Society for American Archaeology

Archaeological Investigations in Northern Chile: Project Tarapaca. Preceramic Resources

Author(s): D. L. True, Lautaro Nunez A. and Patricio Nunez H.
Reviewed work(s):
Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 170-184
Published by: Society for American Archaeology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/278146 .
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ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN NORTHERN CHILE:

PROJECT TARAPACA-PRECERAMIC RESOURCES
D. L.TRUE, LAUTARONU(NJEZ A., AND PATRICIONUNIEZ H.

/t RCHAEOLOGICALresearch was carded

ut in norther Chile during 1966 and 1967
under the auspices of the University of California/University of Chile Cooperative program,
hereafter referred to as the "Convenio."
At the time this archaeological work was first
considered, the ultimate goals of the larger Convenio programin anthropology had not yet been
determined. It was possible, however, to suggest
a preliminary research design for archaeology in
northern Chile wherein two kinds of problemoriented studies would be implemented:
1. Contributions to the prehistoryof northern
Chile resulting from selected excavations
in several key locations;
2. Contributions to archaeological theory and
method through the development of coordinated long-range study programsin areas
where near ideal conditions prevail for the
study of (1) culture change, (2) ecological
adaptation in arid land situations, (3) settlement-pattern studies and related sociocultural adlustments in response to environmental change or climatic fluctuation,
and (4) archaeological definition of the
sociocultural aspects of prehistoric communities in a formative stage of development.

and terrain features, this survey resulted in discovery of several sites which might have been
difficult to locate from the ground. Next, preliminary ground surveys were made in the Quebrada Camifna, Quebrada Tarapaca, Quebrada
de Quisma near the Oasis of Pica, and in the
Quebrada Guatacondo.
Although it was recognized that the solution
of many of the suggested problems would
eventually involve investigations in other regions, the emphasis in this program was to be
placed on that area along the lower reaches of
the western flank of the Andean Cordillera
(precordillera) extending from the Quebrada
Camarones in the north to the River Loa in the
south (see Fig. 1).
More specifically, it was planned that the beginning stages of the project should be concerned with settlement patterns, land use, ecological adaptation, and general patterns of cultural development within two particular transverse valleys:
1. The Quebrada Tarapaca
2. The Quebrada Guatacondo.
Phase one of this project was to confine its activities to the Quebrada Tarapaca. A later phase
would proceed with investigations in Guatacondo after various administrative problems had
been resolved. As of this writing, plans are
being formulated under the direction of Dr. C.
W. Meighan, University of California, Los Angeles, to implement the Guatacondo phase of
this project in cooperation with Dra Grete
Mostny, Director of the Museo Historia Natural, Santiago, Chile.
Although the intent of the initial phase (project Tarapaca) was to be essentially exploratory,
at least some aspects of all of the above stated
objectives have been considered in the work
completed so far.

This suggests some of the more obvious possibilities and is not intended to be a complete
listing of the significant problem-oriented research potential for this area.
Step one in the implementation of this project was an aerial survey of the topography and
resources of the larger area. In addition to the
obvious value in understanding the topography

Tarapaca is the northernmost of the Chilean

provinces. Except for the higher mountain regions, it is one of the world's most barren desert
regions (Dingman and Galli 1965: 8-12; Bowman 1924; Bird 1943: 184). The climate is controlled or modified by the cold Humboldt cur-

ABSTRACT

A series of nonceramic sites is described for the purpose of indicating the nature of the resources to be
found along the western margin of the Andean precordillera in northern Chile. Artifacts recovered from several sites are similar to those designated Ayampitin and
Lauricocha from other regions in Andean South America. Strong ties are suggested between coastal and internor sites, due either to trade relationships between
separate groups or to the same peoples occupying a series
of site locations on a seasonal round. Detailed studies
that hopefully will clarify these relationships are in process. Information on permanent agricultural settlements in
this same region will be presented in a future summary.

THE AREA

170

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Littoral &
Coast
Central
Range
Valley

PUlNTA v

Western Flank
SubCordillera

PICHALO

Bolivian
Altiplano

'-

-t

InterAndean
Valleys(Basins)

IOUIOUE

171

PROJECTTARAPACA

TRUE AND OTHERS ]

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Cross

Section

FIGURE 1
FIG. 1. Terrain features and location of sites and localities mentioned in text.

