MAE 3272 Notes

Statics
Centroid
Centroid (Geometric Center): the arithmetic average position (center) of particles in an object; the intersection of
all the hyperplanes that divide the shape into two parts of equal moment
V =
body
dV =
i
V
i
(volume)
r =
body
r
dV/O
dV
V
(centroid; rigid body)
r =
i
m
i
r
i
i
m
i
(centroid; system of rigid bodies or particles)
x =
body
x dV
V
=
i
m
i
x
i
i
m
i
(x coordinate of the centroid)
y =
body
y dV
V
=
i
m
i
y
i
i
m
i
(y coordinate of the centroid)
z =
body
z dV
V
=
i
m
i
z
i
i
m
i
(z coordinate of the centroid)
to nd the centroid of complex shapes, add or subtract sections from easy to compute spaces
IF an area or line possesses two axes of symmetry, THEN its centroid must be located at the intersection of
the two axes
IF a gure possesses two axes of symmetry at a right angle to each other, THENthe point of intersection
of these axes is a center of symmetry
IF a volume possesses three axes of symmetry, THEN its centroid must be located at the intersection of the
three axes
A = rL (theorem of Pappus-Guldinus; surface areas)
V = rA (theorem of Pappus-Guldinus; volumes)
L = arc length of generating curve A = area of generating surface
= angle of rotation in radians r = distance from centroid of generation object to axis of revolution
0 < 2
1
Center of Mass
Center of Mass (CM) (r): the mass-weighted average center of a system of particles
m =
body
dm =
i
m
i
(mass)
r =
body
r
dm/O
dm
m
(center of mass; rigid body)
dm = dV
IF the density of an object (2D or 3D) is constant, THEN the center of mass is at the location of the
centroid
whenever a body has an axis of symmetry, the center of mass always lies on that axis
the center of mass does NOT have to be within the body
to nd the center of mass of complex shapes, add or subtract sections from easy to compute spaces
r =
i
m
i
r
i
i
m
i
(center of mass; system of rigid bodies or particles)
x =
body
x dm
m
=
i
m
i
x
i
i
m
i
(x coordinate of the center of mass)
y =
body
y dm
m
=
i
m
i
y
i
i
m
i
(y coordinate of the center of mass)
z =
body
z dm
m
=
i
m
i
z
i
i
m
i
(z coordinate of the center of mass)
Center of Gravity
Center of Gravity (CG): the gravitational force weighted average center of a system of particles; the point through
which the gravity on an object acts
in a uniform gravitational eld, the center of gravity is the same location as the center of mass
IF g has the same value at all points on a body, THEN its center of gravity is identical to its center of
mass
the earths gravitational eld is NOT exactly uniform on any object, but is usually close
W =
body
dW =
i
w
i
(weight)
2
r
cg
=
body
r
dw/O
dw
W
(center of gravity)
dw = g dm = g dV
when a body acted on by gravity is supported or suspended at a single point, the center of gravity is
always at, directly above, or below the point of suspension
a body supported at several points must have its center of gravity somewhere within the area bounded
by the supports or else it will tip over
symmetries are very useful in nding the center of gravity
to nd the center of gravity of complex shapes, add or subtract sections from easy to compute spaces
r =
i
w
i
r
i
i
w
i
(center of gravity; system of rigid bodies or particles)
x =
body
x dW
W
=
i
w
i
x
i
i
w
i
(x coordinate of the center of gravity)
y =
body
y dW
W
=
i
w
i
y
i
i
w
i
(y coordinate of the center of gravity)
z =
body
z dW
W
=
i
w
i
z
i
i
w
i
(z coordinate of the center of gravity)
=r mg =r w (the total gravtitational torque)
Locate the Center of Gravity of Any Object
1. suspend the object from a single point and make a vertical line from this point
2. suspend the object again from a different point and make another vertical line from this point
3. the center of gravity is at the intersection of the two points
First Moment of Area
Static Moment (First Moment of Area): contributes to shear stress; the moment from solid mechanics
Moment (First Moment of Mass) (Moment of Force): ; the moment from classical mechanics, distance times
force
Q
yz
=
body
x dV (rst moment of area; yz plane)
Q
xz
=
body
y dV (rst moment of area; xz plane)
3
Q
yx
=
body
z dV (rst moment of area; xy plane)
Q
x
=
body
y dV = yA (rst moment of area; x-axis; 2D)
Q
y
=
body
x dV = xA (rst moment of area; y-axis; 2D)
IF a volume possesses a plane of symmetry, THEN the rst moment with respect to that plane is zero AND
the centroid of the volume is located in the plane of symmetry
to nd the rst moment of area of complex shapes, add or subtract sections from easy to compute spaces
Area Moment of Inertia
Axis of Rotation (r
i
): an axis perpendicular to the plane of motion and and always a constant distance from every
particle in a system during a rotation if there is no linear, translational motion
Area Moment of Inertia (Second Moment of Area) (I): a measure of how resistant a shape is to bending
Polar Moment of Inertia (Polar Moment of Inertia of Area) (J): a measure of how resistant a shape is to torsion
Area Radius of Gyration (r): a measure of how resistant a shape is to buckling
I
O
=
body
r
2
dV/O
dV (area moment of inertia)
I
x
=
body
_
y
2
+z
2
_
dV (area moment of inertia; x-axis)
I
y
=
body
_
x
2
+z
2
_
dV (area moment of inertia; y-axis)
I
z
=
body
_
x
2
+y
2
_
dV (area moment of inertia; z-axis)
J
O
=
body
r
2
dV (area moment of inertia; polar)
J
O
= I
x
+I
y
(polar moment of inertia relation)
the SI unit of area moment of inertia is the m
4
the moment of inertia depends on the choice of axis
to nd the area moment of inertia of complex shapes, add or subtract sections from easy to compute
spaces
ASSUMES all area moments of inertia use the same axis
you can NOT assume that all of the mass is concentrated at the center of mass and multiply by the
square of the distance from the center of mass to the axis; this is WRONG
I
xy
=
xy dA (product area moment of inertia; x and y axes)

when one or both of the x and y axes are axes of symmetry for the area A, the product of inertia I
xy
is
zero
4
r
L
=
_
I
L
A
(area radius of gyration)
r
x
=
_
I
x
A
(area radius of gyration; x-axis)
r
y
=
_
I
y
A
(area radius of gyration; y-axis)
r
z
=
_
I
z
A
(area radius of gyration; z-axis)
r
O
=
_
J
O
A
(area radius of gyration; polar)
r
2
O
= r
2
x
+r
2
y
(polar area radius of gyration relation)
Mass Moment of Inertia
Mass Moment of Inertia (Moment of Inertia) (Second Moment) (I): the tendency of a body to maintain its
angular velocity, even if it is zero; the rotational analogue to mass
Product of Inertia
_
I
i j
_
: the moment of inertia about the j-axis when a given object is rotating about the i-axis
Mass Radius of Gyration (Radius of Gyration) (k): the distance from the axis of rotation axis where all of the
mass of a body could be concentrated in a ring to produce the same mass moment of inertia as the body
I
O
=
body
r
2
dm/O
dm (mass moment of inertia)
I
x
=
body
_
y
2
+z
2
_
dm (mass moment of inertia; x-axis)
I
y
=
body
_
x
2
+z
2
_
dm (mass moment of inertia; y-axis)
I
z
=
body
_
x
2
+y
2
_
dm (mass moment of inertia; z-axis)
I =
i
m
i
r
2
i
(mass moment of inertia; system of rigid bodies or particles)
the SI unit of mass moment of inertia is the kg m
2
the moment of inertia depends on the choice of axis
you can NOT assume that all of the mass is concentrated at the center of mass and multiply by the
square of the distance from the center of mass to the axis; this is WRONG
k
L
=
_
I
L
m
(mass radius of gyration)
k
x
=
_
I
x
m
(mass radius of gyration; x-axis)
k
y
=
_
I
y
A
(mass radius of gyration; y-axis)
5
k
z
=
_
I
z
A
(mass radius of gyration; z-axis)
k
O
=
_
J
O
A
(mass radius of gyration; polar)
r
2
O
= r
2
x
+r
2
y
(polar mass radius of gyration relation)
I
OL
= I
x
2
x
+I
y
2
y
+I
z
2
z
2I
xy
y
2I
yz
z
2I
xz
z
(product mass moment of inertia)
I
OL
= I
x
/
2
x
/ +I
y
/
2
y
/ +I
z
/
2
z
/ (product mass moment of inertia; principle axes of inertia)
I
xy
=
xy dm (product mass moment of inertia; x and y axes)

I
yz
=
yz dm (product mass moment of inertia; y and z axes)

I
xz
=
xz dm (product mass moment of inertia; x and z axes)

[I] =
_
_
I
xx
I
xy
I
xz
I
yx
I
yy
I
yz
I
zx
I
zy
I
zz
_
_
(inertia tensor)
_
I
=
_
_
I
xx
0 0
0 I
yy
0
0 0 I
zz
_
_
(principal inertia tensor)
Moment of Inertia Theorems
I
z
= I
x
+I
y
(perpendicular axis theorem)
I
O
= I +Ar
2
(parallel axis theorem; area moment of inertia)
I
xy
= I
x
/
y
/ +xyA (parallel axis theorem; product area moment of inertia)
I
O
= I
G
+mr
2
G/O
(parallel axis theorem; mass moment of inertia)
_
I
xx
= I
x
/
x
/ +m
_
r
2
2
+r
2
3
_
I
yy
= I
y
/
y
/ +m
_
r
2
3
+r
2
1
_
I
zz
= I
z
/
z
/ +m
_
r
2
1
+r
2
2
_
I
xy
= I
x
/
y
/ +mr
1
r
2
I
yz
= I
y
/
z
/ +mr
2
r
3
I
xy
= I
x
/
y
/ +mr
3
r
1
_
_
(parallel axis theorem; inertia tensor components)
6
Stretch Rule: the moment of inertia of a rigid object is unchanged when the object is stretched parallel to the axis
of rotation, (without changing the distribution of mass except in the direction parallel to the axis)
Surface of Revolution: a surface that can be generated by rotating a plane curve about a xed axis
Body of Revolution: a body which can be generated by rotating a plane area about a xed axis
Imbalance Eccentricity: the distance between the bodys center of rotation and its center of mass; a measure of
the degree imbalance in a rotating object
a signicant imbalance eccentricity leads to vibrations
Fluid Statics
p = gz (pressure on body submerged in uid)
ASSUMES density is constant
w(z) = pA(z) (weight on body submerged in uid)
F =
dF =
A
p n dA (total force due to pressure on a surface)
M
O
=
A
dM
O
=
A
r
O
(p n) dA (total moment due to pressure on a surface)
7
Archimedess Principle: when a body is completely or partially immersed in a uid, the uid exerts an upward
force on the body equal to the weight of the uid displaced by the body
Buoyant Force: the upward force exerted by a uid on a body completely or partially immersed in the uid
F
z
= gV (upward force from Archimedess principle)
the line of action of the buoyant force passes through the center of gravity of the displaced uid, NOT
the body
a oating object displaces its weight
a submerged object displaces its volume
Pascals Law: pressure applied to an enclosed uid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the uid and
the walls of the containing vessel
P =
F
1
A
1
=
F
2
A
2
AND F
2
=
A
2
A
1
F
1
(Pascals law)
in a hydraulic lift, the output force can be greater than the input force, but the smaller force must go a
longer distance due to the conservation of energy
Internal Forces
Loads on Solid Bodies
Force Torque
Normal to Plane of Surface tension/compression bending
In Plane of Surface shear torsion
Concentrated load problems
1. use force and moment balance on a FBD of the entire beam to determine any missing loads or reaction
forces if possible
2. make two cuts between each of the loads and reaction forces
only one cut between loads is necessary for the shear force
to nd the bending moment values at the shortest and longest lever arm, two cuts are needed
3. use force balance to determine the shear force
the shear force is whatever additional force is needed to achieve static equilibrium for the given FBD
4. use moment balance to determine the bending moment
the bending moment is whatever additional moment is needed to achieve static equilibrium for the given
FBD
5. connect the values on the shear force and bending moment diagrams with straight lines to complete the
graphs
8
Distributed load problems
1. use force and moment balance on a FBD of the entire beam to determine any missing loads or reaction
forces if possible
2. use force balance to determine the shear force at easy points like supports
3. use moment balance to determine the bending moment at easy points like supports
4. use the derivative/integral relationships between applied load and shear force to determine the change in
shear force between the known values from step 2
5. use the derivative/integral relationships between shear force and bending moment to determine the change
in bending moment between the known values from step 3
a distributed load on a beam can be replaced by a concentrated load
the magnitude of the concentrated load is equal to the area under the load curve
line of action of the concentrated load passes through the centroid of that area
F
R
=
dF =
A
w dA (total force due to distributed load on a surface)
x =
A
xw dA
A
w dA
(x coordinate of where resultant force is applied)
y =
A
xw dA
A
w dA
(y coordinate of where resultant force is applied)
this formula can be used to replace distributed loads with an equivalent concentrated load
9
Stress
Normal Stress
Stress: the force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section
10
the SI unit of stress is the Pascal Pa
the US customary units of stress are:
the pound per square inch psi
kilopound per square inch kip
the unit pound is ambiguous:
pound-force: lbf 4.448222N
pound-mass: lbm 0.45359237kg
Normal Stress (): stress due to loads normal to the objects surface
Axial Loading: forces directed along the longest axis of a rod or similar long, thin member
Concentric Loading: the line of action of the concentrated loads P and P
/
passes through the centroid of the
section considered
a uniform distribution of stress is only possible in concentric loading
= lim
A0
F
A
_
stress at a point
_
=
P
A
_
normal stress;
axial loading
_
exactly correct for a load perfectly evenly distributed over the end of the bar
generally only correct in the middle of the bar
=
P
A
cos
2
_
normal stress;
oblique load
_
Shear Stress
Shear Stress (): stress due to loads parallel to an objects surface

ave
=
P
A
_
average shear stress over section
_
this usually is NOT useful because the shear stress varies signicantly over most types of sections
=
P
A
sincos
_
shear stress;
oblique load
_
Single Shear: shear with one plane
Double Shear: shear with two planes
Splice Plate: a plate laid parallel to primary members at a joint to provide reinforcement; lead to double shear

ave
=
P
A
=
F
A
_
single shear
_
11

ave
=
P
A
=
F/2
A
=
F
2A
_
double shear
_
Bearing Stress (
b
): the shearing stress on the member that a fastener passes through, rather than on the
fastener itself
Bearing Surface: the surface of contact between a fastener and the members it is joining

b
=
P
A
=
P
td
_
bearing stress
_
A = projected area of hole t = thickness d = hole diameter
A
Stress Vector
Stress Vector (Traction) (t): the total force per unit area in the limit at a given point P for a plane normal to a
vector n; the total stress at a point
traction depends on both its location, point P and its orientation, the plane normal to n
free surfaces have zero traction
the stress normal to the free surface
r
= 0
the stress tangent to the free surface
does not necessarily equal zero

equal and opposite reaction forces result in equal and opposite tractions
t (P, n) = lim
S0
F
S
lim
A0
F
A
=
dF
dA
_
traction vector
_
A = a given plane area S = a given surface
= (t (P, n) n)n = [t[ cos() n
_
normal stress from traction
_
=t (P, n)
_
shear stress from traction
_
the normal stress vector and the shear stress vector are components of the traction vector
Surface Force: a force that acts on an internal or external surface of a body
Body Force: a force that acts through the volume of a body
body forces are typically described as force per unit volume
_
t
x
t
y
t
z
_
_
=
_
xx

xy

xz
xy

yy

yz
xz

yz

zz
_
_
_
_
n
x
n
y
n
z
_
_
_
traction vector;
Cauchy formula
_
t = Tn
_
_
_
_
traction vector;
Cauchy formula;
matrix equation
_
_
_
_
12
Stress Tensor
Second Order Tensor
_
T
i j
_
: a mathematical object that obeys the transformation rule T
/
= T
t
material elements are drawn as cubes for visualization, but are really the intersection of three mutually
orthogonal planes intersecting at a point
all stresses are shown in the positive direction on a stress element
T =
_
_
T
11
T
12
T
13
T
21
T
22
T
23
T
31
T
32
T
33
_
_
=
_
11

