A SHORT-CIRCUIT DESIGN FORCES IN POWER LINES AND

SUBSTATIONS
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Short-circuit currents in power lines and substations induce electromagnetic forces acting on
the conductors. The forces generated by short-circuit forces are very important for high-
voltage bundle conductor lines, medium-voltage distribution lines, and substations, where
spacer compression forces and interphase spacings are significantly affected by them.
Power Lines and Substations
Short-circuit mechanical design loads have been a subject of significant importance for
transmission line and substation design for many years, and numerous papers, technical
brochures and standards have been published (Manuio 1!"#$ %oshino 1!#&$ %avard et al.
1!'"$ ()*+, 1!!"$ ()*+, -&&-$ ),( 1!!. and 1!!"$ /ilien and 0apailiou -&&&1. 2nder
short-circuit forces, there are some similarities and some differences between the behavior of
fle3ible bus and power lines.
4or both the power lines and substations, the electromagnetic forces are similar in their origin
and shapes because they come from short-circuit current (),( 1!''1. 5evertheless, as listed
below, there are some major differences between short-circuit effects on substation bus
systems and power lines6
0ower lines are subjected to short-circuit current intensity, which is only a fraction of the
level met in substation bus systems. The short-circuit level is dependent on short-circuit
location, because longer lengths of lines mean larger impedance and lower short-circuit
level. The level also depends on power station location and networ7 configuration.
0ower line circuit configuration may not be a horiontal or vertical arrangement, thus
inducing other spatial components of the forces than in bus systems, and the movement
may be 8uite different.
0ower lines have much longer spans and thus much larger sags than fle3ible bus and rigid
bus. This induces a very low basic swing fre8uency of the power line span (a fraction of
one %1. Therefore the oscillating components of the force at the networ7 fre8uency (and
its double1 have negligible action on power lines.
0ower line phase spacings are much larger than those in substations, and this has a
dramatic reduction effect on forces between phases.
9undle conductors in power lines have much larger subspans than in substations, and
bundle diameter is often larger, too. Sometimes very large bundle diameter and a large
number of subconductors are used compared to bundled substation fle3ible bus. This has
significant effects on the phenomenon because long subspans reduce the effect of bundle
collapse upon the tension in the subconductors during short circuit conditions. 4ig. 1
demonstrates the distortion of the subconductors of a 8uad bundle around a fle3ible spacer
during a short-circuit, 7nown as the pinch effect, which causes the tension increase.
:ue to differences in structure height and stiffness, power line towers have significantly
lower fundamental natural fre8uencies than substation structures. ;ne result is that the
substation structures are more li7ely to respond dynamically to the sudden increase in
tension that results from the pinch effect.
-
0ower line design load includes severe wind action and in some cases heavy ice loads
acting on much larger spans than in substations. Therefore design loads due to short
circuits may be of the same order as design wind and ice loads in substations, but much
less in transmission lines.
Bundle Conductor Lines
4or bundle conductor lines, during a fault, the subconductors of the bundle move closer to
each other due to strong attraction forces because of the very short distance between
subconductors (4igure11.
:etailed discussions of this phenomenon were given by Manuio and %oshino (Manuio
1!"#$ %oshino 1!#&1.
4rom their initial rest position, the subconductors move towards each other, remaining more
or less parallel in most of the subspan, e3cept close to the spacer (4igures 1 and -1. <fter first
impact, which for power lines is typically around =& to 1&& ms after fault inception, there is a
rapid propagation of the wave in the noncontact one near the spacers, se8uence c-d-e of
4igure -. The inward slope of the subconductors at the spacer results in a component of
subconductor tension that tends to compress the spacer. This compressive force, or >pinch,?
while it is associated primarily with the change in angle, can be further increased by the rise
in tension in the subconductors due to bundle collapse. This jump results from the fact that
subconductor length in the collapsed condition is greater than in the normal condition.
The pinch is ma3imum when the wave propagation stops towards the spacer, position e in
4igure -. The triangle of collapse then performs oscillations through positions d-c-d-e-d-c-e-
d-c and so on as long as electromagnetic force is still on, but with decreasing amplitude. )f the
short circuit is long enough, the pinch oscillations result in a >permanent? oscillating force,
sensibly lower than pea7 value, typically @&A.
:uring the fault, the spacer is strongly compressed. The compression is related to ma3imum
pinch force in the conductor and the angle between the spacer and the subconductor.




