattmeter measuresa. #olt ampere b. #olt ampere reacti#e c. apperent power d. true power 1(.inductance is measured bya. wein bridge b. sec!iring bridge c. maxwell bridge d. !ay bridge 1..form factor in ac means t!e ratio ofa. pea- to a#g. #alue b.pea- to rms #alue c. rms to avg. value d. rms to pea- #alue

2).in a single p!ase con#erter, t!e no. of S10 conducting during o#erlap a.1 b.2 c. 3 d. " 21.in a t!ree-p!ase full con#erter, output #oltage pulsates at frequency of a. f b. 2f c. 3f d. %f 22.in a t!ree-p!ase full con#erter, e#ery S10 conducts fora.%)deg. b. 12)deg. 1.1()deg. d..)deg

!o was 0amansay award winner in t!e yr 2))%3 2. In t!e yr 2))% commonwealt! games are !eld in3 a4 Melbourne b45alasia etc 3. 6nder t!e c!ief 7udge of t!e supreme court, !ow may 7udges are t!ere3 a42( b !" c42% d432 ". In below names, w!ic! musician was deaf3 Some names of t!e musicians are gi#en $. !o was t!e first deputy prime minister of India 3 a4morar7i desai b4c!aran c4s.patel etc %. !o was t!e first woman prime minister in t!e world3 #irimavo Bandaranaike ,. !o is t!e writer of 8itan7ali3 9ns: 0abindranat! ;agore (. !o said first <=ai >isan, =ai =a#an?3 a47awa!arlal +e!ru b4ma!atma 8and!i c4Indira 8and!i d4 lal ba$adur s$astri @.. .. !ere is t!e ABC1 !ead office located3 a4 8ene#a b4 Dietnam c4Singapore d4 vienna@@ 1). In w!ic! state in India t!e sun temple located3 a4 -erala b45ad!ya Brades! c4 orissa d4 Andhra pradesh

11 /ow many spo-es are t!ere in t!e as!o-a c!a-ra in Indian flag3 a !" b42% c42( d422 ans: 2" 12. !o was t!e present secretary for 6nited +ations3 2an >i-moon

13. !o was t!e only Indian !a#e t!e name #iceroy during t!e britis! rule3 Some names of freedom fig!ters are gi#en. 1". /ow muc! percent of forests are t!ere in India 3 a422* b41%& c42$* d43)* 1$. ;!e term <0oll In? is used in w!ic! game3 a4tennis b4golf c4!oc-ey d4 c!ess@. 1%. In w!ic! form 8o#ernment will get t!e more profit t!an any ot!er3 a4Direct taxes b4Indirect ta'es c4e'ise ta' d4estate ta'e 1,. +ame t!e fast bowler in cric-eter w!o ta-e t!e !atric-3 a4-apil de# b4 Some names of t!e cric-eters are gi#en. 1(. In w!ic! year t!e <Da-s!ina 8angotri< was establis!ed3 a41.(2-(3 b41%'()'" c41.($-(% d41..1-.2

*+,-.,/0 L12,# )*B3,C41+, 456, 78,#41*2# 1. ;!e surge impedance of a 11) -D, 3-p!ase transmission line is "") o!ms. ;!e surge impedance loading of t!e line is a. 3 E11)4 2/"") 5 b. E11)4 2/"") 5 c. E11)4 2/ 311)4 2 5 9ns.: Eb4 2.;!e capacitance and inductance per unit lengt! of a 3-p!ase line, operating at 11) -D are .)1 microfarad and 2.$ m/. ;!e surge impedance of t!e line is Ea4 $) o!ms Eb4 $)) o!ms Ec4 2$) o!ms 9ns: Eb4 3. 9 long transmission line is energiFed at t!en sending end and is -ept open circuited at t!e recei#ing end. ;!e magnitudes of t!e sending end #oltage Ds and of t!e recei#ing end #oltage Dr satisfy t!e following relations!ip a. Ds GDr b. Ds is greater t!an Dr c. Ds is less t!an Dr 9ns: Ec4 ". Doltage regulation of a s!ort transmission line is a. always positi#e b. always negati#e c. eit!er positi#e, negati#e, or Fero 9ns: Ec4 $. ;!e capacitance of an o#er!ead line increases wit! i. ii. increase in mutual geometric mean distance increase in !eig!t of conductors abo#e ground

a. 2ot! are true b. 2ot! are false c. Anly Ei4 is correct 9ns: Eb4 %. S!unt compensation for long C/D lines is primarily resorted to a. impro#e #oltage profile b. impro#e stability c. reduce fault currents 9ns: Ea4 ,. Series compensation is primarily resorted to d. impro#e #oltage profile e. impro#e stability f. reduce fault currents 9ns: Eb4 (. &air weat!er corona loss may be computed using t!e empirical formula gi#en by Beterson. 9ccording to BetersonHs formula corona loss is proportional to Ea4 f and D2 Eb4 f 2 and D a. f and D w!ere f and D are t!e system frequency and #oltage respecti#ely. 9ns: Ea4 .. 2undled conductors are used in C/D lines primarily for a. reducing cost of t!e line b. reducing corona loss and radio interference c. increasing stability limit. 9ns: Eb4 1). ;!ere are 2) discs in t!e string of insulators of a 3-p!ase ")) -D transmission line. String efficiency is () *. ;!e ma'imum #oltage across any disc is