12

13
21

22

23
31

32

33
_
_
=
_
xx

yx

zx
xy

yy

zy
xz

yz

zz
_
_
=
_
x

yx

zx
xy

y

zy
xz

yz

z
_
_
_
Cauchy stress tensor
_
S =
_
m

yx

zx
xy

y
m

zy
xz

yz

z
m
_
_
_
deviatoric stress tensor
_
the index convention for the stress tensor is:
the rst index is the face the component acts on
the second index is the direction that the component acts in
rows correspond to faces
columns correspond to force directions
the sign conventions for the stress tensor are:
positive shear stress is stress in the positive direction of the second index
positive normal stress is positive in tension (outward)
T
/
= T
t
_
stress tensor transformations
_

i j
= e
/
i
e
j
_
component of transformation matrix
_
e
i
, e
j
, e
k
= unit vectors in old coordinate system e
/
i
, e
/
j
, e
/
k
= unit vectors in new coordinate system
Principal Stresses
det (T I) = 0
_
principal stresses eigenvalue equation
_

3
I
1
2
+I
2
I
3
= 0
_
principal stresses polynomial equation
_
_
I
1
=
x
+
y
+
z
I
2
=
x
y
+
x
z
+
y
2
xy
2
xz
2
yz
I
3
= det (T)
_
stress invariants;
from general stresses
_
_
I
1
=
1
+
2
+
3
I
2
=
1
2
+
2
3
+
3
1
I
3
=
1
3
_
stress invariants;
from principal stresses
_
13
the invariants are all independent of the coordinate system
1
= 2cos
_
1
3
_
+
1
3
I
1
2
= 2cos
_
1
3
+120
_
+
1
3
I
1
3
= 2cos
_
1
3
+240
_
+
1
3
I
1
_
principal stresses
_
_
a =
1
3
I
2
1
I
2
b =
1
3
I
1
I
2
I
3
2
27
I
3
1
c =
_
1
27
3
= arccos
_
b
2c
_
=
_
1
3
a
_
constants;
principal stresses formulae
_
must be in degrees
14
Static Equilibrium
xx
x
+

yx
y
+

zx
z
+F
x
= 0
xy
x
+

yy
y
+

zy
z
+F
y
= 0
xz
x
+

yz
y
+

zz
z
+F
z
= 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
equilibrium equations;
linearly elastic body;
rectangular coordinates
_
_
_
_
rr
r
+
1
r
+

rz
z
+
1
r
(
rr
) +F
r
= 0
r
r
+
1
r
+

z
z
2
r
r
+F
= 0
rz
r
+
1
r
+

zz
z
+
1
r
rz
+F
z
= 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
cylindrical coordinates
_
_
_
_
rr
r
+
1
r
+
1
r sin
+
1
r
_
2
rr
+
r
cot
_
+F
r
= 0
r
r
+
1
r
+
1
r sin
+
1
r
__
_
cot +3
r
_
+F
= 0
r
r
+
1
r
+
1
r sin
+
1
r
_
2
cot +3
r
_
+F
z
= 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
spherical coordinates
_
_
_
_
15
F = body force
surface forces do NOT enter the equilibrium equations
ASSUMES the body is continuous
ASSUMES the body has NO cracks

i j
=
_
0 i ,= j
1 i = j
_
Kronecker delta function
_
Stress Transformations
Free Surface: a surface of an object or face of a unit cube that isnt touching anything (except air) and has NO
forces acting on it
Plane Stress: when there are two faces of a cubic element that are free surfaces
when working with plane stresses, we dene the z-axis to be perpendicular to the two free surfaces
this makes
z
=
xz
=
yz
= 0
Principal Stresses: the normal stresses that occur when the object is rotated so that there are NO shear stresses
Principal Planes of Stresses: the planes in three dimensions containing the principal stresses
no shearing stress is exerted on the principal planes
the planes of maximum shearing stress are at 45
to the principal planes

Octahedral Planes: the planes whose intersections with the principal coordinate planes make 45
angles with the

principal coordinate axes
/
x
=

x
+
y
2
+

x
y
2
cos(2) +
xy
sin(2)
/
y
=

x
+
y
2

x
y
2
cos(2)
xy
sin(2)
/
xy
=
y
2
sin(2) +
xy
cos(2)
_
_
_
plane stress transformation
_

x
+
y
=
x
/ +
y
/
_
plane stress transformation
_
16
Mohrs Circle for Stress
(
x
/
ave
)
2
+
2
x
/
y
/ = R
2
_
equation of Mohrs circle;
plane stress
_

ave
=

x
+
y
2
_
center of Mohrs circle;
plane stress
_
R =
y
2
_
2
+
2
xy
_
radius of Mohrs circle;
plane stress
_
for plane stress, in 3D, two of Mohrs circles must have a principal stress that is zero
for Mohrs circle, positive normal stresses are tension and negative are compression
for Mohrs circle, positive shear stresses create clockwise rotation and negative create counter-
clockwise rotation
17
Principal Stresses

max, min
=

x
+
y
2

y
2
_
2
+
2
xy
_
principal stress;
plane stress
_

max
=
ave
+R
_
maximum principal plane stress
_

min
=
ave
R
_
minimum principal plane stress
_
tan(2
p
) =
2
xy
y
_
angle of rotation to principal planes of stress
_
the principal planes are
p
and
p
+90

max
= 0.5[
max
min
[
_
maximum shear stress;
general 3D stress
_

max
= R =
y
2
_
2
+
2
xy
_
maximum in-plane shear stress
_
tan(2
s
) =
y
2
xy
_
angle of rotation to planes of
maximum in-plane shear stress
_
Strain
General Assumptions
ASSUME the material is:
18
linear elastic
homogenous
isotropic
NO plastic deformation
NO creep
NO fracture
NO fatigue
NO corrosion
NO embrittlement
NO chemical or environmental effects
NO relativistic or quantum mechanical effects
the continuum hypothesis holds
Normal Strain
Relative Displacement
_
B/A
_
: a displacement where both rods move, but by unequal amounts
Strain (): the deformation per unit length
strain is a dimensionless quantity
it is customary to keep the units rather than canceling them out
microstrain, written as = xxxx = xxxx 10
6
is a common way of writing small strains
True Strain: actual strain accounting for a decrease in cross sectional area during loading
Engineering Strain: the strain computed by using the original area rather than the changed area under loading
Stress-Strain Diagram: a curve characteristic of the properties of a given material; independent of the dimensions
of the specimen used
determine the yield point by making a 0.2% offset so = 0.002 and make a line parallel to the elastic part of
the curve and nd the intersection
=
L
0
P
AE
dx
_
displacement;
variable cross section
_
=
i
P
i
L
i
A
i
E
i
_
displacement;
different cross sections
_
= LL
0
=
PL
AE
_
displacement
_

B/A
=
B
A
=
PL
AE
_
relative displacement
_

i j
=
u
i
x
j
=
u
j
x
i
_
normal strain denition
_
larger displacements may have smaller strains
19
positive displacements may have negative strains
zero displacement may have a non-zero strain
different displacements may have the same strain
=

L
0
_
engineering strain
_

t
=
L
L
0
dL
L
= ln
L
L
0
_
true strain
_
= lim
x0
x
=
d
dx
_
normal strain at point Q
_
Shear Strain
Average Shear Strain (
xy
): the change in angle between the x and y axes on the deformed body from the
undeformed body
shear strain is unitless
shear strain must be measured in radians

xy
=

2

_
average shear strain;
experimental form
_

xy
=

xy
2
= 0.5
_
v
x
+
u
y
_
_
shear strain;
tensor form
_
G =
E
2(1+)
=
3k(12)
2(1+)
_
shear modulus
_
20
Strain Tensor
Eulerian Coordinate System (Current Coordinate System): a coordinate system dened on a deformed body
Lagrangian Coordinate System (Reference Coordinate System): a coordinate system dened on an unde-
formed body
x
= u
x
+0.5
_
u
2
x
+v
2
x
+w
2
x
_
y
= u
y
+0.5
_
u
2
y
+v
2
y
+w
2
y
_
z
= w
z
+0.5
_
u
2
z
+v
2
z
+w
2
z
_
xy
= u
y
+v
x
+u
x
u
y
+v
x
v
y
+w
x
w
y
xz
= u
z
+w
x
+u
x
u
z
+v
x
v
z
+w
x
w
z
zy
= v
z
+w
y
+u
y
u
z
+v
y
v
z
+w
y
w
z
_
_
_
strain-displacement relations;
large displacements
_
subscripts for u, v, and w are partial derivatives
xx
=
u
x

xy
=
yx
=
u
y
+
v
x
yy
=
v
y

xz
=
zx
=
u
z
+
w
x
zz
=
w
z

yz
=
zy
=
w
y
+
v
z
_
_
_
_
_
_
small displacements;
Cartesian coordinates
_
_
_
_
rr
=
u
r
r

r
=
r
=
u
r

u
r
+
1
r
u
r
=
1
r
u
+
u
r
r

rz
=
zr
=
u
r
z
+
u
z
r
zz
=
u
z
z

z
=
z
=
1
r
u
z
+
u
z
_
_
_
_
_
_
cylindrical coordinates
_
_
_
_
rr
=
u
r
r

r
=
r
=
1
2
_
u
r

u
r
+
1
r
u
r
=
1
r
u
+
u
r
r

=
1
2r
_
1
r sin
u
+
u
cot
_
=
1
r sin
_
u
+u
r
sin+u
cos
_

r
=
r
=
1
2
_
1
r sin
u
r
+
u
r

u
r
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
spherical coordinates
_
_
_
_
21
r
=
u
r
=
1
r
v
+
u
r
r
=
1
r
u
+
v
r

v
r
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
polar coordinates;
plane stress
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
11

12

13
21

22

23
31

32

33
_
_
=
_
xx
0.5
xy
0.5
xz
0.5
yx

yy
0.5
yz
0.5
zx
0.5
zy

zz
_
_
_
Cauchy strain tensor
_
the Cauchy strain tensor follows the same sign conventions as the Cauchy stress tensor
the Cauchy strain tensor is symmetric
the strain values listed on a differential solid element are
i j
NOT
i j
this means they need to be divided by two before being put into the strain tensor

i j
= 0.5
_
u
i
x
j
+
u
j
x
i
_
_
strain tensor components;
compact form
_
=
_
_
u
1
x
1
0.5
_
u
1
x
2
+
u
2
x
1
_
0.5
_
u
1
x
3
+
u
3
x
1
_
0.5
_
u
1
x
2
+
u
2
x
1
_
u
2
x
2
0.5
_
u
3
x
2
+
u
2
x
3
_
0.5
_
u
1
x
3
+
u
3
x
1
_
0.5
_
u
3
x
2
+
u
2
x
3
_
u
3
x
3
_
_
_
Cauchy strain tensor;
explicit form
_
=
_
m
0.5
yx
0.5
zx
0.5
xy

y
m
0.5
zy
0.5
xz
0.5
yz

z
m
_
_
_
deviatoric strain tensor
_
the deviatoric strain tensor is symmetric
22
Strain Compatibility Equations
_
2
xy
xy
=

2
xx
y
2
+

2
yy
x
2
2
yz
yz
=

2
yy
z
2
+

2
zz
y
2
2
zx
zx
=

2
xx
z
2
+

2
zz
x
2
xx
yz
=

x
_
yz
x
+

zx
y
+

xy
z
_
yy
zx
=

y
_
yz
x

zx
y
+

xy
z
_
zz
xy
=

z
_
yz
x
+

zx
y

xy
z
_
_
_
_
strain compatibility equations; 3D
_

i j, km
+
km, i j
ik, jm
jm, ik
= 0
_
strain compatibility equations;
3D; index notation
_

2
f (x, y)
xy
=

2
f (x, y)
yx
_
2D plane strain
_
x
y
2
+

2
y
x
2
=

2
xy
xy
_
strain compatibility equation; 2D
_
ASSUMES linear strain-displacement relations
Principal Strains

/
=
t
_
strain tensor transformations
_

i j
= e
/
i
e
j
_
component of transformation matrix
_
e
i
, e
j
, e
k
= unit vectors in old coordinate system e
/
i
, e
/
j
, e
/
k
= unit vectors in new coordinate system
det ( I) = 0
_
principal strains eigenvalue equation
_

3
I
1
2
+I
2
I
3
= 0
_
principal strains polynomial equation
_
_
I
1
=
x
+
y
+
z
I
2
=
x
y
+
x
z
+
y
2
xy
2
xz
2
yz
I
3
= det ()
_
strain invariants;
from general strains
_
23
_
I
1
=
1
+
2
+
3
I
2
=
1
2
+
2
3
+
3
1
I
3
=
1
3
_
strain invariants;
from principal strains
_
the invariants are all independent of the coordinate system
1
= 2cos
_
1
3
_
+
1
3
I
1
2
= 2cos
_
1
3
+120
_
+
1
3
I
1
3
= 2cos
_
1
3
+240
_
+
1
3
I
1
_
principal strains
_
_
a =
1
3
I
2
1
I
2
b =
1
3
I
1
I
2
I
3
2
27
I
3
1
c =
_
1
27
3
= arccos
_
b
2c
_
=
_
1
3
a
_
constants;
principal strains formulae
_
must be in degrees
Strain Transformations
Plane Strain: when all of the deformations of an object occur in parallel planes; when two faces of any unit cube
have no strains
plane stress and plane strain never occur simultaneously UNLESS the Poisson ratio = 0
x
/ =

x
+
y
2
+

x
y
2
cos(2) +

xy
2
sin(2)
y
/ =

x
+
y
2

x
y
2
cos(2)

xy
2
sin(2)
x
/
y
/ = (
x
y
)sin(2) +
xy
cos(2)
_
_
_
plane strain transformation
_

x
+
y
=
x
/ +
y
/
_
plane strain transformation
_

z
=
zx
=
zy
= 0
_
general plane strain
_
1
=
x
cos
2
(
1
) +
y
sin
2
(
1
) +
xy
sin(
1
)cos(
1
)
2
=
x
cos
2
(
2
) +
y
sin
2
(
2
) +
xy
sin(
2
)cos(
2
)
3
=
x
cos
2
(
3
) +
y
sin
2
(
3
) +
xy
sin(
3
)cos(
3
)
_
_
_
general strain rosette
_

xy
= 2
OB
(
x
+
y
)
_
_
_
_
shear strain;
strain rosette;
45
angles
_
_
_
_
24

OB
= strain from angle bisector strain gauge
strain rosette values for
OB
can be found by doing a coordinate transformation on the strain tensor
containing
x
and
y
rotated through = 45
Mohrs Circle for Strain