4igure 1 ,3ample of 8uad bundle before and during short-circuit test at @& 7<, showing
distortion of the subconductors. ;ne fle3ible spacer at mid-span (courtesy 0fistererBSefag1.
The subconductor movements occur at very high acceleration. 4or e3ample, a =& 7< fault on
a twin bundle of "-& mm
-
conductor, with a separation of =& cm, may have acceleration up to
several tens of g, depending on the instantaneous current value. Spacers are subjected to
compression forces$ and these instantaneous compression loads can be very high.
.
2pward movement of the whole span follows the rapid contraction of the bundle and reduces
the conductor tension, but does not reduce the ma3imum forces on the spacers occurring
during initial impact.
4igure - <ttraction of subconductors of a bundle at a spacer during a short-circuit
(Manuio 1!"#1.
Interphase Effects and Distribution Lines
The video available on my web site (http6BBwww.tdee.ulg.ac.beBdoc-@.html1 contains some
short-circuit tests on rigid bus, fle3ible bus and high-voltage overhead lines and distribution
lines.
4ault currents produce an impulse tending to ma7e the separate phases of a circuit swing away
from each other, independently of whether the phases are bundled. The impulse that causes
this lasts only as long as the fault, so it is brief relative to the fundamental period of the span.
The momentum from the impulse carries the phases outward for a certain distance before their
tension arrests and reverses the motion. They then swing inward. This inward swing may be
=
large enough to cause cable contact and even permanent wrap-up at the middle of the span.
4or double-circuit towers, the circuit subjected to the short circuit could force its phases to
come in contact with another circuit, thus causing outages on both circuits. There may also be
sag increases, up to several times the initial sag in distribution lines, due to heating effects
under short circuit, which may significantly affect the amplitude of movements.
,ven though the inward swing could be short of interphase contact, if the phase spacing is
less than the critical flashover distance, and the inward swing occurs at the time that voltage is
restored by automatic reclosure, there will be a second fault.
Cery large movements may be seen on distribution lines. 4igure . shows the motion produced
during full-scale testing on an actual line. This is from an actual three-phase short-circuit test
on a 1@-7C distribution line near /iDge, 9elgium (/ilien and Cercheval 1!'#1. The photo
shows an instantaneous position of the conductors ta7en during the test. The fault current
level was . 7<. The reduction in phase spacing may be particularly dramatic on medium-
voltage lines, even if the short-circuit level is much lower.
4igure . )nstantaneous position of the conductors ta7en during three-phase short-circuit test
on 1@-7C distribution line near /iDge (/ilien and Cercheval 1!'#1.
Substation with rigid busbars
The behavior of a rigid bus under short-circuit load is very depending of its first natural
eigenmode and eigenfre8uency. )ndeed electromagnetic forces includes pseudo-continuous
component combined with a @& % and a 1&& % component.
Some e3ample are shown on the ne3t figure.
The transient response is thus very depending on the voltage as low voltage (say #& 7C1
would have a short bar length and a reduced sie tubular bar, when high voltage (typically =&&
7C1 would have long bar length and large tubes.
Moreover the busbar is installed on supporting insulators which have their own
eigenfre8uencies, close to @& % for 1@& 7C level. So that dynamics of such structures is far
from obvious and case dependent.
@
4ig 33 6 rigid busbar response to ta given electromagnetic force similar to a two-phase fault
with asymmetrical component in the short-circuit current. The transient response is given for
different busbar first eigenfre8uency between 1.# % and 1@& %. (e3tract from ()*+,
brochure 5E 1&@, 1!!"1.
4ig 33 6 a tested rigid bus (all details in ()*+, brochure 1&@, 1!!"1, Measurement points are
located as S-, )-,(. (constrains1. Short-circuit of 1" 7< during 1.@ ms with automatic
reclosure after ==@ ms and a second fault of .&@ ms with same amplitude as the first one.
"
4ig 33 test results. The first eigenfre8uency of the whole structure is about ... %. There is
8uasi no effect of the @& % nor of the 1&& % component of the force. <s damping was
negligeable, as time to reclosure was particularly dramatic compared to structure oscillation,
the second fault induced about twice as much constrains compared to the first fault.
#
2. FAULT CURRENTS AND INTERPHASE FORCES
< short-circuit current wave shape consists of an <( component and a decaying :(
component due to the offset of the current at the instant of the fault. The <( component
generally is of constant amplitude for the duration of the fault, and although the system
through which the fault passes is multimesh, it can usually be assigned a single >global? time
constant for the decay of the :( component. )n high-voltage lines, and even more in low-
voltage lines, because the ratio FB+, reactance to resistance, is much less at low-voltage level,
the global time constant of the system >? is rather low, typically -& to '& ms, compared to
substations where it is typically #& to -&& ms.
1
-
.
( 1 - (sin( 1 sin( 11
- -
( 1 - (sin( 1 sin( 11
. .
- -
( 1 - (sin( 1 sin( 11
. .
t
rms
t
rms
t
rms
i t I t e
i t I t e
i t I t e

+
+
+ + +
(<mperes1 1
Ghere
)
rms
is the root-mean-s8uare value of the short-circuit current (<1.
H -f is the networ7 pulsation (radBs1 e8ual to .1= radBs in ,urope and .## radBs in the
2nited States.
is the networ7 time constant (H /B+1 at the location of the fault (s1.
is an angle depending on the time of fault occurrence in the voltage oscillation (rad1.
<symmetry is very dependent on . )n the case of a two-phase fault, it is possible to have no
asymmetry if H & rad.
<ccording to the basic physics of electromagnetism for a three- or a two-phase arrangement,
there is always a repulsion force between phases from each other. 4or a single-phase fault,
only one current is involved. )n the case of bundle conductors, it is generally considered that
the short-circuit current is e8ually divided among all subconductors. The force acting between
subconductors of the same phase is an attractive force, as discussed in Section ..
)n the general case of parallel conductors, the force, F
n
(t) in 5Bm, applied on each of the
phases can be e3pressed by6
& 1 . 1 -
1
& - . 1 -
-
& 1 . - .
.
( 1. ( 1 ( 1. ( 1
( 1
- -
( 1. ( 1 ( 1. ( 1
( 1
-
( 1. ( 1 ( 1. ( 1
( 1
- -
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a
i t i t i t i t
F t x
a a

_


,
_


,
_
+

,
(5Bm1 -
Ghere
'

