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Politics
By Aristotle Commentary: Quite a few comments ha e !een posted a!out "olitics# Download: A te$t-only ersion is a aila!le for download# Politics By Aristotle %ritten &'( B#C#) *ranslated !y Ben+amin ,owett
*a!le of Contents

Book One Part I ) ery state is a community of some kind- and e ery community is esta!lished with a iew to some .ood/ for mankind always act in order to o!tain that which they think .ood# But- if all communities aim at some .ood- the state or political community- which is the hi.hest of all- and which em!races all the rest- aims at .ood in a .reater de.ree than any other- and at the hi.hest .ood# Some people think that the 0ualifications of a statesman- kin.- householder- and master are the same- and that they differ- not in kind- !ut only in the num!er of their su!+ects# 1or e$ample- the ruler o er a few is called a master/ o er more- the mana.er of a household/ o er a still lar.er num!er- a statesman or kin.- as if there were no difference !etween a .reat household and a small state# *he distinction which is made !etween the kin. and the statesman is as follows2 %hen the .o ernment is personal- the ruler is a kin./ when- accordin. to the rules of the political science- the citi3ens rule and are ruled in turn- then he is called a statesman# But all this is a mistake/ for .o ernments differ in kind- as will !e e ident to any one who considers the matter accordin. to the method which has hitherto .uided us# As in other departments of science- so in politics- the compound should always

!e resol ed into the simple elements or least parts of the whole# %e must therefore look at the elements of which the state is composed- in order that we may see in what the different kinds of rule differ from one another- and whether any scientific result can !e attained a!out each one of them# Part II He who thus considers thin.s in their first .rowth and ori.in- whether a state or anythin. else- will o!tain the clearest iew of them# 4n the first place there must !e a union of those who cannot e$ist without each other/ namely- of male and femalethat the race may continue 5and this is a union which is formed- not of deli!erate purpose- !ut !ecause- in common with other animals and with plants- mankind ha e a natural desire to lea e !ehind them an ima.e of themsel es6- and of natural ruler and su!+ect- that !oth may !e preser ed# 1or that which can foresee !y the e$ercise of mind is !y nature intended to !e lord and master- and that which can with its !ody .i e effect to such foresi.ht is a su!+ect- and !y nature a sla e/ hence master and sla e ha e the same interest# 7ow nature has distin.uished !etween the female and the sla e# 1or she is not ni..ardly- like the smith who fashions the Delphian knife for many uses/ she makes each thin. for a sin.le use- and e ery instrument is !est made when intended for one and not for many uses# But amon. !ar!arians no distinction is made !etween women and sla es- !ecause there is no natural ruler amon. them2 they are a community of sla es- male and female# %herefore the poets say84t is meet that Hellenes should rule o er !ar!arians/ 8 as if they thou.ht that the !ar!arian and the sla e were !y nature one# Out of these two relationships !etween man and woman- master and sla e- the first thin. to arise is the family- and Hesiod is ri.ht when he says81irst house and wife and an o$ for the plou.h- 8 for the o$ is the poor man9s sla e# *he family is the association esta!lished !y nature for the supply of men9s e eryday wants- and the mem!ers of it are called !y Charondas 9companions of the cup!oard-9 and !y )pimenides the Cretan9companions of the man.er#9 But when se eral families are united- and the association aims at somethin. more than the supply of daily needs- the first society to !e formed is the illa.e# And the most natural form of the illa.e appears to !e that of a colony from the family- composed of the children and .randchildren- who are said to !e suckled 9with the same milk#9 And this is the reason why Hellenic states were ori.inally .o erned !y kin.s/ !ecause the Hellenes were under royal rule !efore they came to.ether- as the !ar!arians still are# ) ery family is ruled !y the eldest- and therefore in the colonies of the family the kin.ly form of .o ernment pre ailed !ecause they were of the same !lood# As Homer says2

8)ach one .i es law to his children and to his wi es# 8 1or they li ed dispersedly- as was the manner in ancient times# %herefore men say that the :ods ha e a kin.- !ecause they themsel es either are or were in ancient times under the rule of a kin.# 1or they ima.ine- not only the forms of the :ods!ut their ways of life to !e like their own# %hen se eral illa.es are united in a sin.le complete community- lar.e enou.h to !e nearly or 0uite self-sufficin.- the state comes into e$istence- ori.inatin. in the !are needs of life- and continuin. in e$istence for the sake of a .ood life# And therefore- if the earlier forms of society are natural- so is the state- for it is the end of them- and the nature of a thin. is its end# 1or what each thin. is when fully de eloped- we call its nature- whether we are speakin. of a man- a horse- or a family# Besides- the final cause and end of a thin. is the !est- and to !e selfsufficin. is the end and the !est# Hence it is e ident that the state is a creation of nature- and that man is !y nature a political animal# And he who !y nature and not !y mere accident is without a stateis either a !ad man or a!o e humanity/ he is like the 8*ri!eless- lawless- hearthless one- 8 whom Homer denounces- the natural outcast is forthwith a lo er of war/ he may !e compared to an isolated piece at drau.hts# 7ow- that man is more of a political animal than !ees or any other .re.arious animals is e ident# 7ature- as we often say- makes nothin. in ain- and man is the only animal whom she has endowed with the .ift of speech# And whereas mere oice is !ut an indication of pleasure or pain- and is therefore found in other animals 5for their nature attains to the perception of pleasure and pain and the intimation of them to one another- and no further6- the power of speech is intended to set forth the e$pedient and ine$pedient- and therefore likewise the +ust and the un+ust# And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of .ood and e il- of +ust and un+ust- and the like- and the association of li in. !ein.s who ha e this sense makes a family and a state# 1urther- the state is !y nature clearly prior to the family and to the indi idual- since the whole is of necessity prior to the part/ for e$ample- if the whole !ody !e destroyed- there will !e no foot or hand- e$cept in an e0ui ocal sense- as we mi.ht speak of a stone hand/ for when destroyed the hand will !e no !etter than that# But thin.s are defined !y their workin. and power/ and we ou.ht not to say that they are the same when they no lon.er ha e their proper 0uality- !ut only that they ha e the same name# *he proof that the state is a creation of nature and prior to the indi idual is that the indi idual- when isolated- is not self-sufficin./ and therefore