2
ave
+
_
xy
2
_
2
= R
2
_
equation of Mohrs circle;
plane strain
_

ave
=

x
+
y
2
_
center of Mohrs circle;
plane strain
_
25
R =
y
2
_
2
+
_
xy
2
_
2
_
radius of Mohrs circle;
plane strain
_
for plane strain, in 3D, two of Mohrs circles must have a principal strain that is zero
Principal Strains

max, min
=

x
+
y
2

y
2
_
2
+
_
xy
2
_
2
_
principal strain;
plane strain
_

max
=
ave
+R
_
maximum principal plane strain
_

min
=
ave
R
_
minimum principal plane strain
_
tan(2
p
) =

xy
y
_
angle of rotation to planes of
maximum in-plane shear strain
_
the principal planes are
p
and
p
+90

max
= [
max
min
[
_
maximum shear strain;
general 3D strain
_

max
= 2R =
_
(
x
y
)
2
+
2
xy
_
maximum shear strain;
in plane
_
26
Bulk Stress and Strain

h
=

x
+
y
+
z
3
_
hydrostatic stress
_
V =V
f
V
0
_
volume change
_
V
f
= x(1+
x
) +y(1+
y
) +z(1+
z
)
= xyz(1+
x
+
y
+
z
+
x
y
+
e
z
+
y
z
+
x
z
)
_
nal volume after deformation
_
e =
x
+
y
+
z
_
bulk strain AKA dialation denition
_
bulk strain is independent of the coordinate system
bulk strain is approximately the volume change per unit volume ONLY for small deformations
e =
12
E
(
x
+
y
+
z
)
_
bulk strain
_
e =
p
k
=
3(12)
E
p
_
bulk strain;
hydrostatic pressure
_
k = B =
E
3(12)
=
EG
3(3GE)
_
bulk modulus
_
x
=
x
+e
y
=
y
+e
z
=
z
+e
_
_
_
Lam equations
_
_
_
_
= 2G
=
E
(1+)(12)
_
Lam constants
_
Poissons Ratio
Saint-Venants Principle: the strains that can be produced in a body by the application, to a small part of its
surface, of a system of forces statically equivalent to zero force and zero couple, are of negligible magnitude at
distances which are large compared with the linear dimensions of the part
=
lateral strain
axial strain
=
x
=
x
_
Poissons ratio
_
Poissons ratio ASSUMES that the material is homogeneous and isotropic
1 < < 0.5 for stable, isotropic, linearly elastic material
this is because the Youngs modulus, the shear modulus, and the bulk modulus MUST have positive
values
typically, 0 < < 0.5
27
= 0.5 for constant volume materials; typically water, organic tissues, rubbers, etc.
Poissons ratio is unitless

x
=

x
E
_
axial strain
_

y
=
z
=
x
E
_
lateral strain
_
E
2G
= 1+
_
elastic deformation relation
_
Metamaterial: an articial material engineered to have properties that may not be found in nature; metamaterials
usually gain their properties from structure rather than composition, using small inhomogeneities to create effective
macroscopic behavior
Auxetics: materials that have a negative Poissons ratio
auxetic materials typically have high energy absorption and high fracture resistance
Thermal Stress and Strain
=
1
L
_
L
T
_
P
_
coefcient of linear thermal expansion
_
constant characteristic material property
strain per unit temperature change
units are

C
1
P = AET
_
force to produce thermal stress
_
thermal strain may be avoided by applying forces to create thermal stress
only applies for a homogeneous rod of uniform cross section
28

T
=
P
A
= ET
_
thermal stress;
ignores non-thermal stress
_

T
= LT
_
thermal expansion/contraction
_

T
= T =

T
L
_
thermal strain
_
IF the material can expand freely, THEN there is NO thermal stress
xx
=
1
E
(
x
z
) +T
yy
=
1
E
(
y
z
) +T
zz
=
1
E
(
z
y
) +T
xy
=
yx
=
1
G
xy
xz
=
zx
=
1
G
xy
yz
=
zy
=
1
G
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
generalized Hookes law;
3D thermal strain;
isotropic material;
ASSUMES uniform thermal expansion
_
_
_
_
_
_
Constitutive Laws
Generalized Hookes Law - Compliance Form
Constitutive Equations: a set of equations relating the stress and strain in a material
the constitutive matrix S is symmetric
Anisotropic: properties that are different in every direction
Orthotropic: properties that are the same throughout two or three mutually orthogonal planes of rotational sym-
metry, but different between the planes
Transverse Isotropic: properties that are the same in one plane and different normal to this plane
Isotropic: properties that are the same in all directions
29
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
S
11
S
21
S
31
S
41
S
51
S
61
S
12
S
22
S
32
S
42
S
52
S
62
S
13
S
23
S
33
S
43
S
53
S
63
S
14
S
24
S
34
S
44
S
54
S
64
S
15
S
25
S
35
S
45
S
55
S
65
S
16
S
26
S
36
S
46
S
56
S
66
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear anisotropic,
homogeneous material
_
_
_
_
fully ansiotropic materials have 21 independent elastic constants
the general ansiotropic compliance matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E
x
yx
E
y
zx
E
z
0 0 0
xy
E
x
1
Ey

zy
E
z
0 0 0
xz
E
x
yz
E
y
1
E
z
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
G
yz
0 0
0 0 0 0
1
G
zx
0
0 0 0 0 0
1
G
xy
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear orthotropic,
_
_
_
_
orthotropic materials have 9 independent elastic constants
the orthotropic compliance matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E
p
p
E
p
zp
E
z
0 0 0
p
E
p
1
E
p
zp
E
z
0 0 0
pz
E
p
pz
E
p
1
E
z
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
G
zp
0 0
0 0 0 0
1
G
zp
0
0 0 0 0 0
2+2
p
E
p
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
transverse isotropic,
_
_
_
_
transverse isotropic materials have 5 independent elastic constants
the transverse isotropic compliance matrix is symmetric
30
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E

E
0 0 0
E
1
E

E
0 0 0
E
1
E
0 0 0
0 0 0
1
G
0 0
0 0 0 0
1
G
0
0 0 0 0 0
1
G
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear isotropic,
_
_
_
_
isotropic materials have 2 independent elastic constants
the isotropic compliance matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E

E
0
E
1
E
0
0 0
2+2
E
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear isotropic,
homogeneous material;
plane stress;
rectangular coordinates
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
rr
r
_
_
=
_
_
1
E

E
0
E
1
E
0
0 0
2+2
E
_
_
_
rr
r
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear isotropic,
plane stress;
polar coordinates
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E

E
0
E
1
E
0
0 0
2+2
E
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear isotropic,
plane strain
_
_
_
_
_
_
Generalized Hookes Law - Stiffness Form
= E
_
Hookes law;
normal stress and strain
_
xy
= G
xy
yz
= G
yz
zx
= G
zx
_
_
_
Hookes law;
shear stress and strain
_
ASSUMES <
Y
31
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
C
11
C
21
C
31
C
41
C
51
C
61
C
12
C
22
C
32
C
42
C
52
C
62
C
13
C
23
C
33
C
43
C
53
C
63
C
14
C
24
C
34
C
44
C
54
C
64
C
15
C
25
C
35
C
45
C
55
C
65
C
16
C
26
C
36
C
46
C
56
C
66
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
compliance matrix;
linear anisotropic,
_
_
_
_
the constitutive matrix C is symmetric
the S for compliance and C for stiffness is in fact backwards, yet correct
fully ansiotropic materials have 21 independent elastic constants
the general ansiotropic stiffness matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
yz
zy
E
y
E
z
yx
+
zx
yz
E
y
E
z
zx
+
yx
zy
E
y
E
z
0 0 0
xy
+
xz
zy
E
z
E
x
1
zx
xz
E
z
E
x
zy
+
zx
xy
E
z
E
x
0 0 0
xz
+
xy
yz
E
x
E
y
yz
+
xz
yx
E
x
E
y
1
xy
yx
E
x
E
y
0 0 0
0 0 0 G
yz
0 0
0 0 0 0 G
zx
0
0 0 0 0 0 G
xy
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
stiffness matrix;
linear orthotropic,
_
_
_
_
=
1
xy
yx
yz
zy
zx
xz
2
xy
yz
zx
E
x
E
y
E
z
orthotropic materials have 9 independent elastic constants
the orthotropic stiffness matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
pz
zp
E
p
E
z
p
+
zp
pz
E
p
E
z
zp
+
p
zp
E
p
E
z
0 0 0
p
+
pz
zp
E
z
E
p
1
zp
pz
E
z
E
p
zp
+
zp
p
E
z
E
p
0 0 0
pz
+
p
pz
E
2
p
pz
(1+
p
)
E
2
p
1
2
p
E
2
p
0 0 0
0 0 0 G
zp
0 0
0 0 0 0 G
zp
0
0 0 0 0 0
E
p
2+2
p
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
stiffness matrix;
transverse isotropic,
_
_
_
_
=
(1+
p
)(1
p
2
pz
zp
)
E
2
p
E
z
32
transverse isotropic materials have 5 independent elastic constants
the transverse isotropic stiffness matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
=
E
(1+)(12)
_
_
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0
12
2
0 0
0 0 0 0
12
2
0
0 0 0 0 0
12
2
_
_
_
xx
yy
zz
yz
zx
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
stiffness matrix;
linear isotropic,
_
_
_
_
isotropic materials have 2 independent elastic constants
the isotropic stiffness matrix is symmetric
xx
yy
xy
_
_
=
_
_
E
1
2
E
1
2
0
E
1
2
E
1
2
0
0 0
E (1)
1
2
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
stiffness matrix;
linear isotropic,
plane stress
_
_
_
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
=
_
_
E
1
2
E
1
2
0
E
1
2
E
1
2
0
0 0
E
2+2
_
_
_
xx
yy
xy
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
stiffness matrix;
linear isotropic,
plane strain
_
_
_
_
_
_
Metals
F = F
a
+F
r
=
k
r
m
+
B
r
n
_
total force;
_
F
a
=
k
r
m
_
attractive force;
_
F
r
=
B
r
n
= e
_
_
_
repulsive force;
_
U =
k
(m1)r
m1

B
(n1)r
n1
_
potential energy;
_
dU
dr
=
k
r
m
+
B
r
n
= 0
_ _
33
=
1
A
dU
dr
_ _
E =
a
o
A
_
_
2k
a
3
o
e
_
a
o
_
_
_
_ _
Ceramics
P =
(W D)/
(W S)/
=
W D
W S
_
volume fraction of pores
_
Glass
Glass Transition Temperature (T
g
): the temperature at which the viscosity of the glass is equal to 10
12
Pa s
(T) =
0
e
(Q/RT)
_
glass viscosity;
Arrhenius-type relation
_
ln
_

0
_
=
Q
R
_
1
T
_
_
glass viscosity;
Arrhenius-type relation
_
ln = A+
B
T T
0
_
glass viscosity;
Vogle-Fulcher-Tamman
_
Concrete
() =
E
0
1+
_
E
0
E
C
2
_

c
+
_
c
_
2
_ _
E
0
= 33w
1.5
c
psi
_ _

oct
=
_
1e
_
G
0

oct
__
_ _
=
0
_
1.0+1.37635.36
_
c
_
2
+8.586
_
c
_
3
_
_ _
34
Fibrous Composites
xy
_
_
=
_
_
1
E
x
yx
E
y
0
xy
E
x
1
E
y
0
0 0
1
G
xy
_
_
_
xy
_
_
_
general orthotropic, homogeneous material;
plane stress
_
ASSUMES plane stress
this is reasonable for thin plates and sheets

z
=
yz
=
xz
= 0
_
berous composite;
plane stress ASSUMPTION
_

yx
E
y
=

xy
E
x
_
general orthotropic, homogeneous material;
plane stress
_
A = A
f
+A
m
_
cross-sectional area;
berous composite
_
A = total cross-sectional area A
f
= ber cross-sectional area A
m
= matrix cross-sectional area
V
f
=
A
f
A
_
_
_
_
volume fraction;
ber content;
composite
_
_
_
_
V
m
=
A
m
A
_
_
_
_
volume fraction;
matrix content;
composite
_
_
_
_

x
=
f
+
m
_
_
_
_
total strain;
berous composite;
parallel to bers
_
_
_
_

y
=
f
=
m
_
_
_
_
total stress;
berous composite;
perpendicular to bers
_
_
_
_
E
x
=V
f
E
f
+V
m
E
m
_
_
_
_
Youngs modulus of elasticity;
berous composite;
parallel to bers
_
_
_
_
35
E
y
=
E
f
E
m
V
f
E
m
+V
m
E
f
_
_
_
_
Youngs modulus of elasticity;
berous composite;
prependicular to bers
_
_
_
_

xy
=V
f
f
+V
m
m
_
_
_
_
major Poisson ratio;
berous composite;
plane stress
_
_
_
_
G
xy
=
G
f
G
m
V
f
G
m
+V
m
G
f
_
_
_
_
shear modulus;
berous composite;
plane stress
_
_
_
_
Polymers
U = 0.5U
0
(1cos(3))
_
potential energy;
simple rotation 60
about spine axis

_
(t) =
t
0
G(t s)
d(s)
ds
ds = G(0)(t) +
t
0
(t s)
G(s)
ds
ds
_ _
=
e
+
v
=

E
+

c
_
strain;
Maxwell model
_
=

c

E
c
_
strain;
Kelvin-Voigt model
_
J
/
=

0
0
cos()
_
dynamic elastic modulus
_
J
//
=

0
0
sin()
_
dynamic loss modulus
_
Rubbers
natural rubber is too soft for many applications and is sticky at room temperature
sulfur is added to rubber to increase its strength
sulfur creates cross-linking between the polymer molecules
white lead, magnesium oxide, and litharge, among other materials, can be added to accelerate the vulcan-
ization process
rubber is black because of the addition of carbon black to it
carbon black ller increases the strength of rubber
36
Stretch (): the ratio of a deformed length to a material allowing large deformations such as an elastomer like
rubber or biological tissues
= 1+
_
uniaxial stretch vs uniaxial strain
_
t (
1
) =
d
d
1
=
2c
1
e
_
k(
2
1
+2
1
1
3)
2
_
_
2
1
_
+2
_
c
2
2
1
+2
1
3+
+c
3
_
_
3
1
+2
_
_ _
(
1
,
2
,
3
) =
N
p=1
p
(
p
)
_
strain energy density;
_
Incompressible Biological Tissues

