What Is the Collaborative Classroom?

M.B. Tinzmann, B.F. Jones, T.F. Fennimore, J. Bakker, C. Fine, and J. Pierce NCREL, Oak Brook, 1990

New Learning and Thinking Curricula Require Collaboration

In Guidebook 1, e e!"#ored a $ne $ %ision o& #earnin' and s(''es)ed &o(r c*arac)eris)ics o& s(ccess&(# #earners+ T*e, are kno #ed'ea-#e, se#&.de)ermined s)ra)e'ic, and em"a)*e)ic )*inkers. Researc* indica)es s(ccess&(# #earnin' a#so in%o#%es an in)erac)ion o& )*e #earner, )*e ma)eria#s, )*e )eac*er, and )*e con)e!). /""#,in' )*is researc*, ne '(ide#ines in )*e ma0or con)en) areas s)ress )*inkin'. Guidebook 1 descri-es )*ese ne '(ide#ines and "ro%ides &o(r c*arac)eris)ics o& $a )*inkin' c(rric(#(m$ )*a) c() across con)en) areas. T*e c*ie& c*arac)eris)ic o& a )*inkin' c(rric(#(m is )*e d(a# a'enda o& con)en) and "rocess &or a## s)(den)s. C*arac)eris)ics )*a) deri%e &rom )*is a'enda inc#(de in.de")* #earnin'2 in%o#%in' s)(den)s in rea#. or#d, re#e%an) )asks2 en'a'in' s)(den)s in *o#is)ic )asks &rom kinder'ar)en )*ro('* *i'* sc*oo#2 and ()i#izin' s)(den)s3 "rior kno #ed'e. E&&ec)i%e comm(nica)ion and co##a-ora)ion are essen)ia# )o -ecomin' a s(ccess&(# #earner. I) is "rimari#, )*ro('* dia#o'(e and e!aminin' di&&eren) "ers"ec)i%es )*a) s)(den)s -ecome kno #ed'ea-#e, s)ra)e'ic, se#&.de)ermined, and em"a)*e)ic. Moreo%er, in%o#%in' s)(den)s in rea#. or#d )asks and #inkin' ne in&orma)ion )o "rior kno #ed'e re4(ires e&&ec)i%e comm(nica)ion and co##a-ora)ion amon' )eac*ers, s)(den)s, and o)*ers. Indeed, i) is )*ro('* dia#o'(e and in)erac)ion )*a) c(rric(#(m o-0ec)i%es come a#i%e. Co##a-ora)i%e #earnin' a&&ords s)(den)s enormo(s ad%an)a'es no) a%ai#a-#e &rom more )radi)iona# ins)r(c)ion -eca(se a 'ro(".. *e)*er i) -e )*e *o#e c#ass or a #earnin' 'ro(" i)*in )*e c#ass..can accom"#is* meanin'&(# #earnin' and so#%e "ro-#ems -e))er )*an an, indi%id(a# can a#one. T*is &oc(s on )*e co##ec)i%e kno #ed'e and )*inkin' o& )*e 'ro(" c*an'es )*e ro#es o& s)(den)s and )eac*ers and )*e a, )*e, in)erac) in )*e c#assroom. 5i'ni&ican)#,, a 'ro(nds e## o& in)eres) e!is)s amon' "rac)i)ioners )o in%o#%e s)(den)s in co##a-ora)ion in c#assrooms a) a## 'rade #e%e#s. T*e "(r"ose o& )*is GuideBook is )o e#a-ora)e *a) c#assroom co##a-ora)ion means so )*a) )*is 'rass.roo)s mo%emen) can con)in(e )o 'ro and &#o(ris*. 6e i## descri-e c*arac)eris)ics o& )*ese c#assrooms and s)(den) and )eac*er ro#es, s(mmarize re#e%an) researc*, address some iss(es re#a)ed )o c*an'in' ins)r(c)ion, and 'i%e e!am"#es o& a %arie), o& )eac*in' me)*ods and "rac)ices )*a) em-od, )*ese c*arac)eris)ics.

Characteristics o a Collaborative Classroom

Co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms seem )o *a%e &o(r 'enera# c*arac)eris)ics. T*e &irs) ) o ca")(re c*an'in' re#a)ions*i"s -e) een )eac*ers and s)(den)s. T*e )*ird

c*arac)erizes )eac*ers3 ne a""roac*es )o ins)r(c)ion. T*e &o(r)* addresses )*e com"osi)ion o& a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom.

!" #hared knowledge among teachers and students

In )radi)iona# c#assrooms, )*e dominan) me)a"*or &or )eac*in' is )*e )eac*er as in&orma)ion 'i%er2 kno #ed'e &#o s on#, one a, &rom )eac*er )o s)(den). In con)ras), )*e me)a"*or &or co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms is s*ared kno #ed'e. T*e )eac*er *as %i)a# kno #ed'e a-o() con)en), ski##s, and ins)r(c)ion, and s)i## "ro%ides )*a) in&orma)ion )o s)(den)s. 7o e%er, co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers a#so %a#(e and -(i#d ("on )*e kno #ed'e, "ersona# e!"eriences, #an'(a'e, s)ra)e'ies, and c(#)(re )*a) s)(den)s -rin' )o )*e #earnin' si)(a)ion. Consider a #esson on insec).ea)in' "#an)s, &or e!am"#e. Fe s)(den)s, and "er*a"s &e )eac*ers, are #ike#, )o *a%e direc) kno #ed'e a-o() s(c* "#an)s. T*(s, *en )*ose s)(den)s *o do *a%e re#e%an) e!"eriences are 'i%en an o""or)(ni), )o s*are )*em, )*e *o#e c#ass is enric*ed. Moreo%er, *en s)(den)s see )*a) )*eir e!"eriences and kno #ed'e are %a#(ed, )*e, are mo)i%a)ed )o #is)en and #earn in ne a,s, and )*e, are more #ike#, )o make im"or)an) connec)ions -e) een )*eir o n #earnin' and $sc*oo#$ #earnin'. T*e, -ecome em"o ered. T*is same "*enomenon occ(rs *en )*e kno #ed'e "aren)s and o)*er comm(ni), mem-ers *a%e is %a#(ed and (sed i)*in )*e sc*oo#. /ddi)iona##,, com"#e! )*inkin' a-o() di&&ic(#) "ro-#ems, s(c* as or#d *(n'er, -e's &or m(#)i"#e ideas a-o() ca(ses, im"#ica)ions, and "o)en)ia# so#()ions. In &ac), near#, a## o& )*e ne c(rric(#ar 'oa#s are o& )*is na)(re..&or e!am"#e, ma)*ema)ica# "ro-#em.so#%in'..as are ne re4(iremen)s )o )eac* )o"ics s(c* as /I85. T*e, re4(ire m(#)i"#e a,s )o re"resen) and so#%e "ro-#ems and man, "ers"ec)i%es on iss(es.

$" #hared authorit% among teachers and students

In co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms, )eac*ers s*are a()*ori), i)* s)(den)s in %er, s"eci&ic a,s. In mos) )radi)iona# c#assrooms, )*e )eac*er is #ar'e#,, i& no) e!c#(si%e#,, res"onsi-#e &or se))in' 'oa#s, desi'nin' #earnin' )asks, and assessin' *a) is #earned. Co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers di&&er in )*a) )*e, in%i)e s)(den)s )o se) s"eci&ic 'oa#s i)*in )*e &rame ork o& *a) is -ein' )a('*), "ro%ide o")ions &or ac)i%i)ies and assi'nmen)s )*a) ca")(re di&&eren) s)(den) in)eres)s and 'oa#s, and enco(ra'e s)(den)s )o assess *a) )*e, #earn. Co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers enco(ra'e s)(den)s3 (se o& )*eir o n kno #ed'e, ens(re )*a) s)(den)s s*are )*eir kno #ed'e and )*eir #earnin' s)ra)e'ies, )rea) eac* o)*er res"ec)&(##,, and &oc(s on *i'* #e%e#s o& (nders)andin'. T*e, *e#" s)(den)s #is)en )o di%erse o"inions, s(""or) kno #ed'e c#aims i)* e%idence, en'a'e in cri)ica# and crea)i%e )*inkin', and "ar)ici"a)e in o"en and meanin'&(# dia#o'(e. 5(""ose, &or e!am"#e, )*e s)(den)s *a%e 0(s) read a c*a")er on co#onia# /merica and are re4(ired )o "re"are a "rod(c) on )*e )o"ic. 6*i#e a more )radi)iona# )eac*er mi'*) ask a## s)(den)s )o ri)e a )en."a'e essa,, )*e co##a-ora)i%e )eac*er mi'*)

ask s)(den)s )o de&ine )*e "rod(c) )*emse#%es. 5ome co(#d "#an a %ideo)a"e2 some co(#d drama)ize e%en)s in co#onia# /merica2 o)*ers co(#d in%es)i'a)e ori'ina# so(rces )*a) s(""or) or do no) s(""or) )*e )e!)-ook c*a")er and dra com"arisons amon' )*em2 and some co(#d ri)e a )en."a'e "a"er. T*e "oin) *ere is ) o&o#d+ 91: s)(den)s *a%e o""or)(ni)ies )o ask and in%es)i'a)e 4(es)ions o& "ersona# in)eres), and 91: )*e, *a%e a %oice in )*e decision.makin' "rocess. T*ese o""or)(ni)ies are essen)ia# &or -o)* se#&.re'(#a)ed #earnin' and mo)i%a)ion.

&" Teachers as mediators

/s kno #ed'e and a()*ori), are s*ared amon' )eac*ers and s)(den)s, )*e ro#e o& )*e )eac*er increasin'#, em"*asizes media)ed #earnin'. 5(ccess&(# media)ion *e#"s s)(den)s connec) ne in&orma)ion )o )*eir e!"eriences and )o #earnin' in o)*er areas, *e#"s s)(den)s &i'(re o() *a) )o do *en )*e, are s)(m"ed, and *e#"s )*em #earn *o )o #earn. /-o%e a##, )*e )eac*er as media)or ad0(s)s )*e #e%e# o& in&orma)ion and s(""or) so as )o ma!imize )*e a-i#i), )o )ake res"onsi-i#i), &or #earnin'. T*is c*arac)eris)ic o& co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms is so im"or)an), e de%o)e a *o#e sec)ion )o i) -e#o .

'" (eterogeneous grou)ings o students

T*e "ers"ec)i%es, e!"eriences, and -ack'ro(nds o& a## s)(den)s are im"or)an) &or enric*in' #earnin' in )*e c#assroom. /s #earnin' -e,ond )*e c#assroom increasin'#, re4(ires (nders)andin' di%erse "ers"ec)i%es, i) is essen)ia# )o "ro%ide s)(den)s o""or)(ni)ies )o do )*is in m(#)i"#e con)e!)s in sc*oo#s. In co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms *ere s)(den)s are en'a'ed in a )*inkin' c(rric(#(m, e%er,one #earns &rom e%er,one e#se, and no s)(den) is de"ri%ed o& )*is o""or)(ni), &or makin' con)ri-()ions and a""recia)in' )*e con)ri-()ions o& o)*ers. T*(s, a cri)ica# c*arac)eris)ic o& co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms is )*a) s)(den)s are no) se're'a)ed accordin' )o s(""osed a-i#i),, ac*ie%emen), in)eres)s, or an, o)*er c*arac)eris)ic. 5e're'a)ion serio(s#, eakens co##a-ora)ion and im"o%eris*es )*e c#assroom -, de"ri%in' a## s)(den)s o& o""or)(ni)ies )o #earn &rom and i)* eac* o)*er. 5)(den)s e mi'*) #a-e# (ns(ccess&(# in a )radi)iona# c#assroom #earn &rom $-ri'*)er$ s)(den)s, -(), more im"or)an)#,, )*e so.ca##ed -ri'*)er s)(den)s *a%e 0(s) as m(c* )o #earn &rom )*eir more a%era'e "eers. Teac*ers -e'innin' )o )eac* co##a-ora)i%e#, o&)en e!"ress de#i'*) *en )*e, o-ser%e )*e insi'*)s re%ea#ed -, )*eir s(""osed#, eaker s)(den)s. T*(s, s*ared kno #ed'e and a()*ori),, media)ed #earnin', and *e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("s o& s)(den)s are essen)ia# c*arac)eris)ics o& co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms. T*ese c*arac)eris)ics, *ic* are e#a-ora)ed -e#o , necessi)a)e ne ro#es &or )eac*ers and s)(den)s )*a) #ead )o in)erac)ions di&&eren) &rom )*ose in more )radi)iona# c#assrooms.