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172

AMERICANANTIQUITY'

rent, and rainfall is literally unknown for this

area. The coastal regions have considerable fog,
and on occasion this fog (known locally as
Camanchaca) extends inland nearly to the base
of the Andean subcordillera. In a few isolated
coastal locales, condensation from this fog is
sufficient to support a feeble stand of transient
vegetation. For all practical purposes, however,
there is no rain-controlled vegetation in this
province lower than 3,000 m. above sea level.
Even in the higher elevations cover is sparse and
typical of arid desert regions.
Throughout its length (within the Province
of Tarapaca) the coastline is rough and rocky.
Open sandy beaches are not common, and
coastal terrace features, as such, are narrow and
poorly developed. The coastal scarp rises steeply
in near cliff-like formations to an elevation of
some 500-600 m. near Iquique, and up to 1,200
m. above sea level near the southem margins
of the province. Just inland from the coastal
scarp, which has considerable local relief, elevations increase rapidly to the point where peaks;
up to 1,600 m. above sea level mark the crest
of the coastal range.
Between the eastern margins of the coastal
range and the westem slopes of the Andean
subcordillera there is an open valley-like region
with little overall relief. This interior valley lies
at an elevation of some 1,100-1,200 m. above sea
level in the area just east of Iquique. Elevations
increase slightly to the north and drop to about
900 m. above sea level in the vicinity of the Salar
de Pintados. The valley, or region of interior
drainage, extends essentially unbroken from the
Quebrada Camifnain the north to the River Loa
in the south.
The portion of this interior valley region that
concerns us here extends from the Quebrada
Camifia to the Quebrada Guatacondo and is
known locally as the Pampa de Tamarugal.
Basically the Pampa Tamarugal consists of a
series of salares, or dry lake beds, which form
the terminal basins for several exotic streams
originating in the Andean highlands to the east.
For most quebradas, and for most years, little
surface water reaches these basins, although the
water table in some portions of some salares is
presently high enough to support scattered
stands of Phreatophytic vegetation (Prosopis

[ VOL.35, No. 2, 1970

Pleistocene age - marking the outlets of the

aforementioned exotic streams. In some instances these fans extend well into the valley
and cover portions of the old lake beds. In
many locales, the western foothill region of the
Andean subcordilleraextends nearly to the margins of the salares. For the most part this aspect
of the local topography consists of massive fanlike deposits (fanglomerates) broken by occasional, partly submerged, mountain peaks and
ridges. These older fans and possible piedmont
formations are sharply dissected in the upper
regions of the subcordillera by high gradient
streams. Present stream flow seems hardly sufficient to have created the extant topography,
even given considerable time.
Emphasis in the present work is directed
toward those locales immediately adjacent to
the salares, but the topography of the larger
area and the climatic conditions responsible for
this topography are of considerable import in
the interpretation of prehistoric cultural activities in this region. Detailed discussion of local
environmental and ecological situations will be
presented in future reports dealing with specific
problems.
PROJECTTARAPACA 1966-1967

The basic intent of this first phase of the

project was to obtain information that would
permit the definition of a local cultural sequence, and to explore the possibilities for more
detailed future studies oriented toward theoretical problems. It was proposed that these goals
could best be met as a result of a concentrated
effort within some limited area, as opposed to a
shotgun approach wherein a number of shortterm one-shot investigations would be instigated
over the area at large. This was the basis for the
decision to spend over a year working in a single
quebrada. Further, it was obvious that even a
portion of one quebrada included more resources than could be examined in the available
time.
The resulting research design called for intensive examination of the archaeological resources
within a small defined territory (see Fig. 2).
This territory was set up to include the widest
possible range of cultural activities over the
longest possible span of time. It extended from
the
margins of the Pampa Tamarugal to the
sp.) .
in the canyon where the steep canyon
point
of
the
Tamarugal
Pampa
The eastern margin
is characterizedby a series of coalescing alluvial topography typical of the subcordillera began.
fans - probably of late Pleistocene and post- These bounds included an area of open pampa

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173

PROJECT TARAPACA

TRUE AND OTHERS]

Punts

P
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23

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X
X

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C&E-workshop stations
2-works hop concant ratior

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ung raded

ffi/8;26
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road~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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PX

3 kiomatarsa

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3'

salars

seron

ot

pampa

sqabrada

A-S_-r

FIG. 2. Location of sites and area of investigation.

and part of the margins of a salar (possible

Early Man); an area in the lower reaches of the
quebrada marked by intermittent water supply
and low-relief topography (intermittent occupation with hunting and gathering as well as
horticultural possibilities); and an area of
marked relief with steep canyon walls and a
perennial stream (permanent agricultural villages more or less in the Andean tradition).
The defined territory was approximately 25
km. in length and 1 to 2 km. wide, depending
upon the width of the quebrada. The majority
of the field research was carried on in the lower
half of this territory in an area of considerably
less than 20 sq. km. Field work was in progress
in one form or another from July, 1966, through
July, 1967.
Within this designated territory, a total of 83
separable sites was recorded. For the most part
these were sites not previously recorded, al-

though some were known to Chilean archaeologists working in the province. The region was
surveyed in part the previous year by archaeologists from the University of Chile (L. Nunfiez
1965a: 17-19; 1966: 25-30).
It is considered likely that the artifacts so far
recovered and examined in the sequence of sites
ranges in time from some 6000 years B.C. through
Spanish Colonial occupancy.
These resources have been categorized as follows:
1. workshop or quarry sites;
2. habitational sites including open camps and
permanent masonry structures;
3. cemetery sites;
4. other - includes ceremonial locations,
ground figures,petroglyphs, etc.
Because of the complex nature of the permanent habitation sites, cemeteries and ceremonial