0
= f (, ) +ce
F(a, )
_ _
_
f (, ) =
1
2
11
+
2
2
22
+
3
2
21
+2
4
11
22
F (a, ) = a
1
2
11
+a
2
2
22
+a
3
2
21
+2a
4
11
22
_ _

0
= ce
a
1
2
11
_ _

0
= ce
F(a, )
_ _
w() =C
_
e
_
0.5(
2
1)
2
_
1
_
_ _
Wood

LR
E
L
=

RL
E
R
AND

LT
E
L
=

TL
E
T
AND

RT
E
R
=

TR
E
T
_
condition for orthotropic model
_
Orthotropic Parameters for Selected Woods
Wood

LR
E
L
RL
E
R
LT
E
L
TL
E
T
RT
E
R
TR
E
T
Douglas Fir 0.179 0.152 0.159 0.186 3.034 3.378
Oak 0.427 0.421 0.648 0.614 2.137 2.068
Quaking Aspen 0.386 0.513 0.288 0.581 10.433 12.800
Beech 0.228 0.228 0.255 0.269 2.206 2.275
Birch 0.207 0.214 0.179 0.200 4.206 4.825
= E A
n
_ _
37
Paper
Paper: a network of polymeric composite bers
= c
1
tanh
_
c
2
c
1
_
+c
3
_ _
= c
3
r
tanh
_
c
4
c
3
_
_ _
Model Parameters for Two Types of Paper
Paper Direction RH% c
3
c
4
Softwood Kraft Linerboard
Machine Direction (MD)
50 0.0207 7.17 2268
90 0.0560 4.18 1640
Cross-Machine Direction (CD)
50 0.0265 4.29 1025
90 0.452 2.61 633
Corrugating Medium
Machine Direction (MD)
50 0.0337 4.32 1211
90 0.0624 1.78 700
Cross-Machine Direction (CD)
50 0.0434 2.16 388
90 0.0475 1.18 240
Theory of Linear Elasticity
there are 15 unknowns in the theory of linear elasticity
6 stresses
6 stains
3 displacement components
there are 15 equations in the theory of linear elasticity
3 equilibrium equations
6 strain-displacement equations
6 constitutive equations
stresses and displacements are usually used as boundary conditions instead of strain
Airy Stress Function: any function (x, y) for either [plane stress] OR [plane strain AND zero body forces] where
y
2
=
x
AND

2
x
2
=
y
AND

2
xy
=
xy
holds
y
2
=
x
AND

2
x
2
=
y
AND

2
xy
=
xy
_
condition for Airy stress function
_
38

4
() =

4
x
4
+2

4
x
2
y
2
+

4
y
4
= 0
_
biharmonic equation; 2D
_

p
= (x, y, z) =
_
(x a
/
)
2
+(y b
/
)
2
+(z c
/
)
2
_
general solution to biharmonic equation
_
a, b, and c are complex numbers
Particular Solutions to the Biharmonic Equation Include:
any polynomial of order three or less
any polynomial with coefcients chosen to satisfy the biharmonic
IF is a solution to the Laplace equation: x; y; z;
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
_
(x, y) =
G
2h
_
4
27
h
3
h
_
x
2
+y
2
_
+x
3
3xy
2
_
_
Prandtl stress function
_
Shafts and Torsion
Torsion
Transmission Shaft: a shaft that transmits power from one point to another
when a circular shaft is subjected to torsion, every cross section remains plane and undistorted
the formulas here are ONLY valid for circular cross section shafts
the torsion formulas cannot be used where the loading couples are applied at or near abrupt changes in the
diameter of the shaft
the torsion formulas can only be used within the elastic range of a given material
J =

2
dA
_
polar moment of inertia
_
J = 0.5
_
r
4
2
r
4
1
_
_
polar moment of inertia;
circular tube
_
r
1
= inner radius r
2
= outer radius
T =
( dA) =
dF =

max
J
r
_
torque on shaft
_
T = torque applied to shaft = distance from center axis of shaft
=
T
J
=

r
max
_
shear stress;
torsion
_

max
=
Tr
J
_
max shear stress;
torsion
_
39

min
=
r
1
r
2
max
_
min shear stress;
torsion
_
the minimum shear stress in a solid circular shaft is zero
=
L
0
T
JG
dx
_
_
_
_
angle of twist;
elastic range;
variable shaft
_
_
_
_
=
i
T
i
L
i
J
i
G
i
_
_
_
_
angle of twist;
elastic range;
composite shaft
_
_
_
_
=
TL
JG
_
_
_
_
angle of twist;
elastic range;
homogeneous shaft
_
_
_
_

E/B
=
E

B
=
TL
JG
_
relative angle of twist
_
=

L
=

r
max
_
shear strain; torsion;
is in radians
_

max
=
r
L
=
Tr
JG
_
max shear strain;
torsion
_
Shaft Design
J
c
=
_
M
2
+T
2
_
max
all
=
__
M
2
y
+M
2
z
+T
2
_
max
all
_
shaft design requirement;
failure by shear stress
_
a typical shaft analysis requires:
1 torsion diagram
1 axial loading diagram
2 shear force diagrams
2 bending moment diagrams
Torsion In Noncircular Shafts

max
=
T
c
1
ab
2
_
max shear strain;
solid rectangular cross section shaft
_
=
TL
c
2
ab
3
G
_
angle of twist;
solid rectangular cross section shaft
_
40
a = wider cross section length b = narrower cross section length
c
1
, c
2
= coefcients found in a table based on the ratio
b
a
T = 2qa
_
torque;
thin-walled hollow noncircular shaft
_
a = area bounded by the center line of the wall cross section
q = t = constant
_
shear ow;
_
ASSUME wall thickness t is small compared to other dimensions
=
T
2ta
_
shear stress;
_
=
TL
4a
2
G
ds
t
_
angle of twist;
_
Beams and Bending
Beams
Beam: a solid object with one dimension (the length) signicantly longer than the other two dimensions (the cross
section); a long, thin member with transverse loading; usually oriented horizontally
41
S-Beam (American Standard Beams): an I-beam with narrow anges
W-Beam (Wide Flange Beams): an I-beam with wide anges
Prismatic Beam: a beam with a uniform cross section
Nonprismatic Beam: a beam with a varying cross section
nonprismatic beams allow for a better optimized design
Transverse Loading: a load applied at a right angle to the surface of the length of a beam
transverse loading only creates bending and shear in a beam
oblique loading creates bending, shear, and axial forces on a beam
Beam Cross Section Transformations
Transformed Section: the new equivalent cross section of a beam assuming homogeneous material with constant
modulus of elasticity
n =
E
2
E
1
_
scale factor for transformed beam sections
_
To Transform a Beam Section:
1. keep the section of material corresponding to E
1
constant
2. multiple the cross section width of the material corresponding to E
2
by n
x = nx
0
_
transformed cross section width
_
42
Beam Parameters
I =
y
2
dA
_
area moment of inertia
_
I =
bh
3
12
_
area moment of inertia;
solid rectangle
_
I =

4
_
r
4
2
r
4
1
_
_
area moment of inertia;
annulus circle
_
relative to the neutral axis
nd neutral axis by nding average height of materials;
([amount] [height])
[total amount]
to nd the moment of inertia of more complex shapes, nd the moment of inertia of a large, simple
region and then subtract the necessary parts
S =
I
c
_
elastic section modulus
_
S =
[M[
all
_
elastic section modulus;
beam of constant strength
_
Pure Bending
Pure Bending: a bending moment is applied to a beam while the shear force is zero and no torsional or axial loads
are applied
the moment of the couple is the same about ANY axis perpendicular to its plane, AND is zero about ANY
axis contained in that plane
any cross section perpendicular to the axis of the member remains plane
the plane of the cross section passes through C
at any point of a slender member in pure bending, there is a state of uniaxial stress
concave side (upper portion) of a beam is in compression
convex side (lower portion) of a beam is in tension
Neutral Surface: a surface parallel to the upper and lower faces of the member, where
x
and
x
are zero
Neutral Axis: the line of the intersection the neutral surface and a transverse cross section of the beam
longitudinal normal strain
x
varies linearly with the distance y from the neutral surface
in the elastic range, the normal stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral surface
the rst moment of the cross section about its neutral axis must be zero
as long as the stresses remain in the elastic range, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section
43

x
=
My
I
=
y
c
max
_
exural stress
_

max
=
Mc
I
=
M
S
_
maximum absolute value of stress
_

m
=
[M[
max
S
=
[M[
max
c
I
_
largest normal stress
_
S
min
=
[M[
min
allow
_
minimum allowable section modulus
_

x
=
y
=
y
c
max
_
exural strain
_

max
=
c
p
_
max absolute value of strain
_
Curvature (): the reciprocal of the radius of curvature
Anticlastic Curvature: the curvature of a traverse cross section with radius of curvature
/
of a bending beam;
due to Poisson ratio expansion and contraction
=
1
=
M(x)
EI
=

max
c
_
curvature
_
[Anticlastic Curvature] =
1
/
=

_
anticlastic curvature
_
44

y
=
y

z
=
y
_
normal strain;
bending
_
General Bending
shear forces create shear stresses
there are NO shear forces in pure bending
bending moments (couples) create normal stresses

x
=
P
A

M
z
y
I
z
+
M
y
z
I
y
_
normal stress;
general eccentric loading
_
45

x
=
M
z
y
I
z
+
M
y
z
I
y
_
normal stress;
unsymmetric bending
_

x
=
P
A

My
I
_
normal stress;
eccentric loading
_
tan =
I
z
I
y
tan
_
angle between neutral axis and z-axis;
unsymmetric bending
_
46
R =
A
dA
r
_
distance from the neutral axis to the center of curvature;
curved beam
_

x
=
My
Ae(Ry)
=
M(r R)
Aer
_
normal stress;
curved beam
_
Beam Shear
Shear Flow (q): the horizontal shear per unit length
Shear Center: the point O of a section where the line of action of of the applied load P intersects the axis of
symmetry of the end section; the point where an applied load can create bending without twisting
H =
VQ
I
x
_
shear force
_
q =
H
x
=
VQ
I
_
shear ow
_
V = vertical shear force in transverse section t = beam thickness perpendicular to the shear
Q = rst moment of section about the neutral axis I = area moment of inertia of cross-section about neutral axis
Q = Ay
_
Q for typical beam
_
shear always ows towards the neutral surface and the neutral axis of the beam
the total shear ow must equal the shear force in both magnitude and direction
shear ow q times the distance x between fasteners along the length of a beam gives the shear force
on each fastener

ave
=
H
A
=
VQ
It
_
average horizontal shear stress
_
47

max
=
3V
2A
_
maximum horizontal shear stress;
narrow solid rectangular beam
_

max
=
V
A
web
_
maximum horizontal shear stress;
I-beam
_
48
Load, Shear, and Bending Moment Diagrams
Concentrated Loads Only
make a free body diagram with cuts on both sides of every load and reaction
shear is constant between loads/reactions
bending moment should be the same on either side of a given load/reaction
bending moment varies linearly between loads/reactions
by convention, positive shear pushes left side of the beam up and the right side down
by convention, positive bending moment makes the beam bend down in the middle
shear is force needed for
F
y
= 0 of FBD of loads and reactions
if the force needed for balance
F
y
= 0 is down, shear is positive, if up, negative
bending moment is moment needed for
M
cut
= 0 of FBD of loads and reactions
if the bending moment needed for balance
M
cut
= 0 is down, the bending moment is positive, if up,
negative
General Load
a bending moment or couple creates a jump in the bending moment diagram equal to its magnitude
a pure bending moment or couple does not effect the shear diagram
Singularity Functions
IF n < 0 THEN x a
n
=
_
+ x = a
0 x ,= a
_
singularity function denition;
n < 0
_
IF n 0 THEN x a
n
=
_
(x a)
n
x a
0 x < a
_
singularity function denition;
n 0
_
x a
1
= (x a)
_
Dirac delta function
_
(x a) dx = 1
_
area under the Dirac delta function
_
x a
0
= H(x a)
_
Heaviside step function
_
x a
1
= R(x a)
_
Macauley ramp function
_
d
dx
x a
n
= nx a
n1
, n 1
_
singularity function differentiation
_
49
x a
n
dx =
_
_
_
x a
n+1
n 0
1
n+1
x a
n+1
n 0
_
singularity function integration
_
50
Beam Load, Shear, Bending, and Deection
dM
dx
=V
_
slope of moment curve
_
51
dV
dx
= w
_
slope of shear curve
_
M(x) =
V dx
_
bending moment
_
V (x) =
w dx
_
shear force
_
u
/
(x) = (x) =
1
EI
M dx
_
beam deection slope
_
u(x) = y(x) =
1
EI
u
/
dx
_
beam deection
_
First Moment-Area Theorem: the [area under the (M/EI) diagram between two points] is equal to [the angle
between the tangents to the elastic curve drawn at these points]
Second Moment-Area Theorem: the [tangential deviation t
C/D
of C with respect to D] is equal to [the rst moment
with respect to a vertical axis through C of the area under the (M/EI) diagram between C and D]
Euler-Bernoulli Beam Deection
EI
_
exural rigidity
_
d
4
y
dx
4
=
w(x)
EI
_
elastic curve;
prismatic beam
_
EIy(x) =
dx
dx
dx
w(x) dx +
1
6
C
1
x
3
+
1
2
C
2
x
2
+C
3
x +C
4
_
elastic curve solution
_
it is often useful to use this version of the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation for analyzing distributed loads
d
2
y
dx
2
=
M(x)
EI
=
1
_
elastic curve equation
_
EIy =
x
0
dx
x
0
M(x) dx +C
1
x +C
2
_
elastic curve solution
_
it is often useful to use this version of the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation for analyzing point loads
Boundary Conditions:
y
A
= 0 M
A
= 0 y
B
= 0 M
B
= 0
_
simply supported beam
_
y
A
= 0 y
B
= 0
_
overhanging beam
_
y
A
= 0
A
= 0 V
B
= 0 M
B
= 0
_
cantilever beam
_
hinged beams should be treated as two separate beams with a connection that only transmits axial loads
52
Beam Bending Boundary Conditions
Condition y(x) (x) M(x) V (x)
Free End 0 0
Free End with Applied Force
Free End with Applied Moment
Hinge 0
Roller Support 0
Fixed Support 0
Clamped Support 0 0
Curved Beams
Beams on Elastic Foundations
EI
4
v
x
4
+k(x)v(x) = 0
_ _
EI
4
v
x
4
+kv(x) = 0
_ _
=
4
_
k
4EI
_ _
has units of inverse length
q(x) = k(x)v(x)
_ _
v(x) = e
x
(c
1
cos(x) +c
2
sin(x)) +e
x
(c
3
cos(x) +c
4
sin(x))
_
general solution
_
v(x) =
e
x
2EI
3
[Pcos(x) +M(cos(x) sin(x))]
_ _
53
Beam Design Procedure
ASSUME
allow
is the same in tension and compression
ASSUME cross section is symmetric about the neutral axis
ASSUME bending mode of failure
ASSUME the prices all materials are the same, only the amount of material used matters
1. nd
allow
for the chosen material from design specications and material properties or
allow
=