a. 2$ -D b. 2$/ 3 -D c. 2$ 3 -D 9ns: Eb4 11. ;wo or t!ree s!eds or petticoats are pro#ided in pin-type insulators in order to increase a. creepage resistance b. spar--o#er #oltageES.A.D4 c. puncture #oltage 9ns: Ea4 12. Bin -type insulators are use up to a. 11 -D b. 33-D c. 132-D 9ns: Eb4 13. Insulators used for transmission line at t!e dead -end tower are a. suspension type b. s!ac-le type c. strain type 9ns: Ec4 1". Cconomic studies !a#e s!own t!at D.1. transmission is c!eaper t!an a. c transmission for lengt!s

a. below 3)) -m b. beyond %)) -m c. beyond 12)) -m

9ns. b 1$.;ransmission #oltages in t!e range 23) -D-,%$ -D are -nown as

a. /ig! #oltage
b. c. C'tra /ig! Doltage 6ltra /ig! Doltage

9ns. b 1%. !ic! one of t!e following statements is false3

9s t!e transmission #oltage increases, a. b. c. 1orona loss decreases 1onductor copper loss decreases 1ost of insulators, transformers, switc!es I circuit brea-ers increases

9ns. c 1,. ;!e internal inductance of a solid conductor of radius r and carrying a current I is equal to a. b. c. ).$ I J 1)-, //m ).$ I J 1)-, exp9)1/" Jr //m ).$ J 1)-, //m

9ns. c 1(. a. b. c. !ic! one of t!e following statements is not true3 ;!e 85D met!od of finding inductance does not apply to 91S0 conductors 1urrent density in 91S0 conductors is uniform ;!e 85D between two circular areas, eac! of different diameters, is equal to t!e distance between t!eir centres.

9ns. b 1.. a. C'panded 91S0 conductors are used ;o increase t!e tensile strengt! of t!e line

b. c.

;o reduce corona loss ;o reduce I20 loss

9ns. b 2). 9 conductor wit! 1. strands, eac! of same diameter and eac! !a#ing an inductance of K /enries is used for a transmission line. ;!e total inductance of t!e conductor will be K/1. K/3%1 1.K

a. b. c.

9ns. a 21. a. b. c. ;!e line to neutral capacitance of single -p!ase line wit! conductors of radius 1cm and spaced 1m apart is equal to 1)-./,2 &/m 1)-./3%&/m 2 21)-, &/m

9ns .a 22. a. b. c. In a double-circuit line wit! !e'agonal spacing , ;!e p!ases are balanced, but t!e conductors of eac! indi#idual p!ase are not balanced. ;!e conductors of eac! indi#idual p!ase are balanced , but t!e p!ases are not balanced ;!e p!ases, and t!e conductors of eac! indi#idual p!ase are bot! balanced

9ns. c 23. a. !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 S-in effect at $) /F is negligible for larger diameter conductors but becomes appreciable for smaller conductor.

b. c.

S-in effect at $) /F is negligible w!ate#er t!e diameter of t!e conductor. S-in effect at $) /F is negligible for t!e smaller diameter conductors but becomes appreciable for t!e larger conductor conductor.

9ns. c 2". a. b. c. !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 0esistance of a conductor decreases and t!e internal inductance increases as t!e frequency is increased 0esistance and internal inductance of a conductor bot! increase wit! increase of frequency 0esistance of a conductor increases and t!e internal inductance decreases as t!e frequency is increased

9ns. c 2$. a. b. c. d. ;!e surge impedance of a double-circuit power transmission line is ") o!ms 2)) o!ms ")) o!ms ()) o!ms

9ns. b 2%. ;!e surge impedance of a telep!one line is a. b. c. d. $) o!ms ,$ o!ms 2)) o!ms ")) o!ms

9ns. b 2%. 2undle conductors are preferred in C/D transmission lines because

a. b. c.

It is easy to fabricate t!in conductors and combine t!em to ma-e a bundle Inductance of t!e line is reduced, and t!e corona loss, and radio I ;D interference is minimiFed. ;ower !eig!t is reduced and !ence transmission cost is low.

9ns. b 2,. a. b. c. d. Inducti#e interference between power I communication lines can be minimiFed by Increasing t!e spacing of power line conductors ;ransposing power line conductors ;ransposing communication line conductors Cit!er b or c.

9ns. d 2(. a. b. c. ;!e percentage regulation of an o#er!ead transmission line can be Fero w!en t!e load power factor is Kagging 6nity Keading

9ns. c 2.. a. b. c. !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 S-in effect increases t!e resistance of a conductor ,but pro'imity effect decreases t!e resistance 2ot! s-in effect and pro'imity effect increase t!e resistance of a conductor 2ot! s-in effect and pro'imity effect increase t!e internal inductance of a conductor

9ns. b

3).

9 transmission line !a#ing parameters 91, 21, 11, D1 is in parallel wit! anot!er !a#ing parameters 92, 22, 12, D2. ;!e o#erall L 9 L parameter of t!e combination is 9192 M2112 E9122 M92214/E21M224 11M12 M E91-924ED2-D14/E21M224

a. b. c.