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174

AMERICANANTIQUITY
TABLE
Site

Frequency

1. scattered isolated indications of tool manufacture;

2. concentrations of debris and tools.

and

Distribution

WORKSHOP SITES
Tarapaca

9,1011,28

(possible

[ VOL.35, No. 2, 1970

19,21,22)

With few exceptions, the entire terrace fronting the quebrada from Huarasifia to the Pampa
Temporary Camps Seasonal
is a nearly continuous zone of prehistoric occupation. At dozens of locations along this front,
Tempora ry Camps Stopover
it is possible to find scattered bits of chipping
waste and occasional artifacts. These locations
Temporary Camps Transition ?
are in addition to those specifically designated
as sites. The overall appearance is that of a
VILLAGES
AGRICULTURAL
scattered cultural substrate over which various
Permanent Settlements
Prehistoric
other activities were carried on from time to
time in later years. In some instances the more
Permanent
Settlements
Historic
recent occupancy has obliterated or become
mixed with the earlier remains. In other situaTemporary Settlements
tions, the scattered waste and tools seem undisTotal
26
turbed by later activities. Sites along the lower
CEMETARY SITES
reaches of the quebrada and along the pampa
were often relatively undisturbed. It is the sites
in this part of the region that concern us at the
Total
OTH E R
15
time.
present
Ground Figures
The scattered workshop debris mentioned
Petroglyph
Sites
above is found in two kinds of situations: isofinds that appear to be the by-product of
lated
Terraces Fields Corrals etc.
the manufacture of a single tool, and more concentrated manifestations of chipping waste that
may or may not be actual sites. For the former,
usually only the waste flakes are found, but in
some
instances the tool itself - a heavy biface
locations, this initial report will be confined to
- is found in situ. There does not seem to be
consideration of what we designate workshop
the distribution of these staand temporary campsites (preceramic). A later any patterning in
tions other than the fact that they tend to follow
report will discuss the more important agriculthe margins of the Pampa. They are not close
tural villages and the cemeteries associated with
enough together to call the aggregate a site, but
them. Table 1 presents the distribution of the there are locations in which they are much more
sites in terms of the above listed categories.
concentrated than in others. These areas of concentration are indicated on Fig. 2 as areas C, E,
WORKSHOP SITES
and F. In area C, more than 40 stations were
Workshop sites are defined as those locations noted in a space about 800 m. long and less than
marked by artifacts and chipp,ing waste, but 50 km. wide. There is no refuse or other indicalacking obvious refuse or midden deposits. There tion of cultural activities associated with these
may be indications of artifact use as well as stations. Each station seems to be an independmanufacture, but there is no suggestion of habi- ent manifestation of some cultural activity untation on the spot. Some overlap between sites related to the next, except that the by-product is
in this category and habitation sites may exist a similar tool or blank - made of similar masince it is not always possible to distinguish terial. The use of these tools and the exact nabetween sites resulting exclusively from the by- ture of the finished product are not known.
products of tool manufacture and those repre- Similar artifacts are found scattered along the
senting short-term occupational situations where quebrada proper, and once in a while a specimen
some tool manufacturing was carried on. Two or two turns up in the excavated camp sites. Imkinds of workshop situations have been identi- plements of this size and configuration,however,
do not seem to be significant elements on any of
fied in the present sample:
Total

NONAGRICULTURAL

CAMP SITES

Tarapaca

1 2,3,448,12,i4,18,24,25,26

Tarapaca

14A,

Tarapaca

35,

2A, (possible

14A(house

29

19,21,

31

32

22

pit component)

Total

Tarapaca

5,13,13A.15,17,34,44,46,52,55,61,62,63,65,69,77&Cas

Tarapoca

16 38 49 50 60

Tarapaca

6 7 20

Tara paca

3640

Tarapaca42

21

81

4145

48 5154

57 58 64 72 75 78 79 80

71 7682

Tarapaca

30 43

47

68

Tarapaca

23 27 33 53 56 59

66

67

70

Total

17

83

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TRUE AND OTHERS ]