U
F.S.
2. draw shear and bending moment diagrams to nd [M[
max
3. nd S
min
from S
min
=
[M[
min
allow
4.
(a) for a timber beam, pick b and h of the cross section to satisfy any constraints and
1
6
bh
2
= S S
min
(b) for a rolled steel beam, pick the lightest beam available per unit length to satisfy any constraints and
S S
min
the most important design consideration is usually the location magnitude of the largest bending moment on
the beam
short beams, especially those made of timber, may fail in shear under a transverse load

D
M
D
+
L
M
L
M
U
_
LRFD;
bending beam
_
M
U
= S
U
_
ultimate bending moment strength
_
Columns, Buckling, and Stability
Columns, Buckling, and Stability
Stability: the ability of a structure to support a given load without experiencing a sudden change in its conguration
Stable: returning to the original equilibrium position
Unstable: diverging further from the original equilibrium position
Buckling: deformation due to compressive stress that causes large changes in alignment by folding or collapsing
the structure
Column: a vertical prismatic member under axial loading
Critical Load (P
cr
): the maximum load under which a perturbed column will return to its original equilibrium
position
Effective Length (L
e
): the length of a pin-ended column having the same critical load as the given column
Load Eccentricity (e): the distance between the line of action of the load P and the axis of the column
54
ASSUME columns are straight, homogenous prisms
L = length L
e
= effective length r = radius of gyration e = eccentricity of the load
L
r
= Slenderness Ratio
L
e
r
= Effective Slenderness Ratio
d
2
y
dx
2
+ p
2
y = 0
_
buckling differential equation;
centric load
_
y = Asin(px) +Bcos(px)
_
buckling equation general solution;
centric loading
_
p
2
=
P
EI
_
load parameter
_
P
cr
=

2
EI
L
2
e
_
_
_
_
critical load;
Eulers formula;
centric loading
_
_
_
_
P
cr
=

2
EI
L
2
_
_
_
_
critical load;
Eulers formula;
pinned ends
_
_
_
_

cr
=

2
E
(L
e
/r)
2
_
Eulers critical stress
_

cr
=

2
E
(L/r)
2
_
Eulers critcial stress;
pinned ends
_
55
d
2
y
dx
2
+ p
2
y = p
2
e
_
buckling differential equation;
eccentric load
_
y = Asin(px) +Bcos(px) e
_
buckling equation general solution;
eccentric loading
_
y
max
= e
_
sec
_
_
P
EI
L
2
_
1
_
= e
_
sec
_
2
_
P
P
cr
_
1
_
_
maximum allowable deection;
eccentric loading
_

max
=
P
A
_
1+
ec
r
2
sec
_
_
P
EI
L
2
__
=
P
A
_
1+
ec
r
2
sec
_
2
_
P
P
cr
__
_
maximum stress;
eccentric loading
_
P
A
=

max
1+
ec
r
2
sec
_
1
2
_
P
EI
L
e
r
_

max
1+
ec
r
2
_
secant formula;
eccentric loading
_
ASSUMES I = Ar
2
56
Column Design - Centric Loads
real column design is a very empirical process with various standards organizations detailing accepted meth-
ods for calculating a safe, appropriate design

cr
=
1
k
1
L
e
r
_
straight line critical stress
_

cr
=
2
k
2
_
L
e
r
_
2 _
parabola critical stress
_

cr
=

3
1+k
3
_
L
e
r
_
2
_
Gorden-Rankine critical stress formula
_
Column Design - Structural Steel
_
_
_
L/r < 4.71
_
E
Y

cr
=
_
0p658
(
Y
/
e
)
_
Y
L/r > 4.71
_
E
Y

cr
= 0.877
e
_
_
_
_
critical stress;
structural steel;
centric loading
_
_
_
_

e
=

2
E
(L/r)
2
_
parameter
e
_

all
=

cr
1.67
_
AISC required safety factor
_
57
Column Design - Aluminum
_
_
_
L/r < x
all
=C
1
C
2
L
r
L/r > x
all
=
C
3
(
L
r
)
2
_
empirical aluminum column buckling stress;
centric loading
_
C
1
= 140MPa C
2
= 0.874MPa C
3
= 354000MPa
_
6061-T6 aluminum alloy;
SI units
_
C
1
= 20.3ksi C
2
= 0.127ksi C
3
= 51400ksi
_
english units
_
C
1
= 213MPa C
2
= 1.577MPa C
3
= 382000MPa
_
SI units
_
C
1
= 30.9ksi C
2
= 0.229ksi C
3
= 55400ksi
_
english units
_
Column Design - Wood

all
=
C
C
P
_
_
_
_
maximum allowable stress;
solid column;
single piece of wood
_
_
_
_
C
P
=
1+(
CE
/
C
)
2c

_
1+(
CE
/
C
)
2c
_
2

CE
/
C
c
_
column stability factor
_
58

CE
=
0.822E
(L/d)
2
_
parameter
CE
_
c = 0.80
_
parameter c;
sawn lumber
_
c = 0.90
_
parameter c;
glued laminate wood
_
valid for any length of column - short, intermediate, or long
ASSUMES a rectangular cross section with sides b and d and d < b
Column Design - Eccentric Loads
P
A
+
Mc
I

all
_
allowable-stress method
_
sometimes results in an overly conservative design
P/A
(
all
)
centric
+
[M
x
[ z
max
/I
x
(
all
)
bending
+
[M
z
[ x
max
/I
z
(
all
)
bending
1
_
interaction method
_
P/A
(
all
)
centric
+
Mc/I
(
all
)
bending
1
_
interaction method;
in plane of symmetry
_
59
Initially Curved Columns
Nonlinear Elastic Columns
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
Exact Elliptic Integral Buckling
Perturbation Methods
Compound Buckling
Plates and Shells
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Pressure Vessel: a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from
the ambient pressure
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel: a pressure vessel where the thickness is substantially less than the surface area;
typically, the diameter is at least 10 times (sometimes cited as 20 times) greater than the wall thickness
Hoop Stress: stresses along the circular cross section of a cylinder
Longitudinal Stress: stresses running along the length of a cylinder
when a pressure vessel is subjected to external pressure, the formulas are still valid
the stresses will be negative since the wall is now in compression instead of tension
p = gage pressure r = inner radius t = wall thickness

1
=
pr
t
_
hoop stress;
thin-walled pressure vessel
_

2
=
pr
2t
_
longitudinal stress;
thin-walled pressure vessel
_

1
and
2
are the principal stresses

max
=
2
=
pr
2t
_
maximum in-plane shearing stress;
cylindrical thin-walled pressure vessel
_

1
=
2
=
pr
2t
_
stresses;
spherical thin-walled pressure vessel
_
60

max
= 0.5
1
=
pr
2t
_
maximum in-plane shearing stress;
spherical thin-walled pressure vessel
_
Leak Before Break Design
c
c
t
_
condition to avoid brittle fracture
_
c
c
= a =
K
2
Ic
2
t
_
critical crack length
_
ASSUMES a small initial surface aw
this criterion is conservative for cracks originating IN the material instead of at the surface
IF c > a THEN this criterion is insufcient to ensure leak before break
2c = crack surface length a = crack depth
t = pressure vessel wall thickness
t
= maximum stress in pressure vessel wall
c
c
= a F = 1 S =
t
K
Ic
can be found for a given material in tables
61
Thick-Walled Cylinders
r
=
a
2
p
i
b
2
p
e
b
2
a
2

_
(p
i
p
e
)a
2
b
2
b
2
a
2
_
1
r
2
=
a
2
p
i
b
2
p
e
b
2
a
2
+
_
(p
i
p
e
)a
2
b
2
b
2
a
2
_
1
r
2
z
=
r
=
rz
=
z
= 0
_
_
_
stress; thick-walled cylinder;
subjected to internal and external pressures
_

r
(r) +
(r) = 2
a
2
p
i
b
2
p
e
b
2
a
2
_
_
_
_
sum of stresses; as a function of radius;
thick-walled cylinder;
_
_
_
_
r
=
1
E
(
r
=
1
E
(
r
)
z
=
E
_
2
a
2
p
i
b
2
p
e
b
2
a
2
_
r
=
rz
=
z
= 0
_
_
_
strain; thick-walled cylinder;
_
u(r) =
_
1
E
__
a
2
p
i
b
2
p
e
b
2
a
2
_
r +
_
1+
E
__
(p
i
p
e
)a
2
b
2
b
2
a
2
_
1
r
_
radial displacement; thick-walled cylinder;
_
62
p
i
= inner pressure p
e
= external pressure a = inner radius b = outer radius
pressures p
i
and p
e
are positive when compressive

r
+
= [constant]
angular displacement v() = 0 due to symmetry
Interference Fit (Shrink Fit) (Press Fit): joining a larger and smaller thick-walled cylinder together without fasten-
ers by making the inner cylinder bigger than than the inside of the larger cylinder and raising the temperature of
the outer cylinder during assembly and then cooling to room temperature
a
i
= inner radius of inner cylinder b
i
= outer radius of inner cylinder
a
o
= inner radius of outer cylinder b
o
= outer radius of outer cylinder
c = inner-outer cylinder interface radius
u
i
(b
i
) =
pb
i
E
i
_
b
2
i
a
2
i
_
_
(1
i
)b
2
i
+(1+
i
)a
2
i
_
interface displacement of inner cylinder;
interference t cylinders
_
u
0
(a
o
) =
pa
o
E
o
(b
2
o
a
2
o
)
_
(1
o
)a
2
o
+(1+
o
)b
2
o
_
interface displacement of outer cylinder;
_
= u
i
(b
i
) u
o
(a
o
)
_
deformed radius difference;
intereference t
_
63
p =

c
_
1
E
o
_
b
2
o
+c
2
b
2
o
c
2
+
o
_
+
1
E
_
c
2
+a
2
i
c
2
a
2
i
i
__
1
_
interface pressure approximation;
_
ASSUMES b
i
a
o
= c
a negative pressure is compressive

r
(r) =
1
E
r
(r)

E
(
(r) +
z
(r)) +T
_
radial strain;
_
u(r) = rT
_
_
_
_
radial displacement;
interference t cylinders;
unconstrained thermal expansion;
_
_
_
_
used to nd the temperature difference needed to manufacture an interference t
Internally Pressurized Spherical Membranes
Plates
x
(x, y, z) =
E
1
2
(
x
+
y
)
y
(x, y, z) =
E
1
2
(
y
+
x
)
xy
(x, y, z) = G
xy
_
_
_ _
x
(x, y, z) = z
2
w
x
2
y
(x, y, z) = z
2
w
y
2
xy
(x, y, z) = 2z

2
w
xy
_
_
_ _
r
(r, , z) =
zE
1
2
_
2
w
r
2
+

r
w
r
+

r
2
2
w
2
_
(r, , z) =
zE
1
2
_
2
w
r
2
+
1
r
w
r
+
1
r
2
2
w
2
_
r
(r, , z) = 2zG
_
1
r
2
w

1
r
2
w
r
_
_
_
_ _
64
r
(r, , z) = z
2
w
r
2
(r, , z) = z
_
1
r
w
r
+
1
r
2
2
w
2
_
r
(r, , z) = 2z
_
1
r
2
w

1
r
2
w
r
_
_
_
_ _
Shells
Contact, Holes, and Stress Concentrations
Contact Stress

z
(x, y) =
3P
2ab
_
1
x
2
a
2

y
2
b
2
_
normal stress in ellipitical contact area;
Hertzian contact stress
_

z
=
3P
2ab
_ _
a = c
a
3
3P
_
1
2
1
_
/E
1
+
_
1
2
2
_
/E
2
2(
11
+
12
+
21
+
22
)
_ _
b = c
b
3
3P
_
1
2
1
_
/E
1
+
_
1
2
2
_
/E
2
2(
11
+
12
+
21
+
22
)
_ _
k
i
=
1
2
i
E
i
_ _
a = 2
P(k
1
+k
2
)R
1
R
2
L(R
1
+R
2
)
_
_
_
_
half width of contact region;
parallel cylinders in contact;
load P
_
_
_
_

z
=
1
P(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
R
2
L(k
1
+k
2
)
_
_
_
_
maximum normal stress;
load P
_
_
_
_

z
=
1
P
RL(k
1
+k
2
)
_
_
_
_
maximum normal stress;
plate and cylinder in contact;
load P
_
_
_
_
ASSUMES NO tangential loads
ASSUMES NO plastic deformation
65
x
=
z
_
2+(12)
b
a+b
_
y
=
z
_
2+(12)
a
a+b
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
principal stresses;
load P; center of contact area
_
_
_
_
a = ellipse semi-axis in x-direction b = ellipse semi-axis in y-direction
ASSUMES NO tangential loads
ASSUMES NO plastic deformation
Holes in Plates
r
= 0.5
0
__
1
a
2
r
2
_
+
_
1+3
a
4
r
4
4
a
2
r
2
_
cos(2)
_
= 0.5
0
__
1+
a
2
r
2
_
_
1+3
a
4
r
4
_
cos(2)
_
r
= 0.5
0
__
13
a
4
r
4
+2
a
2
r
2
_
sin(2)
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
stress; hole in 2D innite rectangular plate;
uniaxial tension;
nite plate width
_
_
_
_
r
(r) =
3+
8