he is like a part in relation to the whole# But he who is una!le to li e in society- or who has no need !ecause he is sufficient for himself- must !e either a !east or a .od2 he is no part of a state# A social instinct is implanted in all men !y nature- and yet he who first founded the state was the .reatest of !enefactors# 1or man- when perfected- is the !est of animals- !ut- when separated from law and +ustice- he is the worst of all/ since armed in+ustice is the more dan.erous- and he is e0uipped at !irth with arms- meant to !e used !y intelli.ence and irtue- which he may use for the worst ends# %herefore- if he ha e not irtue- he is the most unholy and the most sa a.e of animals- and the most full of lust and .luttony# But +ustice is the !ond of men in states- for the administration of +ustice- which is the determination of what is +ust- is the principle of order in political society# Part III Seein. then that the state is made up of households- !efore speakin. of the state we must speak of the mana.ement of the household# *he parts of household mana.ement correspond to the persons who compose the household- and a complete household consists of sla es and freemen# 7ow we should !e.in !y e$aminin. e erythin. in its fewest possi!le elements/ and the first and fewest possi!le parts of a family are master and sla e- hus!and and wife- father and children# %e ha e therefore to consider what each of these three relations is and ou.ht to !e2 4 mean the relation of master and ser ant- the marria.e relation 5the con+unction of man and wife has no name of its own6- and thirdly- the procreati e relation 5this also has no proper name6# And there is another element of a household- the so-called art of .ettin. wealth- which- accordin. to some- is identical with household mana.ement- accordin. to others- a principal part of it/ the nature of this art will also ha e to !e considered !y us# ;et us first speak of master and sla e- lookin. to the needs of practical life and also seekin. to attain some !etter theory of their relation than e$ists at present# 1or some are of opinion that the rule of a master is a science- and that the mana.ement of a household- and the mastership of sla es- and the political and royal rule- as 4 was sayin. at the outset- are all the same# Others affirm that the rule of a master o er sla es is contrary to nature- and that the distinction !etween sla e and freeman e$ists !y law only- and not !y nature/ and !ein. an interference with nature is therefore un+ust# Part IV "roperty is a part of the household- and the art of ac0uirin. property is a part of the art of mana.in. the household/ for no man can li e well- or indeed li e at allunless he !e pro ided with necessaries# And as in the arts which ha e a definite sphere the workers must ha e their own proper instruments for the accomplishment of their work- so it is in the mana.ement of a household# 7ow instruments are of arious sorts/ some are li in.- others lifeless/ in the rudder- the pilot of a ship has a

lifeless- in the look-out man- a li in. instrument/ for in the arts the ser ant is a kind of instrument# *hus- too- a possession is an instrument for maintainin. life# And soin the arran.ement of the family- a sla e is a li in. possession- and property a num!er of such instruments/ and the ser ant is himself an instrument which takes precedence of all other instruments# 1or if e ery instrument could accomplish its own work- o!eyin. or anticipatin. the will of others- like the statues of Daedalusor the tripods of Hephaestus- which- says the poet8of their own accord entered the assem!ly of the :ods/ 8 if- in like manner- the shuttle would wea e and the plectrum touch the lyre without a hand to .uide them- chief workmen would not want ser ants- nor masters sla es# Here- howe er- another distinction must !e drawn/ the instruments commonly so called are instruments of production- whilst a possession is an instrument of action# *he shuttle5transport6- for e$ample- is not only of use/ !ut somethin. else is made !y it- whereas of a .arment or of a !ed there is only the use# 1urther- as production and action are different in kind- and !oth re0uire instruments- the instruments which they employ must likewise differ in kind# But life is action and not production- and therefore the sla e is the minister of action# A.ain- a possession is spoken of as a part is spoken of/ for the part is not only a part of somethin. else!ut wholly !elon.s to it/ and this is also true of a possession# *he master is only the master of the sla e/ he does not !elon. to him- whereas the sla e is not only the sla e of his master- !ut wholly !elon.s to him# Hence we see what is the nature and office of a sla e/ he who is !y nature not his own !ut another9s man- is !y nature a sla e/ and he may !e said to !e another9s man who- !ein. a human !ein.- is also a possession# And a possession may !e defined as an instrument of action- separa!le from the possessor# Part V But is there any one thus intended !y nature to !e a sla e- and for whom such a condition is e$pedient and ri.ht- or rather is not all sla ery a iolation of nature< *here is no difficulty in answerin. this 0uestion- on .rounds !oth of reason and of fact# 1or that some should rule and others !e ruled is a thin. not only necessary- !ut e$pedient/ from the hour of their !irth- some are marked out for su!+ection- others for rule# And there are many kinds !oth of rulers and su!+ects 5and that rule is the !etter which is e$ercised o er !etter su!+ects- for e$ample- to rule o er men is !etter than to rule o er wild !easts/ for the work is !etter which is e$ecuted !y !etter workmen- and where one man rules and another is ruled- they may !e said to ha e a work6/ for in all thin.s which form a composite whole and which are made up of parts- whether continuous or discrete- a distinction !etween the rulin. and the su!+ect element comes to fi.ht# Such a duality e$ists in li in. creatures- !ut not in