175

PROJECTTARAPACA

the later sites so far investigated. A preliminary

study of the implements does not show any significant wear patterns or markings along the
cutting edges. All of the specimens so far
examined, however, have been lightly wind
abraded, and this would eliminate most evidence for such wear.
In addition to the scattered stations described
above, one location along the Pampa was located
where similar kinds of chipping waste and some
similar artifacts were more concentrated (see
Fig. 2, area D). This locale contains more than
one kind of tool-making waste, and more than
one time period may be represented. The concentration may be the by-product of some particular cultural pattern, or it may be the fortuitous overlapping of the activities of several cultural patterns through some period of time. In
any case, the chipping waste here is more heterogeneous than in the isolated stations, and it is
clearly different from those locations given site
designations below.
Four locations have been designated as actual
sites (Tarapaca 9, 10, 11, and 28). All are located along the Pampa or in the lowest reaches
of the quebrada (see Fig. 2). Three other sites
may represent workshop locations, but it is not
clear whether these are short-term camps or
specialized manufacturing situations (Tarapaca
19, 21, and 22). For the present, these three
sites will be excluded from the discussion.
The four Pampa sites are nearly identical in
terms of their physical location and the artifacts
found there. They are marked by concentrations, from 10 to 20 cm. deep, of chipping waste
and artifacts. Most of the debris in each case
was located within an area some 10 m. wide
and 50 m. long. All are located directly on a low
bluff overlooking the Pampa. The primary material being utilized here was a reddish-brown
rhyolitic stone. although some fine-grainedbasalt
was used. This latter is common in the region
and was widely used in other cultural situations.
On the basis of a preliminary examination, the
artifacts from these sites can be categorized as:

C E NT I METERS

d
FG. 3. Heavy biface artifacts or blanks from
isolated workshop stations.

4. an occasional heavy biface similar to those

found on the scattered stations described

above.
The sample from the four sites includes several hundred artifacts. Quantification of this
sample in terms of artifact types and frequencies
and possible functional interpretation of the implements will be presented in the future after
the lithic analysis (presently in process) is complete. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate typical artifacts
from the workshop locations at Tarapaca.

Most of the artifacts found in the abovementioned locations have been mentioned in the
literature dealing with this part of the Andean
region (Barfield 1961: 93-100; Orellana 1963:
1. leaf-shaped bifacially flaked implements 13-14; Le Paige 1963: 191-3; L. Nu'Tnez1965a:
189-204). Implements in thi's tradition are
that probably served as knives;
surely related in some way to assemblages from
2. leaf-shaped bifacially flaked implementsAyampitin and Intihuasi (Gonzales 1952: 110somewhat smaller in size - that may have 33; Gonzales 1960a:- 1-296); from Lauracocha
been projectile points;
(Cardich 1964); and from Callavallauri (Tscho3. leaf-shaped unifacial implements that may pic 1946). They are similar to tools Lanning and
have been scrapers or partially finished Hammel include in Period III in their 1961
synthesis (Lanning and Hammel 1961: 139-54)
knives or projectile points;

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AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

176
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FiG. 4. Projectile p-oints and knives from the workshop sites (Tarapaca 10).

producing groups from nonceramic or preceramic peoples. Unfortunately, the point in time
when ceramics were introduced into this region
has not yet been established in any secure way.
HABITATION SITES
In general, it is assumed that ceramic-using peo,
The most common and basic subdivision for ples were associated with a sedentary agriculthis site category is that which separates ceramic- turally based subsistence and that preceramic

and are also similar to what Lanning includes in

Period II and Period III in his 1966 resume (Lanning 1966: 135).

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TRUE AND OTHERS ]

PROJECTTARAPACA

groups were hunters and gatherers without

permanent villages. However, there is no necessary relationship between preceramic and preagricultural in this part of the world, although
the two conditions tend to be found together.
Until a substantial number of radiocarbon
determinations are available for the area and
until detailed studies of the resources have been
completed, it may not always be possible to differentiate temporary camps of traders or herders
from those actually belonging to preceramicpreagricultural collectors. To further complicate the situation, it is almost certain that there
were circumstances wherein agricultural peoples subsisted to a considerable degree on noncultivated vegetable foods such as algarroba
(Prosopis sp.).
Only nonceramic, nonagriculturalsites are included in the present survey. Agriculturally
based habitation sites will be discussed in a later
paper. A total of 21 sites is included in this category (habitation sites - nonceramic). These can
be further subdivided into a number of groupings based on several shared traits, although, in
fact, each site is slightly different from the rest.
Tentative groupingsfor these sites are suggested
below. The order of presentation does not necessarily reflect the relative time placement of the
groups. Following the group heading, the sites
believed to belong in that group will be listed.
Group 1 (Tarapaca 18, Tarapaca 14)
These are sites characterized by numerous
heavy lithic implements; they lack evidence for
the use of bifacially flaked knives or projectile
points. The artifacts are typical of those tools
archaeoloigistscall cobble choppers, hammers,
planes, and the like. These are found on surface
sites, i.e., there is no well-developed midden.
There is, however, evidence of faunal remains
on the surface, and some pockets of refuse were
located in the test excavations.
Most of the tools are basalt, and most are typical of those described by Bird from Taltal and
Quiani (Bird 1943: 237-8, 286-90). It is important to stress the fact that, although bifacially
flaked knives or points are clearly not part of the
assemblageshere, no claim is made, nor is it suggested, that these sites represent what Krieger
and others have called a "Preprojectile point
Horizon or stage" (Krieger 1964: 42-51). The
time placement of these sites in the local sequence is problematical. The possibility that
they are part of some older nonprojectile-pointusing cultural pattern must be considered, but it