9ns. b 31. a. b. c. Disrupti#e critical #oltage is Cqual to 8reater t!an Kess t!an

#isual critical #oltage for corona on an o#er!ead line. 9ns. c 32. a. b. c. 1orona loss Increases Decreases Does not c!ange

t!e switc!ing #oltage on a transmission line. 9ns. b 33. a. b. c. /andling of t!e telep!one recei#er may become dangerous due to Clectromagnetic induction Clectrostatic induction 2ot! electromagnetic and electrostatic induction

from a power line.

9ns. b 3". a. b. c. 5utual inductance between a t!ree -p!ase power line and a telep!one line due to t!ird !armonic current in t!e power line is ;!e algebraic sum of mutual inductances from indi#idual p!ase wires ;!e arit!metic sum of mutual inductances from indi#idual p!ase wires Nero

9ns. b 3$. a. b. c. d. Dielectric strengt! of mec!anically sound porcelain is 1) -D/cm 22 -D/cm %$ -D/cm 1)) -D/cm

9ns. c 3%. a. b. c. d. Dielectric strengt! of glass is 22 -D/cm %)-%% -D/cm 1") -D/cm 2") -D/cm

9ns. c 3,. a. b. c. !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 &or 11 -D insulators, t!e ratio of wet spar--o#er #oltage to wor-ing #oltage is (.3 &or %% -D insulators, t!e ratio of dry spar--o#er #oltage to wor-ing #oltage is (.3 &or 11 -D insulators, t!e ratio of dry spar--o#er #oltage to wor-ing #oltage is (.3

9ns. c

3(. a. b. c.

!ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 &las!-o#er tests are performed on all insulators 0outine tests are performed on 1/2 percent of insulators supplied Design tests are done on 1/2 percent of insulators supplied

9ns. none of t!e abo#e 3.. a. b. c. !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3 ;!e spar--o#er #oltage is less t!an t!e puncture #oltage ;!e spar--o#er #oltage is greater t!an t!e puncture #oltage ;!e spar--o#er #oltage is equal to t!e puncture #oltage

9ns. a "). !ic! one of t!e following statements is true3

;!e s!eds of an insulator s!ould be s!aped a. b. c. ;o conform to t!e electrostatic tube of force and t!e body s!ould be s!aped to conform to t!e equipotential surfaces ;o conform to t!e equipotential surfaces and t!e body s!ould be s!aped to conform to t!e electrostatic tubes of force ;o conform to t!e equipotential surfaces and so also t!e body

9ns. b "1. a. b. c. In a suspension insulator, t!e mec!anical stresses on t!e conductor are Increased 0educed ;!e same

9ns. b "2. ;!e string efficiency of t!e insulator can be increased by

a. b. c. d.

Increasing t!e number of strings in t!e insulator Increasing t!e ratio , capacitance to eart!/capacitance per insulator 2y t!e correct grading of #arious capacitances Decreasing t!e number of strings

9ns. c "3. a. b. c. String efficiency of insulators for wet flas!-o#er is Kess 5ore ;!e same

as t!at for dry flas!-o#er 9ns. b "". a. b. c. ;!e potential across insulator discs can be equaliFed by !a#ing ;!e same capacitance for eac! unit ;!e !ig!est capacitance for t!e lowest unit and decreasing progressi#ely t!e capacitance of ot!er units ;!e lowest capacitance for t!e lowest unit and increasing progressi#ely t!e capacitance of ot!er units

9ns. b "$. a. b. c. 8rading ring ser#es t!e purpose of CqualiFing t!e #oltage distribution across discs 9n arcing s!ield 2ot! equaliFing t!e #oltage distribution and acting as an arcing s!ield

9ns. c ;AB

Factors affecting Line design Doltage le#el 1onductor type I siFe Kine regulation I #oltage control 1orona I losses Broper load flow I system stability System protection Insulation co-ordination 0ig!t of way 5ec!anical design Sag I stress calculation 1onductor composition 1onductor spacing Insulator /conductor !ardware selection Structural design Structure types Stress calculations

Conductor si:e 8auge siFes decrease as t!e wire increases in siFe. +umber of strands G 3 n2 -3n M 1 w!ere n G number of layers including t!e single central strand.

;!e following conductors are used. 991-all aluminum conductor 9991-all aluminum alloy conductor 91S0-aluminum conductor steel re-inforced 9190-aluminum conductor alloy re-inforced ;AB Line resistance 0 G l/9 02/01 G E;) M;24/ E;) M;14 02 G 0esistance at temperature ;2 01 G 0esistance at temperature ;1 ;) G 1onstant G 23".$ for annealed copper of 1))* conducti#ity G2"1 for !ard drawn copper of .,.3* conducti#ity G22( for !ard drawn aluminum of %1* conducti#ity S-in effect is function of conductor siFe, frequency and resistance of conductor material. Discuss t!e pro'imity effect, stranding and spiraling of conductors ;AB

Line inductance ) one p$ase ; ()p$ase

Single-p!ase o#er!ead line Doltage drop in a single-p!ase line due to loop impedance G 2 l E0 M 7 ) ln EDm/Ds4/24 I lG line lengt!, m

0G resistance of eac! conductor, m DmG equi#alent or geometric mean distance E85D4 between conductor centres DsG 8eometric mean radiusE8504, or self-85D of one conductor G ).,,(( r for cylindrical conductor rG conductor radius I G current KG 2 ' 1) -, ln EDm/Ds 4 //m ;!ree-p!ase o#er!ead line Eunsymmetrical spacing4 Dab MDbc MDca Cqui#alent equilateral spacingGDeq G Dm G EDab DbcDca4 1/3 In practice , conductors are transposed. ;ransposition is carried out at switc!ing stations 9#erage inductance per p!ase KG2 ' 1) -, ln EDeq/Ds 4 //m ;AB