0
is the vacuum magnetic permeability H =1&
-#
%Bm.
a is the interphase distance (m1.
The force, being due to current flow, very much depends on phase shift between currents. )t
generally includes6
0seudo-continuous :( component, with a time-constant decay,
(ontinuous dc component, sometimes, and
Two oscillating <( components, one at networ7 fre8uency, with a time-constant decay,
and one at the double of the networ7 fre8uency, which is not damped.
)n the case of a two-phase fault, the force is proportional to the s8uare of the current. Thus it
always has the same directionIthat is, a repulsion between the two faulted phases.
)n the case of a three-phase fault, it is much more comple3. )n flat-phase configuration,
illustrated by the top view of 4igure =, the middle phase has a ero mean value, and at least
one of the outer phases has forces similar to those generated by a two-phase fault (4igure @
left1.
The same location in a networ7 gives two different values of current for three- or two-phase
faults with a ratio &.'"" between them. 4or e3ample, a .=.' 7< three-phase fault would give a
.&.1 7< two-phase fault at the same location. Therefore, a three-phase fault has to be
considered for estimation of design forces.
4igures = (top1 and @ give e3amples of currents and forces on horiontal, or purely vertical,
arrangements. )n the case of an e8uilateral triangular arrangement, 4igure = (bottom1, the
forces are similar on all three phases, similar to the force on phase 1 for the horiontal
arrangement.
4igure @ shows the currents and forces applied to each phase during a three-phase fault with
an asymmetry chosen to create the ma3imum peak force on one outer phase as calculated
using ,8uation -. This is for a horiontal or vertical arrangement of the circuit. The fault
current is .=.' 7< rms with pea7 currents of !&.=, #!.-, and "1.- 7<. The time constant is #&
ms, and the short-circuit duration is &.-=@ seconds. The current fre8uency is @& %. The loads
shown are per unit length for a H " m clearance between phases. The repulsion pea7 load on
phase 1 is --' 5Bm. ( H 1..! rad1. The signs convention is positive in the directions shown in
the upper diagram in 4igure =.
9ut the time dependence of the forces is very different on the outer phases compared to
middle phase. ;n the outer phases, the force is unidirectional and has a significant continuous
component. ;n phase -, the continuous component is ero (e3cept during the asymmetrical
part of the wave1.
!
4igure = Two different geometric arrangements for a three-phase circuit and the
electromagnetic force reference directions on each phase corresponding to ,8uation -. The
numbers 1, -, and . are phase numbers.
)t must be noted that the level of the pea7 force, about -&& 5Bm in 4igure @, is far greater than
the conductor weight and is proportional to the s8uare of the current. 9ut the continuous
component is much lower, about .& 5Bm in this case, as shown later. 2nder actual short-
circuit levels and clearances, it is closer to the conductor weight, but acts, in most cases, in the
other direction. See upper right panel in 4igure @.
4igure @ ,3ample of calculated three-phase short-circuit current wave shape and
corresponding loads on a horiontal or vertical circuit arrangement.
1&
Thus the interphase effects, for the case of horiontal or purely vertical arrangement only,
may be summaried as6
1. The design force on the horiontal or vertical three-phase arrangement is the force due to a
three-phase fault considering the outer phase with appropriate asymmetry. Ta7ing into
account the fact that only the continuous dc component has to be considered, the force on
an outer phase can be appro3imated by ,8uation .. This is the horiontal repulsion force
for the horiontal arrangement, or the vertical repulsion force for the vertical arrangement6
- - B
.
&.-
(&.#@ 1."1" 1
t
F I e
a

+ (5Bm1 .
Ghere
a is the interphase distance (m1.
I
3
the rms three-phase fault at that location (7<1.
is the networ7 time constant at that location (s1.
t is time (s1.
-. The forces considered above cannot be directly applied to structure design loads, because
the structural response to these loads has to be ta7en into account.
The continuous dc component acting after the short transient during the asymmetrical
period of the current is obtained by using t H infinity in ,8uation .. 4or e3ample, in
4igure @, the continuous dc component after transient is given by6
-
&.-
.=.' &.#@ .&..
"
F x 5Bm
11
3. BEHAVIOR OF BUNDLE CONDUCTORS UNDER SHORT CIRCUITS
:etailed behavior of bundle conductors under short circuit is most easily illustrated through
short-circuit tests in actual bundles. Some results from a program of tests at the Cei7i
substation in %ungary are used here for that purpose (/ilien and 0apailiou -&&&1.
The systematic single-phase fault tests on twin conductors were performed in the 1!!&s on a
power line with a double deadended span, with a length of "& m, with the following
characteristics (4igure "16
Span length "& m
Sub conductor type <(S+ (;5:;+ (=@@ mmJ, H -#.# mm, 1.@- 7gBm, 2TS 1-@ 751
Spacing &.=@# m
(urrent .@ 7< (!& 7< pea71, Time constant .. ms
:uration &.1# to &.- s
Sagging tensions 1@, -@, or .@ 75 (per subconductor1
<ll cases are single-phase faults$ the return path is through the ground
Supporting structure6
Stiffness6 about '.@ 1&
"
5Bm
4irst eigen fre8uency6 about 1= %
4igure " Test arrangement applying short circuits to a "&-m span length with one
spacer at mid-span. (/ilien and 0apailiou -&&&1.
measurement
"& m
1-
4igure # Two test span arrangements for spacer compression tests (/ilien and
0apailiou -&&&1.
4igure # shows installation of rigid spacers and measurement points (bold lines1 for the "&-m
subspan (4igure # top1 and .&-m subspan (4igure # bottom1. 4or the .&-m sub-span, two
spacers were installed close to each other so as to receive half the contribution. The
installation of measurement is such that actual load for spacers in power lines would be twice
the measured value.
The following oscillograms were recorded (4igure '1. ;n the left hand side, the "&-m span
length results are presented, and on the right-hand side, the .&-m span length results are
presented. )t should be noted that the actual >pinch? occurs during the first appro3imately &.-
seconds, while the fault current is on, and that the other >spi7es? in the records arise from
subse8uent motion of the bundle.
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
time (s)
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
lo
a
d
(
N
)
subspan length 60 m
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time (s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e