Teacher Roles in a Collaborative Classroom

/cross )*is na)ion, )eac*ers are de&inin' )*eir ro#es in )erms o& media)in' #earnin' )*ro('* dia#o'(e and co##a-ora)ion. 6*i#e media)ion *as -een de&ined in di&&eren) a,s -, Re(%en Fe(ers)ein, Le% ;,'o)sk, and o)*ers, e de&ine media)ion *ere as &aci#i)a)in', mode#in', and coac*in'. Mos) )eac*ers en'a'e in )*ese "rac)ices &rom )ime )o )ime. 6*a) is im"or)an) *ere is )*a) )*ese -e*a%iors 91: dri%e ins)r(c)ion in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms, and 91: *a%e s"eci&ic "(r"oses in co##a-ora)i%e con)e!)s. *acilitator *acilitating in%o#%es crea)in' ric* en%ironmen)s and ac)i%i)ies &or #inkin' ne in&orma)ion )o "rior kno #ed'e, "ro%idin' o""or)(ni)ies &or co##a-ora)i%e ork and "ro-#em so#%in', and o&&erin' s)(den)s a m(#)i"#ici), o& a()*en)ic #earnin' )asks. T*is ma, &irs) in%o#%e a))en)ion )o )*e "*,sica# en%ironmen). For e!am"#e, )eac*ers mo%e desks so )*a) a## s)(den)s can see eac* o)*er, )*(s es)a-#is*in' a se))in' )*a) "romo)es )r(e disc(ssion. Teac*er ma, a#so is* )o mo%e )*eir desks &rom )*e &ron) o& )*e room )o a #ess "rominen) s"ace. /ddi)iona##,, )eac*ers ma, s)r(c)(re )*e reso(rces in )*e c#assroom )o "ro%ide a di%ersi), o& 'enres and "ers"ec)i%es, )o (se and -(i#d ("on c(#)(ra# ar)i&ac)s &rom )*e s)(den)s3 *omes and comm(ni)ies, and )o or'anize %ario(s #earnin' ac)i%i)ies. T*(s, a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom o&)en *as a m(#)i"#ici), o& "ro0ec)s or ac)i%i), cen)ers (sin' e%er,da, o-0ec)s &or re"resen)in' n(merica# in&orma)ion in meanin'&(# a,s and &or cond(c)in' e!"erimen)s )*a) so#%e rea# "ro-#ems. T*ese c#assrooms a#so -oas) a ric* %arie), o& ma'azines, 0o(rna#s, ne s"a"ers, a(dio)a"es, and %ideos *ic* a##o s)(den)s )o e!"erience and (se di%erse media &or comm(nica)in' ideas. In ;ideo Con&erence 1, &or e!am"#e, s)(den)s ere s*o n in%es)i'a)in' science conce")s (sin' e%er,da, ma)eria#s, s(c* as "a"er and s)ra , &o(nd in )*eir nei'*-or*oods. Faci#i)a)in' in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms a#so in%o#%es "eo"#e. Inside )*e c#assroom, s)(den)s are or'anized in)o *e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("s i)* ro#es s(c* as Team Leader, Enco(ra'er, Re)e##er, Recorder, and 5"okes"erson. 95ee E#iza-e)* Co*en3s ork &or &(r)*er e#a-ora)ion.: /ddi)iona##,, co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers ork )o in%o#%e "aren)s and comm(ni), mem-ers. E!am"#es are+ / orks*o" cen)er in Ne <ork in%i)es "aren)s )o come and e!"erience )*e )*inkin' "rocesses in%o#%ed in cond(c)in' e!"erimen)s (sin' e%er,da, o-0ec)s so )*a) )*e, can "ro%ide s(c* #earnin' e!"eriences a) *ome 9;ideo Con&erence 1:2 )eac*ers in T(cson in%o#%e "aren)s and )*e comm(ni), in academic )asks )*eir s)(den)s en'a'e in 9;ideo Con&erence =:, and r(ra# s)(den)s in Co#orado "er&orm comm(ni), ser%ices s(c* as "rod(cin' a #oca# ne s"a"er 9;ideo Con&erence >:. /no)*er a, )*a) )eac*ers &aci#i)a)e co##a-ora)i%e #earnin' is )o es)a-#is* c#assrooms i)* di%erse and &#e!i-#e socia# s)r(c)(res )*a) "romo)e )*e sor) o& c#assroom -e*a%ior )*e, deem a""ro"ria)e &or comm(nica)ion and co##a-ora)ion amon' s)(den)s. T*ese s)r(c)(res are r(#es and s)andards o& -e*a%iors, &(#&i##in' se%era# &(nc)ions in 'ro(" in)erac)ion, and in&#(encin' 'ro(" a))i)(des. Par)ic(#ar r(#es de"end, o& co(rse, on )*e c#assroom con)e!). T*(s, )eac*ers o&)en de%e#o" )*em co##a-ora)i%e#, i)* s)(den)s and re%ie or c*an'e )*em as needed. E!am"#es o& r(#es are 'i%in' a## mem-ers a c*ance )o "ar)ici"a)e, %a#(in' o)*ers3 commen)s, and ar'(in' a'ains) 9or &or: ideas ra)*er )*an "eo"#e. E!am"#es o& 'ro(" &(nc)ions are+ askin' &or in&orma)ion, c#ari&,in', s(mmarizin', enco(ra'in', and re#ie%in' )ension. To &aci#i)a)e *i'* 4(a#i), 'ro(" in)erac)ion, )eac*ers ma,

need )o )eac*, and s)(den)s ma, need )o "rac)ice, r(#es and &(nc)ions &or 'ro(" in)erac)ion. Fina##,, )eac*ers &aci#i)a)e co##a-ora)i%e #earnin' -, crea)in' #earnin' )asks )*a) enco(ra'e di%ersi),, -() *ic* aim a) *i'* s)andards o& "er&ormance &or a## s)(den)s. T*ese )asks in%o#%e s)(den)s in *i'*.#e%e# )*o('*) "rocesses s(c* as decision makin' and "ro-#em so#%in' )*a) are -es) accom"#is*ed in co##a-ora)ion. T*ese )asks ena-#e s)(den)s )o make connec)ions )o rea#. or#d o-0ec)s, e%en)s, and si)(a)ions in )*eir o n and an e!"anded or#d, and )a" )*eir di%erse "ers"ec)i%es and e!"eriences. Learnin' )asks &os)er s)(den)s3 con&idence and a) )*e same )ime, are a""ro"ria)e#, c*a##en'in'. +odel Mode#in' *as -een em"*asized -, man, #oca# and s)a)e '(ide#ines as s*arin' one3s )*inkin' and demons)ra)in' or e!"#ainin' some)*in'. 7o e%er, in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms, mode#in' ser%es )o s*are i)* s)(den)s no) on#, *a) one is )*inkin' a-o() )*e con)en) )o -e #earned, -() a#so )*e "rocess o& comm(nica)ion and co##a-ora)i%e #earnin'. Mode#in' ma, in%o#%e )*inkin' a#o(d 9s*arin' )*o('*)s a-o() some)*in': or demons)ra)in' 9s*o in' s)(den)s *o )o do some)*in' in a s)e".-,.s)e" &as*ion:. In )erms o& con)en), )eac*ers mi'*) %er-a#ize )*e )*inkin' "rocesses )*e, (se )o make a "redic)ion a-o() a scien)i&ic e!"erimen), )o s(mmarize ideas in a "assa'e, )o &i'(re o() )*e meanin' o& an (n&ami#iar ord, )o re"resen) and so#%e a "ro-#em, )o or'anize com"#ica)ed in&orma)ion, and so on. J(s) as im"or)an), )*e, o(#d a#so )*ink a#o(d a-o() )*eir do(-)s and (ncer)ain)ies. T*is ),"e o& me)aco'ni)i%e )*inkin' and )*inkin' a#o(d *en )*in's do no) 'o smoo)*#, is in%a#(a-#e in *e#"in' s)(den)s (nders)and )*a) #earnin' re4(ires e&&or) and is o&)en di&&ic(#) &or "eo"#e. 6i)* res"ec) )o 'ro(" "rocess, )eac*ers ma, s*are )*eir )*inkin' a-o() )*e %ario(s ro#es, r(#es, and re#a)ions*i"s in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms. Consider #eaders*i", &or e!am"#e. / )eac*er mi'*) mode# *a) *e or s*e )*inks a-o() s(c* 4(es)ions as *o )o mana'e )*e 'ro("3s )ime or *o )o ac*ie%e consens(s. 5imi#ar#,, s*o in' s)(den)s *o )o )*ink )*ro('* )o('* 'ro(" si)(a)ions and "ro-#ems o& comm(nica)ion is as in%a#(a-#e as mode#in' *o )o "#an an a""roac* )o an academic "ro-#em, moni)orin' i)s "ro'ress, and assessin' *a) as #earned. / ma0or c*a##en'e in media)in' #earnin' is )o de)ermine *en i) is a""ro"ria)e )o mode# -, )*inkin' a#o(d and *en i) is (se&(# )o mode# -, demons)ra)in'. I& a )eac*er is cer)ain )*a) s)(den)s *a%e #i))#e e!"erience i)*, sa,, a ma)*ema)ica# "roced(re, )*en i) ma, -e a""ro"ria)e )o demons)ra)e i) -e&ore s)(den)s en'a'e in a #earnin' )ask. 9T*is is no) )o sa, )*a) )*e )eac*er ass(mes or s)a)es )*a) )*ere is on#, one a, )o "er&orm )*e "roced(re. I) is a#so im"or)an) )o a##o &or indi%id(a# %aria)ions in a""#ica)ion.: I&, on )*e o)*er *and, )*e )eac*er -e#ie%es s)(den)s can come (" i)* )*e "roced(re )*emse#%es, )*en *e or s*e mi'*) e#ec) )o ask )*e s)(den)s )o mode# *o )*e, so#%ed )*e "ro-#em2 a#)erna)i%e#, )*e )eac*er co(#d 'i%e s)(den)s *in)s or c(es. 95ee -e#o .: Coac* Coac*in' in%o#%es 'i%in' *in)s or c(es, "ro%idin' &eed-ack, redirec)in' s)(den)s3 e&&or)s, and *e#"in' )*em (se a s)ra)e',. / ma0or "rinci"#e o& coac*in' is )o "ro%ide )*e ri'*) amo(n) o& *e#" *en s)(den)s need i)..nei)*er )oo m(c* nor )oo #i))#e so )*a) s)(den)s re)ain as m(c* res"onsi-i#i), as "ossi-#e &or )*eir o n #earnin'.

For e!am"#e, a co##a-ora)i%e 'ro(" o& 0(nior *i'* s)(den)s orked on )*e economic de%e#o"men) o& se%era# na)ions. T*e, acc(m(#a)ed a #o) o& in&orma)ion a-o() )*e co(n)ries and decided )*a) )*e -es) a, )o "resen) i) as )o com"are )*e co(n)ries. B() )*e, ere s),mied as )o *o )o or'anize )*e in&orma)ion so )*e, co(#d ri)e a-o() i) in a "a"er, )*e "rod(c) )*e, c*ose )o "rod(ce. T*eir )eac*er *in)ed )*a) )*e, (se a ma)ri!..a 'ra"*ic or'anizer )*e, *ad #earned..)o or'anize )*eir in&orma)ion. 6*en )*e 'ro(" &inis*ed )*e ma)ri!, )*e )eac*er 'a%e )*em &eed-ack. In so doin', *e did no) )e## )*em i) as ri'*) or ron', -() asked 4(es)ions )*a) *e#"ed )*em %er-a#ize )*eir reasons &or com"#e)in' )*e ma)ri! as )*e, did. T*e "rinci"#e )*e )eac*er &o##o ed as )o coac* eno('* so )*a) s)(den)s co(#d con)in(e )o #earn -, dra in' on )*e ideas o& o)*er 'ro(" mem-ers.

#tudent Roles in a Collaborative Classroom

5)(den)s a#so ass(me ne ro#es in )*e co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom. T*eir ma0or ro#es are co##a-ora)or and ac)i%e "ar)ici"a)or. I) is (se&(# )o )*ink *o )*ese ne ro#es in&#(ence )*e "rocesses and ac)i%i)ies s)(den)s cond(c) -e&ore, d(rin', and a&)er #earnin'. For e!am"#e, -e&ore #earnin', s)(den)s se) 'oa#s and "#an #earnin' )asks2 d(rin' #earnin', )*e, ork )o'e)*er )o accom"#is* )asks and moni)or )*eir "ro'ress2 and a&)er #earnin', )*e, assess )*eir "er&ormance and "#an &or &()(re #earnin'. /s media)or, )*e )eac*er *e#"s s)(den)s &(#&i## )*eir ne ro#es. Goal setting 5)(den)s "re"are &or #earnin' in man, a,s. Es"ecia##, im"or)an) is 'oa# se))in', a cri)ica# "rocess )*a) *e#"s '(ide man, o)*er -e&ore., d(rin'., and and a&)er.#earnin' ac)i%i)ies. /#)*o('* )eac*ers s)i## se) 'oa#s &or s)(den)s, )*e, o&)en "ro%ide s)(den)s i)* c*oices. 6*en s)(den)s co##a-ora)e, )*e, s*o(#d )a#k a-o() )*eir 'oa#s. For e!am"#e, one )eac*er asked s)(den)s )o se) 'oa#s &or a (ni) on 'ar-a'e. In one 'ro(", a s)(den) an)ed )o &ind o() i& 'ar-a'e is a "ro-#em, ano)*er an)ed )o kno *a) *a""ens )o 'ar-a'e, a )*ird an)ed )o kno *a) is -ein' done )o so#%e )*e "ro-#em o& 'ar-a'e. T*e &o(r)* mem-er co(#d no) )*ink o& a 'oa#, -() a'reed )*a) )*e &irs) )*ree ere im"or)an) and ado")ed )*em. T*ese s)(den)s -ecame more ac)i%e#, in%o#%ed in )*e (ni) a&)er )*eir disc(ssion a-o() 'oa#s, and a) )*e end o& )*e (ni), co(#d -e))er e%a#(a)e *e)*er )*e, *ad a))ained )*em. ,esigning Learning Tasks and +onitoring 6*i#e )eac*ers "#an 'enera# #earnin' )asks, &or e!am"#e, )o "rod(ce a "rod(c) )o i##(s)ra)e a conce"), *is)orica# se4(ence, "ersona# e!"erience, and so on, s)(den)s ass(me m(c* more res"onsi-i#i), in a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom &or "#annin' )*eir o n #earnin' ac)i%i)ies. Idea##,, )*ese "#ans deri%e in "ar) &rom 'oa#s s)(den)s se) &or )*emse#%es. T*o('*)&(# "#annin' -, )*e )eac*er ens(res )*a) s)(den)s can ork )o'e)*er )o a))ain )*eir o n 'oa#s and ca"i)a#ize on )*eir o n a-i#i)ies, kno #ed'e, and s)ra)e'ies i)*in )*e "arame)ers se) -, )*e )eac*er. 5)(den)s are more #ike#, )o en'a'e in )*ese )asks i)* more "(r"ose and in)eres) )*an in )radi)iona# c#assrooms. 5e#&.re'(#a)ed #earnin' is im"or)an) in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms. 5)(den)s #earn )o )ake res"onsi-i#i), &or moni)orin', ad0(s)in', se#&.4(es)ionin', and 4(es)ionin' eac* o)*er. 5(c* se#&.re'(#a)in' ac)i%i)ies are cri)ica# &or s)(den)s )o #earn )oda,, and