2
_
a
2
+b
2
+
a
2
b
2
r
2
r
2
_
(r) =
3+
8

2
_
a
2
+b
2
+
a
2
b
2
r
2

1+3
3+
r
2
_
_
_
_ _
Stress Concentrations
Stress Trajectories: curves that dene the direction of the largest tensile stress or compressive stress at each
point of the curve
K =

max
ave
_
stress-concentration factor
_

max
= K
Tc
J
_
maximum shear stress;
torsion at shaft llet
_

m
= K
Mc
I
_
maximum stress;
critical cross section
_
66
Problem Solving Methods
Statically Indeterminate Loadings
Statically Indeterminate: a problem where the reactions and or the internal forces cannot be solved for using only
the laws of statics
a structure is statically indeterminate whenever it is held by more supports than are required to maintain its
equilibrium
these methods can be applied to any type of loadings - axial, torsion, etc.
Basic Geometry Method
1. use free body diagrams to get an equation relating the loads
2. use geometry to get an equation relating the displacements
(a) IF the displacements are equal, THEN set them equal and substitute the formulae for displacements
(b) IF the total displacement is zero, THEN set the sum of the displacements equal to zero and substitute
the formulae for displacements
3. solve the system of two equation from steps one and two to nd the loads
67
Superposition Method
1. ignore all but one of the reaction forces
(a) ALWAYS use all of the load forces
2. solve the problem for the reaction
3. repeat the problem for each of the reaction forces
(a) the last reaction force can be found using static force balance
4. add (superimpose) each of the solutions to get the actual solution
Combined Loadings
1. sketch diagrams of the object
orthographic drawings are usually better than isometric for complex problems
include dimensions
include external forces
do NOT include internal forces
2. draw free body diagrams of the object in each view
3. determine any unknown external forces such as reaction forces
write force balance in each direction
write moment balance in each direction
4. draw shear force and bending moment/torsion diagrams for the length of the object
include diagrams for all 3 force directions and 3 moment directions
5. superimpose the graphs on each other
6. calculate the needed geometric properties A, Q, J, I
xx
, I
yy
, I
zz
7. nd the cross section with the maximum shear stress
(a) ASSUME the object with fail in shear
(b) ASSUME the forces from are negligible
8. Find the innitesimal area of the failure cross section with the greatest shear stress
(a) use the fact that the torsion shear stress is greatest on the outer surface
(b) use the fact that the bending normal stress is greatest at the ends away from the neutral surface
(c) assume that all forces originate from the centroid
68
Energy Methods
U =
x
1
0
P dx
_
strain energy
_
U = 0.5P
1
x
1
_
strain energy;
elastic deformation
_
u =

1
0
x
d
x
_
strain energy density
_
u =

2
1
2E
_
elastic strain energy density
_
u =
dU
dV
_
innitesimal element
_
U =

2
x
2E
dV
_
elastic strain energy;
uniaxial normal stress
_
U =
L
0
P
2
2AE
dx
_
strain energy;
uniaxial centric normal stress
_
U =
P
2
L
2AE
_
_
_
_
strain energy;
uniaxial centric normal stress;
uniform cross-section
_
_
_
_
U =
L
0
M
2
2EI
dx
_
strain energy;
pure bending
_
I is about the neutral axis
u =

xy
0
xy
d
xy
_
strain-energy density;
plane shear stress
_
U =

2
xy
2G
dV
_
elastic strain energy;
plane shear stress
_
U =
L
0
T
2
2GJ
dx
_
strain energy;
torsion; circular shaft
_
U =
T
2
L
2GJ
_
_
_
_
strain energy;
torsion; circular shaft;
uniform cross section
_
_
_
_
69
u =
1
2E
_
2
1
+
2
2
+
2
3
2(
1
2
+
2
3
+
3
1
)
_
general state of stress
_
u
v
=
12
6E
(
1
+
2
+
3
)
2
_
volume change strain energy density;
_
u
d
=
1
12G
_
(
1
2
)
2
+(
2
3
)
2
+(
3
1
)
2
_
_
distortion strain energy density;
_
Castiglianos Theorem
x
j
=
U
P
j
_
Castiglianos theorem
_

j
=
U
M
j
_
slope of beam;
point of application of couple M
j
_

j
=
U
T
j
_
angle of twist;
section of shaft where torque T
j
is applied
_
x
j
=
U
P
j
=
L
0
M
EI
M
P
j
dx
_
beam deection;
point of application of load P
j
_
x
j
=
U
P
j
=
n
i=1
F
i
L
i
A
i
E
F
i
P
j
_
truss deection;
point of application of load P
j
_
Virtual Work
Rayleigh-Ritz Method
The Finite Element Method
Basic Steps in the Finite Element Method
Preprocessing Phase
1. create and discretize the solution domain into nite elements; subdivide the problem into nodes and elements
2. ASSUME a shape function to represent the physical behavior of an element; a continuous function is as-
sumed to represent the approximate behavior (solution) of an element
3. develop equations for an element
70
4. assemble the elements to present the entire problem. Construct the global stiffness matrix
5. apply boundary conditions, initial conditions, and loading
Solution Phase
1. solve a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations simultaneously to obtain nodal results, such as dis-
placement values at different nodes or temperature values at different nodes in a heat transfer problem
Postprocessing Phase
1. obtain other important information such as values of principal stresses, heat uxes, etc.
FEM Requirements
the displacement eld within an element must be continuous
when nodal displacements are given values corresponding to constant strain, the displacement eld must
produce the constant strain state throughout the element
this is so that, as elements are taken smaller (in the h-version) and the actual strain becomes nearly
constant within them, the nite element method will reproduce this state of constant strain
in this manner, the nite element solution converges to the exact solution as the nite element mesh is
made ner
the element must accurately represent rigid body motion
when the nodal displacements correspond to rigid body motion, the element must produce zero strain
and zero nodal forces
compatibility must exist between elements
the assumed displacement eld must not make the elements separate or overlap
this condition is frequently violated
invariance: the element should have no preferred directions
Basic Equations
[k] =
[k
e
]
_
global vs element stiffness matrix
_
[Q] =
[Q
e
]
_
global vs element force matrix
_
[d] =
[d]
e
_
global vs element displacement matrix
_
[] =
[]
e
_
global vs element strain matrix
_
71
[] =
[]
e
_
global vs element stress matrix
_
[ f ] = N[d]
_
displacement eld from nodal displacements; FEM
_
m = rq
_
number of nodal coordinates
_
r = number of coordinates per node q = number of nodes
Q = K[d]
e
_
global force matrix; FEM
_
Q = global force matrix K = global stiffness matrix
[Q]
e
= k
e
[d]
e
_
nodal force matrix; FEM
_
this is analogous to the basic Hookes law F = kx
[]
e
= B[d]
e
_
element strain; FEM
_
[]
e
= D[]
e
_
element stress; FEM
_
[Q]
e
= nodal force matrix k
e
= element stiffness matrix N = shape function matrix
[d]
e
= nodal displacement column vector B = special type of derivative of N
D = constituitive relation matrix, such as Hookes law stiffness matrix
Afne Element: an element with linear approximating polynomials
Isoparametric Element: an element with approximating polynomials of an order greater than one
afne elements always have straight edges
isoparametric elements edges may be or become curved
cond(A) = |A| |A|
1
_
condition number;
square nn matrix
_
Basic 1D FEM Equations
L
_
dN
1
dx
dN
2
dx
_
T
_
dN
1
dx
dN
2
dx
_
AE dx
_
u
1
u
2
_
=
L
_
N
1
N
2
_
T
A dx +
_
N
1
N
2
_
T
F[
L
0
_ _
k =
L
_
dN
1
dx
dN
2
dx
_
T
_
dN
1
dx
dN
2
dx
_
AE dx
_
stiffness matrix;
1D FEM
_
L
_
N
1
N
2
_
T
A dx =
_
L
N
1
A dx
L
N
2
A dx
_
_
_
body forces;
1D FEM
_
72
_
N
1
N
2
_
T
F[
L
0
=
_
F
L
F
R
_ _
surface forces;
1D FEM
_
N = 3m nodal coordinate matrix
B =
_ _
D =
_ _
Basic 2D FEM Equations
W =
A
__
xx
x
+

xy
y
+b
x
_
u
x
+
_
xy
x
+

yy
y
+b
y
_
u
y
_
dxdy = 0
_
virtual work;
2D triangular element
_
u = [N] [u]
_
nodal displacements from virtual displacements
_
_
u(x, y) =
_
u
i
N
i
(x, y) u
j
N
j
(x, y) u
k
N
k
(x, y)
_
v(x, y) =
_
v
i
N
i
(x, y) v
j
N
j
(x, y) v
k
N
k
(x, y)
_
_
2D element nodal displacements
_
_
u
v
_
_
=
_
_
N
i
N
j
N
k
0 0 0
0 0 0 N
i
N
j
N
k
_
_
_
_
u
i
u
j
u
k
v
i
v
j
v
k
_
_
_
_
_
_
virtual nodal displacements;
2D triangular element;
no midpoint nodes
_
_
_
_
_
u
v
_
_
=
_
_
N
i
N
j
N
k
0 0 0
0 0 0 N
i
N
j
N
k
_
_
_
_
u
i
u
j
u
k
v
i
v
j
v
k
_
_
_
_
_
_
nodal displacements;
no midpoint nodes
_
_
_
_
B =
_
x
0
0

y
1
2
y
1
2
x
_
_
N
_
2D
_
D =
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
_
_
[R(E, )]
_
_
_
_
constituitive relation matrix;
no midpoint nodes
_
_
_
_
73
ANSYS Workow
1. input material properties
2. set up the geometry
either third party CAD software or the built in program can be used
3. set up the mesh
add renements to important areas and areas of interest
4. set up the physics
body forces
surface forces
boundary conditions
5. set up the desired results
displacements
strains
stresses
failure criterion
6. solve for the desired results
review results
reality check results against analytical approximations
see if mesh is adequate
see if constraints and boundary conditions are adequate
use the probe tool to check the actual stress values because the color scales may be deceiving
check numerical methods with a similar problem that can be solved analytically
analytical solutions are likely to ignore stress concentrations
7. optimize design parameters
ANSYS Design Optimization
1. complete standard design workow
2. under the appropriate sections such as Geometry or Results, check boxes for the parameters to be con-
sidered
(a) check the parameters to be changed in the optimization such as various dimensions
(b) check the parameters to be optimized or to serve as constraints such as volume or maximum stress
74
3. create a Goal Driven Optimization module
4. under Design of Experiments, set the upper and lower bounds on the parameters
5. click Preview, followed by Update
these steps are very computationally intensive
6. go to the Response Surface section to create graphs
7. under the Optimization section, set which parameters need to serve as constraints or be optimized and
how
8. click Update Optimization
9. save the best design candidate using Insert as Design Point under Optimization followed by Duplicate
Design Point under Parameter Set
10. under Parameter Set, set the best design candidate as the design used with Copy Inputs to Current
by right clicking the desired design point
11. click Update All Design Points
12. verify the accuracy of the results
ANSYS Strain Gauge Simulation
Failure Criterion
Yield Criterion
Yield Criterion (Ductile Failure Criterion):
for uniaxial stress, the maximum normal stress before yielding is the yield stress
x
<
Y
this does not apply to biaxial stress states such as plane stress
in a state of plane stress (biaxial stress), determine the principal stresses
a
and
b
at any given point

1
=
2
=
3
= p
_
hydrostatic stress
_

s
= 0
_
effective stress from hydrostatic force
_
X =

o
s
=
_
safety factor;
hydrostatic stress
_
perfect hydrostatic stress alone can NOT make a material fail in any way
this applies to bot hydrostatic tension and hydrostatic compression
75
Maximum Shear Stress Criterion (Trescas Hexagon): a structure wont fail as long as the maximum value of
the shear stress
max
in the structure is less than the shear stress at yielding for a tensile test

s
=

s
2
= MAX
_
[
1
2
[
2
,
[
2
3
[
2
,
[
3
1
[
2
_
_
maximum shear stress criterion;
principal stresses
_

s
= MAX ([
1
2
[ , [
2
3
[ , [
3
1
[)
_
principal stresses
_

max
= [
a
b
[ <
Y
_
plane stress
_
X
s
=

o
s
_
factor of safety;
maximum shear stress criterion
_
the maximum shear stress criterion is more conservative than the maximum distortion energy criterion
Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion (Octahedral Shear Stress Criterion) (Von Mises Criterion):

H
=
1
2
_
(
x
y
)
2
+(
y
z
)
2
+(
z
x
)
2
+6
_
2
xy
+
2
xz
+
2
yz
_
_
Von Mises stress criterion;
general case
_

H
=
1
2
_
(
1
2
)
2
+(
2
3
)
2
+(
3
1
)
2
_
Von Mises stress criterion;
principal stresses
_
X
H
=

o
H
_
factor of safety;
Von Mises stress criterion
_
[octahedral shear stress] = [maximum shear stress] [hydrostatic stress]

H
=
1
3
_
(
x
y
)
2
+(
y
z
)
2
+(
z
x
)
2
+6
_
2
xy
+
2
xz
+
2
yz
_
_
octahedral shear stress;
general case
_

H
=

1
+
2
+
3
3
_
octahedral normal stress;
principal stresses
_
u
d
=
1
6G
_
2
a
b
+
2
b
_
_
distortion energy per unit volume;
isotropic material; plane stress
_

2
a
b
+
2
b
<
2
Y
_
maximum distortion energy criterion
_

a
=
Y
_
x-intercepts
_

b
=
Y
_
y-intercepts
_

a
=
b
=
Y
TO
a
=
b
=
Y
_
major axis
_

a
=
b
= 0.577
Y
TO
a
=
b
= 0.577
Y
_
minor axis
_
76
the maximum distortion energy criterion is somewhat more accurate than the maximum shear stress
criterion for predicting yield in torsion
H(
X

Y
)
2
+F (
Y

Z
)
2
+G(
Z

X
)
2
+2N
2
XY
+2L
2
YZ
+2M
2
ZX
= 1
_
orthotropic yield criteria
_
X-Y-Z axes are aligned with the planes of material symmetry
H +G =
1
2
oX
H +F =
1
2
oY
F +G =
1
2
oZ
2N =
1
2
oXY
2L =
1
2
oYZ
2M =
1
2
oZX
Fracture Criterion
Fracture Criterion (Brittle Failure Criterion):
aws in a material tend to weaken the material in tension, while not appreciably affecting its resistance to
compressive failure
Maximum Normal Stress Criterion (Coulombs Criterion):

N
= MAX([
1
[ , [
2
[ , [
3
[)
_
maximum normal stress criterion
_
X =

u
N
_
safety factor;
maximum normal stress criterion
_
77
Maximum Normal Strain Criterion (Saint Venants Criterion):
[
a
[ <
U
AND [
b
[ <
U
_
maximum normal strain criterion
_
ASSUMES elastic deformation
ASSUMES homogeneous, isotropic material

CM
= MAX(C
12
, C
23
, C
31
)
_
Coulomb-Mohr criterion
_
_
C
12
=
1
1m
[[
1
2
[ +m(
1
+
2
)]
C
23
=
1
1m
[[
2
3
[ +m(
2
+
3
)]
C
31
=
1
1m
[[
3
1
[ +m(
3
+
1
)]
_
_
_
Coulomb-Mohr criterion;
principal stresses
_
X
CM
=
[
/
uc
[
CM
_
safety factor;
Coulomb-Mohr criterion
_
78
Safety Factors
FS =
[ultimate load]
[allowable load]
_
factor of safety
_
static load yielding safety factors are typically 1.5 - 2.0
MS = FS1.00
_
margin of safety
_
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): method of safety design with three separate safety factors for dead
load, live load, and uncertainties in the structure itself
79
Resistance Factor (): a coefcient to account for uncertainties with the structure itself; usually less than 1
Load Factors (
D
,
L
): coefcients to account for uncertainties with the dead and live loads; usually both greater
than 1