177

is not likely in this context. Other sites in the

sequence have the same range of heavy lithic
tools plus bifacially flaked knives or scraping
tools. Organic material suitable for radiocarbon
determinations was collected from both sites.
Group 2 (Tarapaca 1, Tarapaca 3, Tarapaca 4,
Tarapaca 8, and Tarapaca 12)
Sites in this category are characterized by
heavy lithic tools similar to those described in
Group 1 above, but with the significant addition
of numerous well-made bifacially flaked tools
(see Fig. 5). The sites are open camps without
obvious structural features. Most artifacts were
found scattered over the surface, but some refuse
or midden is present. This refuse contains numerous faunal remains, charcoal, some vegetable
material, and chipping waste. Milling-stone elements may be part of the assemblage, but they
were found on the surface of only one of the five
included sites. Manos were recovered from the
excavations at Tarapaca 12. Tarapaca 12 is differentiated from the remainder of these sites on
the basis of the above-mentioned milling-stone
elements and on the basis of a distinctive triangular-shaped knife or projectile point with a
concave base (see Fig. 51,m) . This artifact assemblage, minus the milling-stone elements and triangular points, is found associated with a number of structures and rock features on site Tarapaca 1. However, the relationship between the
artifacts and the structuresis not clear. It is suggested, but not demonstrated, that the structures postdate the artifacts described.
Material from Tarapaca 2 is similar in many
respects to that of Tarapaca 12 and probably
should be included within this group. Though
the artifact assemblage seems to be mixed, some
elements on this site are distinctive, and it is difficult to know where it fits into the sequence.
Group 3 (Tarapaca 2A, Tarapaca 14A)
Sites in this group are characterized by wellmade, pressure-retouched, bifacially flaked implements including a distinctive serrated form
that may represent a very sophisticated tool (see
Fig. 6a). Knife-like forms are common, with
both leaf and oval configurations. The sites are
small camping areas (TR-2A is less than 10 m.
in diameter) marked by a shallow sheet of refuse
or midden and considerable chipping waste.
Some cobble tools or heavy implements were
found on the surface, but not in the refuse sheet
or pockets. Scraping tools are present but are
not common. No milling-stone elements were

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[ VOL.35, No. 2, 1970

AMERICANANTIQUITY

178
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TRUE AND OTHERS ]