Line capacitance< 1)p$ase ; ()p$ase

Single-p!ase o#er!ead line 1ab G 2 ) r/ ln ED/r4 E&/m4 ;!e capacitance to neutral for a two- wire line is twice t!e line-to-line capacitance, 1ab. ;!ree-p!ase o#er!ead line Kine-to-neutral capacitance 1n G 2 ) r/ ln EDeq/r4 E&/m4 1!arging current /p!ase G7 1n Dp! E9/m4

;AB

,ffect of ground on capacitance of ()p$ase line

;!e capacitance of a 3-p!ase transposed line considering ground effect is gi#en by 1n G 2 ) r/ Oln EDeq/r4 -ln E!12 !23 !31/!11!22!334P E&/m4 w!ere !12G distance between conductor 1 and image of conductor 2, etc. Cffect of ground is to increase t!e capacitance. ;AB

,=uivalent circuit for s$ort transmission line Eup to () -m4

+ote t!at bold symbols indicate comple' quantities. +s G+r M 1r > 1s G 1r ? 1 Draw a p!asor diagram for a s!ort line wit! inducti#e load and wit! capaciti#e load, using +r as t!e reference p!asor. S!ow t!at Ds G SQ0;OEDr M I0 1os r MEor -4 IR Sin r4 2 M EIR 1os r MEor -4 I0 Sin r42P M sign abo#e is for lagging p. f - sign abo#e is for leading p.f r G angle between +r I 1r s G angle between +s I 1s G s- r G load angle tan G EIR 1os r MEor -4 I0 Sin r4/ EDr M I0 1os r MEor -4 IR Sin r4 +s G /+r M B1r 1s G C+r M01r

&or a s!ort line, 9G1, BG>< 1G), DG1 Kine Cfficiency Epu4G Dr I 1os r/ Ds I 1os s Doltage regulation Epu4GEDs-Dr4/Dr G EDr+K- Dr&K4/ Dr&K G OIE0 1os r -EorM4 RSin r4P/ Dr&K ;AB

,=uivalent circuit for medium lengt$ line

9 ; or a networ- is formed depending upon !ow t!e series impedance or t!e s!unt admittance is lumped at a few points. See &ig.3 ;!e 921D parameters of t!e nominal-; networ- are: / G 1M>5 B G > E1M>5/"4 CG5 0G / ;!e 921D parameters of t!e nominal- networ- are: / G 1M>5/2 BG> C G 5 E1M>5/24 0G / +ominal -; and +ominal) networ-s are not equi#alent electrically, as may be #erified by using t!e S- transformation. Doltage regulation Epu4G EEDs/94 - Dr&K4/ Dr&K
;AB

Long line e=uations Eabo#e 2") -m4

;!e solution of t!e #oltage wa#e equation using t!e initial conditions is

+ G E1os! '4 +r M E>@ Sin! '4 1r

I G ES) Sin! '4 +r M E1os! '4 1r

? sqrt 9y: ? A 7

G attenuation constant pu lengt!

? p!ase-s!ift constant pu lengt!

y ? s!unt admittance pu lengt!

: G series impedance pu lengt!

>@ ? surge impedance G sqrt EF/y4T S) ?1/>@

+s G /+r M B1r

1s G C+r M01r

w!ere

/ G 1os! l

B G >@Sin! l

C G E1/>@ Sin! l

0G/

lG line lengt!

;AB

,=uivalent circuit for a long

Line
;!e e'act equi#alent circuit and t!e e'act equi#alent ; circuit for a long line are s!own in &ig."

;!e elements of t!e circuit are obtained from

> G B ? >@Sin! l G E> Sin! l4/ l

5 /2 G E/-14/B ? 9 1os! l - 14/ >@Sin! l G EtanE l/24.S/24/E l/24.

;!e elements of t!e ; circuit are obtained from

>4/2 G E/-14/C ? 91os! l-14/ EE1/>@ Sin! l4

>4 ? ! >@ tan$ 9 l/24 G E> tan$ 9 l/244/ 9 l/24

54 ? C? E1/>@ Sin! l G E5 Sin! l4/ l

;AB

#urge impedance loading of lines

1ncident and reflected voltages on long lines l 7 l - l -7 l +s ? E1/24 E+r A1r >o4 e e A 9E1/24 E+r )1r >@4 e e l 7 l - l -7 l 1s ? E1/24 E+r5o A1r e e A 9E1/24 E+r5o )1r e e

;!e first and second terms in eac! of t!e abo#e equations refer to t!e incident and reflected #oltages respecti#ely.

;!e wa#elengt! is defined by

G 2 /

;!e #elocity of propagation of t!e wa#es is gi#en by

Gf

G %))) -m at $) /F.

!en t!e line is terminated in its surge impedance Nr G No, t!ere is no reflected wa#e. EInfinite line4

#urge 1mpedance Loading 9#1L of a transmission line 2 SIK G ODr EK-K4 Ein -D4P /NoH E5 4

w!ere NoH G sqrtEK/14

SIK is a measure of t!e ma'imum power t!at can be deli#ered o#er a line. ;!e following factors affect t!e ma'imum power:

Kine lengt!