them only/ it ori.inates in the constitution of the uni erse/ e en in thin.s which ha e no life there is a rulin. principle- as in a musical mode# But we are wanderin. from the su!+ect# %e will therefore restrict oursel es to the li in. creature- which- in the first place- consists of soul and !ody2 and of these two- the one is !y nature the ruler- and the other the su!+ect# But then we must look for the intentions of nature in thin.s which retain their nature- and not in thin.s which are corrupted# And therefore we must study the man who is in the most perfect state !oth of !ody and soul- for in him we shall see the true relation of the two/ althou.h in !ad or corrupted natures the !ody will often appear to rule o er the soul- !ecause they are in an e il and unnatural condition# At all e ents we may firstly o!ser e in li in. creatures !oth a despotical and a constitutional rule/ for the soul rules the !ody with a despotical rule- whereas the intellect rules the appetites with a constitutional and royal rule# And it is clear that the rule of the soul o er the !odyand of the mind and the rational element o er the passionate- is natural and e$pedient/ whereas the e0uality of the two or the rule of the inferior is always hurtful# *he same holds .ood of animals in relation to men/ for tame5domesticated6 animals ha e a !etter nature than wild- and all tame animals are !etter off when they are ruled !y man/ forthen they are preser ed# A.ain- the male is !y nature superior- and the female inferior/ and the one rules- and the other is ruled/ this principle- of necessity- e$tends to all mankind# %here then there is such a difference as that !etween soul and !ody- or !etween men and animals 5as in the case of those whose !usiness is to use their !ody- and who can do nothin. !etter6- the lower sort are !y nature sla es- and it is !etter for them as for all inferiors that they should !e under the rule of a master# 1or he who can !e- and therefore is- another9s and he who participates in rational principle enou.h to apprehend- !ut not to ha e- such a principle- is a sla e !y nature# %hereas the lower animals cannot e en apprehend a principle/ they o!ey their instincts# And indeed the use made of sla es and of tame animals is not ery different/ for !oth with their !odies minister to the needs of life# 7ature would like to distin.uish !etween the !odies of freemen and sla es- makin. the one stron. for ser ile la!or- the other upri.ht- and althou.h useless for such ser ices- useful for political life in the arts !oth of war and peace# But the opposite often happens- that some ha e the souls and others ha e the !odies of freemen# And dou!tless if men differed from one another in the mere forms of their !odies as much as the statues of the :ods do from men- all would acknowled.e that the inferior class should !e sla es of the superior# And if this is true of the !ody- how much more +ust that a similar distinction should e$ist in the soul< !ut the !eauty of the !ody is seenwhereas the !eauty of the soul is not seen# 4t is clear- then- that some men are !y nature free- and others sla es- and that for these latter sla ery is !oth e$pedient and ri.ht# Part VI But that those who take the opposite iew ha e in a certain way ri.ht on their side-

may !e easily seen# 1or the words sla ery and sla e are used in two senses# *here is a sla e or sla ery !y law as well as !y nature# *he law of which 4 speak is a sort of con ention- the law !y which whate er is taken in war is supposed to !elon. to the ictors# But this ri.ht many +urists impeach- as they would an orator who !rou.ht forward an unconstitutional measure2 they detest the notion that- !ecause one man has the power of doin. iolence and is superior in !rute stren.th- another shall !e his sla e and su!+ect# ) en amon. philosophers there is a difference of opinion# *he ori.in of the dispute- and what makes the iews in ade each other9s territory- is as follows2 in some sense irtue- when furnished with means- has actually the .reatest power of e$ercisin. force/ and as superior power is only found where there is superior e$cellence of some kind- power seems to imply irtue- and the dispute to !e simply one a!out +ustice 5for it is due to one party identifyin. +ustice with .ood will while the other identifies it with the mere rule of the stron.er6# 4f these iews are thus set out separately- the other iews ha e no force or plausi!ility a.ainst the iew that the superior in irtue ou.ht to rule- or !e master# Others- clin.in.- as they think- simply to a principle of +ustice 5for law and custom are a sort of +ustice6- assume that sla ery in accordance with the custom of war is +ustified !y law- !ut at the same moment they deny this# 1or what if the cause of the war !e un+ust< And a.ain- no one would e er say he is a sla e who is unworthy to !e a sla e# %ere this the case- men of the hi.hest rank would !e sla es and the children of sla es if they or their parents chance to ha e !een taken capti e and sold# %herefore Hellenes do not like to call Hellenes sla es- !ut confine the term to !ar!arians# =et- in usin. this lan.ua.e- they really mean the natural sla e of whom we spoke at first/ for it must !e admitted that some are sla es e erywhere- others nowhere# *he same principle applies to no!ility# Hellenes re.ard themsel es as no!le e erywhere- and not only in their own country- !ut they deem the !ar!arians no!le only when at home- there!y implyin. that there are two sorts of no!ility and freedom- the one a!solute- the other relati e# *he Helen of *heodectes says2 8%ho would presume to call me ser ant who am on !oth sides sprun. from the stem of the :ods< 8 %hat does this mean !ut that they distin.uish freedom and sla ery- no!le and hum!le !irth- !y the two principles of .ood and e il< *hey think that as men and animals !e.et men and animals- so from .ood men a .ood man sprin.s# But this is what nature- thou.h she may intend it- cannot always accomplish# %e see then that there is some foundation for this difference of opinion- and that all are not either sla es !y nature or freemen !y nature- and also that there is in some cases a marked distinction !etween the two classes- renderin. it e$pedient and ri.ht for the one to !e sla es and the others to !e masters2 the one practicin. o!ediencethe others e$ercisin. the authority and lordship which nature intended them to ha e# *he a!use of this authority is in+urious to !oth/ for the interests of part and whole- of !ody and soul- are the same- and the sla e is a part of the master- a li in.