)*e, are m(c* -e))er #earned i)*in a 'ro(" )*a) s*ares res"onsi-i#i), &or #earnin'. Moni)orin' is c*eckin' one3s "ro'ress )o ard 'oa#s. /d0(s)in' re&ers )o c*an'es s)(den)s make, -ased on moni)orin', in *a) )*e, are doin' )o reac* )*eir 'oa#s. For e!am"#e, a 'ro(" o& s)(den)s decided )*a) )*e so(rces o& in&orma)ion on )*e Ci%i# 6ar )*e, se#ec)ed ini)ia##, ere no) as (se&(# as )*e, *ad *o"ed, so )*e, se#ec)ed ne ma)eria#s. /no)*er 'ro(" 0(d'ed )*a) )*e "a"er )*e, *ad "#anned )o ri)e o(#d no) accom"#is* *a) )*e, )*o('*) i) o(#d )*e a, )*e, *ad or'anized i), so )*e, "#anned a ne "a"er. 5)(den)s can &(r)*er de%e#o" )*eir se#&.re'(#a)in' a-i#i)ies *en eac* 'ro(" s*ares i)s ideas i)* o)*er 'ro("s and 'e)s &eed-ack &rom )*em. For e!am"#e, in )*e &irs) %ideo con&erence, e#emen)ar, s)(den)s ere s*o n co##a-ora)in' in sma## 'ro("s )o de&ine and re"resen) ma)* "ro-#ems. 6orkin' in sma## 'ro("s, )*e c*i#dren de)ermined *a) as -ein' asked in s)or, "ro-#ems and )*o('*) o& a,s )o so#%e )*e "ro-#ems. T*en eac* 'ro(" s*ared i)s ideas i)* )*e *o#e c#ass. Mem-ers o& )*e c#ass commen)ed on )*e ideas. /s s)(den)s de%e#o"ed "ro-#em.so#%in' ski##s i)* &eed-ack &rom o)*er 'ro("s, )*e, #earned more a-o() re'(#a)in' )*eir o n #earnin' *ic* )*e, co(#d (se in )*e &()(re. -ssessment 6*i#e )eac*ers *a%e ass(med )*e "rimar, res"onsi-i#i), &or assessin' s)(den)s3 "er&ormance in )*e "as), co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms %ie assessmen) m(c* more -road#,. T*a) is, a ma0or 'oa# is )o '(ide s)(den)s &rom )*e ear#ies) sc*oo# ,ears )o e%a#(a)e )*eir o n #earnin'. T*(s, a ne res"onsi-i#i), is se#&.assessmen), a ca"a-i#i), )*a) is &os)ered as s)(den)s assess 'ro(" ork. 5e#&.assessmen) is in)ima)e#, re#a)ed )o on'oin' moni)orin' o& one3s "ro'ress )o ard ac*ie%emen) o& #earnin' 'oa#s. In a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom, assessmen) means more )*an 0(s) assi'nin' a 'rade. I) means e%a#(a)in' *e)*er one *as #earned *a) one in)ended )o #earn, )*e e&&ec)i%eness o& #earnin' s)ra)e'ies, )*e 4(a#i), o& "rod(c)s and decisions a-o() *ic* "rod(c)s re&#ec) one3s -es) ork, )*e (se&(#ness o& )*e ma)eria#s (sed in a )ask, and *e)*er &()(re #earnin' is needed and *o )*a) #earnin' mi'*) -e rea#ized. Co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms are na)(ra# "#aces in *ic* )o #earn se#&.assessmen). /nd -eca(se decisions a-o() ma)eria#s and 'ro(" "er&ormance are s*ared, s)(den)s &ee# more &ree )o e!"ress do(-)s, &ee#in's o& s(ccess, remainin' 4(es)ions, and (ncer)ain)ies )*an *en )*e, are e%a#(a)ed on#, -, a )eac*er. F(r)*ermore, )*e sense o& coo"era)ion 9as o""osed )o com"e)i)ion: )*a) is &os)ered in co##a-ora)i%e ork makes assessmen) #ess )*rea)enin' )*an in a more )radi)iona# assessmen) si)(a)ion. Idea##,, s)(den)s #earn )o e%a#(a)e )*eir o n #earnin' &rom )*eir e!"eriences i)* 'ro(" e%a#(a)ion.

Interactions in a Collaborative Classroom

T*e cri)ica# ro#e o& dia#o'(e in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms *as -een s)ressed )*ro('*o() )*is Guidebook T*e co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom is a#i%e i)* ) o. a, comm(nica)ion. / ma0or mode o& comm(nica)ion is dia#o'(e, *ic* in a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom is )*inkin' made "(-#ic. / ma0or 'oa# &or )eac*ers is )o main)ain )*is dia#o'(e amon' s)(den)s.

Consider e!am"#es o& in)erac)ions in co##a-ora)i%e 'ro("s. Mem-ers disc(ss )*eir a""roac*es )o so#%in' a ma)* "ro-#em, e!"#ain )*eir reasonin', and de&end )*eir ork. 7earin' one s)(den)3s #o'ic "rom")s )*e o)*er s)(den)s )o consider an a#)erna)i%e in)er"re)a)ion. 5)(den)s are )*(s c*a##en'ed )o re.e!amine )*eir o n reasonin'. 6*en )*ree s)(den)s in a 'ro(" ask a &o(r)* s)(den) )o e!"#ain and s(""or) *er ideas, )*a) is, )o make *er )*inkin' "(-#ic, s*e &re4(en)#, e!amines and de%e#o"s *er conce")s &or *erse#& as s*e )a#ks. 6*en one s)(den) *as an insi'*) a-o() *o )o so#%e a di&&ic(#) "ro-#em, )*e o)*ers in )*e 'ro(" #earn *o )o (se a ne )*inkin' s)ra)e', sooner )*an i& )*e, *ad orked on )*eir o n. T*(s, s)(den)s en'a'ed in in)erac)ion o&)en e!ceed *a) )*e, can accom"#is* -, orkin' inde"enden)#,. Co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers main)ain )*e same sor) o& *i'*.#e%e# )a#k and in)erac)ion *en a *o#e c#ass en'a'es in disc(ssion. T*e, a%oid reci)a)ion, *ic* consis)s "rimari#, o& re%ie in', dri##in', and 4(izzin'2 i.e., askin' 4(es)ions )o *ic* )*e ans er is kno n -, )*e )eac*er and )*ere is on#, one ri'*) ans er. In )r(e disc(ssion, s)(den)s )a#k )o eac* o)*er as e## as )o )*e )eac*er, en)er)ain a %arie), o& "oin)s o& %ie , and 'ra""#e i)* 4(es)ions )*a) *a%e no ri'*) or ron' ans ers. 5ome)imes -o)* s)(den)s and )*e )eac*er c*an'e )*eir minds a-o() an idea. In s(m, in)erac)ions in *o#e 'ro(" disc(ssion mirror *a) 'oes on in sma## 'ro("s. 5)i## a )*ird a, in)erac)ions di&&er in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms *as -een s(''es)ed a-o%e. Teac*ers, in )*eir ne ro#es as media)ors, s"end more )ime in )r(e in)erac)ions i)* s)(den)s. T*e, '(ide s)(den)s3 searc* &or in&orma)ion and *e#" )*em s*are )*eir o n kno #ed'e. T*e, mo%e &rom 'ro(" )o 'ro(", mode#in' a #earnin' s)ra)e', &or one 'ro(", en'a'in' in disc(ssion i)* ano)*er, 'i%in' &eed-ack )o s)i## ano)*er.

Challenges and Con licts

6*en )eac*ers and sc*oo#s mo%e &rom )radi)iona# )o co##a-ora)i%e ins)r(c)ion, se%era# im"or)an) iss(es are #ike#, )o arise. T*e, are im"or)an) concerns &or )eac*ers, adminis)ra)ors, and "aren)s. Classroom Control Co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms )end )o -e noisier )*an )radi)iona# c#assrooms. T*is is a #e'i)ima)e iss(e &or a n(m-er o& "eo"#e. 5ome )eac*ers -e#ie%e )*a) nois, c#assrooms indica)e #ack o& disci"#ine or )eac*er con)ro#. In s(c* si)(a)ions, )*e, ar'(e, s)(den)s canno) #earn. Ear#ier in )*is essa, e s)ressed )*a) co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms do no) #ack s)r(c)(re. Indeed, s)r(c)(re -ecomes cri)ica#. 5)(den)s need o""or)(ni)ies )o mo%e a-o(), )a#k, ask 4(es)ions, and so on. T*(s, e ar'(e )*a) )*e noise in a smoo)*#, r(nnin' co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom indica)es )*a) ac)i%e #earnin' is 'oin' on. 7o e%er, s)(den)s m(s) -e )a('*) )*e "arame)ers i)*in *ic* )*e, make )*eir c*oices. R(#es and s)andards m(s) -e s)ressed &rom )*e -e'innin', "ro-a-#, -e&ore an, co##a-ora)ion is ini)ia)ed, and re%ie ed )*ro('*o() a sc*oo# ,ear. .re)aration Time or Collaborative Learning Teac*ers and adminis)ra)ors ma, -e#ie%e )*a) ne #esson "#ans m(s) -e &ormed &or )*ese c#assrooms. To a cer)ain e!)en), )*e, are correc). B() man, )eac*ers a#read, *a%e crea)ed en'a'in' (ni)s

and ac)i%i)ies )*a) are easi#, im"#emen)ed in a co##a-ora)i%e c#assroom. F(r)*ermore, )eac*ers can -e'in s#o #,, makin' c*an'es in one s(-0ec) area or (ni) i)*in a s(-0ec) area, "ro-a-#, one )*e, are a#read, %er, com&or)a-#e )eac*in', and )*en add o)*er s(-0ec)s and (ni)s. Teac*ers can a#so s*are )*eir "#ans i)* eac* o)*er. Indeed, i& e e!"ec) s)(den)s )o co##a-ora)e, e s*o(#d enco(ra'e )eac*ers )o do )*e same? Princi"a#s and c(rric(#(m s"ecia#is)s can a#so co##a-ora)e i)* )eac*ers )o "#an e&&ec)i%e se'men)s o& ins)r(c)ion. Moreo%er, )*ere is a )radeo&& -e) een )*e e!)ra "#annin' )ime needed and -ene&i)s s(c* as #ess )ime correc)in' #essons, increased s)(den) mo)i%a)ion, and &e er a))endance and disci"#ine "ro-#ems. Individual ,i erences -mong #tudents 6e *a%e )o(c*ed on )*is concern in )*e sec)ion on *e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("in'. Ne%er)*e#ess, man, "eo"#e i## s)i## do(-) )*a) indi%id(a# di&&erences can -e -e))er addressed in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms )*an in )radi)iona# c#assrooms i)* *omo'eneo(s 'ro("in'. / ma0or 4(es)ion "eo"#e *a%e concerns )*e ad%an)a'e co##a-ora)ion a&&ords 'i&)ed or *i'*.ac*ie%in' s)(den)s. T*ere are ) o )o('* iss(es *ere. Firs), man, )eac*ers do no) -e#ie%e )*a) #o .ac*ie%in' s)(den)s *a%e m(c* )o con)ri-()e )o )*e #earnin' si)(a)ion2 in e&&ec), )*a) )*e, *a%e no "rior e!"eriences or kno #ed'e o& %a#(e. 5econd, )eac*ers orr, )*a) *i'*.ac*ie%in' s)(den)s i## -e *e#d -ack. In res"onse )o )*e &irs) iss(e, man, co##a-ora)i%e )eac*ers *a%e e!"ressed s(r"rise *en seemin'#, #ess.a-#e s)(den)s *ad insi'*)s and ideas )*a) en) a, -e,ond *a) )eac*ers e!"ec)ed. F(r)*er, i& eac* s)(den) con)ri-()es some)*in', )*e "oo# o& co##ec)i%e kno #ed'e i## indeed -e ric*. In ans er )o )*e second concern, da)a s(''es) )*a) *i'*.ac*ie%in' s)(den)s 'ain m(c* &rom )*eir e!"os(re )o di%erse e!"eriences and a#so &rom "eer )()orin' 9e.'., Jo*nson and Jo*nson, 19@9:. /#so, s)(den)s *o ma, -e *i'* ac*ie%in' in one area ma, need *e#" in o)*er areas. Teac*ers and o)*ers a#so onder *e)*er s*, s)(den)s can &(##, "ar)ici"a)e in a c#assroom )*a) de"ends so m(c* on dia#o'(e. 6e s(''es) )*a) )*ese s)(den)s mi'*) &ee# more com&or)a-#e )a#kin' in sma## 'ro("s )*a) s*are res"onsi-i#i), &or #earnin'. F(r)*ermore, in)erac)ion -e) een #earners can *a""en in a,s o)*er )*an ora# dia#o'(e, &or e!am"#e, ri)in' and ar). / re#a)ed concern is )*a) man, sc*oo#s are s)r(c)(red *omo'eneo(s#, so )*a) an indi%id(a# )eac*er canno) &orm *e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("s i)*o() in%o#%in' c*an'es in )*e en)ire sc*oo#. / *o#e c#ass o& $#o $ readers are )a('*) -, one )eac*er, $a%era'e$ -, ano)*er. 7i'* sc*oo# )racks are e%en more s,s)ema)ica##, en)renc*ed. C#ear#,, )*ese "rac)ices are no) cond(ci%e )o co##a-ora)i%e #earnin' and re4(ire s,s)em. ide res)r(c)(rin'. Indi%id(a# )eac*ers or 'ro("s o& )eac*ers can ini)ia)e dia#o'(e on )*e "ro-#em, *o e%er. Individual Res)onsibilit% or Learning T*is concern is a di&&ic(#) one )o so#%e (n#ess ma0or c*an'es in o)*er areas o& sc*oo#in' are a#so (nder)aken. 5)(den)s are (sed )o -ein' 'raded &or indi%id(a# ork2 "aren)s e!"ec) )o kno *o )*eir s)(den)s &are in sc*oo#. 5c*oo# s)a&& and s)a)e de"ar)men)s de"end on )radi)iona# assessmen)s. In co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms, i) is o&)en di&&ic(#) )o assi'n indi%id(a# 'rades. 5ome )eac*ers 'i%e 'ro(" 'rades, -() man, s)(den)s and "aren)s are (ncom&or)a-#e i)* )*ese. Idea##,, assessmen) "rac)ices s*o(#d -e c*an'ed so )*a) )*e, are consis)en) i)* co##a-ora)ion, i)* a ne %ie o& #earnin' and i)* a )*inkin' c(rric(#(m. ;ideo