D
P
D
+
L
P
L
P
U
_
LRFD Inequality
_
Factor of Safety (FS) Considerations
variations that may occur in the properties of the member under consideration
the number of loadings that may be expected during the life of the structure or machine
the type of loadings that are planned for in the design, or that may occur in the future
the type of failure that may occur
uncertainty due to methods of analysis
deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or because of unpreventable natural
causes
the importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure
potential costs of failure
codes and regulations
Numerical Accuracy
in engineering problems, the data are seldom known with an accuracy greater than 0.2%
a practical rule is to use 4 gures to record numbers beginning with a 1 and 3 gures in all other cases
it is standard engineering practice to use 3 signicant digits if the number of signicant gures is unknown
Material Properties
Material Structure
Primary Bond: an ionic, covalent, or metallic bond
Secondary Bond: a Van der Waals or hydrogen bond
Slip Planes: the plane in which the dislocation line moves
Slip Step: where the slip plane intersects a free surface
Slip Bands: regions where the slip planes of numerous dislocations are concentrated, making them regions of
intense plastic shear deformation separated by regions of little shear
elastic deformation is due to bond stretching
80
polymers also have molecular uncoiling, which is responsible for the irregular stress-strain relationships
in the elastic region
plastic deformation is due to dislocation motion
to make a material stronger, stop dislocation motion
fatigue is due to crack propogation
81
Material Processing
Strain Hardening (Work Hardening): plastically deforming a metal
increases strength and hardness, brittleness
decreases ductility, toughness, resistance to cracks
Annealing: heating a metal to a temperature high enough to cause recrystallization, thus erasing most of the
strain-hardening effects
Cold-Rolling: squeezing a metal down to the desired size between rollers, at approximately room temperature
Hot Rolling: squeezing a metal down to the desired size between rollers, at a temperature high enough to anneal
the metal throughout the process, and minimizing work-hardening
Fully Killed: a steel that has been thoroughly deoxidized so that no reaction occurs between carbon and oxygen
as it solidies
Carbon Steel: an alloy of iron and carbon with less than 2% carbon and less than 1.65% manganese and traces
of other elements
Low Alloy Steel: generally has alloying elements added to it in greater quantities than for carbon steel, but which
are usually less than 5%
Stainless Steel: minimum chromium content of 10.5% and a maximum carbon content of 1.8%
strength varies a lot between alloys of a given type of metal, but the modulus varies very little
with exotic alloys, youre paying a premium for strength, not stiffness
Modulus of Elasticity of Steel:
E = 2 million atm
E = 20tons/mm
2
E = 2 10
6
bar
82
E = 30, 000, 000lbf/in
2
200 billion N/m
2
200GPa
105GPa (modulus of elasticity of brass)
69GPa (modulus of elasticity of aluminum alloys)
wood is particularly weak in shear and will often fail in it
things can fail under compression loads even if the bers of the material are failing in tension due to buckling
Material Failure
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: the study of deformation and fracture in materials
Proportional Limit: the largest value of the stress for which Hookes law can be used for a given material; may be
different from the elastic limit in polymers, etc.
Deformation: bending, twisting, or stretching of an object
Elastic Deformation: deformation that immediately disappears after the load is removed; a deformation where the
strain returns to zero after the load is removed
Elastic Limit: the largest value of the stress for which a given material behaves elastically
Plastic Deformation (Permanent Set): permanent deformation; deformation that never disappears after the load
is removed; a deformation where does not return to 0 after the load is removed
Slip (Shear): the stress dependent part of plastic deformation
Creep (Mass Transport): deformation that accumulates with time; the time and temperature dependent part of
plastic deformation
Creep Rupture: time-dependent fracture resulting from creep
Bauschinger Effect: when a stress-strain curve is a smooth curve without a clearly dened yield point
Deformation Failure: a change in the physical dimensions or shape of a component that is sufciently large for
the components function to be lost or impaired
Yielding: the plastic deformation of a material, which requires a relatively small additional stress beyond the yield
strength
Yield Strength (
o
) (
Y
): the amount of stress that makes a given material begin to yield
Upper Yield Point: the load reached just before yield starts
Lower Yield Point: the load required to maintain yield
Ultimate Strength (
u
) (
U
): the highest stress reached before fracture of a material; the maximum stress applied
to a material
Breaking Strength (
B
): the stress at the rupture of a material
shear is primarily responsible for the failure of ductile materials
normal stresses are primarily responsible for failure of brittle materials
for most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much larger than the ultimate strength in
tension
the modulus of elasticity is the same in both tension and compression for most brittle materials
83
Tough: a material with high values of both
u
and
f
Static Loading: a constant or very slowly varying loading
Impact Loading: a very rapidly applied loading
impact loading is more likely to create brittle fracture
Fracture: cracking a material so that it is separated into two or more pieces
Ductile Fracture: fracture with signicant plastic deformation
Brittle Fracture: fracture with little or no plastic deformation
Fatigue: fracture caused by repeated loading; when loadings are repeated thousands or millions of times and
rupture occurs at a stress much lower than the static breaking strength
fatigue failure is brittle, even for normally ductile materials
High-Cycle Fatigue: fatigue failure that occurs with a relatively large number of cycles, on the order of millions or
more
Low-Cycle Fatigue: fatigue failure that occurs with a relatively small number of cycles, on the order of tens,
hundreds, or thousands
low-cycle fatigue often involves signicant plastic deformation
Fatigue Limit: the stress corresponding to failure after a specied number of loading cycles
Endurance Limit: the maximum stress at which failure does not occur, even for an innite number of loading
cycles
because fatigue failure may be initiated at any crack or imperfection, the surface condition of a specimen has
an important effect on the value of the endurance limit
where corrosion is expected, a reduction in the endurance limit of up to 50% can be expected
Thermal Fatigue: cyclic stresses that occur due to repeated heating and cooling of a material
Fretting Fatigue: wear due to small motions between tted parts combined with cyclic loading that produces
surface damage followed by cracking
Corrosion Fatigue: fatigue by a combination of cyclic loading and corrosion
Corrosion: the loss of material due to chemical action
Wear: surface removal due to abrasion or sticking between solid surfaces that touch
Erosion: wear caused by a uid (liquid or gas)
Environmental Cracking: crack propagation by a combination of stress and chemical effects
Stress-Corrosion Cracking: environmental cracking involving corrosion
Synergistic Effect: the combination of multiple modes of failure to create a greater net effect than the sum of their
individual actions
Durability: the capacity of an object to survive its intended use for a suitably long period of time
Durability Testing (Simulated Service Testing): subjecting a prototype to tests designed to mimic the extremes
of intended usage until either a mechanical failure occurs or the design proves to be reliable
Prototype: a trial model of a device or component
Component: a part of a device
Product Liability Costs: costs from inspection, recalls, litigation, insurance, etc. to ensure the reliability of a
product and associated legal issues
84
Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
_
= E
o
=
o

o
E
_
stress-strain relationship;
elastic, perfectly plastic material
_

p
=
2
3
_
(
p1
p2
)
2
+(
p2
p3
)
2
+(
p3
p1
)
2
_
effective plastic strain;
principal strains
_
=
1
2(1+ )
_
(
1
2
)
2
+(
2
3
)
2
+(
3
1
)
2
_
effective total strain;
principal strains
_
=
+0.5E
p
E
_
generalized Poissons ratio
_
Plastic Deformation in Bending
Plastic Deformation in Torsion
Creep

=

_
shear viscosity
_
=

_
tensile viscosity
_
= 3
_
tensile viscosity;
incompressible substance
_
= Ae
_
Q
RT
_
_
Arrhenius equation
_
=
A
2
m
d
q
T
e
_
Q
RT
_
_
steady-state creep rate;
crystalline material
_
u =
a
a
sin
_
unit damping energy
_
Q
1
= tan
_
loss coefcient
_
85
Fracture
Fracture Theory
Fracture Mechanics: the study of cracks in solids
Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM): fracture mechanics based on the ASSUMPTION that the material
exhibits linear-elastic behavior
Plastic Zone: the region in a cracked material that yields around the crack tip
Craze Zone: a region containing elongated voids with a brous structure bridging the crack faces; usually only
forms in polymers
Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) (): the nite amount that a crack is opened by near its tip
S
g
= gross stress (S
g
)
c
= critical stress at failure
Stress Intensity Factor (K): a dimensionless measure of the severity of a crack situation as affected by crack
size, stress, and geometry; ASSUMES LEFM holds
Fracture Toughness (K
Ic
): a measure of the ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture
Transition Crack Length (a
t
): the crack length where cracks longer than the transition crack length a
t
will cause
the material to fail in fracture, while cracks shorter than the transition crack length a
t
will allow the material to fail in
yielding
Internally Flawed: a material that has cracks already in it before a stress is applied, so any cracks that form that
are smaller than the inherent aw size a
i
have no effect
Mode I Fracture (Opening Mode Fracture): fracture caused by a tensile stress normal to the plane of the crack
Mode II Fracture (Sliding Mode Fracture): fracture caused by a shear stress acting parallel to the plane of the
crack and perpendicular to the crack front
Mode III Fracture (Tearing Mode Fracture): fracture caused by a shear stress acting parallel to the plane of the
crack and parallel to the crack front
mode II and mode III fracture data is generally not available
mode II and mode III fracture usually arent important or the limiting factor in most practical applications
mode II and mode III fracture tests are difcult to perform
86
Strain Energy Release Rate (G): the rate of change of potential energy of the material an with increase in crack
area
Region of K-Dominance (K-Field): a region outside of the plastic zone where the elastic stress eld equations
still apply; ASSUMES that the plastic zone is sufciently small
x
=
K
I
2r
cos
_
2
__
1sin
_
2
_
sin
_
3
2
__
+
y
=
K
I
2r
cos
_
2
__
1+sin
_
2
_
sin
_
3
2
__
+
xy
=
K
I
2r
cos
_
2
_
sin
_
2
_
cos
_
3
2
_
+
yz
=
zx
= 0
z
= 0 (plane stress)
z
= (
x
+
y
) (plane strain)
_
_
_
stresses near crack tip; mode I fracture;
LEFM; isotropic material
_

y
= S
_
1+2
c
d
_
= S
_
1+2
_
c
_
_
maximum stress at elliptic crack tip
_
G =
1
t
dU
da
=
K
2
I
E
/
_
strain energy release rate
_
E
/
= E
_
plane stress
_
87
E
/
=
E
1
2
_
plane strain
_
88
Fracture Mechanics
K
I
= FS
a
_
stress intensity factor;
mode one fracture
_
K
Ic
= F
c
S
g
a
c
_
plane strain fracture toughness
_
X
K
=
K
Ic
K
=
K
Ic
FS
g
a
_
fracture toughness safety factor
_
X
a
=
a
c
a
=
_
F
F
c
X
K
_
2 _
crack length safety factor
_
X
o
=

o
S
g
_
yielding safety factor
_
a
t
=
1
_
K
c
o
_
2 _
transition crack length
_

ut
=
K
c
a
i
_
_
_
_
ultimate strength;
tension;
brittle fracture
_
_
_
_

o
=
K
2r
o
_ _
_
K
I
K
Ic
_
2
+
_
K
II
K
IIc
_
2
= 1
_
combined mode I and mode II fracture criterion
_
r
o
=
1
2
_
K
o
_
2
_
plastic zone radius;
plane stress
_
r
o
=
2
3
_
K
o
_
2
_
plastic zone radius;
plane strain
_
89
Radiation Embrittlement: neutron radiation from nuclear reactions creating large number of point defects in a
material which in turn [increase yield strength], [decrease ductility], [increase the fracture toughness transition
temperature], and [decrease the fracture toughness]
Slow-Stable Crack Growth: a steady tearing type fracture
Precrack: a sharp initial aw
J = J
el
+J
pl
_
J value;
mode I fracture
_
J
el
=
K
2
Ic
_
1
2
_
E
_
J value;
elastic component
_
J
pl
=
A
pl
t (ba)
_
J value;
plastic component
_
Empirical Fracture Data
=
a
b
_
ratio of crack length to plate width
_
S
g
=
P
2bt
_
_
_
_
gross stress;
thin plate;
uniaxial tension
_
_
_
_
90
P = applied load b = half-width of plate t = plate thickness
(S
g
)
c
=
o
_
1
a
b
_
_
critical stress at failure;
static failure theory
_
F = 1.00
_
center-cracked plate
_
F = 1.12
_
through-thickness or circumferential surface crack
_
F = 0.73
_
half-circular surface crack
_
F = 0.72
_
quarter-circular corner crack
_
Determine Needed Fracture Mechanics Approach
1. are
_
_
t
a
ba
h
each
2.5
_
K
o
_
2
?
2. IF YES THEN:
plane strain
2r
o
=
1
3
_
K
o
_
2
91
LEFM is applicable
K
Q
= K
Ic
_
minimum toughness
_
3. IF NO THEN:
plane stress
2r
o
=
1
_
K
o
_
2
4. are
_
_
t
a
ba
h
each
8r
o
in planar dimensions?
5. IF YES THEN:
LEFM is applicable
K
Q
, K
c
K
Ic
_
slow-stable a
_
6. is the load below 80% of the fully plastic value?
7. IF YES THEN:
adjust K values using a+r
o
K
Q
, K
c
K
Ic
_
slow-stable a
_
8. IF NO THEN:
use J-integral or CTOD
K
Ic