!ut separated part of his !odily frame# Hence- where the relation of master and sla e !etween them is natural they are friends and ha e a common interest- !ut where it rests merely on law and force the re erse is true# Part VII *he pre ious remarks are 0uite enou.h to show that the rule of a master is not a constitutional rule- and that all the different kinds of rule are not- as some affirmthe same with each other# 1or there is one rule e$ercised o er su!+ects who are !y nature free- another o er su!+ects who are !y nature sla es# *he rule of a household is a monarchy- for e ery house is under one head2 whereas constitutional rule is a .o ernment of freemen and e0uals# *he master is not called a master !ecause he has science- !ut !ecause he is of a certain character- and the same remark applies to the sla e and the freeman# Still there may !e a science for the master and science for the sla e# *he science of the sla e would !e such as the man of Syracuse tau.htwho made money !y instructin. sla es in their ordinary duties# And such a knowled.e may !e carried further- so as to include cookery and similar menial arts# 1or some duties are of the more necessary- others of the more honora!le sort/ as the pro er! says- 9sla e !efore sla e- master !efore master#9 But all such !ranches of knowled.e are ser ile# *here is likewise a science of the master- which teaches the use of sla es/ for the master as such is concerned- not with the ac0uisition- !ut with the use of them# =et this so-called science is not anythin. .reat or wonderful/ for the master need only know how to order that which the sla e must know how to e$ecute# Hence those who are in a position which places them a!o e toil ha e stewards who attend to their households while they occupy themsel es with philosophy or with politics# But the art of ac0uirin. sla es- 4 mean of +ustly ac0uirin. them- differs !oth from the art of the master and the art of the sla e!ein. a species of huntin. or war# )nou.h of the distinction !etween master and sla e# Part VIII ;et us now in0uire into property .enerally- and into the art of .ettin. wealth- in accordance with our usual method- for a sla e has !een shown to !e a part of property# *he first 0uestion is whether the art of .ettin. wealth is the same with the art of mana.in. a household or a part of it- or instrumental to it/ and if the lastwhether in the way that the art of makin. shuttles is instrumental to the art of wea in.- or in the way that the castin. of !ron3e is instrumental to the art of the statuary- for they are not instrumental in the same way- !ut the one pro ides tools and the other material/ and !y material 4 mean the su!stratum out of which any work is made/ thus wool is the material of the wea er- !ron3e of the statuary# 7ow it is easy to see that the art of household mana.ement is not identical with the art of .ettin. wealth- for the one uses the material which the other pro ides# 1or the art which uses household stores can !e no other than the art of household mana.ement# *here is- howe er- a dou!t whether the art of .ettin.

wealth is a part of household mana.ement or a distinct art# 4f the .etter of wealth has to consider whence wealth and property can !e procured- !ut there are many sorts of property and riches- then are hus!andry- and the care and pro ision of food in .eneral- parts of the wealth-.ettin. art or distinct arts< A.ain- there are many sorts of food- and therefore there are many kinds of li es !oth of animals and men/ they must all ha e food- and the differences in their food ha e made differences in their ways of life# 1or of !easts- some are .re.arious- others are solitary/ they li e in the way which is !est adapted to sustain them- accordin.ly as they are carni orous or her!i orous or omni orous2 and their ha!its are determined for them !y nature in such a manner that they may o!tain with .reater facility the food of their choice# But- as different species ha e different tastes- the same thin.s are not naturally pleasant to all of them/ and therefore the li es of carni orous or her!i orous animals further differ amon. themsel es# 4n the li es of men too there is a .reat difference# *he la3iest are shepherds- who lead an idle life- and .et their su!sistence without trou!le from tame animals/ their flocks ha in. to wander from place to place in search of pasture- they are compelled to follow themculti atin. a sort of li in. farm# Others support themsel es !y huntin.- which is of different kinds# Some- for e$ample- are !ri.ands- others- who dwell near lakes or marshes or ri ers or a sea in which there are fish- are fishermen- and others li e !y the pursuit of !irds or wild !easts# *he .reater num!er o!tain a li in. from the culti ated fruits of the soil# Such are the modes of su!sistence which pre ail amon. those whose industry sprin.s up of itself- and whose food is not ac0uired !y e$chan.e and retail trade- there is the shepherd- the hus!andman- the !ri.andthe fisherman- the hunter# Some .ain a comforta!le maintenance out of two employments- ekin. out the deficiencies of one of them !y another2 thus the life of a shepherd may !e com!ined with that of a !ri.and- the life of a farmer with that of a hunter# Other modes of life are similarly com!ined in any way which the needs of men may re0uire# "roperty- in the sense of a !are li elihood- seems to !e .i en !y nature herself to all- !oth when they are first !orn- and when they are .rown up# 1or some animals !rin. forth- to.ether with their offsprin.- so much food as will last until they are a!le to supply themsel es/ of this the ermiparous or o iparous animals are an instance/ and the i iparous animals ha e up to a certain time a supply of food for their youn. in themsel es- which is called milk# 4nlike manner we may infer that- after the !irth of animals- plants e$ist for their sake- and that the other animals e$ist for the sake of man- the tame for use and food- the wild- if not all at least the .reater part of them- for food- and for the pro ision of clothin. and arious instruments# 7ow if nature makes nothin. incomplete- and nothin. in ainthe inference must !e that she has made all animals for the sake of man# And so- in one point of iew- the art of war is a natural art of ac0uisition- for the art of ac0uisition includes huntin.- an art which we ou.ht to practice a.ainst wild !eastsand a.ainst men who- thou.h intended !y nature to !e .o erned- will not su!mit/ for war of such a kind is naturally +ust# Of the art of ac0uisition then there is one kind which !y nature is a part of the mana.ement of a household- in so far as the art of household mana.ement must