PROJECTTARAPACA

179

found on these sites. Faunal remains in the were common both on the surface and in the
refuse include numerous bone fragments be- house pits themselves. The most diagnostic artilieved to be guanaco (Lama huanacus [Mo- fact so far examined from this site is a small leaflina]). Fish-bone and mollusk remains are com- shaped or oval projectile point (?). This form
mon, and dried fish remains were recovered in was not recovered from any of the sites described
one refuse pocket. Vegetable material was pres- above. Some maize was recovered from the
ent in the sample but has not yet been identified. house fill, and it is suggested that this is a transition phase in the local sequence - part of the
Group 4 (Tarapaca 24, Tarapaca 25, Tarapaca
settling-down process associated with the acqui26, Tarapaca 29, Tarapaca 31, and Tarapaca
sition of agriculture. Not much more can be said
32)
until the refuse has been studied in detail and
Sites here are marked by heavy concentrations until radiocarbon dates are obtained.
of artifacts and chipping waste, sometimes over
The small oval projectile points recovered
extensive areas (site Tarapaca 29 covers not less from the house refuse here are nearly identical
than one acre). A wide range of artifact forms to those recovered at Conanoxa, near the Queare present in the sample, and these include brada Camarones to the north (Niemeyer and
triangular,concave-based points (see Fig. 6 h-o), Schiappacasse 1963, lamina IV). A single radiobifacially flaked knives, numerous flake scrapers, carbon date from Conanoxa suggests a time
drills or gravers, and several kinds of choppers, placement of some 3,500 to 4,000 years before
hammers, and planes not unlike those described the present (1790
B.C.+-130,IVIC-175) for this
for sites in Group 1 above. In most cases, this material (L. Nufiez 1965b: 107-09). However,
similarity is not marked, however, because the it is not stated from which portion of the Conatools from this group of sites tend to be smaller noxa site the dating sample was taken, and
in size and somewhat more refined in appear- Conanoxa may represent more than one culance. Milling-stone elements are common on site tural pattern through some significant timespan.
Tarapaca 29 as are some rock features that may
be remains of house circles. Simple rock alignDISCUSSION
ments and design elements were found adjaThe brief description of a series of preceramic
cent to the site proper. A thin sheet and occa- sites described above is not intended to besional pockets of refuse were found under the nor to provide the basis for -a detailed comsurface artifacts and were intermixed with a parative study. The intent of this preliminary
veneer of windblown sand. Hearths or burned report is nothing more than to indicate that
areas were definitely associated with this refuse. these kinds of cultural remains have been reSome faunal and vegetable materials were re- covered in this region, and to suggest the basis
covered.
for a possible local sequence. Without detailed
Group 5 (Tarapaca 14A; house-pit zone Tara- artifact descriptions, artifact frequencies, and the
study of accompanying faunal and floral associpaca 35)
These two areas represent small groups of ations, no serious reconstructionsare possible, of
shallow house pits. The artifacts seem to be course.
Some of the artifactsrecovered from the workrelated to material found on the Group 3 sites
sites seem to fall into what has been termed
shop
above, but with several significant differences.
the
Andean
Biface tradition (Lanning 1966:
Tarasector
of
Excavations from the house-pit
The
of the bifaces - those found
134).
larger
paca 14A reveal oval floor surfaces, 16-18 in.
on
the
isolated
stations
here in Tarapaca - are
below the present surface. Each living area or
earlier
in
than the Puripica or
probably
time
house unit has a central hearth and evidence
that suggests the roofs were formed by setting Ayampitin types found on the workshop sites
small diameter poles around the edges of the pit proper. But this has not been established stratiand pulling them together in the center in some graphically or with any independent dating
way. This is not definite, however, and ramada- methods. No satisfactory function or use for
type roofs, typical of the area at the present time, these heavy tools has been demonstrated, and
may have been constructed in some instances. so far there is insufficient evidence here to sugThe upper portion of the fill in these houses con- gest any specific cultural affiliation. What we
tained numerous heavy lithic tools similar to can say is that they are most often found on
those from Tarapaca 18. Milling-stone elements the margins of dry lake beds (salares) where,

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180

AMERICANANTIQUITY

in times past, standing water or a forest cover

of Phreatophytic vegetation existed, at least on
an occasional basis. This cover had a significant
subsistence potential both as food for animals
which might be hunted, or as food for the
hunters themselves. Similar artifacts (see Fig.
3a-e), be they blanks, finished tools, or some
of each, have not been reported from the adjacent littoral. They have been reported from several inland sites along the Pampa Tamarugal
(Salar de Soranal, reported by L. Nun'iezand
Varela 1964: 189-204; Puquio de Nunfiez,reported by Lautaro Nunfiez,personal communication, 1967), and from the higher basins in the
adjacent subcordillera (Salar de Huasco, reported by L. Nuniez and Varela 1966: 9-25;
Salar de Talabre, reported by L. Nuiez 1967:
5-11).
All of the cited reports are preliminary, and
no attempt has yet been made to study these
tools in detail. Work by Lanning in the Talabre
region probablyincludes artifactssimilar to those
from Tarapaca, but the details on these investigations are not yet available (Lanning and Patterson 1967: 44-50).
For Tarapaca, it is suggested that this class of
implement represents the earliest evidence for
occupation so far discovered, but it is also likely
that the use of similar forms persisted for some
considerable time. An early age cannot be attributed to such tools strictly on the basis of
formal attributes or typological considerations.
The material from the workshop sites (Tarapaca 9, 10, 11, and 28) is somewhat better
known, and some tentative comparisons within
the larger area can be made. Most implements
recovered from the workshop sites are clearly
within the Ayampitin, Lauricocha, and Puripica
traditions.
It is generally assumed that this class of material represents projectile points and knives and
that these tools were the by-product of some
hunting peoples or culture (see Fig. 4a-o). The
animal most often cited as the object of these
activities is the guanaco (Lama huanacus).
There is so far, however, no direct association
between the tools recovered from the workshop
sites and any faunal material. The leaf-shaped
point/guanaco-hunting relationship for Tarapaca must be considered logical but not yet
demonstrated.
We agree, however, that these implements
were made by hunting-and-gathering peoples
and that the sites along the salares were temr