J
Ic
E
Fatigue
Stress-Based Fatigue
Fatigue: the process of damage and failure due to cyclic loading
Stress-Based Approach: the analysis of fatigue based on the nominal (average) stresses in the affected region
of the component
Strain-Based Approach: the analysis of fatigue based on the localized yielding that may occur at stress raisers
Fracture Mechanics Approach: the analysis of fatigue based on the growth of the cracks according to fracture
mechanics
Constant Amplitude Stressing: cycling between maximum and minimum stress levels that are constant
Stress Range (): the difference between the maximum and minimum values
92
Mean Stress (
m
): the average of the maximum and the minimum values of the stress in constant amplitude
stressing
Stress Amplitude (Alternating Stress) (
a
): one-half of the stress range; the variation of the stress about the
mean stress

a
=

2
=

max
min
2
=

max
2
(1R)
_
stress amplitude
_

m
=

max
+
min
2
=

max
2
(1+R)
_
mean stress
_
R =

min
max
=
1A
1+A
_
stress ratio
_
A =

a
m
=
1R
1+R
_
amplitude ratio
_
Completely Reversed Cycling: cyclic loading where the mean stress
m
= 0; implies that the stress ratio R = 1
Zero-to-Tension Cycling: cyclic loading where the minimum stress
min
= 0; implies the stress ratio R = 0
Fatigue Limit (Endurance Limit): a horizontal asymptote of the S-N curve where below that amplitude, the
material will never fail by fatigue
fatigue limits generally only exist for ferrous metals
if you continue cycling long enough, eventually the endurance limit will disappear, but for any remotely
practical application this isnt a concern
Fatigue Strength: a stress amplitude value from an S-N curve at a particular lifespan of interest
Static Loads: loads that do not vary and are continuously present
Working Loads: loads that change with time and are incurred as a result of the function performed by the compo-
nent
Vibratory Loads: relatively high-frequency cyclic loads that arise from the environment or as a secondary effect
of the function of the component
Accidental Loads: rare events that do not occur under normal circumstances
S-N Curves
log
a
= logA+BlogN
f
_
S-N curve;
linear axes
_
log
a1
= logA+BlogN
f 1
_
_
_
_
S-N curve;
linear axes;
point 1
_
_
_
_
log
a2
= logA+BlogN
f 2
_
_
_
_
S-N curve;
linear axes;
point 2
_
_
_
_
93

a
= AN
B
f
=
/
f
_
2N
f
_
b
_
S-N curve;
log-log axes
_
A = 2
b
/
f
AND B = b
_
curve tting constants;
S-N curve
_
B =
log
_
a1
a2
_
log
_
N
f 1
N
f 2
_
_
constant B;
S-N curve
_
A =

a1
N
B
f 1
=

a2
N
B
f 2
_
constant A;
S-N curve
_

A
= stess level expected in average service

N = # of cycles expected in average service
X
s
=

a1

a
, N
f
=

N
_
fatigue safety factor;
stress-based
_
X
N
=
N
f 2
N
,
a
=
a
_
fatigue safety factor;
lifespan-based
_
X
N
= X
B
S
_
fatigue safety factors relationship
_
Stress-Based Fatigue Failure Criterion

ar
= AN
B
f
_ _
94
N
f
=
_
ar
A
_
1/B
_ _
ar
+
_
u
_
2
= 1, m 0
_
Gerber parabola;
(
a
,
m
) graph
_
ar
+

m
u
= 1, m 0
_
Modied Goodman line;
(
a
,
m
) graph
_
ar
+

m
f
= 1, m 0
_
Modied Morrow line;
(
a
,
m
) graph
_
ar
+

m
o
= 1, m 0
_
Soderberg line;
(
a
,
m
) graph
_

u
= ultimate strength
f
= true fracture stress

ar
=

max
a
=
max
_
1R
2
,
max
> 0
_
Smith-Watson-Topper equation (SWT)
_

ar
=
1
max
a
=
max
_
1R
2
_
,
max
> 0
_
Walker equation
_

ar
=

a
1

m
/
f
_
equivalent completely reversed stress amplitude
_

ar
=

a
1

m
o
_
Soderberg
_

a
=
1
2
_
(
xa
ya
)
2
+(
ya
ya
)
2
+(
za
xa
)
2
+6
_
2
xya
+
2
yza
+
2
xza
_
_
Von-Mises criterion;
stress-alternating parts only
_
ASSUMES all cyclic loads are completely reversed
ASSUMES all cyclic loads have the same frequency
ASSUMES all cyclic loads have the same phase or are 180
out of phase; = 0, 180
ASSUMES NO steady (non-cyclic) loads present

ar
=

a
1

m
/
f
_
equivalent completely reversed uniaxial stress
_

m
=
xm
+
ym
+
zm
_
effective mean stress
_
95
Variable Amplitude Stress-Based Fatigue

i
N
i
N
f i
= 1
_
Palmgren-Miner rule;
variable amplitude loading
_
B
f
_
i
N
i
N
f i
_
= 1
_
failure criteria; fatigue;
variable amplitude loading
_
B
f
= # of repetitions
IF
ar
<
e
for a given loading sequence B
i
THEN dont include the cycles in the fatigue cycles
96
Rainow Method
use the Rainow method for periodic repetitions with completely irregular cycles within each repetition
cycles only count if the the third point is above or below the rst point to second point range
points where the third point is in between the rst point to second point range are NOT counted
97
98
Stress-Based Fatigue for Notched Members
k
f
=

ar
S
ar
_
fatigue notch factor
_
q =
k
f
1
k
t
1
_
notch sensitivity
_
S
ar
=

ar
k
f
=
S
a
1
S
m
u
_
_
_
_
Goodman equation;
notched members;
ductile materials
_
_
_
_
99
S
ar
=

ar
k
f
=
S
a
1
k
f m
S
m
u
_
_
_
_
Goodman equation;
notched members;
brittle material
_
_
_
_
S
ar
=
_
S
max
S
a
= S
max
_
1R
2
_
Smith-Watson-Topper equation (SWT);
notched members
_
S
ar
= S
1
max
S
a
= S
max
_
1R
2
_
_
Walker equation;
notched members
_
Fatigue Crack Growth
Fatigue Crack Growth: crack growth caused by cyclic loading
Environmental Crack Growth: crack growth caused by a hostile chemical environment
Minimum Detectable Length (a
d
): the smallest size crack length that some test or inspection can detect
Damage-Tolerant Design: the design approach of requiring that structures are able to survive even in the pres-
ence of growing cracks
Fatigue Crack Growth Threshold (K
th
): a lower limiting value of K below which crack growth does not ordi-
narily occur
S
c
=
K
c
F
a
_ _
X
c
=
S
c
S
max
_ _
S = S
max
S
min
_
stress range
_
R =
S
min
S
max
_
stress ratio
_
K = K
max
K
min
= FS
a
_
stress intensity factor range
_
K
max
= FS
max
a
_
stress intensity factor maximum
_
K
min
= FS
min
a
_
stress intensity factor minimum
_
R =
K
min
K
max
_
stress intensity factor ratio
_
C =
C
0
(1R)
m(1)
_
Walker equation
_
da
dN
=
C
2
(K)
m
2
(1R)K
c
K
=
C
2
(K)
m
2
(1R)(K
c
K
max
)
_
Forman equation
_
a
c
=
1
_
K
Ic
FS
max
_
2
_
crack length at failure;
brittle material
_
100
a
N
= a
i
+
N
j=1
_
da
dN
_
j
_
crack length;
N cycles
_
N
i f
=
a
1n/2
f
a
1n/2
i
A
_
FS
_
n
_
1
n
2
_
_
time for a crack to grow from an initial size i to a nal size f
_
Strain-Based Fatigue
Relaxation (Shakedown):
Sequence Effect: any situation where the order of loading affects the life

a
=

a
E
+
_
a
H
/
_
1/n
/ _
cyclic stress-strain curve
_

a
=
/
f
E
_
2N
f
_
b
+
/
f
_
2N
f
_
c
_
total strain amplitude
_

ea
=

a
E
=
/
f
E
_
2N
f
_
b
_
elastic strain amplitude
_

pa
=
/
f
_
2N
f
_
c
_
plastic strain amplitude
_
N
t
= 0.5
_

/
f
/
f
E
_
1/(cb)
_
transition fatigue length
_
_
N
f
> N
t
high cycle fatigue
N
f
< N
t
low cycle fatigue
101

a
=
_
/
f

m
__
2N
f
_
b
_ _

a
=
/
f
_
_
_
1

m
/
f
_
1/b
_
2N
f
_
_
_
b
_ _

a
=
/
f
_
2N
f
_
b
_ _
N
f
= N
_
1

m
/
f
_
1/b
_ _
N
= N
f
_
1

m
/
f
_
1/b
_ _

a
=
/
f
E
_
2N
f
_
b
+
/
f
(2N
)
c
_ _

a
=
/
f
E
_
1

m
/
f
_
_
2N
f
_
b
+
/
f
_
1

m
/
f
_
c/b
_
2N
f
_
c
_ _

xya
=
/
f
3G
_
2N
f
_
b
+
3
/
f
_
2N
f
_
c
_
shear stress ampiltude
_
102
T =
1+
1+
2
_
triaxiality factor
_
Material Testing
Material Testing
Specimen: a material sample to be tested
Notch: any generic sort of notch, hole, groove, slot, etc. that creates a stress concentration in a material specimen;
used to better simulate actual applications
Universal Testing Machine: a machine that can perform tension, compression, and bending tests
Closed-Loop Servohydraulic Test System: a universal testing machine that is automated with electronics and
uses a double action hydraulic piston
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): a sensor for measuring forces and displacements by using
electrical signals
Strain Gauge (Strain Gage): a sensor used to measure displacements by varying the electrical resistance of an
element in the sensor as it deforms with the material specimen
Load Cell: a sensor that measures applied force
Extensometers: a sensor that measures displacements
material testing is important for quality control and getting information for engineering design
statistical variations must always be taken into account
material testing standards and standard test methods have been developed by several major organizations
as well as smaller ones for specialized tests such as medical devices
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
the British Standards Institution (BSI)
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Strain Gage (Strain Gauge): a device used to measure strain consisting of a long length of wire carefully attached
to the specimen to be tested
as the strain gage is stretched, the wire is lengthened, which changes the electrical resistance according to
R =
L
A
the longer the wire, the more accurate the reading
the shorter the strain gage, the smaller an area the strain is the average over and the more accurate
the reading is
sometimes a strain gage cant be used without affecting the measurements, so a non-contact method
must be used such as:
optical and video methods
Video Dimension Analyzers (VDA)
103
Electronic Speckle Photography (ESP)
strain gages are used in a Wheatstone bridge circuit
one or more of the four resistors can be replaced with strain gages to measure the strain in multiple
locations
a typical strain gage Wheatstone bridge circuit operates at 3V
V
0
=
R
1
R
4
R
2
R
3
(R
1
+R
2
)(R
3
+R
4
)
V
_
output voltage;
Wheatstone bridge circuit
_
Stress-Strain Curves
Ductile: a material that plastically deforms
Brittle: a material that does NOT plastically deform
using stress and strain instead of force and displacement makes the data independent of the size and shape
of the test specimen
Tangent Modulus (E
t
): the slope of a line tangent to a point on a stress strain curve without a well-dened linear
region
the tangent modulus usually requires signicant judgment to determine and thus is not a very well-dened
property
True Stress: actual stress accounting for a decrease in cross sectional area during loading
Engineering Stress: the stress computed by using the original area rather than the changed area under loading
Ultimate Tensile Strength (Tensile Strength) (
u
): the largest engineering stress reached before fracture
Engineering Fracture Strength
_
f
_
: the stress at fracture, even if its not the highest value reached
Yielding: the departure from linear-elastic behavior of a material
Proportional Limit (
p
): the stress where the rst departure from linearity occurs
Elastic Limit: the highest stress that does NOT cause plastic deformation
the elastic limit is very difcult to determine since you have to unload the specimen to see if there was any
plastic deformation
Offset Yield Strength (
o
): the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve with the offset
method line
Upper Yield Point (
ou
): the highest stress reached prior to a sharp drop in the stress on a stress-strain curve at
the transition from elastic to plastic deformation
Lower Yield Point (
ol
): the lowest stress reached after a sharp drop in the stress on a stress-strain curve at the
transition from elastic to plastic deformation
=
P
A
0
_
engineering stress
_

t
=
P
A
=
A
i
A
_
true stress
_
104
= (1+)
_
true stress;
constant volume ASSUMPTION
_
= ln
_
A
i
A
_
_
true strain;
constant volume ASSUMPTION
_
= H
n
p
_
true plastic strain relation;
no necking
_

B
= H
n
p
_
true plastic strain relation;
necking
_
n = hardening exponent H = strength coefcient
H is the intercept at
p
= 1

B
= B
_
Bridgeman correction for hoop stress
_
B = 0.0684x
3
+0.0461x
2
0.205x +0.825
_
Bridgeman correction factor;
steels
_
x = log
10
, 0.12 3
_
_
_
_
x parameter;
Bridgeman correction factor;
steels
_
_
_
_

u
=
P
max
A
i
_
engineering ultimate stress
_

f
=
P
f
A
f
_
engineering fracture stress
_

f
=
P
f
A
f
=
f
_
A
i
A
f
_
_
true fracture stress
_
E =

B
A
_
Youngs Modulus of elasticity
_
= ln(1+)
_
true strain
_
=
e
+
p
=

B
E
+
_

B
H
_
1/n _
total true strain
_

pf
=
f

f
E
_
plastic elongation at fracture
_

f
=
L
f
L
i
L
i
_
engineering fracture strain
_

f
= ln
_
A
i
A
f
_
= ln
_
100
100%RA
_
_
true fracture strain
_
105
%RA = 100
_
A
i
A
f
A
i
_
= 100
_
d
2
i
d
2
f
d
2
i
_
_
percent reduction in area
_
100
_
L
B
L
0
L
0
_
_
percent elongation
_
Fracture Toughness: the resistance to failure in the presence of a crack
Strain Hardening: the rise in the stress-strain curve due to yielding
106
Tension Test
Compression Test
Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test:
HB =
2P
D
_
D(D
2
d
2
)
0.5
_
_
Brinell hardness
_
Vickers Hardness Test:
HV =
2P
d
2
sin
_
2
_ _
Vickers hardness
_
Regular Rockwell Test:
Supercial Rockwell Test:
Minor Load: a small initial force
Major Load:
HRX = M
h
0.002
_
Rockwell hardness
_
Notch-Impact Test
Charpy Test:
Izod Test:
Dynamic Tear Test:
Torsion Test
Bending Test
Materials Selection
Mechanical Design: the physical principles, the proper functioning, and the production of mechanical systems
Industrial Design: pattern, color, texture, and consumer appeal
Technical System: the product itself
Variant Design: a change of scale or dimension or detailing without a change of function or the method of achieving
it
Function: what the component is supposed to do
Constraints: hard, non-negotiable limitations and requirements for the design
Objectives: what is you want to maximum or minimize
Free Variables: what parameters you are allowed to change
107
Function-Constraints-Objectives Based Design Process
1. write a function for the objective in terms of the free variables and constraints
2. write a function for each of the constraints in terms of the free variables and xed values
3. solve the objective equation for the free variable
4. solve the constraint equation for the free variable
5. set the objective equation and the constraint equation equal to each other
6. solve this new equation for the variable to be optimized
7. set it so the variable is to be maximized
may require taking a reciprocal, etc.
8. separate the equation into parts from constraints, geometry, and materials
9. take the materials part of the equation as what is to be maximized
10. set the materials quantity to be maximized equal to a constant c
11. solve for one of the two material properties (density, modulus, etc.)
12. take the log
10
of each side
the equation is now in the form of a constraint line for log- log axes
log
10
a = mlog
10
b+log
10
c
_
material optimization line;
log-log axes
_
m = slope log
10
c = y-intercept
log
10
a = y value log
10
b = x value
108

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Statics

xy dA (product area moment of inertia; x and y axes)

xy dm (product mass moment of inertia; x and y axes)

yz dm (product mass moment of inertia; y and z axes)

xz dm (product mass moment of inertia; x and z axes)

does not necessarily equal zero

to the principal planes

angles with the

Mohrs Circle for Strain

about spine axis

out of phase; = 0, 180

ASSUMES NO steady (non-cyclic) loads present

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