either find ready to hand- or itself pro ide- such thin.s necessary to life- and useful for the community of the family or state- as can !e stored# *hey are the elements of true riches/ for the amount of property which is needed for a .ood life is not unlimited- althou.h Solon in one of his poems says that 87o !ound to riches has !een fi$ed for man# 8 But there is a !oundary fi$ed- +ust as there is in the other arts/ for the instruments of any art are ne er unlimited- either in num!er or si3e- and riches may !e defined as a num!er of instruments to !e used in a household or in a state# And so we see that there is a natural art of ac0uisition which is practiced !y mana.ers of households and !y statesmen- and what is the reason of this# Part IX *here is another ariety of the art of ac0uisition which is commonly and ri.htly called an art of wealth-.ettin.- and has in fact su..ested the notion that riches and property ha e no limit# Bein. nearly connected with the precedin.- it is often identified with it# But thou.h they are not ery different- neither are they the same# *he kind already descri!ed is .i en !y nature- the other is .ained !y e$perience and art# ;et us !e.in our discussion of the 0uestion with the followin. considerations2 Of e erythin. which we possess there are two uses2 !oth !elon. to the thin. as such- !ut not in the same manner- for one is the proper- and the other the improper or secondary use of it# 1or e$ample- a shoe is used for wear- and is used for e$chan.e/ !oth are uses of the shoe# He who .i es a shoe in e$chan.e for money or food to him who wants one- does indeed use the shoe as a shoe- !ut this is not its proper or primary purpose- for a shoe is not made to !e an o!+ect of !arter# *he same may !e said of all possessions- for the art of e$chan.e e$tends to all of them- and it arises at first from what is natural- from the circumstance that some ha e too little- others too much# Hence we may infer that retail trade is not a natural part of the art of .ettin. wealth/ had it !een so- men would ha e ceased to e$chan.e when they had enou.h# 4n the first community- indeed- which is the family- this art is o! iously of no use- !ut it !e.ins to !e useful when the society increases# 1or the mem!ers of the family ori.inally had all thin.s in common/ later- when the family di ided into parts- the parts shared in many thin.s- and different parts in different thin.s- which they had to .i e in e$chan.e for what they wanted- a kind of !arter which is still practiced amon. !ar!arous nations who e$chan.e with one another the necessaries of life and nothin. more/ .i in. and recei in. wine- for e$ample- in e$chan.e for coin- and the like# *his sort of !arter is not part of the wealth-.ettin. art and is not contrary to nature- !ut is needed for the satisfaction of men9s natural wants# *he other or more comple$ form of e$chan.e .rew- as mi.ht ha e !een inferred- out of the simpler# %hen the inha!itants of one country !ecame