Con&erence A addresses recen) researc* and "rac)ice on assessmen). In )*e mean)ime, e&&ec)i%e a,s *a%e -een de%e#o"ed *ere-, indi%id(a# s)(den)s can -e e%a#(a)ed in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms. For e!am"#e, 8a%id Jo*nson and Ro'er Jo*nson, as e## as Ro-er) 5#a%in, ad%ise makin' indi%id(a#s res"onsi-#e &or s(-)asks in 'ro(" ork and )*en de)erminin' -o)* 'ro(" and indi%id(a# 'rades. Con lict o /alues 5(san F#orio.R(ane *as o-ser%ed )*a) man, )eac*ers do no) &ee# com&or)a-#e a##o in' s)(den)s )o ini)ia)e dia#o'(e, de)ermine )o"ics, or e!"#ore "ers"ec)i%es o)*er )*an )*e )eac*er3s. T*is re#(c)ance con&#ic)s i)* )*e a, e&&ec)i%e care'i%ers )eac* )*eir c*i#dren in )*e *ome. F#orio.R(ane and o)*ers, s(c* as /nnemarie Pa#incsar, *a%e &o(nd )*a) )eac*ers o&)en *a%e di&&ic(#), *e#"in' s)(den)s cons)r(c) meanin', es"ecia##, #inkin' )*e ne in&orma)ion )o )*e "rior kno #ed'e and c(#)(re o& )*e s)(den)s. In "ar) )*is is -eca(se man, )eac*ers -e#ie%e )*a) )*eir ro#e is )o )ransmi) kno #ed'e2 in "ar) i) is -eca(se )*e, are *e#d acco(n)a-#e &or )eac*in' discre)e ski##s. In one "oi'nan) e!am"#e, a s)(den) )eac*er3s concern &or 'rammar and "(nc)(a)ion "re%en)ed *er &rom seein' )*e so"*is)ica)ion and meanin' in *a) )*e c*i#d as ac)(a##, comm(nica)in' in a -ook re"or). T*e re#(c)ance "eo"#e &ee# *en asked )o make ma0or c*an'es in )*e a, )*e, do )*in's is c#ear#, )*e mos) serio(s iss(e o& )*ose disc(ssed *ere. 7ard#, a "erson e!is)s *o ea'er#, 'i%es (" &ami#iar a,s o& -e*a%in' )o a))em") some)*in' )*a) is (nkno n and is #ike#, )o *a%e man, c*a##en'es o& im"#emen)a)ion. T*is "ro-#em re4(ires #eaders*i", s(""or), and )ime )o address. 5)a&& de%e#o"men) needs )o address )eac*ers3 concerns. 6e (r'e )*a) ed(ca)ors &irs) e!amine )*eir ass(m")ions a-o() #earnin' and )*en consider ne c(rric(#(m '(ide#ines. T*ere is an in)ima)e re#a)ions*i" amon' one3s de&ini)ion o& #earnin', one3s %ie o& )*e con)en) and sco"e o& c(rric(#a, and ins)r(c)iona# "rac)ices. E!aminin' one3s ass(m")ions *ones)#, and &or)*ri'*)#,, in a s(""or)i%e 'ro(", o&)en s"(rs ed(ca)ors )o c*an'e. T*e a#read,.con%inced m(s) a##o )ime &or )*e #ess.con%inced )o re&#ec) and 'ra""#e i)* im"#ica)ions &or )*e %ie s e!"ressed in )*is Guidebook T*e, m(s) a#so acce") )*e "ossi-i#i), )*a) some ed(ca)ors ma, no) c*an'e. 6e are (r'in' )*a) s)(den)s -e )rea)ed i)* s(c* res"ec)2 e m(s) (r'e )*e same res"ec) &or ad(#)s.

What Is the Research Base or Collaborative Learning?

/%gotskian Theor%
;,'o)sk,, a de%e#o"men)a# )*eoris) and researc*er *o orked in )*e 1910s and ear#, 3=0s, *as in&#(enced some o& )*e c(rren) researc* o& co##a-ora)ion amon' s)(den)s and )eac*ers and on )*e ro#e o& c(#)(ra# #earnin' and sc*oo#in'. 7is "rinci"a# "remise is )*a) *(man -ein's are "rod(c)s no) on#, o& -io#o',, -() a#so o& )*eir *(man c(#)(res. In)e##ec)(a# &(nc)ionin' is )*e "rod(c) o& o(r socia# *is)or,, and #an'(a'e is )*e ke, mode -, *ic* e #earn o(r c(#)(res and )*ro('* *ic*

e or'anize o(r %er-a# )*inkin' and re'(#a)e o(r ac)ions. C*i#dren #earn s(c* *i'*er &(nc)ionin' &rom in)erac)in' i)* )*e ad(#)s and o)*er c*i#dren aro(nd )*em. Inner #)eech C*i#dren #earn *en )*e, en'a'e in ac)i%i)ies and dia#o'(e i)* o)*ers, (s(a##, ad(#)s or more ca"a-#e "eers. C*i#dren 'rad(a##, in)erna#ize )*is dia#o'(e so )*a) i) -ecomes inner s"eec*, )*e means -, *ic* )*e, direc) )*eir o n -e*a%ior and )*inkin'. For e!am"#e, as ad(#)s (se #an'(a'e s(c* as, $T*a) "iece does no) &i) )*ere2 #e)3s )r, i) some"#ace e#se,$ c*i#dren ma, ini)ia##, 0(s) imi)a)e )*is s)ra)e',. 7o e%er, )*e, 'rad(a##, (se i) )o re'(#a)e )*eir o n -e*a%ior in a %arie), o& con)e!)s. E%en)(a##,, )*is dia#o'(e -ecomes in)erna#ized as inner s"eec*. T*ere seems )o -e a 'enera# se4(ence in )*e de%e#o"men) o& s"eec* &or onese#&. 6*en a#one, %er, ,o(n' c*i#dren )end )o )a#k a-o() *a) )*e, *a%e done a&)er )*e, com"#e)e an ac)i%i),. La)er, )*e, )a#k as )*e, ork. Fina##,, )*e, )a#k )o )*emse#%es -e&ore )*e, en'a'e in an ac)i%i),. 5"eec* no *as ass(med a "#annin' &(nc)ion. La)er )*e, in)erna#ize )*is s"eec*. Inner s"eec*..con%ersa)ions e carr, on i)* o(rse#%es -e'ins as a socia# dia#o'(e i)* o)*er "eo"#e and is a ma0or mode o& #earnin', "#annin', and se#&.re'(#a)ion. ;ario(s e!"erimen)s demons)ra)e )*is se#&.re'(#a)in' &(nc)ion o& inner s"eec*. ;,'o)sk, reasoned )*a) *en "eo"#e are asked )o so#%e di&&ic(#) "ro-#ems or )o "er&orm di&&ic(#) )asks, inner s"eec* i## 'o e!)erna#, )*a) is, )ake i)s more "rimi)i%e &orm. In o)*er ords, "eo"#e &re4(en)#, )a#k )o )*emse#%es *en )*e, &ace a "ro-#em. T*is e!)erna#iza)ion o& inner s"eec* is o&)en o-ser%ed in c*i#dren. 6*en )*e, en'a'e in &ami#iar, sim"#e ac)i%i)ies, )*e, (s(a##, do so i)*o() )a#k, -() &aced i)* di&&ic(#) )asks, )*e, ma, *is"er or )a#k o() #o(d )o )*emse#%es. /d(#)s do )*is, )oo. 6*en )*e, are &aced i)* "er"#e!in' or (n&ami#iar )asks s(c* as &i'(rin' o() *o )o ork a ;CR..)*e, o&)en )a#k )*emse#%es )*ro('* s(c* )asks. ;,'o)sk, no)ed )*a) c*i#dren in)erac)in' )o ard a common 'oa# )end )o re'(#a)e eac* o)*er3s ac)ions. O)*er researc*ers 9e.'., Forman B Cazden, 19@C: *a%e o-ser%ed )*a) *en s)(den)s ork )o'e)*er on com"#e! )asks, )*e, assis) eac* o)*er in m(c* )*e same a, ad(#)s assis) c*i#dren. In s(c* )asks, dia#o'(e consis)s o& m()(a# re'(#a)ion. To'e)*er, )*e, can so#%e di&&ic(#) "ro-#ems )*e, canno) so#%e orkin' inde"enden)#,. #ca olding and ,evelo)ment E&&ec)i%e care'i%ers en'a'e in re'(#a)in' dia#o'(e i)* c*i#dren a#mos) na)(ra##,. / ke, "*enomenon o& s(c* in)erac)ions is )*a) care'i%ers main)ain )*e dia#o'(e 0(s) a-o%e )*e #e%e# *ere c*i#dren can "er&orm ac)i%i)ies inde"enden)#,. /s c*i#dren #earn, ad(#)s c*an'e )*e na)(re o& )*eir dia#o'(e so )*a) )*e, con)in(e )o s(""or) )*e c*i#d -() a#so 'i%e )*e c*i#d increasin' res"onsi-i#i), &or )*e )ask 9&or e!am"#e, )*e ad(#) mi'*) sa,, $No see i& ,o( can &ind )*e ne!) "iece o& )*e "(zz#e ,o(rse#&.$:. Jerome Br(ner and *is co##ea'(es ca##ed )*is sca olding. I) )akes "#ace i)*in a c*i#d3s 0one o )ro1imal develo)ment, a #e%e# or ran'e in *ic* a c*i#d can "er&orm a )ask i)* *e#". 9Pia'e) re&ers )o )*is as $)eac*a-#e momen)s$ *en ad(#)s s)re)c* a c*i#d3s ca"aci),, -() s)a, i)*in *a) )*e, are ca"a-#e o& (nders)andin'.: T*e zone o& "ro!ima# de%e#o"men), sca&&o#din', and dia#o'(e are es"ecia##, (se&(# conce")s or &rame orks &or sc*oo# #earnin'. ;,'o)sk, o-ser%ed )*a) e&&ec)i%e )eac*ers "#an and carr, o() #earnin' ac)i%i)ies i)*in c*i#dren3s zones o& "ro!ima# de%e#o"men), )*ro('* dia#o'(e and sca&&o#din'. F#orio.R(ane dre &i%e ma!ims

&rom s)(dies o& care'i%er.c*i#d in)erac)ions )*a) i##(s)ra)e )*ese "oin)s and s*o(#d c*arac)erize sc*oo# ins)r(c)ion. 1. /ss(me )*e c*i#d 9#earner: is com"e)en) 1. Dno )*e c*i#d 9#earner: =. 5*are an in)eres) in )*e )ask a) *and i)* )*e c*i#d 9#earner: A. Fo##o )*e c*i#d3s 9#earner3s: #ead >. Ca"i)a#ize on (ncer)ain), ;er, &e )eac*ers *a%e )*e #(!(r, o& )eac*in' c*i#dren on a one.)o.one -asis. For)(na)e#,, e no kno )*a) )()orin' is no), in &ac), )*e on#,..or e%en )*e -es).. a, &or s)(den)s )o #earn in mos) si)(a)ions. 8ia#o'(e, sca&&o#din', and orkin' in one3s zone o& "ro!ima# de%e#o"men) can -e accom"#is*ed in co##a-ora)i%e c#assrooms, and are -ein' accom"#is*ed in man, c#assrooms )oda,. Connecting school learning to ever%da% li e ;,'o)sk, a#so "ro%ides (s i)* a &rame ork &or )*inkin' a-o() an im"or)an) &(nc)ion o& )eac*in' and )*e m(#)ic(#)(ra# "ers"ec)i%e. 7is researc* s(''es)s )*a) sc*oo# #earnin' ena-#es s)(den)s )o connec) )*eir $e%er,da, conce")s$ )o $scien)i&ic conce")s.$ In o)*er ords, sc*oo#s *e#" s)(den)s dra 'enera#iza)ions and cons)r(c) meanin' &rom )*eir o n e!"eriences, kno #ed'e, and s)ra)e'ies. Dno #ed'e #earned in )*e comm(ni), and kno #ed'e 'ained &rom sc*oo# are -o)* %a#(a-#e. Nei)*er can -e i'nored i& s)(den)s are )o en'a'e in meanin'&(# #earnin'. E&&ec)i%e )eac*ers *e#" s)(den)s make )*ese connec)ions -, sca&&o#din' and dia#o'(e. In &ac), )*ese are )*e essence o& media)in'. Teac*ers "#an #earnin' ac)i%i)ies a) "oin)s *ere s)(den)s are c*a##en'ed. Teac*ers "#an ac)i%i)ies and e!"erimen)s )*a) -(i#d on )*e #an'(a'e o& s)(den)s3 e%er,da, #i%es )*ro('* &ami#iar e!am"#es and -e*a%iors, ana#o'ies and me)a"*ors, and )*e (se o& common#, &o(nd ma)eria#s. Teac*ers demons)ra)e, do "ar)s o& )*e )ask s)(den)s canno) do, ork co##a-ora)i%e#, i)* s)(den)s *ere )*e, need *e#", and re#ease res"onsi-i#i), )o s)(den)s *en )*e, can "er&orm )*e )ask inde"enden)#,.