;erminal apparatus impedances

9ll ot!er factors t!at affect stability.

;o increase SIK, -Dr can be increased and No reduced by using series compensation.

;!e distinction between ma'imum power and SIK s!ould be mentioned.

;AB

Ferranti effect

;!e parameter / G 1os! l decreases wit! increase in line lengt!. In suc! cases Dr is considerably greater t!an Ds, w!en t!e line is c!arged but unloaded. In underground cables, t!e effect is muc! more pronounced, e#en in s!ort lengt!s. It is called t!e &erranti effect. Discuss t!e effects of s!unt compensation and reacti#e loading.

;AB

/dvantages of bundled conductors

0educed line reactance

0educed #oltage gradient

Increased corona critical #oltage, and t!erefore, less corona power loss, audible noise, and radio interference.

0educed amplitude I duration of !ig! frequency conductor #ibration

;AB

0isadvantages of bundled conductors

Increased ice I wind loading

Inspection more complicated ,spacers required

Increased clearance requirements at structures

Increased c!arging -D9 w!ic! may be a disad#antage at lig!t loads

Ds G 850 of subconductors

d G distance between two sub-conductors

b Ds G 850 of bundled conductor b 1/2 Ds G EDd4 E&or a 2-conductor bundle4 b 2 1/3 Ds G EDd 4 E&or a 3-conductor bundle4 b 3 1/" Ds G EDd 4 E&or a "-conductor bundle4

9#erage inductance per p!ase of a bundled conductor, -, b ln EDeq/ Ds 4, //m

KG 2 ' 1)

Deq G ED12 D23 D314

Di7 G spacing between p!ase i and p!ase 7

;AB

Factors affecting mec$anical design of over$ead lines

1. 2. 3. ". $. %. ,. (. 1!aracter of line route 0ig!t-of-way 5ec!anical loading 0equired clearances ;ype of supporting structures 1onductor ;ype of insulators =oint use by ot!er utilities

Factors affecting span lengt$

1. 2. 3. 1!aracter of route Broper clearance between conductors Bermissible tensions under ma'imum mec!anical load

4$ere are five kinds of stresses on lines ; supports

1. 2. 3. ". $.

;ensile 1ompressi#e S!earing 2ending ;wisting stress or torque

#ag and tension analysis of over$ead lines

-e=uired clearancesB

;!e data for t!e following clearances of different #oltage le#els s!ould be -nown.

1.

1learance of conductors passing by buildings

2.

5inimum clearances of conductors abo#e ground or rails

3.

1rossing clearances of wires carried of wires carried on different supports

".

/oriFontal clearances at support between line conductors based on sags.

#ag and tension analysisB

&actors affecting sag are:

1.

1onductor load per unit lengt!

2.

Span

3.

;emperature

".

1onductor tension

$.

Ke#el at supports

1onductor load depends on

1.

eig!t of conductors

2.

eig!t of ice or snow on conductors

3.

ind blowing against wire

,ffect of c$ange in temperatureB

If t!e conductor stress is constant and if t!e temperature c!anges, t!e c!ange in lengt! is

l G lo. .t

t G t1-toG c!ange in temperature

l G l1-lo G c!ange in lengt!

G 1oefficient of linear e'pansion of conductor per deg. 1. If temperature is constant w!ile conductor stress c!anges Ei.e. loading4, t!e c!ange in lengt! is

l G lo. ;/59

; G;1-;oG c!ange in tension in -g

5G modulus of elasticity of conductor

9 G 5etal cross-section of conductor.

1onsider t!e following in sag I tension calculations:

1.

Supports at same le#el E I4 1atenary met!od ,E ii4 Barabola met!od

2.

Supports at different le#els Eunsymmetrical spans4

3.

Cffect of ice

".

Cffect of wind

Line location

1.

Brofile I plan of rig!t-of-way

!. ;emplates for locating structures

;!ese are used to pro#ide t!e following

a.

5aintenance of proper clearance from conductor to ground and to crossing conductors

b. Cconomic layout

c.

Broper grading of structures

d. Bre#ention of e'cessi#e insulator swing or uplift at structures.

;AB

Corona
If an alternating potential is applied to two wires w!ose spacing is large in comparison wit! t!e diameter and t!e potential difference is gradually increased, a point will be reac!ed w!en a faint luminous glow of #iolet colour will appear, and a !issing sound will be !eard. ;!is p!enomenon is -nown as 1orona. ;!e formation of corona is accompanied by a loss of power. It causes non-sinusoidal nature of current and interference wit! neig!bouring communication circuits.

1orona formation ta-es place due to ioniFation of a layer of air immediately surrounding t!e conductor. &or air under ordinary conditions near sea le#el I wit!out impurities, t!e #alue of potential gradient at w!ic! ioniFation ta-es place can be ta-en as 3)-D/cm Epea-4.

Interference wit! communication circuits may be due to bot! electromagnetic and electrostatic action, t!e former producing currents, w!ic! are superposed on t!e true speec! currents, t!ereby setting up distortion and t!e latter raising !e potential of t!e communication circuit as a w!ole.

0isruptive Critical +oltage

;!e ma'imum potential gradient , gr is ma'imum at t!e surface of t!e conductor is:

gr G D/Er ln Ed/r44.

