Detectors

In the previous chapters we focused mainly on sources of laser light, methods of generating ultra-short pulses, spectral range extension, amplification, and timeresolved laser spectroscopy. It is obvious that in the final stage of every experiment the optical signal has to reach a detector, which transforms the light signal into an analog or digital signal. So far we have not concentrated on the characteristics of the detectors, but it is obvious that proper detection determines the final success of the experiment or application. A detector has to be chosen that is able to record the proper spectral range, to convert the optical signal intensity linearly, to record the intensity with a suitable accuracy, and to generate low noise in comparison with the level of the signal. In some kinds of measurements, for example fluorescence measurements monitored in real-time, one should also consider the response time of the detector. Nowadays, we can find different types of detectors in every home. They are in such devices as electronic toys, alarm devices, and TV remote controls. Although invisible to the telephone user, detectors play a crucial role in fiberoptic communication. These examples illustrate two main streams of everyday applications of detectors: fiberoptic communication and remote sensing. Detectors used in optical fibers record signals from the near-infrared range and they do not require very high detectivity, since they usually record a high intensity laser beam, but they have to be characterized by very fast responses. The detector most often used in fiberoptic communication is the InGaAs photodiode with a capability of sending information at the rate of 2.5 Gbits per second, which is 200,000 times faster than that sent by traditional telephone copper cables. For the second application, remote sensing, those detectors that record in the near-infrared range are also used, but the requirements concerning the response time are lower than those in fiberoptic communications. This is not surprising as remote sensing serves to transmit small amount of information, usually simple commands such as: switch on, switch off, change the channel. More sophisticated methods of detection must be applied in another important field of remote sensing the control of technological processes. The third important group of applications comprises video cameras with charge coupled devices (CCDs).
293

294

12.

Detectors

The fourth field of applications, such as scientific investigations, medical diagnostics, atmosphere pollution monitoring or military applications, usually needs detectors of very high quality. These applications stimulate the further development of detection techniques, with military applications still being the main motor of progress. As an example, consider the far-infrared detectors recording radiation at wavelengths longer than 5 mm, which were constructed for antimissile defense program. With the end of the cold war, military technologies are finding an increasing number of civil applications. In this chapter we describe the basic types of detectors as well as the basic parameters that should be taken into account in order to choose the most appropriate detector for a specific application. For more detailed description the reader is referred to [12].

12.1. DETECTORS TYPES AND DETECTORS CHARACTERIZING PARAMETERS We can distinguish five basic types of detectors: a) b) c) d) e) Photoemissive detectors, Thermal detectors, Semiconductor detectors, Photodiode arrays PDA, known as diode lines, Charge coupled devices, known as CCD cameras.

The first group is represented by photomultipliers designed to detect radiation from the UV-VISnear-IR range. The second group is represented by calibrated calorimeters with a thermocouple or thermistor, bolometers, Golay detectors as well as pyroelectric detectors. The thermal detectors utilize heat produced by incident radiation, therefore their detectivity is not dependent on the incident radiation wavelength and they can be used in any spectral range. In the past bolometers and Golay detectors were used nearly exclusively in the infrared range because of the lack of other detectors of high detectivity in this spectral range. The situation has now changed and there are many detectors offering detection in the infrared. The third group is represented by photoconductive and photovoltaic semiconductor detectors, which were discussed briefly in Chapter 4.8.1. They are used for UV-VISIR detection. All detectors that belong to groups (a)(c) are single channel detectors. In other words, at a given time period only a single point of the spectrum is measured. If we place a single channel detector behind the exit slit of a monochromator, the detector can measure only one spectral component at a given time. To obtain the entire spectrum scanning across the slit, measurements are needed at each point. The detector has to record radiation many times for different positions of diffraction gratings of the monochromator corresponding to different wavelengths at the exit slit.

12.1.

Detectors Types

295

Detectors that belong to the groups (d)(e) are multichannel detectors. The diode line PDA permits multiple wavelengths to be detected simultaneously. The CCD cameras also permit simultaneous recording of components corresponding to different wavelengths, but additionally they can record the spatial intensity distribution along the slit. Thus, the CCD camera permits a new type of spectroscopic investigations (imaging spectroscopy), giving information not only about spectral distribution but also about the spatial distribution of molecules inducing absorption, emission or scattering. The obvious advantage of diode lines (PDA) and CCD cameras is the much shorter time needed to record the whole spectrum. Sometimes the price paid for this advantage is lower spectral resolution than that of single channel detectors if the number of pixels of the CCD is not sufficient for a given application. Fig. 12.1 illustrates the principle of differences between a single and multichannel detection. In order to choose the most appropriate detector for a given application, one needs to know the fundamental parameters that characterize detectors. The basic parameters specifying detectors are the following: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) responsivity, R, noise equivalent power, NEP, detectivity, D, normalized detectivity, D , quantum efficiency, QE, dynamic range, response linearity, detector response time .
(a) Monochromator Sample Single channel detector Input slit Exit slit

(b) Monochromator Sample Input slit Exit slit Multichannel detector

Fig. 12.1 Illustration of differences in detection in (a) a single channel, (b) multichannel detection.

296

12.

Detectors

Responsivity, R, is defined as the ratio of the output voltage (or the output current) S to the incident light power per 1 cm2 (P) of a detector R S PA where A is the sensitive area of the detector (cm2) illuminated by the incident radiation. The larger the responsivity R of the detector, the higher is the sensitivity to detect the incident radiation. Noise equivalent power (NEP) defines the lowest value of the incident light power, P, per 1 cm2 of a detector for which the detected signal, S, is equal to the noise, N, that is S/N 1. For values higher than the NEP, the signal begins to be distinguished from the noise. Since the ratio S/N is proportional to the square root of the bandwidth , the NEP is expressed by the following NEP PA p S=N W=Hz1=2 : 12:2 V=W or A=W ; 12:1

The smaller the NEP, the smaller is the value of light intensity that can be recorded as a signal that does not disappear in the background noise. Detectivity, D, is expressed as D 1 : NEP 12:3

The larger the value of D, the lower are the powers of the incident radiation that can be measured by a detector. Normalized detectivity, D , permits a comparison of different detectors as it defines the detectivity per 1 cm2 of a detector surface, that is p p p S=N S=N A p A cm Hz 1=2=W : D 12:4 PA NEP P A Quantum efficiency, QE, characterizes only those quantum detectors that fit all groups mentioned at the beginning of the section, except thermal detectors. The quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the number of photoelectrons generated in a detector to the number of incident radiation photons. If, for example, the quantum efficiency is 20% this indicates that every fifth photon will generate a photoelectron. Dynamic range of a detector is determined by the ratio of the smallest distinguishable signal, which can be measured by a detector, to the largest signal before saturation. The most intense signal is equal to the saturation level of a CCD (which is determined by its potential well capacity, which is discussed below) and the weakest signal is limited by the read out noise, which comes from the electronic process of reading the signal from the detector. The dynamic range of a detector as well as the analog-digital converter (ADC) determines the differences in signals, S, that can be distinguished as two independent signals, S and S S. This value is very important in most pump-probe time-resolved laser spectroscopy measurements. The pumping beam excites only a small fraction of a molecular system. The