[ VOL.35, No. 2, 1970

porary camps. We see these camps as part of

a seasonal round extending from the higher
Andean regions to the coastal foothills. Sites
in the Tarapaca sequence that best fit this pattern seem to be limited to workshop situations.
No milling-stone elements or refuse depositions
are associated with the tools. However, it is
possible, if not likely, that most of the actual
camps were made on the Pampa proper where
there was cover, water, and firewood, as opposed
to exposed dry camps on the terracesthemselves.
So far no exploration of the Pampa has been
made with the discovery of such camps in mind.
The nature of the Pampa - with seasonal flooding and alluviation, shifting wind-borne sand
deposits, and considerable cultivation in recent
times - makes the discovery of such evidence
in situ highly unlikely. The possibility that the
milling stone may have been part of this pattem
must be considered, even without direct evidence locally. Milling-stone elements are reported as part of the Ayampitin assemblage
(Gonzales 1960a), and it is likely that algarroba
(Prosopis) was an important food source along
with whatever animals might have been hunted.
With possible cyclic shifts in the Humboldt
current and a postulated general increase in
precipitation as we move back in time, it is possible to suggest that portions of the coastal range
were at times much more suited to seasonal grazing than they have been in recent centuries.
Thus some subsistence for grazing animals may
have been available, at least on occasion, within
the coastal-range province. The fruit pods and
seeds of the algarroba and tamarugal could
easily have provided another important food
source for such animals, as well as for human
gatherers. With extensive stands of this vegetation spread over a substantial portion of the
Pampa Tamarugal and with occasional stands
of annual vegetation along the coastal range,
some considerable food resources were available
for grazinganimals such as the guanaco, in spite
of the seeming lack of such a potential at the
present time. Differential maturation of these
resources in different regions would provide the
basis for a seasonal round oriented toward both
hunting and collecting activities. Utilization of
maritime resources may have been part of this
round, although there is little to suggest this for
that particularcultural pattern or period of time.
What we are saying is that, in spite of the fact
that the larger region is and has been for several
thousand years a barren desert environment,

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............

. E......................

'

............

"

.... ...

M Is

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
-.

'

:;

....

..-S--'m

.............~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.........
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..
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*:.|!;

.. ;... ... .....

... ......

...

*:

::
*

~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
: . . .:.:.
...::.:

::

.:

...

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:.

..

.:~~~~~~~~~~~~!i;:

..:...:.

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::::
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...
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;.;
.: : .

.................................................................
................
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.
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.. .. .. ..

FIG. 6. Artifacts a-g typical of Group 3 habitation sites. These are also representative of the short-term stopover
sites. Artifacts h-o are typical of Group 4 habitation sites and representative (along with artifacts a-a on Fig. 5)
of the seasonal campsite pattern.

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182

AMERICANANTIQUITY

there have been from time to time important

subsistence resources available, at least on a seasonal basis. The most reliable of these resources
depended upon runoff from the higher Andean
regions and were, to a great degree, independent
of the local lowland climatic situation which in
its own right does not normally produce sufficient moisture to support any significant amount
of life in the area.
The prehistory of the region must be interpreted in terms of this subsistence base, with the
recognition that it was subject to considerable
fluctuation with respect to both its existence
and relative productivity.
The idea that resources such as this are best
exploited as part of a seasonal round is, of course,
widely recognized. Such a seasonal round extending from the coast to the upland Punas in
the Andean region has been suggested for parts
of Peru (Lynch 1967). Lanning (1966: 133-8)
agrees that transhumance was a highly likely
mode of exploitation for this part of the Andean
region.
Relationships between the workshop sites and
the temporary campsites within the Quebrada
area are not clear. Leaf-shaped bifacially flaked
tools occur in nearly all the campsite situations.
Frequencies vary from site to site, and the favored lithic material (rhyolite) on the workshop
sites is replaced by basalt on most of the camps.
We can say that we have a number of singlecomponent sites, each of which seems to have a
slightly different and distinctive artifact inventory. There is some sharing of elements between
the assemblages,suggestingpossible relationships
of one sort or another.
Impressionistically,it is possible to suggest that
two separable cultural patterns are involved.
These patterns may be sequent in time, one
following the other, or they may be more or less
contemporary. The differentiationis based upon
two lines of projectile-point development and
upon the nature of the complete assemblagesfor
each grouping or pattern.
The first pattern is characterizedby tiny camping locations and distinctively shaped projectile
points or knives marked by finely serrated edges
(see Fig. 6a-e). Sites in the second pattern include large numbers of heavy lithic tools, several
categories of scrapers, drills, gravers,and milling
stones. Bifacially flaked knives are common in
these assemblages, as are triangular-shaped projectile points with concave bases (Fig. 5a-o; Fig.