&or #isual corona at normal temperature I pressure,

DG 3) Er M ).3 r4 ln Ed/r4 -D Epea-4

Conditions affecting coronaB

Kine #oltage

0atio d/r

1ontour of t!e surface

State of t!e surface

1onsidering t!e abo#e factors , t!e critical disrupti#e #oltage to neutral becomes

Dc G m)g) r ln Ed/r4

m)G irregularity factor

g)Gdisrupti#e critical #oltage gradient for air in -D at +;B E21.1 -D/cm ,05S4

Gair density factor G3.2 b/E2,3Mt4

bGatmosp!eric pressure in cm of /g

tGtemperature in deg. 1

;!e #isual critical #oltage is gi#en by

D# G m)g) r E1M ).3/sqrtEr 44ln Ed/r4

6ower loss due to corona

1orona formation results in power loss. Bee-Hs formula for corona loss is: 2 -$ BG 2"1 OEfM2$4l/ PsqrtEr/d4 EDp! - Dc4 1) - /p!

w!ere Dp! and Dc are t!e effecti#e p!ase and critical disrupti#e #oltages , f is t!e frequency of t!e system, lG lengt! in -m.

BetersonHs formula for corona loss is : 2 2 B G ).))))21 f D & /Olog1)Ed/r4P

B G power loss in -

per -m of conductor under fair weat!er conditions.

f G frequency, /F

D G line to ground #oltage

D G spacing between conductors

0 G radius of t!e conductor

& G corona factor determined by test

/udio 2oise

!en corona is present on t!e conductors, C/D lines generate audible noise, w!ic! is especially !ig! during polluted weat!er. ;!e noise is broadband , w!ic! e'tends from #ery low frequency to about 2) -/F. 1orona disc!arges generate positi#e I negati#e ions, w!ic! are alternately attracted I repelled by t!e periodic re#ersal of polarity of t!e a.c e'citations. ;!eir mo#ement gi#es rise to sound-pressure wa#es at frequencies of twice t!e power frequency and its multiples, in addition to t!e broadband spectrum w!ic! is t!e result of random motions of t!e ions. 9udible noise can become a serious problem from Hpsyc!oacoustics H point of #iew, leading to insanity due to loss of sleep at nig!t to in!abitants residing close to an C/D line.

-adio 1nterference 9-1

Bulse type corona disc!arge from transmission line conductors gi#es rise to interference to radio broadcast in t!e range of ).$ 5/F to1.% 5/F.

,lectromagnetic ,ffect

;!e emf induced in t!e communication circuit due to neig!bouring power circuit depends on its distance wit! respect to t!e power line. ;!e net emf induced due to electromagnetic coupling wit! a 3-p!ase line is small since t!e p!asor sum of induced emfs tends to Fero. /owe#er, t!e presence of certain !armonics would cause seriously !ig! induced emfs. ;!is problem is more serious t!ese days since t!e power line current is not sinusoidal because of !e use of static controllers.

,lectrostatic ,ffect

;!e communication line may acquire dangerously !ig! potential due to electrostatically induced c!arges. ;!e interference between power I communication lines can be reduced considerably by transposing t!e conductors of bot! power I communication lines.

;!e communication line may require electrostatic s!ielding to o#ercome electrostatic interference.

;AB

1nsulators for over$ead lines

5aterials I types of insulators

;!e insulators used in connection wit! o#er!ead systems employing bare conductors are composed almost in#ariably of glaFed porcelain. 8lass !as also been used for medium #oltages . ;!e porcelain used s!ould be i#ory w!ite ,sound, free from defects and t!oroug!ly #itrified .

;!ere are t!ree types of insulators for o#er!ead lines:

1.

Bin-type

2.

Suspension type

3.

Strain type

a4

!at is t!e difference between Lpuncture #oltage Land Lspar--o#er #oltage3

b4

!at is t!e difference between arcing distances under Lwet Land HdryH conditions3

c4

!at is t!e Ltrac-ing distance3

d4 ;abulate t!e ratio of spar--o#er #oltage to wor-ing #oltage for different #oltage le#els.

e4

!at are t!e merits of suspension insulator string3

Cac! insulator is designed for a comparati#ely low wor-ing #oltage, usually about 11 -D, and t!e insulation for any required system #oltage

can be obtained by using a LstringH of suc! insulators.

In t!e e#ent of failure of an insulator, on unit , instead of t!e w!ole string, !as to be replaced.

;!e mec!anical stresses are reduced.

In t!e e#ent of an increase in t!e operating #oltage of t!e line , t!is can be met by adding t!e requisite number of units in eac! string.

!at is t!e difference between suspension I strain insulators3

Botential distribution o#er a string of insulators

1.

Draw t!e equi#alent circuit of string of t!ree insulators.

2.

S!ow !ow would you determine t!e potential distribution across t!e abo#e string.

5odel questions

1.

L 9n insulator for o#er!ead line s!ould be designed so t!at it will spar--o#er before it will punctureL.

!y3

2.

!y is wet S.A.D less t!an dry S.A.D3

3.

!at is t!e effect of pollution on S.A.D3

String efficiency

G S.A.D of a string of n insulators/ E n J S.A.D of one insulator4

;!e string efficiency depends on t!e ratioG capacitance per insulator/capacitance to eart!.