more dependent on those of another- and they imported what they needed- and e$ported what they had too much of- money necessarily came into use# 1or the arious necessaries of life are not easily carried a!out- and hence men a.reed to employ in their dealin.s with each other somethin. which was intrinsically useful and easily applica!le to the purposes of life- for e$ample- iron- sil er- and the like# Of this the alue was at first measured simply !y si3e and wei.ht- !ut in process of time they put a stamp upon it- to sa e the trou!le of wei.hin. and to mark the alue# %hen the use of coin had once !een disco ered- out of the !arter of necessary articles arose the other art of wealth .ettin.- namely- retail trade/ which was at first pro!a!ly a simple matter- !ut !ecame more complicated as soon as men learned !y e$perience whence and !y what e$chan.es the .reatest profit mi.ht !e made# Ori.inatin. in the use of coin- the art of .ettin. wealth is .enerally thou.ht to !e chiefly concerned with it- and to !e the art which produces riches and wealth/ ha in. to consider how they may !e accumulated# 4ndeed- riches is assumed !y many to !e only a 0uantity of coin- !ecause the arts of .ettin. wealth and retail trade are concerned with coin# Others maintain that coined money is a mere sham- a thin. not natural- !ut con entional only- !ecause- if the users su!stitute another commodity for it- it is worthless- and !ecause it is not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life- and- indeed- he who is rich in coin may often !e in want of necessary food# But how can that !e wealth of which a man may ha e a .reat a!undance and yet perish with hun.er- like Midas in the fa!le- whose insatia!le prayer turned e erythin. that was set !efore him into .old< Hence men seek after a !etter notion of riches and of the art of .ettin. wealth than the mere ac0uisition of coin- and they are ri.ht# 1or natural riches and the natural art of wealth-.ettin. are a different thin./ in their true form they are part of the mana.ement of a household/ whereas retail trade is the art of producin. wealth- not in e ery way- !ut !y e$chan.e# And it is thou.ht to !e concerned with coin/ for coin is the unit of e$chan.e and the measure or limit of it# And there is no !ound to the riches which sprin. from this art of wealth .ettin.# As in the art of medicine there is no limit to the pursuit of health- and as in the other arts there is no limit to the pursuit of their se eral ends- for they aim at accomplishin. their ends to the uttermost 5!ut of the means there is a limit- for the end is always the limit6- so- tooin this art of wealth-.ettin. there is no limit of the end- which is riches of the spurious kind- and the ac0uisition of wealth# But the art of wealth-.ettin. which consists in household mana.ement- on the other hand- has a limit/ the unlimited ac0uisition of wealth is not its !usiness# And- therefore- in one point of iew- all riches must ha e a limit/ ne ertheless- as a matter of fact- we find the opposite to !e the case/ for all .etters of wealth increase their hoard of coin without limit# *he source of the confusion is the near connection !etween the two kinds of wealth.ettin./ in either- the instrument is the same- althou.h the use is different- and so they pass into one another/ for each is a use of the same property- !ut with a difference2 accumulation is the end in the one case- !ut there is a further end in the

other# Hence some persons are led to !elie e that .ettin. wealth is the o!+ect of household mana.ement- and the whole idea of their li es is that they ou.ht either to increase their money without limit- or at any rate not to lose it# *he ori.in of this disposition in men is that they are intent upon li in. only- and not upon li in. well/ and- as their desires are unlimited they also desire that the means of .ratifyin. them should !e without limit# *hose who do aim at a .ood life seek the means of o!tainin. !odily pleasures/ and- since the en+oyment of these appears to depend on property- they are a!sor!ed in .ettin. wealth2 and so there arises the second species of wealth-.ettin.# 1or- as their en+oyment is in e$cess- they seek an art which produces the e$cess of en+oyment/ and- if they are not a!le to supply their pleasures !y the art of .ettin. wealth- they try other arts- usin. in turn e ery faculty in a manner contrary to nature# *he 0uality of coura.e- for e$ample- is not intended to make wealth- !ut to inspire confidence/ neither is this the aim of the .eneral9s or of the physician9s art/ !ut the one aims at ictory and the other at health# 7e ertheless- some men turn e ery 0uality or art into a means of .ettin. wealth/ this they concei e to !e the end- and to the promotion of the end they think all thin.s must contri!ute# *hus- then- we ha e considered the art of wealth-.ettin. which is unnecessary- and why men want it/ and also the necessary art of wealth-.ettin.- which we ha e seen to !e different from the other- and to !e a natural part of the art of mana.in. a household- concerned with the pro ision of food- not- howe er- like the former kind- unlimited- !ut ha in. a limit# Part X And we ha e found the answer to our ori.inal 0uestion- %hether the art of .ettin. wealth is the !usiness of the mana.er of a household and of the statesman or not their !usiness< i3#- that wealth is presupposed !y them# 1or as political science does not make men- !ut takes them from nature and uses them- so too nature pro ides them with earth or sea or the like as a source of food# At this sta.e !e.ins the duty of the mana.er of a household- who has to order the thin.s which nature supplies/ he may !e compared to the wea er who has not to make !ut to use wooland to know- too- what sort of wool is .ood and ser icea!le or !ad and unser icea!le# %ere this otherwise- it would !e difficult to see why the art of .ettin. wealth is a part of the mana.ement of a household and the art of medicine not/ for surely the mem!ers of a household must ha e health +ust as they must ha e life or any other necessary# *he answer is that as from one point of iew the master of the house and the ruler of the state ha e to consider a!out health- from another point of iew not they !ut the physician/ so in one way the art of household mana.ement- in another way the su!ordinate art- has to consider a!out wealth# But- strictly speakin.- as 4 ha e already said- the means of life must !e pro ided !eforehand !y nature/ for the !usiness of nature is to furnish food to that which is !orn- and the food of the offsprin. is always what remains o er of that from which it is produced# %herefore the art of .ettin. wealth out of fruits and