2ther Research
/ n(m-er o& researc*ers in recen) ,ears *a%e demons)ra)ed )*e *i'* de'ree o& #earnin' "ossi-#e *en s)(den)s can co##a-ora)e in #earnin' )asks and *en )*e, (se )*eir o n kno #ed'e as a &o(nda)ion &or sc*oo# #earnin'. 6*i#e )*ere are man, )*a) e co(#d ci)e, e *a%e c*osen )*ree di&&eren) "ers"ec)i%es *ere+ L(is Mo##3s ork on )eac*ers3 (se o& s(ccess&(# c(#)(ra# "a))erns in Me!ican./merican &ami#ies2 /nnemarie Pa#incsar3s and /nne Bro n3s ork on sca&&o#din', dia#o'(e, and reci"roca# )eac*in'2 and researc* on coo"era)i%e #earnin'. La)er e "ro%ide addi)iona# researc* in con)en) area e!am"#es. Luis +oll Mo##, an ed(ca)or, and *is co##ea'(es in an)*ro"o#o',, Car#os ;e#ez. #-anez and James Ereen-er', *a%e s)(died Me!ican./merican &ami#ies *o *a%e s(r%i%ed s(ccess&(##, in s"i)e o& de-i#i)a)in' circ(ms)ances s(c* as "o%er), and discrimina)ion. Par)ic(#ar cons)e##a)ions o& c(#)(ra# "a))erns..s)ra)e'ies i& ,o( i##.. )*a) %a#(e #earnin' and )*e )ransmission o& kno #ed'e )o c*i#dren dis)in'(is* )*ese &ami#ies. Mo## e) a#. ar'(e )*a) sc*oo#s can dra on )*e socia# and co'ni)i%e con)ri-()ions )*a) "aren)s can make )o )*eir c*i#dren3s academic #earnin'.

Mo## and *is co##ea'(es disco%ered )*a) Me!ican./merican *o(se*o#ds are c#(s)ered accordin' )o kins*i" )ies and e!c*an'e re#a)ions*i"s. T*ese c#(s)ers o& *o(se*o#ds de%e#o" ric* unds o knowledge )*a) "ro%ide in&orma)ion a-o() "rac)ices and reso(rces (se&(# in ens(rin' )*e e##.-ein' o& )*e *o(se*o#ds. Eac* *o(se*o#d in )*e c#(s)er is a "#ace *ere e!"er)ise in a "ar)ic(#ar domain can -e accessed and (sed2 e!am"#es o& domains inc#(de re"air o& %e*ic#es and a""#iances, "#(m-in', kno #ed'e o& ed(ca)ion, *er-a# medicine, and &irs) aid. To'e)*er, )*e *o(se*o#ds &orm a c#(s)er &or )*e e!c*an'e o& in&orma)ion and reso(rces. O&)en, e%er,one seems )o con're'a)e a) one core *o(se*o#d. Fami#ies crea)e se))in's in *ic* c*i#dren carr, o() )*e )asks and c*ores in )*e m(#)i"#e domains o& c#(s)ered *o(se*o#ds. T*e c*i#dren3s ac)i%i)ies *a%e im"or)an) in)e##ec)(a# conse4(ences. T*e, o-ser%e, 4(es)ion, and assis) ad(#)s as %ario(s )asks are done. For e!am"#e, )*e son ma, indica)e in)eres) in &i!in' a car -, askin' 4(es)ions. T*e &a)*er )akes *is c(e &rom )*e c*i#d and )*en decides *e)*er or no) )*e c*i#d is ca"a-#e o& doin' a )ask2 i& no), *e ma, s(''es) a )ask )*a) )*e c*i#d can accom"#is*. E%en )*o('* )*e son3s *e#" ma, -e minima#, s(c* as *e#"in' )o "() in scre s or c*eckin' )*e oi#, *is "ar)ici"a)ion in )*e *o#e )ask is enco(ra'ed as an essen)ia# "ar) o& #earnin'. 7e is a##o ed )o a))em") )asks and )o e!"erimen) i)*o() &ear o& "(nis*men) i& *e &ai#s. In s(c* &ami#ies, #earnin' and 4(es)ionin' are in )*e *ands o& )*e c*i#d. 6i)* )ime c*i#dren de%e#o" e!"er)ise as e##. T*e, *a%e man, o""or)(ni)ies in )*e c#(s)er o& *o(se*o#ds )o a""#, *a) )*e, *a%e #earned )o )asks o& )*eir o n desi'n. For e!am"#e, )*e son ma, *a%e a ork"#ace *ere )*ere are man, $0(nk$ en'ines )*a) *e can mani"(#a)e and i)* *ic* *e can e!"erimen). 7e ma, (se *a) *e *as #earned in o-ser%in' and assis)in' *is &a)*er )o re-(i#d a sma## en'ine &or a $'o.car)$ *e is cons)r(c)in'. Mo## and *is co##ea'(es are e!"#orin' a,s o& (sin' )*e comm(ni), )o enric* c*i#dren3s academic de%e#o"men). To accom"#is* )*is, )eac*ers *a%e de%e#o"ed an a&)er.sc*oo# #a-ora)or,. One )eac*er crea)ed a mod(#e on cons)r(c)in' *o(ses *ic* is a )*eme o& 'rea) in)eres) )o )*e s)(den)s in )*is )eac*er3s c#assroom and a#so one o& )*e mos) "rominen) &(nds o& kno #ed'e &o(nd in )*e s)(den)s3 *o(se*o#ds. T*e s)(den)s s)ar)ed -, #oca)in' in&orma)ion on -(i#din' or cons)r(c)ion in )*e #i-rar,. /s a res(#) o& )*eir researc*, )*e, -(i#) a mode# *o(se or o)*er s)r(c)(re as *ome ork and ro)e re"or)s descri-in' )*eir researc* and e!"#ainin' )*eir cons)r(c)ion. To e!)end )*is ac)i%i),, )*e )eac*er in%i)ed "aren)s and o)*er comm(ni), mem-ers *o ere e!"er)s )o s*are in&orma)ion on s"eci&ic as"ec)s o& cons)r(c)ion. For e!am"#e, one "aren) descri-ed *is (se o& cons)r(c)ion )oo#s and *o *e meas(red )*e area and "erime)er o& *is ork si)e. T*(s, )*e )eac*er as mo-i#izin' )*e &(nds o& kno #ed'e in )*e comm(ni), )o ac*ie%e )*e ins)r(c)iona# 'oa#s )*a) s*e and *er s)(den)s *ad ne'o)ia)ed )o'e)*er. T*e s)(den)s )*en )ook )*e mod(#e one s)e" &(r)*er. T*e, an)ed )o consider *o )*e, co(#d com-ine )*ese indi%id(a# s)r(c)(res )o &orm a comm(ni),. T*is )ask re4(ired -o)* a""#ica)ion o& )*eir ear#ier #earnin's and considera-#e researc*. 5)(den)s en) o() )o do researc*, ro)e s(mmaries o& )*eir &indin's, and s*ared )*e res(#)s ora##, i)* o)*ers in )*e c#ass. T*(s, s)(den)s &(#&i##ed )*eir o n in)eres)s and desi'ned )*e #earnin' )ask, *i#e )*e )eac*er &aci#i)a)ed and media)ed )*e #earnin' "rocess and &(#&i##ed *er c(rric(#ar 'oa# o& )eac*in' #an'(a'e ar)s.

.alincsar and Bro n Pa#incsar and Bro n *a%e a""#ied ;,'o)sk,3s )*eories a-o() dia#o'(e and sca&&o#din' )o c#assroom ins)r(c)ion. T*e, reasoned )*a) i& )*e na)(ra# dia#o'(e )*a) occ(rs o()side o& sc*oo# -e) een a c*i#d and ad(#) is so "o er&(# &or "romo)in' #earnin', i) o('*) )o "romo)e #earnin' in sc*oo# as e##. In "ar)ic(#ar, )*e, ere in)eres)ed in )*e "#annin' and se#&.re'(#a)ion s(c* dia#o'(e mi'*) &os)er in #earners as e## as )*e insi'*)s )eac*ers mi'*) 'ain a-o() )*eir s)(den)s3 )*inkin' "rocesses as )*e, en'a'e in #earnin' )asks. In addi)ion, dia#o'(e amon' s)(den)s mi'*) -e es"ecia##, e&&ec)i%e &or enco(ra'in' co##a-ora)i%e "ro-#em so#%in'. Pa#incsar and Bro n no)ed )*a), in con)ras) )o e&&ec)i%e ad(#).c*i#d in)erac)ions o()side o& sc*oo#, c#assroom )a#k does no) a# a,s enco(ra'e s)(den)s )o de%e#o" se#&.re'(#a)ion. T*(s, a 'oa# o& )*eir researc* as )o &ind a,s )o make dia#o'(e a ma0or mode o& in)erac)ion -e) een )eac*ers and s)(den)s )o enco(ra'e se#&. re'(#a)ed #earnin'. T*eir c#assroom researc* re%ea#ed increased se#&.re'(#a)ion in c#assrooms *ere, s(-se4(en) )o )rainin', dia#o'(e -ecame a na)(ra# ac)i%i),. 6i)*in a 0oin) dia#o'(e, )eac*ers mode#ed )*inkin' s)ra)e'ies e&&ec)i%e#,, a""aren)#, in "ar) -eca(se s)(den)s &e#) &ree )o e!"ress (ncer)ain),, ask 4(es)ions, and s*are )*eir kno #ed'e i)*o() &ear o& cri)icism. T*e s)(den)s 'a%e )*e )eac*ers c#(es, so )o s"eak, as )o )*e kind o& #earnin' )*e, ere read, &or. For e!am"#e, one s)(den) in)err(")ed *er )eac*er *en s*e did no) (nders)and some)*in' )*e )eac*er as readin'. T*e )eac*er )ook )*is o""or)(ni), )o mode# a c#ari&,in' s)ra)e',. 9I) a#so o(#d *a%e -een a""ro"ria)e )o *a%e asked o)*er s)(den)s )o mode# )*e "rocess.: In a n(m-er o& c#assrooms, s)(den)s &ree#, disc(ssed *a) )*e, kne a-o() )o"ics, )*(s re%ea#in' "ersis)en) misconce")ions. 5(c* re%e#a)ions do no) a# a,s *a""en in more )radi)iona# c#assrooms. F(r)*ermore, )eac*ers *e#"ed s)(den)s c*an'e )*eir misconce")ions )*ro('* con)in(ed dia#o'(e. One "ar)ic(#ar a""#ica)ion as in readin' com"re*ension &or s)(den)s iden)i&ied as "oor readers. T*e researc*ers "ro"osed )*a) "oor readers *a%e *ad im"o%eris*ed e!"eriences i)* readin' &or meanin' in sc*oo# and conc#(ded )*a) )*e, mi'*) #earn com"re*ension s)ra)e'ies )*ro('* dia#o'(e. To enco(ra'e 0oin) res"onsi-i#i), &or dia#o'(e, )*e, asked s)(den)s )o )ake increasin' res"onsi-i#i), &or #eadin' disc(ssion, i.e., )o ac) as )*e )eac*er. T*is )(rn.)akin' is ca##ed reci"roca# )eac*in'. T*e &o(r com"re*ension s)ra)e'ies )*a) are s)ressed are+ "redic)in', 4(es)ion 'enera)in', s(mmarizin', and c#ari&,in'. T*e $)eac*er$ #eads dia#o'(e a-o() )*e )e!). Predic)in' ac)i%a)es s)(den)s3 "rior kno #ed'e a-o() )*e )e!) and *e#"s )*em make connec)ions -e) een ne in&orma)ion and *a) )*e, a#read, kno , and 'i%es )*em a "(r"ose &or readin'. 5)(den)s a#so #earn )o 'enera)e 4(es)ions )*emse#%es ra)*er )*an res"ondin' on#, )o )eac*er 4(es)ions. 5)(den)s co##a-ora)e )o accom"#is* s(mmarizin', *ic* enco(ra'es )*em )o in)e'ra)e *a) )*e, *a%e #earned. C#ari&,in' "romo)es com"re*ension moni)orin'. 5)(den)s s*are )*eir (ncer)ain)ies a-o() (n&ami#iar %oca-(#ar,, con&(sin' )e!) "assa'es, and di&&ic(#) conce")s. Reci"roca# )eac*in' *as -een s(ccess&(#, -() on#, *en )eac*ers -e#ie%e )*e (nder#,in' ass(m")ion )*a) co##a-ora)ion amon' )eac*ers and s)(den)s )o cons)r(c) meanin', so#%e "ro-#ems, and so &or)*, #eads )o *i'*er 4(a#i), #earnin'. Be#ie%in' )*is is on#, a -e'innin'. En'a'in' in )r(e dia#o'(e re4(ires "rac)ice &or -o)* )eac*ers and s)(den)s. 7o e%er, )*e "rinci"#es o& co##a-ora)i%e dia#o'(e and