5et!ods of impro#ing string efficiency

;!e string efficiency can be impro#ed by t!e following met!ods:

2y increasing t!e ratio

m G insulator self-capacitance/capacitance to eart!

;!is would require long cross-arms and !ence is not economical.

8rading of t!e units.

;!is approac! requires units of different siFes. /ence it is not generally preferred. ;!e self-capacitance of t!e lowest unit !as to be ma'imum and as we mo#e upward , t!e self-capacitance s!ould decrease progressi#ely.

Static s!ielding

;!e #oltage distribution is controlled in t!is met!od by t!e employment of a grading or guard ring, w!ic! usually ta-es t!e form of a large metal ring surrounding t!e bottom unit and connected to t!e metal wor- at t!e bottom of t!is unit , and t!erefore to t!e line . ;!is ring , or s!ield , !as t!e effect of increasing t!e capacitances between t!e metal wor- and t!e line.

;!e string efficiency increases wit! t!e guard ring.

/ere special features of t!e transformer bus!ing may be e'plained.

!at is t!e effect of surface lea-age resistance on t!e potential distribution across a string of insulators3

!at is t!e effect of corona on string efficiency3

0istribution #ystem 6lanning E5oduled.'ls4

;!is C'cel spreads!eet module demonstrates t!e basics of distribution system planning.

e select t!e proper conductors and t!e numbers of s!unt e specify t!e customer demands

capacitors for compensation sub7ect to t!e requirements on #oltage regulation, losses and fi'ed and operating costs. eit!er in power or in impedance. capacitor placements. e specify t!e operating costs for losses.

e also specify t!e capital costs for #arious conductor line building and for

e !a#e to select t!e best combination of conductors and capacitors to minimiFe cost o#er a certain period, normally one-year

4ests on ,lectrical Materials

4ype 4ests C ;ests carried out to pro#e conformity wit! t!e specifications. ;!ese are intended to pro#e t!e general qualities and design of a gi#en type of manufactured item.

-outine 4ests-;ests carried out on eac! part/item manufactured to c!ec- parameters Eas per requirements), w!ic! are li-ely to #ary during production.

/cceptance 4ests- ;ests carried out on samples ta-en at random from offered lot of manufactured item for t!e purpose of acceptance of lot.

4esting transmission line materials C 1ndian #tandards

91S0 1onductors for ")) -D and abo#e IS: 3.( EBart $4 U1..2

456, 4,#4#

2o. 1 2 3 " $

4ype 4est Disual e'amination

% , (

6urpose ;o #erify good wor-mans!ip and surface finis!ing of t!e conductor 5easurement of diameter of ;o measure actual diameter of eac! indi#idual aluminium I steel wires strand to c!ec- t!at it is wit!in specified limits 5easurement of lay ratio of eac! ;o measure actual lay ratio of eac! layer layer strand to c!ec- t!at it is wit!in specified limits 2rea-ing load test Eon complete ;o measure actual brea-ing load of conductor4 complete conductor to c!ec- t!at it is wit!in specified limits Ductility testEfor gal#aniFed steel ;o record fracture of strand- number of wires only4. ;orsion I elongation complete twist s!all not be V 1(/1% for test sample before /after stranding respecti#ely Clongation s!all not be V 3.$* rapping test &or no-brea- obser#ation in aluminium/gal#aniFed steel wire Estrand4 after wrap/unwrap process 0esistance test ;o c!ec- resistance of aluminium strand at 2) )1 8al#aniFing test Efor gal#aniFed ;o c!ec- uniformity of Finc coating E " steel wires only4 dips of 1 min. eac! in 1uSA" solution of sp. 8ra#ity 1.1(%4. ;!e weig!t of Finc coating s!all not be less t!an specified #alue. Surface condition test ;o #erify cylindrical s!ape and relati#e mo#ement of strands under tension condition of $)* of ultimate brea-ing load of t!e conductor. E9pplicable to conductors of nominal aluminium area 1)) sq. mm and abo#e4

1) 1orona test 11 0adio interference #oltage test

;o c!ec- corona e'tinction #oltage not less t!an specified #alue. ;o c!ec- 0I #oltage le#el wit!in limits.

-*8412, 4,#4#B s!all be same as 9cceptance ;ests and s!all be carried out on eac! coil.

/CC,64/2C, 4,#4#B same as 4ype test 2os. 1)' given above.

#/M6L12D CriteriaB

5anufacturer s!all normally ta-e samples of indi#idual wires for t!e acceptance tests 1-( abo#e before stranding of not less t!an 1)* of wire coils. 9lternati#ely, if desired by t!e purc!aser at t!e time of placing an order t!at t!e tests be carried out in presence of t!e purc!aserWs representati#e. Samples s!all t!en be obtained by cutting 1.2 meters from outer end of finis!ed conductor from not more t!an 1)* of t!e drums.

1oils offered for inspection s!all be di#ided into two equal lots , t!e number of lots being equal to t!e number of samples to be selected , a fraction of a lot being counted as a complete lot . Ane sample coil s!all be selected at random from eac! lot.

;AB

Cart!

ires E8al#aniFed Strands for Cart!ing 4 IS: 12,,%-1.(.

;!e tests under ;SBC , 0A6;I+C, and 911CB;9+1C category are not specified in t!e Indian Standard. /owe#er, t!e following tests s!all be carried out on t!e selected samples.