lo
a
d
s

(
N
)
subspan length 30 m
measurement
.& m .& m
1.
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time (s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
lo
a
d
s
(
N
)
subspan length 60 m
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
time (s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
lo
a
d
(
N
)
subspan length 30 m
Sagging tension 35 kN - 30/90 kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e
lo
a
d
s
(N
)
subspan length 60 m
Sagging tension 35 kN - 30/90 kA
-3000
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time (s)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e

l
o
a
d
s

(
N
)
subspan length 30 m
4igure ' Typical tests results on spacer compression on "&-m and .&-m subspan length, at .@
7< on twin-bundle line -3 (ondor, with different sagging tensions. %alf of the compression is
given. The drawings are covering short-circuit and significant after short-circuit time to better
see the wave propagation effects after the end of the short circuit. ((ourtesy 0fistererBSefag1.
<fter the short circuit, the subconductors separate from each other during a long transient,
with wave propagation along each subspan (as can be seen in the video that accompanies this
boo7 and in 4igure '1. :uring that transient, significant tensile forces (the opposite of
compression1 are applied on the spacers, the level of which reach about @&A of the ma3imum
compression load. )n spite of their smaller magnitude, the effect of these tension forces on the
spacer must be considered separately, because some spacer attachments are not as strong in
tension as they are in compression. < particular e3ample is the attachment using an open or
>saddle? clamp, with helical rods to capture the subconductor. These loads are repeated with
every passage of the wave up and down the span. 5ote the shorter repetition time in the .&-m
span. These loads decay very slowly, so that many repeated such loads have to be ta7en into
account.
The graphs in 4igure ' show the effect of gradually increasing initial tension before the fault
from 1@ 75 (1-.@A ,:S1 to .@ 75 (-'A ,:S1. The effect on propagation speed can be seen
in the after short-circuit pea7s, but the influence on ma3imum pinch is limited in actual range,
as predicted by Manuio (the pinch being proportional to the s8uare root of the tension1, and it
1=
is particularly valid for long subspans, as used in power lines and as validated by ManuioKs
test arrangements (Manuio 1!"#1.
)n case of spring-type dampers, which could be compressed by the pinch, there could be a
large increase of these tensile loads acting on spacer attachment as the rela3ation of energy
stored in spring compression during short-circuit is released after the end of the short circuit.
:epending on the configurations of the spacer and spacer dampers, the short-circuit forces
could cause large bending moment in the conductor and the elements of the spacer.
4igure ! Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault, for the
"&-m span length configuration (1@ 75 initial1. )rms .@ 7< (pea7 !& 7<1, &.1' s courtesy
0fistererBSefag1.
)n these tests, limited to one-phase fault, there is no interphase effect but, due to the increment
in tension caused by the pinch, the whole phase jumps up after short-circuit inception and
falls down afterwards. This behavior induces some tension changes in the conductors, as can
be seen in 4igures ! and 1&. )t is notable that the pinch effect (the first pea7 during the fault in
the first &.1' s1 in the conductor has a smaller tension rise than that which occurs, at &.!
seconds, as the phase falls. )n both cases, the latter is limited to 1.' times the initial static
sagging tension.
1@
4igure 1& Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault for the -
3 .&-m span length configuration (1@ 75 initial1. )rms .@ 7< (pea7 !& 7<1, &.1' s. (courtesy
0fistererBSefag1.
Subspan Length Effect
9undle pinch is very much related to subspan length. There e3ists a critical subspan length
under which no contact is possible and over which contact occurs on a significant part of the
subspan. ;f course, that length depends on short-circuit level and some other parameters.
That critical value corresponds to e3treme loading (for pinch effect in substations L,l <dnani
1!'#$ /ilien and ,l <dnani 1!'"M1. 4or the power lines with typical subspan lengths,
subconductors e3perience contact in all cases e3cept in jumpers.
Subconductor Separation Effect
< closer bundle spacing results in a smaller increment in subconductor tension. )n fact, initial
electromagnetic force are stronger, but the tension increment is generated by conductor
deformation into the triangles of 4igure - after contact, and most of deformation is located in
those triangles. Smaller conductor separation thus leads to less deformation in that area. <t
the limit, if conductors are in contact all along the span, there is no increment in tension.
1"
4. INTERPHASE EFFECTS UNDER SHORT CIRCUITS
Maximum Tensile Loads during Moement of the Phases
4igure 11 shows a typical response of a bundle conductor two-phase fault in a horiontal
arrangement (()*+, 1!!"1. 9oth cable tension versus time (4igure11 left1 and phase
movement in a vertical plane at mid-span (4igure 11 right1 are shown. ;n the cable tension
curve, three ma3ima (and their corresponding time on the abscissa1 have been indicated,
which is discussed below. ;n the phase movement curve at mid-span, the curve has been
mar7ed by dots every &.1 s to get an idea of the cable speed, and in particular to show that the
short circuit ends before there is significant movement of the phase.
Typical ma3imum loads (4igures 11 and 1-1 that could influence design appear when total
energy (including a large input during short circuit1 has to be mainly transformed to
deformation energy.
0ea7 design load could occur under the following three conditions6
1. Ma3imum swing-out 4
t
(at time t
t
in 4igure 11left and s8uare 1 in 4igure 11 right16 very
little 7inetic energy (cable speed close to ero1 and potential energy with reference to
gravity, so that a large part is converted in deformation energyIthat is, increase of
tension. )n power lines, t
t
occurs always after the end of the short circuit (the cable
position at the end of the short circuit (&.1 s1 is indicated in 4igure 11 right1.
-. Ma3imum 4
f
at the e3treme of downward motion (at time t
f
in 4igure 11 left and s8uare -
in 4igure 11 right16 generally more critical because of a loss of potential energy of gravity
due to the cable position at that moment. t
f
always occurs after the end of the short circuit.
.. The pinch effect 4
pi
(at a very short time after short-circuit inception at t
pi
1. The pinch
effect only occurs with bundle conductors, when subconductors come close to each other6
t
pi
always occurs during short circuit.
4igure 11 /eft 4igure6 Tensile force (left1 time evolution of a typical twin-bundle
span during two-phase short circuit between horiontal phases. Three ma3ima6 4
pi
at
time T
pi
(so-called pinch effect, due to bundle collapse1, 4
t
at time T
t
(the ma3imum
of the force due to ma3imum swing of the span represented by circle point 1 on the
right figure1, and 4
f
at time T
f
(the ma3imum of the force due to cable drop
represented by circle - in the right figure. Typically, T
pi
-=& ms, T
t
N1.- s and T
f
H = s
1#
+ight figure6 Movement of one phase (right1 in a vertical plane at mid-span (F and O
are the two orthogonal a3es ta7en in the vertical plane at mid-span, perpendicular to
the cable. O is vertical, -1& m is the initial point showing sag, and F is horiontal and
transverse to the cable1. Such movement has been calculated for a two-phase fault of
". 7< (duration &.1 s end of short circuit being noted on the figure1 on a - F @#&
mm
-
<ST,+ on a =&&-m span length (sag 1& m1 (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&1.
)t is interesting to compare the level of these loads with typical overhead line design loads
related to wind or ice problem (,lectra 1!!11. 4igure 11 shows results of such a case
calculated by simulation on a typical =&&-7C overhead line configuration. 4igure 1- shows
cable tension versus time in different dynamic loading conditions, as e3plained in the legend.
)t can be seen that cable tensions due to short-circuit currents are significantly smaller than
other causes such as ice shedding.
4igure 1- Simulated longitudinal loads applied on attachment point on a cross arm on a
>9eaubourg? tower (the circuit configuration is shown by points T, +, and S in 4igure 1.1 for
loading conditions (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&16
1. three-phase fault of #-.. 7<
-. two-phase fault of ". 7<
.. initial wind of "& 7mBh followed by a gust at 1&& 7mBh for @ seconds on a 8uarter of the
span
=. shedding of ice sleeve of " 7gBm
!eduction in Phase Spacing
<fter the initial outward swing, the phases move towards each other. 4or the case illustrated
in 4igure 11, this inward movement e3ceeds = m per phase. That means a phase-spacing
reduction of more than ' m. ;ther cases are shown in 4igures 1. and 1= (only the rectangular
envelope of the movement is given1 for different configurations and short-circuit level.
The timing of this inward swing may be such that the phase spacing is less than the critical
flashover distance at the time that voltage is restored by automatic reclosure. That would
induce a second fault with the dramatic conse8uence of a loc7-out circuit brea7er operation,
with all its conse8uences (power outage1.
1'
4igure 1. (alculated envelopes of phase-conductor movements for three types of loading
conditions on a >9eaubourg? tower (the figure is drawn in a vertical plane located at mid-
span6 +, S, and T are their phase locations in still conditions1 (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&16
1. two-phase short-circuit ". 7< either +T, +S, or TS
-. three-phase short-circuit #-.. 7<
.. initial wind speed of "& 7mBh followed by a wind gust at 1&& 7mBh during @ s on a 8uarter
of the span.