animals is always natural# *here are two sorts of wealth-.ettin.- as 4 ha e said/ one is a part of household mana.ement- the other is retail trade2 the former necessary and honora!le- while that which consists in e$chan.e is +ustly censured/ for it is unnatural- and a mode !y which men .ain from one another# *he most hated sort- and with the .reatest reason- is usury- which makes a .ain out of money itself- and not from the natural o!+ect of it# 1or money was intended to !e used in e$chan.e- !ut not to increase at interest# And this term interest- which means the !irth of money from money- is applied to the !reedin. of money !ecause the offsprin. resem!les the parent# %herefore of an modes of .ettin. wealth this is the most unnatural# Part XI )nou.h has !een said a!out the theory of wealth-.ettin./ we will now proceed to the practical part# *he discussion of such matters is not unworthy of philosophy!ut to !e en.a.ed in them practically is illi!eral and irksome# *he useful parts of wealth-.ettin. are- first- the knowled.e of li estock- which are most profita!le- and where- and how- as- for e$ample- what sort of horses or sheep or o$en or any other animals are most likely to .i e a return# A man ou.ht to know which of these pay !etter than others- and which pay !est in particular places- for some do !etter in one place and some in another# Secondly- hus!andry- which may !e either tilla.e or plantin.- and the keepin. of !ees and of fish- or fowl- or of any animals which may !e useful to man# *hese are the di isions of the true or proper art of wealth.ettin. and come first# Of the other- which consists in e$chan.e- the first and most important di ision is commerce 5of which there are three kinds- the pro ision of a ship- the con eyance of .oods- e$posure for sale- these a.ain differin. as they are safer or more profita!le6- the second is usury- the third- ser ice for hire- of this- one kind is employed in the mechanical arts- the other in unskilled and !odily la!or# *here is still a third sort of wealth .ettin. intermediate !etween this and the first or natural mode which is partly natural- !ut is also concerned with e$chan.e- i3#- the industries that make their profit from the earth- and from thin.s .rowin. from the earth which- althou.h they !ear no fruit- are ne ertheless profita!le/ for e$amplethe cuttin. of tim!er and all minin.# *he art of minin.- !y which minerals are o!tained- itself has many !ranches- for there are arious kinds of thin.s du. out of the earth# Of the se eral di isions of wealth-.ettin. 4 now speak .enerally/ a minute consideration of them mi.ht !e useful in practice- !ut it would !e tiresome to dwell upon them at .reater len.th now# *hose occupations are most truly arts in which there is the least element of chance/ they are the meanest in which the !ody is most deteriorated- the most ser ile in which there is the .reatest use of the !ody- and the most illi!eral in which there is the least need of e$cellence# %orks ha e !een written upon these su!+ects !y arious persons/ for e$ample- !y

Chares the "arian- and Apollodorus the ;emnian- who ha e treated of *illa.e and "lantin.- while others ha e treated of other !ranches/ any one who cares for such matters may refer to their writin.s# 4t would !e well also to collect the scattered stories of the ways in which indi iduals ha e succeeded in amassin. a fortune/ for all this is useful to persons who alue the art of .ettin. wealth# *here is the anecdote of *hales the Milesian and his financial de ice- which in ol es a principle of uni ersal application- !ut is attri!uted to him on account of his reputation for wisdom# He was reproached for his po erty- which was supposed to show that philosophy was of no use# Accordin. to the story- he knew !y his skill in the stars while it was yet winter that there would !e a .reat har est of oli es in the comin. year/ so- ha in. a little money- he .a e deposits for the use of all the oli epresses in Chios and Miletus- which he hired at a low price !ecause no one !id a.ainst him# %hen the har est-time came- and many were wanted all at once and of a sudden- he let them out at any rate which he pleased- and made a 0uantity of money# *hus he showed the world that philosophers can easily !e rich if they like!ut that their am!ition is of another sort# He is supposed to ha e .i en a strikin. proof of his wisdom- !ut- as 4 was sayin.- his de ice for .ettin. wealth is of uni ersal application- and is nothin. !ut the creation of a monopoly# 4t is an art often practiced !y cities when they are want of money/ they make a monopoly of pro isions# *here was a man of Sicily- who- ha in. money deposited with him- !ou.ht up an the iron from the iron mines/ afterwards- when the merchants from their arious markets came to !uy- he was the only seller- and without much increasin. the price he .ained >(( per cent# %hich when Dionysius heard- he told him that he mi.ht take away his money- !ut that he must not remain at Syracuse- for he thou.ht that the man had disco ered a way of makin. money which was in+urious to his own interests# He made the same disco ery as *hales/ they !oth contri ed to create a monopoly for themsel es# And statesmen as well ou.ht to know these thin.s/ for a state is often as much in want of money and of such de ices for o!tainin. it as a household- or e en more so/ hence some pu!lic men de ote themsel es entirely to finance# Part XII Of household mana.ement we ha e seen that there are three parts- one is the rule of a master o er sla es- which has !een discussed already- another of a father- and the third of a hus!and# A hus!and and father- we saw- rules o er wife and children!oth free- !ut the rule differs- the rule o er his children !ein. a royal- o er his wife a constitutional rule# 1or althou.h there may !e e$ceptions to the order of naturethe male is !y nature fitter for command than the female- +ust as the elder and full.rown is superior to the youn.er and more immature# But in most constitutional states the citi3ens rule and are ruled !y turns- for the idea of a constitutional state implies that the natures of the citi3ens are e0ual- and do not differ at all# 7e ertheless- when one rules and theother is ruled we endea or to create a