sca&&o#din' &or "(r"oses o& se#&.re'(#a)ed #earnin' o('*) )o -e e&&ec)i%e across man, con)en) areas. 6*a) ma, di&&er, o& co(rse, are )*e cri)ica# s"eci&ic s)ra)e'ies &or di&&eren) s(-0ec) areas. For e!am"#e, de&inin' "ro-#ems seems cri)ica# in ma)*ema)ics2 0(d'in' )*e re#ia-i#i), o& reso(rces a""ears im"or)an) in socia# s)(dies2 and seekin' em"irica# e%idence is essen)ia# in science. In &ac), Pa#incsar is c(rren)#, in%es)i'a)in' "ro-#em so#%in' in science. Coo)erative Learning Coo"era)ion, a &orm o& co##a-ora)ion, is $ orkin' )o'e)*er )o accom"#is* s*ared 'oa#s$ 9Jo*nson B Jo*nson, 19@9, ". 1:. 6*ereas co##a-ora)ion *a""ens in -o)* sma## and #ar'e 'ro("s, coo"era)ion re&ers "rimari#, )o sma## 'ro("s o& s)(den)s orkin' )o'e)*er. Man, )eac*ers and *o#e sc*oo#s are ado")in' coo"era)ion as )*e "rimar, s)r(c)(re &or c#assroom #earnin'. Researc* s)ron'#, s(""or)s )*e ad%an)a'es o& coo"era)i%e #earnin' o%er com"e)i)ion and indi%id(a#ized #earnin' in a ide arra, o& #earnin' )asks. Com"ared )o com"e)i)i%e or indi%id(a# ork, coo"era)ion #eads )o *i'*er 'ro(" and indi%id(a# ac*ie%emen), *i'*er.4(a#i), reasonin' s)ra)e'ies, more &re4(en) )rans&er o& )*ese &rom )*e 'ro(" )o indi%id(a# mem-ers, more me)aco'ni)ion, and more ne ideas and so#()ions )o "ro-#ems. In addi)ion, s)(den)s orkin' in coo"era)i%e 'ro("s )end )o -e more in)rinsica##, mo)i%a)ed, in)e##ec)(a##, c(rio(s, carin' o& o)*ers, and "s,c*o#o'ica##, *ea#)*,. T*a) is no) )o sa, )*a) com"e)i)ion and indi%id(a# ork s*o(#d no) -e %a#(ed and enco(ra'ed, *o e%er. For e!am"#e, com"e)i)ion is a""ro"ria)e *en )*ere can -e on#, one inner, as in a s"or)s e%en), and indi%id(a#is)ic e&&or) is a""ro"ria)e *en )*e 'oa# is "ersona##, -ene&icia# and *as no in&#(ence on )*e 'oa#s o& o)*ers. Fn&or)(na)e#,, sim"#, "())in' s)(den)s in 'ro("s and #e))in' )*em 'o is no) eno('* )o a))ain )*e o()comes #is)ed a-o%e. Indeed, man, )eac*ers and sc*oo#s *a%e &ai#ed )o im"#emen) coo"era)ion -eca(se )*e, *a%e no) (nders)ood )*a) coo"era)i%e ski##s m(s) -e #earned and "rac)iced, es"ecia##, since s)(den)s are (sed )o orkin' on )*eir o n in com"e)i)ion &or 'rades. /) #eas) )*ree condi)ions m(s) "re%ai#, accordin' )o Jo*nson and Jo*nson, i& coo"era)ion is )o ork. Firs), s)(den)s m(s) see )*emse#%es as "osi)i%e#, in)erde"enden) so )*a) )*e, )ake a "ersona# res"onsi-i#i), &or orkin' )o ac*ie%e 'ro(" 'oa#s. 5econd, s)(den)s m(s) en'a'e in considera-#e &ace.)o.&ace in)erac)ion in *ic* )*e, *e#" eac* o)*er, s*are reso(rces, 'i%e cons)r(c)i%e &eed-ack )o eac* o)*er, c*a##en'e o)*er mem-ers3 reasonin' and ideas, kee" an o"en mind, ac) in a )r(s) or)*, manner, and "romo)e a &ee#in' o& sa&e), )o red(ce an!ie), o& a## mem-ers. 7e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("s o& s)(den)s (s(a##, accom"#is* )*is second condi)ion -e))er )*an do *omo'eneo(s 'ro("s. T*e )*ird condi)ion, e&&ec)i%e 'ro(" "rocess ski##s, is necessar, &or )*e &irs) ) o )o "re%ai#. In &ac), 'ro(" ski##s are ne%er $mas)ered.$ 5)(den)s con)in(a##, need )o re&#ec) on )*eir in)erac)ions and e%a#(a)e )*eir coo"era)i%e ork. For e!am"#e, s)(den)s need )o #earn ski##s -o)* &or accom"#is*in' )asks, s(c* as s(mmarizin' and consens(s )akin', and &or main)ainin' 'ro(" co*esi%eness, s(c* as ens(rin' )*a) e%er,one *as a c*ance )o s"eak and com"romisin'. 5ome "eo"#e, s(c* as 5#a%in, *a%e de%e#o"ed s"eci&ic coo"era)i%e #earnin' me)*ods )*a) em"*asize indi%id(a# res"onsi-i#i), &or 'ro(" mem-ers. 6*i#e 'ro("s s)i## ork )o ac*ie%e common 'oa#s, eac* mem-er &(#&i##s a "ar)ic(#ar ro#e or

accom"#is*es an indi%id(a# )ask. Teac*ers can )*en assess -o)* 'ro(" and indi%id(a# ork. 8i&&ic(#) as i) ma, -e )o im"#emen) coo"era)i%e #earnin', )*ose *o *a%e are en)*(sias)ic. 95ee )*e e!am"#e &rom Jo#ie) 6es) 7i'* 5c*oo# in )*e ne!) sec)ion.: T*e, see im"ro%ed #earnin', more e&&ec)i%e socia# ski##s, and *i'*er se#&.es)eem &or mos) o& )*eir s)(den)s. In addi)ion, )*e, reco'nize )*a) o(r c*an'in' or#d demands more and more coo"era)ion amon' indi%id(a#s, comm(ni)ies, and na)ions, and )*a) )*e, are indeed "re"arin' s)(den)s &or )*is or#d.

What -re 2ther 31am)les o Collaborative Instruction?

The 4amehameha 3arl% 3ducation .rogram
5ome )eac*ers in 7a aiian c#assrooms, in coo"era)ion i)* researc*ers s(c* as Da)*erine /(, *a%e de%e#o"ed a a, )o )eac* e#emen)ar, readin', E!"erience. Te!).Re#a)ions*i" 9ETR:, )*a) &oc(ses on com"re*ension and dra s on )*e s)ren')*s o& )*e 7a aiian c(#)(re. T*e -asic e#emen) o& )*e ETR me)*od is disc(ssion o& a )e!) and )o"ics re#a)ed )o )*e )e!), es"ecia##, s)(den)s3 o n e!"eriences. Teac*ers cond(c) disc(ssion o& s)ories in )*ree "*ases. Firs), )*e, '(ide s)(den)s )o ac)i%a)e *a) )*e, kno )*a) i## *e#" )*em (nders)and *a) )*e, read, make "redic)ions, and se) "(r"oses. T*is is )*e E!"erience "*ase. Ne!), )*e, read )*e s)or, i)* )*e s)(den)s, s)o""in' a) a""ro"ria)e "oin)s )o disc(ss )*e s)or,, de)ermine *e)*er )*eir "redic)ions ere con&irmed, and so on. T*is is )*e Te!) "*ase. /&)er )*e, *a%e &inis*ed )*e s)or,, )eac*ers '(ide s)(den)s )o re#a)e ideas &rom a )e!) )o )*eir o n e!"eriences. T*is is )*e Re#a)ions*i" "*ase. Teac*ers &aci#i)a)e com"re*ension, mode# "rocesses, and ma, coac* s)(den)s as )*e, en'a'e in readin' and com"re*ension ac)i%i)ies. 7a aiians en'a'e in $)a#k s)or,$ as a &a%ored a, )o narra)e s)ories. 6*i#e some c(#)(res e!"ec) on#, one "erson )o re#a)e a s)or,, 7a aiians coo"era)e -, )akin' )(rns re#a)in' sma## "ar)s o& a s)or,. Enco(ra'in' s(c* s)ra)e'ies in readin' #essons "romo)es co##a-ora)ion amon' s)(den)s and )*e )eac*er and in%o#%es, indirec)#,, )*e comm(ni), as e##. 9Coo"era)ion amon' &ami#, and 'ro(" mem-ers is a#so im"or)an) in o)*er as"ec)s o& )*e c(#)(re.: /s a res(#), )*e ETR me)*od no) on#, a))ends )o s)(den)s3 e!"eriences re#a)ed )o )*e con)en) o& a )e!), -() a#so *onors comm(nica)ion s)ra)e'ies s)(den)s *a%e #earned in )*eir o n c(#)(res. Content -rea Reading 7aro#d 7er-er de%e#o"ed a se) o& )eac*in' s)ra)e'ies &or con)en) area readin' &or o#der s)(den)s, "ar)ic(#ar#, *i'* sc*oo# s)(den)s, in *ic* )eac*ers s*o s)(den)s *o )o com"re*end )e!) )*ro('* sim(#a)ion 9mode#in' and &aci#i)a)in': ra)*er )*an askin' reci)a)ion 4(es)ions )*a) mere#, assess *e)*er s)(den)s *a%e (nders)ood a )e!). In addi)ion, (se o& sma##, *e)ero'eneo(s, co##a-ora)i%e 'ro("s in con)en) area readin' increases s)(den)s3 in%o#%emen) in #earnin'. T*e, are more i##in' )o )ake

risks and )o #earn ne s)ra)e'ies and ideas &rom )*eir "eers. Teac*ers *o (se 7er-er3s s)ra)e'ies re"or) )*a) a## s)(den)s seem )o -ene&i) &rom co##a-ora)i%e ork. T*e, &ind )*a) i) is cri)ica#, *o e%er, )o )eac* s)(den)s *o )o ork in 'ro("s. .rocess Writing T*e "rocess ri)in' a""roac* e descri-e *ere as de%e#o"ed in a r(ra# sc*oo# in Ne 7am"s*ire (nder )*e direc)ion o& 8ona#d Era%es. I) *as -een incor"ora)ed in man, e#emen)ar, sc*oo# c#assrooms -() is 0(s) as a""ro"ria)e &or o#der c*i#dren. Process ri)in' )eac*ers *o (se Era%es3 a""roac* make cer)ain ass(m")ions a-o() s)(den)s and )*e ri)in' "rocess. One is )*a) s)(den)s *a%e or)* *i#e ideas )o comm(nica)e in ri)in'. /no)*er is )*a) *en s)(den)s se#ec) )*eir o n )o"ics )*e, i## #earn more a-o() ri)in' )*an i& )eac*ers a# a,s assi'n )o"ics. / )*ird is )*a) ri)in' s*o(#d -e read -, rea# a(diences, )*a) is, )*a) ri)in' is cons)r(c)in' meanin' -, a comm(ni), o& ri)ers and readers. Bo)* )eac*ers and s)(den)s en'a'e in ri)in' as a cra&). Teac*ers3 main &(nc)ions are )o &aci#i)a)e, mode#, and coac*. 5)(den)s dia#o'(e i)* o)*er s)(den)s in con&erences and as "ar) o& an a(dience. T*e mode o& in)erac)ion is co##a-ora)ion amon' s)(den)s and )*e )eac*er. Teac*ers &(#&i## )*eir media)in' ro#es in man, a,s. T*e, &aci#i)a)e -, "ro%idin' )ime )o ri)e e%er, da, and -, se))in' s)andards i)* )*e s)(den)s &or con&erencin', s*arin', and -ein' an a(dience. T*e, mode# -, ri)in' a#on' i)* )*e s)(den)s and )*inkin' a#o(d a-o() *o )o so#%e "ro-#ems ri)ers enco(n)er s(c* as se#ec)in' )o"ics and makin' re%isions. Coac*in' o&)en )akes "#ace in )eac*er.s)(den) con&erences, and s)(den).s)(den) con&erences mirror )*e )eac*er.s)(den) con&erence. Con&erences are conce")(a#ized as dia#o'(es -e) een an edi)or and an a()*or. T*e $edi)or$ mi'*) "oin) o() "#aces *ere )*e a()*or3s ri)in' orks es"ecia##, e##, or mi'*) "oin) o() a con&(sin' "assa'e )*a) )*e a()*or co(#d re%ise. Era%es "ro%ides man, "rac)ica# '(ide#ines &or, and e!am"#es o&, s(ccess&(# con&erencin'. Man, im"or)an) in)erac)ions are "romo)ed in "rocess ri)in'. 5)(den)s ork on )*eir o n, -() a#so s*are )*eir ri)in' i)* o)*er s)(den)s and )*e )eac*er. 6*en a s)(den) decides )o s*are *is or *er ork i)* )*e *o#e c#ass, *e or s*e is )rea)ed as a rea# a()*or. G(es)ions )*a) o)*er s)(den)s ask )*e s)(den) a()*or o(#d -e )*e same ones )*e, mi'*) ask a $rea#$ a()*or2 &or e!am"#e, $6*ere did ,o( 'e) ,o(r idea &or )*a) s)or,H$ 6*en s)(den)s &ee# a "iece is &inis*ed, )*e, "(-#is* i) and "#ace i) on )*e c#assroom s*e#%es a#on'side -ooks -, )*eir "eers and $rea#$ a()*ors. *inding +athematical .atterns Ma)*ema)ics is &(## o& o""or)(ni)ies &or s)(den)s )o co##a-ora)e on )asks )*a) re4(ire com"#e! )*inkin'. 6e##.desi'ned "ro-#ems re4(ire in)er"re)a)ion, a##o &or m(#)i"#e so#()ion s)ra)e'ies, and *a%e so#()ions )*a) can -e de-a)ed, e!)ended, and 'enera#ized )o o)*er con)e!)s. T*omas Eood and *is co##ea'(es a) )*e Fni%ersi), o& Misso(ri.Co#(m-ia *a%e iden)i&ied e!em"#ar, "rac)ices in sma##.'ro(" ma)*ema)ics ins)r(c)ion. /s an i##(s)ra)ion, )*e, s(mmarize a #esson de%e#o"ed -, a )*ird.'rade )eac*er. 5*e -e'an )*e #esson -, askin' )*e *o#e c#ass a## )*e di&&eren) a,s o& ri)in' = as a s(m 9&or e!am"#e, 1 I 1 I 1, 1 I 1, = I 0:. 5*e ro)e )*e res"onses on )*e -oard and no)ed )*e n(m-er o& "ossi-i#i)ies. 5*e )*en asked s)(den)s )o ork in "airs )o iden)i&, a## )*e a,s )o make s(ms o& A. T*e )eac*er enco(ra'ed )*e