[ VOL.35, No. 2, 1970

6h-o). Sites included here are much larger than

the first category.
Although it is in part speculation without firm
empirical support, we suggest that the sites in
the first pattern were the by-products of small
groups camping for short periods of time, then
moving on. These may or may not be seasonal
occupations for the purpose of exploiting some
local resources. They seem more like overnight
stopover stations or short-term resting camps,
with little concern for local resources as such.
a few yards
The small size of the sites -only
in diameter - indicate one-time occupancies
and do not suggest annual encampments. They
might represent the activities of some specialized
segment of some larger group working out of a
more permanent camp elsewhere. The refuse
at both Tarapaca 2A and 14A indicates strong
ties with the sea. Much of the faunal material
is fish bone, dried fish remains, and shellfish of
at least two kinds. Larger mammal bone, believed to be guanaco, was also present in significant quantities.
The sites in pattern 2 look like the kind of
accumulations that would result if small family
groups of hunters-and-gatherers returned year
after year to the same general locations. Milling
stones and the more complete tool inventory
suggest longer stays and a concern with local
vegetable resources.
No attempt has been made to fit all of the
mapped nonceramic sites into this twofold division. Some sites are clearly mixed, and others
were contaminated by the activities of later agricultural groups living over much of the same
territory.
Time placement for both patterns must await
radiocarbon determinations. A single radiocarbon date from the refuse in Tarapaca 12 provides the basis for an estimate for the age of one
component of the second pattern (2740 B.C.?
80 years, UCLA 1293, Berger, personal communication, 1967). It is not possible to say much
more on the basis of local data. Comparison of
the assemblages here with similar artifacts from
sites in adjacent areas suggeststhat all of the sites
in both pattern 1 and pattern 2 postdate the
workshop sites described previously. In other
locales, some stratigraphicrelationships provide
a general suggestion of time placement that may
be valid in the Tarapaca sequence as well.
Ravines (1967: 39-56) describes material from
several sites located in southern Peru not far
from the Chilean boundary. His sites were

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TRUE AND OTHERS ]

PROJECTTARAPACA

found at an elevation of some 3,000 m. above

sea level. Most of the diagnostic artifacts in his
assemblagesare duplicated in the Tarapaca sites.
Several sites in the Atacama have also produced
similar artifacts (Orellana and Kaltwasser 1964:
37-76; Kaltwasser 1963: 55-71; Orellana 1965:
81-115). Many of the point types recovered by
Bird from the site at Quiani and Punto Pichalo
are similar to points from several of our sites
(Bird 1943: 232-77). The relationships between
these coastal finds and the Tarapaca artifacts
will be examined in greater detail as soon as the
analysis of the inland artifacts has been completed.
Ravines' material from Toquepala and Abrigo
Caru is of particular interest for several reasons.
The altitude at which the material occurred
indicates a highland seasonal camp; also, Ravines
has a stratigraphicsequence, and he has several
radiocarbondates (Ravines 1967: 39-56). If the
chronological placement suggested by Ravines is
accepted, elements similar to those from the
second campsite pattern in Tarapaca would be
later in time than those in the first. Triangular
points with concave bases, then, fall later in
time than the leaf-shaped forms with serrated
margins. Ravines (1967, Lamina XXXIII) puts
the serrated leaf-shaped form and a triangular
form with a contracting base or stem as early
as 6000 B.C. The triangular form with a contracting stem is identical or nearly so to those
classified as Arenal by Lanning (1965: 75) and
to the type called Tetragonal by L. Nu'-nez
(Nu'-nezand Varela 1966: 14). We suggest that
the relationships are essentially correct, but that
the date is a bit on the early side. L. Nu'nez and
Varela (1966) suggest a sequence for their finds
at Salar de Huasco that does not disagree with
Ravines' relative time placement, but they do
not attempt to place their sequence in absolute
time other than to follow Gonzales (1960b).
A seasonal round similar to that suggested for
the earlier workshop sites probably applies to
most of the sites in the pattern 2 campsites.
Pattern 1 sites may have been way-stations between more or less permanent coastal locations
and seasonal upland camps.
Hopefully, complete analysis of the recovered
artifact samples, radiocarbon dates from a number of key locations, and detailed study of the
faunal and floral remains from the site refuse
will place these sites more precisely in time and
will provide the basis for some significant contribution to the prehistory of the region.

183

Acknowledgments. Appreciation is expressed to the

Ford Foundation for its generous support of this project.
Many other individuals and institutions contributed to the
success of this work. Acknowledgments of this assistance
will be made on an individual basis as the various segments of the project are completed.
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184

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UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA,DAVIS
Davis, California
March, 1969