difference of outward forms and names and titles of respect- which may !e illustrated !y the sayin. of Amasis a!out his foot-pan# *he relation of the male to the female is of this kind- !ut there the ine0uality is permanent# *he rule of a father o er his children is royal- for he rules !y irtue !oth of lo e and of the respect due to a.e- e$ercisin. a kind of royal power# And therefore Homer has appropriately called ?eus 9father of :ods and men-9 !ecause he is the kin. of them all# 1or a kin. is the natural superior of his su!+ects- !ut he should !e of the same kin or kind with them- and such is the relation of elder and youn.er- of father and son# Part XIII *hus it is clear that household mana.ement attends more to men than to the ac0uisition of inanimate thin.s- and to human e$cellence more than to the e$cellence of property which we call wealth- and to the irtue of freemen more than to the irtue of sla es# A 0uestion may indeed !e raised- whether there is any e$cellence at all in a sla e !eyond and hi.her than merely instrumental and ministerial 0ualities- whether he can ha e the irtues of temperance- coura.e+ustice- and the like/ or whether sla es possess only !odily and ministerial 0ualities# And- whiche er way we answerthe 0uestion- a difficulty arises/ for- if they ha e irtue- in what will they differ from freemen< On the other hand- since they are men and share in rational principle- it seems a!surd to say that they ha e no irtue# A similar 0uestion may !e raised a!out women and children- whether they too ha e irtues2 ou.ht a woman to !e temperate and !ra e and +ust- and is a child to !e called temperate- and intemperate- or note So in .eneral we may ask a!out the natural ruler- and the natural su!+ect- whether they ha e the same or different irtues# 1or if a no!le nature is e0ually re0uired in !oth- why should one of them always rule- and the other always !e ruled< 7or can we say that this is a 0uestion of de.ree- for the difference !etween ruler and su!+ect is a difference of kind- which the difference of more and less ne er is# =et how stran.e is the supposition that the one ou.ht- and that the other ou.ht not- to ha e irtue@ 1or if the ruler is intemperate and un+ust- how can he rule well< 4f the su!+ect- how can he o!ey well< 4f he !e licentious and cowardly- he will certainly not do his duty# 4t is e ident- therefore- that !oth of them must ha e a share of irtue- !ut aryin. as natural su!+ects also ary amon. themsel es# Here the ery constitution of the soul has shown us the way/ in it one part naturally rules- and the other is su!+ect- and the irtue of the ruler we in maintain to !e different from that of the su!+ect/ the one !ein. the irtue of the rational- and the other of the irrational part# 7ow- it is o! ious that the same principle applies .enerally- and therefore almost all thin.s rule and are ruled accordin. to nature# But the kind of rule differs/ the freeman rules o er the sla e after another manner from that in which the male rules o er the female- or the man o er the child/ althou.h the parts of the soul are present in an of them- they are present in different de.rees# 1or the sla e has no deli!erati e faculty at all/ the woman has- !ut it is without authority- and the child has- !ut it is immature# So it must necessarily !e supposed to !e with the moral irtues also/ all

should partake of them- !ut only in such manner and de.ree as is re0uired !y each for the fulfillment of his duty# Hence the ruler ou.ht to ha e moral irtue in perfection- for his function- taken a!solutely- demands a master artificer- and rational principle is such an artificer/ the su!+ects- oil the other hand- re0uire only that measure of irtue which is proper to each of them# Clearly- then- moral irtue !elon.s to all of them/ !ut the temperance of a man and of a woman- or the coura.e and +ustice of a man and of a woman- are not- as Socrates maintained- the same/ the coura.e of a man is shown in commandin.- of a woman in o!eyin.# And this holds of all other irtues- as will !e more clearly seen if we look at them in detail- for those who say .enerally that irtue consists in a .ood disposition of the soul- or in doin. ri.htly- or the like- only decei e themsel es# 1ar !etter than such definitions is their mode of speakin.- who- like :or.ias- enumerate the irtues# All classes must !e deemed to ha e their special attri!utes/ as the poet says of women8Silence is a woman9s .lory- 8 !ut this is not e0ually the .lory of man# *he child is imperfect- and therefore o! iously his irtue is not relati e to himself alone- !ut to the perfect man and to his teacher- and in like manner the irtue of the sla e is relati e to a master# 7ow we determined that a sla e is useful for the wants of life- and therefore he will o! iously re0uire only so much irtue as will pre ent him from failin. in his duty throu.h cowardice or lack of self-control# Some one will ask whether- if what we are sayin. is true- irtue will not !e re0uired also in the artisans- for they often fail in their work throu.hthe lack of self control< But is there not a .reat difference in the two cases< 1or the sla e shares in his master9s life/ the artisan is less closely connected with him- and only attains e$cellence in proportion as he !ecomes a sla e# *he meaner sort of mechanic has a special and separate sla ery/ and whereas the sla e e$ists !y nature- not so the shoemaker or other artisan# 4t is manifest- then- that the master ou.ht to !e the source of such e$cellence in the sla e- and not a mere possessor of the art of mastership which trains the sla e in his duties# %herefore they are mistaken who for!id us to con erse with sla es and say that we should employ command only- for sla es stand e en more in need of admonition than children# So much for this su!+ect/ the relations of hus!and and wife- parent and child- their se eral irtues- what in their intercourse with one another is .ood- and what is e iland how we may pursue the .ood and .ood and escape the e il- will ha e to !e discussed when we speak of the different forms of .o ernment# 1or- inasmuch as e ery family is a part of a state- and these relationships are the parts of a familyand the irtue of the part must ha e re.ard to the irtue of the whole- women and children must !e trained !y education with an eye to the constitution- if the irtues of either of them are supposed to make any difference in the irtues of the state# And they must make a difference2 for the children .row up to !e citi3ens- and half the free persons in a state are women#

Of these matters- enou.h has !een said/ of what remains- let us speak at another time# Re.ardin.- then- our present in0uiry as complete- we will make a new !e.innin.# And- first- let us e$amine the arious theories of a perfect state#

A BCCD->((C