s)(den)s )o con&er and "oo# so#()ions )o de)ermine *e)*er )*e, *ad &o(nd a## "ossi-#e so#()ions. Ne!) s*e asked sma## 'ro("s o& s)(den)s )o consider )*e n(m-er >. Be&ore )*e 'ro("s s)ar)ed, s*e asked )*em )o "redic) *o man, so#()ions )*ere o(#d -e. 6i)* en)*(siasm and e!ci)emen), )*e 'ro("s com"e)ed )o &ind )*e 'rea)es) n(m-er o& so#()ions, and m(c* )ask.re#a)ed con%ersa)ion ens(ed. T*e )eac*er )*en #ed a &o##o .(" disc(ssion, askin' eac* 'ro(" )o descri-e )*e s,s)em i) *ad (sed )o 'enera)e "ossi-#e so#()ions. T*e c#ass )*en decided *ic* s,s)em )*e, )*o('*) as -es). T*e )eac*er )*en *e#"ed s)(den)s #ook &or "a))erns in )*e n(m-ers o& so#()ions &or =, A, and >. Ne!), s*e asked )*em )o (se )*eir $-es)$ s,s)em )o 'enera)e a## "ossi-#e "a))erns &or )*e n(m-er C. /'ain, s*e asked i& a "a))ern as a""aren) and i& )*e, co(#d (se i) )o "redic) so#()ions &or )*e n(m-er J. 5e%era# s(''es)ions ere made, -() no conc#(sions a'reed on. 5*e ended -, enco(ra'in' s)(den)s )o )*ink more a-o() )*is "ro-#em. -))lication in +athematics. /s "ar) o& )*e Fni%ersi), o& C*ica'o 5c*oo# Ma)*ema)ics Pro0ec), a com"#e)e ma)*ema)ics c(rric(#(m *as -een de%e#o"ed &or a%era'e s)(den)s in 'rades J.11. 8e%e#o"men) o& )*is c(rric(#(m, *ic* -e'an in 19@=, is (nder )*e direc)ion o& Ka#man Fsiskin and 5*aron 5enk, and *as in%o#%ed sc*oo# "ersonne# a) e%er, s)a'e o& "#annin', ri)in', and )es)in'. T*e c(rric(#(m aims )o "re"are s)(den)s &or an a'e in *ic* ma)*ema)ics *as an in)e'ra# ro#e in con)em"orar, iss(es, comm(nica)ion, and commerce, as e## as i)s )radi)iona# ro#e in science, en'ineerin', and )ec*no#o',. C(rric(#ar con)en) &oc(ses on (sin' ma)*ema)ics )o so#%e rea#. or#d "ro-#ems. For e!am"#e, ins)ead o& -ein' asked )o &ind a so#()ion )o an a-s)rac) $"ro-#em$ s(c* as A00 di%ided -, 11.=, s)(den)s mi'*) -e asked, $5(""ose a car 'oes A00 mi#es -e) een 'as &i##.("s and i) )akes 11.= 'a##ons )o &i## (" )*e )ank. 6*a) *as -een )*e mi#ea'e "er 'a##onH$ In c#asses *ere )*is 4(es)ion is asked and )*e ans er 9a-o() =>.A mi#es "er 'a##on: is &o(nd, )*ere are na)(ra# 4(es)ions s(c* as+ $6*, is )*is n(m-er im"or)an)H$ $Is )*is "ossi-#e . do cars 'e) )*is m(c* mi#ea'eH I& so, *a) cars doH$ $6*a) is a 'ood 'as mi#ea'e )*ese da,sH$ $7o m(c* #ess 'as o(#d -e (sed on a 10,000.mi#e )ri" -, a car a%era'in' => mi#es "er 'a##on )*an a car a%era'in' 1> mi#es "er 'a##onH 7o m(c* #ess o(#d i) cos)H$ T*is em"*asis on (sin' ma)*ema)ics )o so#%e rea#. or#d "ro-#ems &orces )*e c(rric(#(m )o make (se o& )ec*no#o',. T*e (se o& )ec*no#o',..in )*is case, a ca#c(#a)or . ena-#es )*e )eac*er and s)(den)s )o -e more e&&icien) in (sin' ma)* )o so#%e "ro-#ems, &reein' (" )*e )ime &ormer#, s"en) in ca#c(#a)ion &or so#%in' addi)iona# "ro-#ems re#e%an) )o s)(den)s3 #i%es. In )*e 5c*oo# Ma)*ema)ics Pro0ec), scien)i&ic ca#c(#a)ors are re4(ired in a## co(rses -eca(se )*e, are a%ai#a-#e )o a#mos) an,one *o (ses ma)*ema)ics in )*e or#d o()side o& sc*oo#. Com"()er ork is recommended in a## co(rses and is re4(ired in one ad%anced co(rse -eca(se )*e con)en)..&(nc)ions and s)a)is)ics is no) co%ered ade4(a)e#, )oda, (n#ess one *as a()oma)ic 'ra"*ic and da)a *and#in' ca"a-i#i)ies. In )*ese a,s, ins)r(c)ion is c*an'ed no) -eca(se o& an a "riori decision )o (se co##a-ora)i%e 'ro("s or coo"era)i%e #earnin' -() -eca(se )*e con)en) and )ec*no#o', #end )*emse#%es )o disc(ssion and )eam ork. 5)(den)s are (s(a##, no) sa)is&ied mere#, i)* a ri'*)L ron' ans er )o an in)eres)in' "ro-#em2 )*e, is* )o disc(ss i), )*e, an) )o s*are )*eir me)*ods o& so#()ion, and )*e, an) )o kno

*e)*er o)*ers )*o('*) )*e same a,. One o& )*e sa#ien) &indin's &rom )*e )es)in' o& )*is c(rric(#(m is )*a) s)(den)s no #on'er ask, $7o does )*is )o"ic a""#, )o )*e rea# or#dH$ or $6*, am I s)(d,in' )*isH$ In )*e a#'e-ra c(rric(#(m, Fsiskin and 5enk *a%e inc#(ded on#, )*ose $ ord "ro-#ems$ )*a) s*o )*e im"or)ance o& ma)*ema)ics in )oda,3s or#d. T*e c(rric(#(m de%e#o"ers "oin) o() )*e "i)&a##s o& "ro-#ems s(c* as )*e &o##o in', o&)en &o(nd in a#'e-ra )e!)s+ $Re%ersin' )*e ) o di'i)s in )*e cos) o& an i)em, a sa#es"erson o%erc*ar'es a c(s)omer -, 1J cen)s. I& )*e s(m o& )*e di'i)s as 1>, *a) as )*e ori'ina# cos) o& )*e i)emH$ 5(c* "ro-#ems %io#a)e ) o "rinci"#es o& a""#ica)ion o& ma)*ema)ics. Firs), )*e, are re%erse 'i%en.&ind, in )*a) one *as )o kno )*e ans er -e&ore one can make (" )*e 4(es)ion. In )*e rea# or#d, one o(#d ne%er so#%e a "ro-#em &or *ic* one a#read, as so#()ion. 5econd, s(c* "ro-#ems are easier )o so#%e i)* ari)*me)ic )*an a#'e-ra. Fsiskin, 5enk, and )*e )eac*ers )*e, ork i)* -e#ie%e i) is -eca(se o& )*ese ) o eaknesses )*a) s(c* $ ord "ro-#ems$ are %ie ed i)* s(c* an)i"a)*, )*a) man, s)(den)s ask *, )*e, are s)(d,in' )*e s(-0ec). Ma)*ema)ics, Fsiskin, "oin)s o(), *as -een in%en)ed )o do )*in's more easi#,, no) )o make )*in's more di&&ic(#). T*e 5c*oo# Ma)*ema)ics Pro0ec) )eac*es a#'e-raic conce")s (sin' rea#. or#d "ro-#ems. For e!am"#e, #inear e4(a)ions are )a('*) i)* a ide %arie), o& cons)an) increase or cons)an) decrease "ro-#ems, s(c* as, $T*e "o"(#a)ion o& )*e "ro%ince o& G(e-ec in Canada as C,=9@,000 in 19@0. I& )*e "o"(#a)ion is increasin' -, A0,000 "eo"#e "er ,ear, &ind an e4(a)ion re#a)in' )*e "o"(#a)ion )o )*e ,ear.$ /n e!am"#e o& a #inear com-ina)ion "ro-#em is+ $I& ,o( ea) a 4(ar)er."o(nder *ic* *as @0 ca#ories "er o(nce, *o man, 111.ca#orie Frenc* &ries can ,o( ea) i& ,o( don3) an) ,o(r #(nc* )o e!ceed >00 ca#oriesH$ /n e!am"#e in%o#%in' da)a )*a) needs a #ine 'ra"* is+ $Ei%en )*e #a)i)(des and mean /"ri# )em"era)(res o& some ci)ies in )*e nor)*ern *emis"*ere, &ind an e4(a)ion a""ro!ima)e#, re#a)in' #a)i)(de and )em"era)(re. Era"* )*is e4(a)ion. E!"#ain *, )*e "oin) &or Me!ico Ci), &a##s &ar &rom )*e #ine.$ 5imi#ar "ro-#ems are (sed )o )eac* o)*er conce")s in a#'e-ra and o)*er co(rses. T*e 'oa# o& )*e c(rric(#(m de%e#o"ers is )o s*o )*a) i) is im"or)an) no) on#, )o *a%e ski##s, )o see )*e re#a)ions*i"s amon' ma)*ema)ica# ideas, and )o re"resen) )*ese ideas concre)e#, or "ic)oria##,, -() a#so )o see *, ma)*ema)ics is so im"or)an) in so man, a,s in )oda,3s or#d. 5oliet 6es) 7i'* 5c*oo#, Jo#ie), IL Jo#ie) is a comm(ni), o& a""ro!ima)e#, 100,000 "eo"#e di%erse in )erms o& racia# -ack'ro(nd and income #e%e#. 6*i)es, -#acks, and 7is"anics reside in Jo#ie). I) is *ome )o &ami#ies #i%in' in "o%er), as e## as &ami#ies #i%in' in a&&#(ence. In )*e mid.3@0s, Jo#ie) 6es) 7i'* sc*oo# *ad a *i'* &ai#(re ra)e 9=J "ercen) o& )*e &res*men c#ass &ai#ed one or more c#asses: and a *i'* ra)e o& re&erra#s &or disci"#ine "ro-#ems. 8e)ermined )o e4(i" s)(den)s i)* kno #ed'e and ski##s )o s(cceed -o)* in sc*oo# and o(), )*e *i'* sc*oo# ins)i)()ed a coo"era)i%e #earnin' "ro'ram e!em"#i&,in' co##a-ora)i%e ins)r(c)ion. Basic )o Jo#ie) 6es) 7i'* 5c*oo#3s "ro'ram are )*e TE/M 9To'e)*er Eac* /ccom"#is*es More: 5eminars in *ic* a## &res*men "ar)ici"a)e dai#,. 5eminars "ro%ide s)(den)s i)* o""or)(ni)ies )o e!"erience sma##.'ro(", coo"era)i%e #earnin'. 6*i#e #earnin' "ro-#em.so#%in' and decision.makin' ski##s, s)(den)s, 'ro("ed *e)ero'eneo(s#, i)* re'ard )o race, economic #e%e#, and a-i#i),, -e'in )o a""recia)e di%erse c(#)(res, a))i)(des, and a-i#i)ies. TE/M a#so in%o#%es )*e