4igure 1= (alculated envelope of phase-conductor movements for two-phase faults of
different rms amplitude (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&1.
Distribution Lines
<s mentioned earlier, very large movements may be seen on distribution lines (4igure .1.
4igure 1@ shows a case of two circuits on the tower, where the faulted circuit forces some of
its phases to get in contact with the second (healthy1 circuit, inducing a fault in the other
circuit so that both circuits trip out.
%ow to estimate the re8uired interphase spacing is discussed further in Section @ (,8uation '1
1!
4igure 1@ Three-phase short-circuit on 1@-7C line (left circuit1, with autoreclosure. a H fault
inception, b H &.1 s, end of the first fault, c H&.= s, time of reclosing, and d H 1.= s end of the
second fault and definitive removal of the voltage on the line. Short-circuit of -#&& < on a
1"@-m span length, conductor !... mm
-
<<<( (/ilien and Cercheval 1!'#1.
-&
5. ESTIMATION OF DESIGN LOADS
The most critical effects on power lines are6
1. 4or bundle conductors6 spacer compression (,8uation =1.
-. 4or power lines in general, but particularly for distribution lines6 reduction in phase
spacing (,8uation ' for high-voltage line1.
.. To a much lesser e3tent, and generally having negligible effect compared to other 7ind of
loading6 tension increase generating longitudinal and transverse loads (,8uation # for
longitudinal load due to interphase effect1.
The loads under no. . above due to short circuits should be considered by line designers by
including them in the loading schedule for structures. Since there are three ways to have one
phase fault, three to have a two-phase fault, and one to have a three-phase fault, there may be
seven different loading conditions. They must, of course, be ta7en separately, since these
events cannot occur simultaneously.
<dvanced calculation methods (/ilien 1!'., ,l <dnani 1!'#, Gendt et al 1!!", :eclerc8
1!!', Stein et al -&&&1 may be used for any situation.
Bundle Conductors in Transmission Lines
Manuio developed a simple method for spacer compression effect in bundle conductors
(Manuio 1!"#1.
1&
log ( B 1
c st s
F kI F s
(51 =
Ghere6
4
st
is initial sagging tension for each subconductor (51.
k is a correction factor depending on the number of subconductors.
7
twin
H 1.@#.
7
tripple
H 1.==.
7
8uad
H 1.-#.
) is the rms short-circuit valueBphase (7<1.
s is the bundle diameter, related to subconductor separation >a
s
? by the formula (n H number
of subconductors16
sin(1'& B 1
s
a
s
n