2o. 1

4est 2rea-ing load test

6urpose ;o #erify strengt!/measure ultimate brea-ing load of gal#aniFed wires separately to be wit!in limits &or elongation to be wit!in limits 9ctual resistance of wire to be wit!in limits ;o #erify capacity to wit!stand wire twisting. +o brea- in wire after wrap/unwrap process ;o c!ec- uniformity of Finc coating. +o permanent copper deposition after " dips of 1 min. eac! in 1uSA" solution of sp. gra#ity 1.1(%. ;!e weig!t of Finc coating s!all not be less t!an specified #alue. ;o #erify capacity to wit!stand torsion of wire. +o brea- in wire after process.

2 3 "

Clongation test D1 0esistance test rapping test

8al#aniFing test

;orsion test

0C=C1;IA+ I 0C-;CS;: If test sample fails any of t!e tests, t!ree furt!er samples from same lot , out of w!ic!, one sample from same drum of original sample , be selected and t!e tests repeated on all t!ree samples.

6orcelain 0isc 1nsulators for *ver$ead Lines wit$ 2ominal +oltage E 1@@@ +< 1# F(1)1%'%

456, 4,#4#

2*. 4ype test 1 Disual e'amination 2 Derification of dimensions 3 " $ % , Disible disc!arge test Impulse #oltage wit!stand test et power frequency #oltage wit!stand test ;emperature cycle test Clectro-mec!anical filing load test

5ec!anical failing load test

. 1) 11 12

2" /ours mec!anical strengt! test Buncture test Borosity test 8al#aniFing test

6urpose &or wor-mans!ip /surface defects &or ensuring dimensions as per requirement and appro#ed drawing &or measuring #isual corona ;o c!ec- ability of t!e insulator !ousing to wit!stand #oltage stresses under dry and wet conditions ;o c!ec- ability of t!e insulator !ousing to wit!stand #oltage stresses under wet conditions ;o c!ec- capability of t!e insulators to wit!stand t!ermal stresses ;o c!ec- capability of t!e insulators to wit!stand under combined electrical and mec!anical stresses E&or string insulator units U;ype 2 only4 ;o c!ec- capability under mec!anical stresses E&or string insulators of ;ype 9 and t!ose of ;ype 2 to w!ic! electro-mec!anical failing load test is not applicable, and for rigid insulators only4 ;o c!ec- capability to wit!stand t!e electrical stresses E for insulators- ;ype 2 only4 ;o c!ec- capability to wit!stand t!e electrical stresses Efor insulators U;ype 2 only4 ;o confirm non-porous nature of product ;o determine t!e uniformity and t!ic-ness of Finc coating

+A;CS:

1.

9 radio interference test is under consideration

2.

;ype tests are normally carried out once and unless ot!erwise agreed to, test certificates gi#ing results of type tests , made on not less t!an two insulators identical in all essential details wit! t!ose to be supplied, are regarded as e#idence of compliance. ;!e tests s!ould be carried out in t!e order mentioned below:

a4 An bot! insulators: ;ests 1-%

b4 An first insulator: ;ests .,,,(,11

c4 An second insulator: ;ests 1) I12.

3.

;ype tests s!all be carried out and certified by t!e manufacturer or by an agreed independent aut!ority.

-*8412, 4,#4#B

+o. 0outine test 13 Disual e'amination 1" 5ec!anical routine tests 1$ Clectrical routine tests

Burpose &or wor-mans!ip /surface defects ; o confirm wit!standing mec!anical stresses during normal conditions E for string insulator units only4 ; o confirm wit!standing electrical stresses during normal conditions E for ;ype 2 string insulators and rigid insulators4

/CC,64/2C, 4,#4#B 4est 2os. !< G< %< F< '< 1@< 11< 1!

#/M6L12D C-14,-1/B 1# B F(1< 1%'F

Lot si:e< 2

6p to 1))) 1))1- 3))) 3))1-1)))) 1)))1 I abo#e F*- M,C./21C/L< ,L,C4-*)M,C./21C/L and 6*-*#145 4,#4# Lot si:e< 2 F*- M,C./21C/L< ,L,C4-*) F*- D/L+/21>12D ; M,C./21C/L and 6*-*#145 682C48-, 4,#4# 4,#4# First sample #econd sample si:e< First sample si:e< #econd sample si:e< n1 n! n1 si:e< n! 6p to 1))) $ $ 3 3 1))1- 3))) ( ( $ $ 3))1-1)))) 13 13 , , 1)))1 I 2) 2) 12 12 abo#e +A;C: ;!e samples selected s!all be di#ided appro'imately into t!ree parts and sub7ected to t!e applicable tests in t!e following order. 6arts of 4ests on string insulator units 4ests on -igid insulators sample 4ype / 4ype B 4ype / 4ype B &irst I $, %,(,11 I. $, %,, or ( Ew!ic!e#er $, %, (, I 11 $, %, (, I 11 second part is applicable4, . Ew!en specified4 I11

F*- 01M,2#1*2# ; 4,M6,-/48-,C5CL, 4,#4# First sample #econd 6ermissible First reHection #econd si:e< n1 sample si:e< failure< a number< r1 reHection n! number< r! ( ( ) 2 2 13 13 ) 2 2 2) 2) ) 2 2 32 32 1 3 "

;!ird part

$, %, 1) I 12

$, %, 1) I 12

$, %, 1) I 12

$, %, 1) I 12