comm(ni),+ Loca# *os"i)a# s)a&& )a#k i)* &res*men a-o() s)ress mana'emen) and dr(' a-(se "re%en)ion2 o)*er comm(ni), mem-ers in)rod(ce s)(den)s )o career "ossi-i#i)ies. / are )*a) co##a-ora)ion "romo)es #earnin' in man, se))in's, Jo#ie) 6es) 7i'* 5c*oo# )rains man, o& i)s con)en).area )eac*ers )o make )*eir c#assrooms comm(ni)ies o& co##a-ora)ion. In En'#is*, *is)or,, &orei'n #an'(a'e, and ind(s)ria# )ec*no#o',, &or e!am"#e, s)(den)s co##a-ora)e in sma## 'ro("s or as an en)ire c#assroom2 )*e, s*are "rior kno #ed'e, se) #earnin' 'oa#s, moni)or )*eir "ro'ress, and s*are res"onsi-i#i), &or res(#)s. 7e)ero'eneo(s 'ro("in' ma, )eam s)(den)s &rom %ario(s socioeconomic 'ro("s and s)(den)s i)* %ar,in' e!"erien)ia# -ack'ro(nds. Ei&)ed s)(den)s and &ormer 5"ecia# Ed(ca)ion s)(den)s ma, co##a-ora)e. C#assrooms are o"en comm(ni)ies *ere a## ideas are e#come2 s)(den)s c*a##en'e eac* o)*er and s*are "osi)i%e cri)icism. Teac*ers o&&er "osi)i%e rein&orcemen) and comm(nica)e s(ccesses )o "aren)s. Co##a-ora)i%e )ec*ni4(es e!)end )o disci"#ine. 5)(den) 'ro("s, )rained in media)ion and ar-i)ra)ion, co(nse# s)(den)s *o are *a-i)(a##, )ard, or disr(")i%e. Jo#ie)3s s(ccess is e%iden) no) on#, in academic "er&ormance, -() a#so in s)(den) a))i)(des, mo)i%a)ion, and se#&.es)eem. 5ince )*e "ro'ram3s ince")ion )*ree ,ears a'o, )*e n(m-er o& s)(den)s earnin' 'rades in )*e / )o C #e%e# *as increased -, 10 "ercen), and )*ere *as -een a si'ni&ican) red(c)ion in )*e n(m-er o& &ai#(res amon' )*e academica##, a).risk 'ro(". Teac*er commen)s i##(s)ra)e o)*er ),"es o& 'ains+ $I (se i) in a()o )ec*no#o',. 5)(den)s c*an'e oi# in )riads+ one "icks (" )*e )oo#s, one "()s )*em a a,, *i#e one ac)(a##, does )*e 0o-. /## a)c* and are res"onsi-#e )*a) )*e 0o- is done "ro"er#,.$ $I &ind )*a) )*ere seem )o -e &e er disci"#inar, re&erra#s on )*e &res*man #e%e#.$ $In &res*man seminar m, s)(den)s are &ormin' )*eir o n 'ro("s )o s)(d, -e&ore ma0or )es)s. T*e, 4(iz eac* o)*er. T*e, en0o, orkin' )o'e)*er so m(c*, )*e, *a%e e%en made (" )*eir o n 'ames and asked me )o -e "ar) o& )*eir 'ro(".$ 5)(den) commen)s ma, -e )*e mos) insi'*)&(#+ $I rea##, #ike s*arin' ans ers. I ne%er s*ared ans ers -e&ore.$ $I rea##, #ike orkin' in 'ro("s -eca(se ,o( can -rin' ,o(r 'rade (".$ $6*i#e orkin' in 'ro("s )*ere are no ar'(men)s. I& ,o( disa'ree i)* someone ,o( &ind a a, )o so#%e )*e "ro-#em.$ $I #earned no) )o ar'(e and a# a,s *e#" o() and s*are ideas )*a) ,o( )*ink o& and do no) s)ar) &i'*)s.$ $6orkin' i)* 'ro("s is &(n -eca(se ,o( 'e) )o s*are ,o(r &ac)s i)* someone e#se.$ Beau)re 3lementar% #chool6 -urora6 IL T*is sc*oo#3s s)(den) "o"(#a)ion is a""ro!ima)e#, AA "ercen) 7is"anic, AC "ercen) -#ack, 9 "ercen) *i)e, and 1 "ercen) /sian. Mos) s)(den)s are mem-ers o& #o .income &ami#ies. J(s) a &e ,ears a'o, man, /(rora ci)izens *ad &e e!"ec)a)ions o& Bea("re s)(den)s. T*e comm(ni), re'arded man, s)(den)s as #i))#e more )*an )ro(-#emakers. 5c*oo# "ersonne# ere &r(s)ra)ed i)* )*eir s)(den)s3 #ack o& #earnin' s(ccess, "ar)ic(#ar#, in readin'. /## )*a) *as c*an'ed. T*e "ro'ram )*a) made a## )*e di&&erence is ca##ed Reading6 Reading6 3ver%where" Far more )*an a readin' "ro'ram, i) demons)ra)es *o co##a-ora)ion i)*in )*e c#assroom, )*e sc*oo#, and )*e comm(ni), can "rod(ce s(ccess&(# #earners.

Ra)*er )*an con)in(in' )o re#, on *omo'eneo(s 'ro("in' and en)ire#, on -asa# readers, Bea("re ado")ed a *o#e.#an'(a'e a""roac* and co##a-ora)i%e #earnin'. T*e c(rric(#(m "ro%ides s)(den)s i)* o""or)(ni)ies )o read man, ),"es o& #i)era)(re -, a()*ors &rom %ario(s c(#)(ra# -ack'ro(nds, o""or)(ni)ies )o %isi) )*e "(-#ic #i-rar,, and di%erse ri)in' e!"eriences. /n ins)r(c)iona# )ec*ni4(e kno n as D.6.L as in)rod(ced in c#assrooms. Teac*ers ac)i%a)e s)(den)s3 "rior kno #ed'e -, askin' )*em *a) )*e, a#read, DNO62 )*en s)(den)s 9co##a-ora)in' as a c#assroom (ni) or i)*in sma## 'ro("s: se) 'oa#s s"eci&,in' *a) )*e, 6/NT )o #earn2 and, a&)er readin', s)(den)s disc(ss *a) )*e, *a%e LE/RNE8. 5)(den)s a""#, *i'*er.order )*inkin' s)ra)e'ies *ic* *e#" )*em cons)r(c) meanin' &rom *a) )*e, read and *e#" )*em moni)or "ro'ress )o ard )*eir 'oa#s. /) Bea("re, s)(den)s o&)en ork in coo"era)i%e 'ro("M in *ic* eac* s)(den) *as a s"eci&ic res"onsi-i#i),..)o com"#e)e a "rod(c) s(c* as a s)or, ma". Fi&)*. and si!)*. 'rade )eac*ers *a%e seen *o e&&ec)i%e#, "eer in&#(ence re'(#a)es -e*a%ior *en 'ro(" mem-ers m(s) coo"era)e )o com"#e)e a science e!"erimen) or o)*er ),"e o& assi'nmen). Bea("re *as 'ained res"ec) in )*e comm(ni), -, ()i#izin' )*e )a#en)s o& comm(ni), mem-ers )o &(r)*er s)im(#a)e #earnin'. /mon' )*e n(mero(s co##a-ora)i%e e&&or)s are+ %isi)s )o senior cen)ers *ere ,o(n's)ers and senior ci)izens read )o eac* o)*er2 %isi)s )o ear#, ed(ca)ion cen)ers *ere Bea("re s)(den)s s*are )*eir kno #ed'e i)* )*e )odd#ers2 a *ome ork #a- o"era)ed -, )eena'ers and seniors &rom a #oca# c*(rc*2 and an Fr-an Lea'(e )()orin' "ro'ram o"era)ed -, "aren)s and *i'* sc*oo# s)(den)s. / "ro'ram e!em"#i&,in' co##a-ora)ion as e## as a *o#e. #an'(a'e a""roac* is )*e sc*oo#3s Read /#o(d "ro'ram. 5)(den)s in eac* c#assroom ri)e )o comm(ni), mem-ers in%i)in' )*em )o -e )*e $comm(ni), reader$ &or )*e da,. Comm(ni), mem-ers o& %ario(s e)*nic 'ro("s and occ("a)ions *a%e acce")ed in%i)a)ions and ser%e as ro#e mode#s &or )*e s)(den)s. In addi)ion )o *ei'*)ened in%o#%emen) and res"ec) &rom "aren)s and )*e comm(ni), a) #ar'e, Bea("re *as o-ser%ed im"ro%emen) in s)(den)s3 readin' *a-i)s and a-i#i)ies+ a&)er.sc*oo# readin' as (" 10 "ercen)2 )*e n(m-er o& s)(den)s *o#din' #i-rar, cards increased -, 1@ "ercen)2 ne s"a"er readers*i" -, s)(den)s increased si'ni&ican)#,. On s)a)e readin' com"re*ension and %oca-(#ar, assessmen)s, )*e sc*oo# rose &rom #as) in )*e sc*oo# dis)ric) )o &irs) in )*e co(n),2 )*e "ercen) o& s)(den)s in )*e -o))om 4(ar)i#e on s)andardized )es)s &or 'rade 1.C decreased &rom @0 "ercen) )o 11 "ercen)2 and o%era## readin' scores o& a).risk s)(den)s )()ored )*ro('* )*e Fr-an Lea'(e Pro0ec) increased =A "ercen). In &ac), > o& 1> s)(den)s mo%ed o() o& )*e a).risk ca)e'or,. Redwood *alls (igh #chool6 Redwood *alls6 +N Red ood Fa##s, a comm(ni), o& >,000 "eo"#e, is ra"id#, c*an'in'. 6*a) as once a %er, s)a-#e comm(ni), is no c*arac)erized -, ins)a-i#i),+ Man, &armers &o(nd i) necessar, )o #ea%e )*e area, o)*ers remained and )ook #o income 0o-s, and a n(m-er o& ne "eo"#e are mo%in' in)o )*e area. T*e ran'e o& income #e%e#s is ider no )*an *en a'ric(#)(re as )*e main en)er"rise. T*ese c*an'es *a%e crea)ed a #ack o& co*esi%eness and &ee#in's o& insec(ri), in )*e comm(ni),. 7i'* sc*oo# s)(den)s, es"ecia##,, &ear &or )*eir &()(re and onder i& )*e, i## &ind 0o-s. T*e )o n3s #imi)ed man(&ac)(rin' en)er"rises, re)ai# s)ores, and

remainin' &arms canno) "ro%ide em"#o,men) &or a## )*e )o n3s ,o()*. Mos) i## "ro-a-#, seek 0o-s in sma## ci)ies near-,. To address )*ese "ro-#ems, in )*e #a)e 19@0s )*e sc*oo# s,s)em a""#ied )o )*e /merican For(m in )*e #a)e 19@0s and as a arded a &i%e.,ear Ed(ca)ion 1000 'ran). Ed(ca)ion 1000 &(nds ena-#e comm(ni)ies )o res)r(c)(re sc*oo#s so )*a) s)(den)s are "re"ared &or a c*an'in' socie),. To accom"#is* )*is aim, )*e en)ire Red ood Fa##s comm(ni), co##a-ora)ed )o se) 'oa#s and de%e#o" a res)r(c)(rin' "#an. T*ese e&&or)s *a%e #ed )o man, "osi)i%e c*an'es. Peo"#e -e'an re'ardin' )*e sc*oo#s as )*e cen)er o& in)e##ec)(a# #i&e &or )*e comm(ni), a) #ar'e. Ear#, c*i#d*ood, &ami#, ed(ca)ion, and (ni%ersi), #e%e# ad(#) ed(ca)ion co(rses are amon' )*ose "ro'rams a%ai#a-#e )o e%er,one in )*e comm(ni),. C(rric(#(m and ins)r(c)ion *a%e a#so c*an'ed. Ins)r(c)ion is m(c* more co##a-ora)i%e, and c(rric(#(m &oc(ses more on *i'*er order )*inkin' ski##s needed &or s(ccess in sc*oo# and in #i&e. Teac*ers )a" s)(den)s3 "rior kno #ed'e and *e#" s)(den)s $#earn *o )o #earn,$ )*ro('* co##a-ora)i%e "ro-#em so#%in' and decision makin'. 6*en s)(den)s need in&orma)ion, )*e, ask an $e!"er)$ c#assma)e or con)ac) a comm(ni), e!"er). 5)(den)s de%e#o" )*eir o n )oo#s )o $)es)$ *o e## )*e, *a%e #earned. T*e c(rric(#(m *as a#so -ecome more in)erdisci"#inar, and -(i#ds on )*e m(#)ic(#)(ra# reso(rces in )*e comm(ni), 9Na)i%e /mericans, 5 edes, and Nor e'ians:. In Larr, Ea%in3s *i'* sc*oo# En'#is* c#ass, &or e!am"#e, s)(den)s ork in sma## 'ro("s )o cri)i4(e eac* o)*er3s ri)in'. 6*en s)(den)s ri)e narra)i%e, )*e, cons(#) 8ako)a Indian s)(den)s *o are ski##&(# in ri)in' narra)i%e -eca(se in )*eir c(#)(re, no)*in' is an $e%en)$ (n)i# someone )e##s a stor% about it. 6*en s)(d,in' a-o() con&#ic)s on )*e Erea) P#ains in )*e 1@00s -e) een Na)i%e /merican and *i)e 'ro("s, s)(den)s *eard re"resen)a)i%es o& -o)* 'ro("s "resen) )*eir "oin) o& %ie . Ea%in, )*e drama )eac*er, and )*e m(sic )eac*er co##a-ora)ed )o assis) s)(den)s in ri)in' and "rod(cin' an ori'ina# one.ac) "#a,. Re erences /#%ermann, 8.E., 8i##on, 8.R., B O3Brien, 8.E. 919@J:. Using discussion to promote reaching comprehension. Ne ard, 8E+ In)erna)iona# Readin' /ssocia)ion. /F, D.7., Cro e##, 8.C., Jordon, C., 5#oa), D.C.M., 5"iede#, E.E., D#ien, T.6., B T*ar", R.E. 919@C:. 8e%e#o"men) and im"#emen)a)ion o& )*e DEEP Readin' Pro'ram. In J. Orasan( 9Ed,:. Reading comprehension: From research to practice 9"". 1=>.1>=:. 7i##sda#e, NJ+ La rence Er#-a(m /ssocia)es. Brand), R.5., B Meek, /. 9Eds.:. 91990:. Coo"era)i%e #earnin' NEn)ire iss(eO. Educational Leadership, 479A:. Bro n, /.L., Pa#inscar, /.5., B P(rce##, L. 919@C:. Poor readers+ Teac*, don3) #a-#e. In F. Neisser 9Ed.:, The academic performance of minority children: New perspectives 9"". 10>.1A=:. 7i##sda#e, NJ+ La rence Er#-a(m /ssocia)es. Br(ner, J.5. 919@C:. ctual !inds" possi#le worlds. Cam-rid'e, M/+ 7ar%ard Fni%ersi), Press. Co*en, E.E. 919@1:. / m(#)i.a-i#i), a""roac* )o )*e in)e'ra)ed c#assroom. $ournal of Reading %ehavior, &4, A=9.AC0. Co*en, E.E. 919@C:. 'esigning group wor(: )trategies for the heterogeneous classroom. Ne <ork+ Teac*ers Co##e'e Press.

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