(m1 @

s
is the subconductor diameter (m1.
Example:
-1
(onsider a case of a short circuit of .@ 7< (rmsBphase1 acting on a twin <(S+ (ondor (-#.#
mm diameter1 conductor with &.=@# m conductor separation, tensioned at -@
75Bsubconductor. ,8uation = gives a spacer compression force of6
1&
1.@# .@ -@&&& log (&.=@# B &.&-##1 !@'"
c
F x x
%owever, in the analysis by Manuio (Manuio 1!"#1, short-circuit current asymmetry was
neglected.
That has been ta7en into account in ),( "&'"@ for evaluating the ma3imum tension in the
conductor during fault. 9ut ),( "&'"@ gives no recommendation for spacer compression.
;ther methods to estimate spacer compression forces have been proposed (%oshino 1!#&$
0on et al. 1!!.$ /ilien and 0apailiou -&&&1. Some tests performed in (anada (0on et al. 1!!.1
on spacer dampers for power-line-estimated spacer-compression design load up to -& 75 for
typical configurations and anticipated short-circuit levels.
ManuioKs method can be safely applied to faults with ma3imum asymmetry through a correction
factor of -@A (multiply all k factors by 1.-@1. )n fact, ManuioKs method is very simple to apply
compared to other methods. )t may not be accurate enough for use with respect to substation
fle3ible bus.
<lternatively, if we define 4
pi
(as shown in 4igure 111 as the ma3imum tensile load in one
subconductor during the bundle pinch, another best fit would be to use Manuio method (without
correction factor1, but using 4
pi
pinch value instead of initial static pull. 4
pi
can be evaluated by ),(
"&"'@ method.
4
pi
increases linearly (and not with the s8uare1 with short-circuit current. That is because a stronger
short-circuit current will increase contact length, thus reducing acting parts of the conductors.

ote: In the use of IE! method "0#"$ to e%aluate F
pi
& there is a need to introduce the so'
called ( supporting structure stiffness)* In this application& that stiffness is not simpl+ the
static stiffness of supporting structure& but must take into account insulator chain mo%ement
during the first tens of milliseconds of the fault to arri%e at an e,ui%alent stiffness (which in
fact would permit e%aluation of span end mo%ement& from short'circuit inception up to the
maximum pinch %alue& after about -0 to .0 ms) /n heuristic e%aluation indicates that a good
estimate for such e,ui%alent stiffness ma+ be to consider in most of the practical cases a %alue
of 00
$
1m)
Despacering as a Means to Limit Pinch Effect
:espacering (removal of spacers1 is an antigalloping measure (see Section =.@1 for some
power lines. )t has been used up to the -=@-7C level for twin bundles of limited diameter. )n
such cases, the bundle is turned in vertical or slightly obli8ue position, and conductor
separation is increased compared to a spacered bundle. Moreover, it has been recommended
to use larger subconductor spacing at the middle of the span (compared to end of the span1I
for e3ample, &." m at ends and &.' m at mid-span.
Such configurations may suffer from the >7issing? phenomenon under high electrical load,
because electromagnetic forces also act under load current. <t such current levels,
nevertheless, the electrostatic repulsion (due to voltage1 cannot be neglected. )t can be shown
--
that, at surge impedance loading (S)/1, e8uilibrium e3ists between attraction and repulsion
forces. 0ower flows are often several times (up to four times1 the S)/, so that attraction forces
are generally stronger than repulsion. ;ne of the major problems of such configurations is
lin7ed to possible stic7ing of the subconductors following a perturbation. <s electromagnetic
forces depend on distances, there e3ists a distance under which the subconductors always
come together and stic7 together, and it is very difficult to separate them without opening the
circuit. Stic7ing induces large permanent noise and increase in corona. To avoid such
problems, line designers have developed several proposals li7e the >hoop? spacer (see Section
=.@1.
2nder short circuit, these configurations result in clashing between subconductors and, as
>subspan? length (H span length in this case1 is very large, there is little increment in tension.
9ut, in the case of hoop spacers or similar, the conductor clashing destroys these light spacers
beyond a certain level of short-circuit current.
Interphase Effects" Estimation of Tension Increase and !eduction in Phase Spacing
The following discussion pertains to the case of horiontalBvertical configuration and neglects
temperature heating effects (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&1. ;nly one span is considered.
a H interphase distance (m1.
m H mass per unit of length of one phase (7gBm1.
)
rms
H root mean s8uare of the three phase short-circuit currentBphase (7<1.
H time constant of the short-circuit asymmetric component decay (s1.
t
cc
H duration of the fault (H time of first fault N time of second fault if auto-reclosing1 (s1.
2 H span length (m1.
T
st
H phase conductor static tension before the fault condition (51.
E/12 H conductor e3tensional stiffness (product of Poung modulus times cross section
divided by span length1 (5Bm1.
3 H tower stiffness (5Bm1 (order of amplitude 1&
@
5Bm1.
f H initial sag (m1.
4 H ma3imum displacement (m1.
1. The energy imparted to the conductor is given by6
-.
-
-
&
&.- ( 1 1 .
.
- . =
rms cc
I t 2
E m
a m
1 +

1
]
(Qoules1 "
-. The ma3imum tension in the conductor during movements6
- &
ma3
-
-
st
E
5 5
2
E/ 3
+
+
#
.. The ma3imum displacement of one phase (ero to pea716
-
- - &
-
.
E
4 f f
mg2
_

+



,
'
That ma3imum may be observed in the case when the conductors are moving away from
each other. 9ut phase spacings can be critical when the phases move bac7 towards each
other, in which case there is generally lower displacement (say, '&A of the separation
movement1. )n this case, the clearances may be reduced (the most dramatic case being a
two-phase fault1 by - 3 &.' 3 + or 1." +.
-=
The combined values of T
ma3
and + result in a transverse load on the suspension tower in
the case of a horiontal arrangement, for e3ample.
There is very limited e3perimental validation of these formulas, because full-scale tests on
power lines have not been conducted.
)t must be noted that advanced methods (finite elements1 can be used to evaluate these
effects (details are given in ()*+, brochure -1=--&&-1.
)t is estimated that these formulas give results with -&A precision on the conservative
side.
Example:
4or e3ample, consider the following6
Short-circuit current at ". 7< during 1&& ms (with time constant "& ms1 on a twin <ST,+
@#& mm
-
(m H - 3 1.@@ H ..1 7gBm1 with interphase distance a H '.@ m, span length of =&&
m and initial sagging tension of - 3 .1&&& H "-&&& 56
,nergy imparted to the conductor using ,8uation "6

- -
- -
&
&.- ( 1 &.- ". (&.1&& &.&"&1 1 . 1 . =&&
. ..1 . 1&'&.
- . = - '.@ ..1 =
rms cc
I t x 2 x
E m
a m x
1 1 + +

1 1
] ]
Qoule
s
Gith conductor Poung modulus H @." 3 1&
1&
5Bm
-
and tower stiffness of RH @ 3 1&
@
5Bm,
the ma3imum conductor tension is calculated as6
-
ma3
1& " @
- 1&'&.
"-&&& ##1-#
=&& -
- @."1& @#&1& @1&
x
5
x x

+
_
+

,
5ewtons
<ssuming an initial sag of !.' m, the ma3imum displacement of one phase is 6
- -
- - - &
1&'&.
!.' !.' -#.''
- -
..1 !.'1 =&&
. .
E
4 f f
mg2 x x
_ _

+ +



, ,
means + H @.- m
Thus the reduction in phase spacing is - 3 &.' 3 @.- H '..- m.
)t means that the remaining clearance is '.@ - '.. H &.- m.
4or the same case at =@ 7<, the results are6
,
&
H -'1- Qoules
T
ma3
H ""-#& 5
-@
+emaining clearance H =.. m
)t can be noted that that energy varies as the fourth power of the short-circuit current.
This is due to the fact that short-circuit forces vary with the s8uare of the current, so the speed
of the conductor at the end of the short-circuit also varies with the s8uare of the current, and
energy in the system varies with the s8uare of that speed.
The Case of #umpers
<t deadend structures, jumpers are used to connect the adjacent spans. These jumpers also
react during short circuit6
)nterphase forces may cause jumper swing with possible drastic reduction of clearance with
tower legs or cross arms. Such effects may easily be limited by installation of appropriate
hold-down weights.
)n case of bundle configuration, subspan length in the jumper cannot be large. Thus, the pinch
effect may cause the jumpers to bound upward toward the tower cross arms. 2se of short
subspans in jumpers may be recommended to avoid clashing. Their use in substations may be
of interest in that connection.
+eference (()*+, 1!!"1 e3plains how to choose short subspans to avoid conductor clashing.
Interphase Spacers as a Mean to Limit Clearances Problem Lin$ed with Short Circuit
)nterphase spacers have been proposed to solve the phase-clearance problem during short
circuits (:eclerc8 1!!'1. ,3perience has shown that appropriate installation of such devices
may effectively maintain appropriate clearances since conductor movement is restricted at
some location in the span.
< major challenge is defining the design load on these interphase spacers. Tests can be
performed, and some are available on the video accompanying this boo7. <dvanced
calculation methods may also help to define these loads. )nterphase spacers may be subjected
to bending stresses induced by conductor movements.
-"
6. REFERENCES
Manuio (. 1!"#. /n in%estigation of forces on bundle conductor spacers under
fault conditions) ),,, Trans. ;n 0ower <pparatus and Systems, Vol. 6, 5E-, 1!"#,
pp1""-1'@.
Seriawa, 1!"#. P. 6eha%iour of dead'end suspension double'conductor bus during
short'circuit. The Qournal of the )nstitute of ,lectrical ,ngineers of Qapan, Vol !,
5E11, 5ov 1!"#, pp 1&&-111
%. %oshino, 1!#&. Estimate of forces exerted against spacers when fault+ condition
occurs. ),,, Trans on 0ower <pparatus and Systems, Vol. ", 5E#, pp 1=#@-1='=
/ilien, Q./ 1!'.., !ontraintes et cons7,uences 7lectrom7cani,ues li7es au passage
du courant dans les structures en cables. 0h: 1!'.. (ollections des publications de
la 4acultS des Sciences <ppli8uSes de lK2niversitS de /iDge, 5E'#
Tsana7as, :.$ 0apadias, 9)0.#3) Influence of short'circuit duration on d+namic
stresses in substations. ),,, Trans. 0ower <pp. Syst. 1&- (1!'.1, pp =!--@&1
,l <dnani, M. 1!'#. Efforts 7lectrod+nami,ues dans les liaisons 8 haute tension
constitu7es de faisceaux de conducteurs. 0h: 1!'#. (ollections des publications de
la 4acultS des Sciences <ppli8uSes de lK2niversitS de /iDge, 5E11-.
/ilien, Q./., ,l <dnani M., 1!'". Faisceaux de conducteurs et efforts
7lectrod+nami,ues) 9ers une approche num7ri,ue fiable) 0roceedings of ),,,
MontechK'" (onference on <( 0ower Systems. 0p #!-'=
Q./. /ilien, 0. Cercheval. 1!'#. :roblems linked to changes in the arrangement of
double circuit line conductors. )nternational (onference on ,lectricity :istribution.
()+,: 1!'#, session . (cable and overhead lines1. 0roceedings , report d.&= ("
pages1.
),( "&!&! 1!''. Short'circuit current calculation in three'phase a) c) s+stems.
*eneva6 ),(, 1!''
2oading and strength of o%erhead transmission lines) ,/,(T+< nE1.#. 1!!1
(published by G* &" of S( --1.
M.9ulot, /.:emoulin 1!!- . !ontribution of 4eliabilit+ anal+ses to the stud+ of the
effects of short'circuit& 0roceedings of the @th )nternational symposium on short-
circuit currents in power system.
M.*audry, P.Maugain 1!!-) Influence of the wind on the mechanical design of
transmission structures against short'circuits, 0roceedings of the @th )nternational
symposium on short-circuit currents in power system
(. 0on, <. *oel, S. Rrishnasamy, %. *rad. 1!!.. !ompressi%e loads on spacer'
dampers due to short'circuit currents. (,< report. Transmission Section, line
hardware subsection, March .&, 1!!., MontrSal, TuSbec.
-#
),( "&'"@-1 1!!.. Short'circuit currents ' !alculation of effects) :art 0:
;efinitions and calculation method& *eneva6 ),(, 1!!.
,5 "&'"@-1 1!!.. Short'circuit currents ' !alculation of effects) :art 0:
;efinitions and calculation method. 9russels6 (,5,/,(, 1!!.
),( "&'"@-- 1!!=. Short'circuit currents ' !alculation of effects) :art <: Examples
of calculation. *enDve6 ),(, 1!!=.
*. de Gendt, T. Tiet, <6M. Miri, +. <hlers, 5. Stein 1!!" ;+namic and Static
!ase Stress /nal+sis of a =9 Substation with Stranded !onductors (5est'4esults'
!alculation). 0roceedings of the >th Int) S+mposium on short'circuit currents in
:ower S+stems& 1!!".
()*+,-1&@ 1!!". 5he mechanical effects of short'circuit currents in open'air
substations (4igid and flexible bus'bars)) 0aris6 ()*+U, technical brochure 5E1&@.
- volumes (1'& pages1.
:eclerc8, *.1!!'. 5ests with droppers and interphase spacers. 0roceedings of the
'th )nternational Symposium on Short-(ircuit (urrents in 0ower Systems, 9russels
(9elgium1, '-1& ;ctober 1!!', 0roceedings pp. 1=.-1='
Stein, 5.$ Meyer, G.$ Miri, <.M. -&&&) 5ests and !alculation of Short'!ircuit
Forces and ;isplacements in =igh 9oltage Substations with Strained !onductors
and ;roppers. ,T,0 1& (-&&&1 5o. . , pp 1.1V1.'
Q./. /ilien, ,. %ansenne, R.;. 0apailiou. Q. Rempf)<000) Spacer !ompression for a
tripple conductor arrangement. ),,, Trans. ;n 0ower :elivery, Vol. 15, 5E1, pp
-."--=1, Qanuary -&&&.
Q./. /ilien, R.;. 0apailiou) <000) !alculation of Spacer !ompression for 6undle
2ines under Short'!ircuit . ),,, Trans. ;n 0ower :elivery, Vol 15, 5E-, pp'.!-
'=@.
()*+,--1= -&&-. 5he mechanical effects of short'circuit currents in open'air
substations (4igid and flexible bus'bars) (:art II) ()*+U, technical brochure
5E-1=. - volumes (-&& pages1.
Q./. /ilien and 4. :al Maso, 1!!&) !ontribution to 2ine ;esign b+ /ccurate
:redetermination of Se%ere but ?ccasional Stresses) ()*+, 0lenary session, 1!!&,
0aris, +eport ---1&..
:.*. %avard, (.Q.0on, %.<.,wing,*.:.:umol and <.(. Gong, 0.#"& :robabilistic
Short @ !ircuit uprating of Station 6us S+stem'Aechanical /spects& ),,, 0,S
-'