The Idea of The Soul

THE IDEA OF THE SOUL
sA
AGENTS
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61
THE
IDEA OF THE SOUL [^
.C\
BY A.
E.
CRAWLEY, MA.
'
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AUTHOR OF 'THE MYSTIC ROSE: A STUDY OF PRIMITIVE MARRIAGE, A STUDY OF RELIGION AND THE TREE OF LIFE
' :
LONDON ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK

1909
Animula, vagula, blandula,

hospes comesque corporis
!
quae nunc abibis

pallidula, rigida,
in loca,
nudula
nee, ut soles, dabis iocos.
TO
1
FRANCIS
GALTON
CONTENTS
CHAP.
I.
PAGE
Psychology and Primitive Culture

Nature of the Investigation Tylor's Theory Supplementary Theories Criticism of Supplementary Theories Essentials of Method. Criticism of Tylor's Theory
II.
Elements of Language
......
The
28
The Holophrase Personalisation tion The Name.
Connection of Language with the General Subject Repetition and Varia-
III.
Elements of Thought
Description of the Soul
ception
Ideation Origin of the Idea of the

Character
of
the
......
Primitive
56
Mind
Per-
Soul.
IV. Pre-scientific Psychologies
.....
Ethnological
79
Polynesian and Melanesian Papuan and Malayan Psychologies Psychologies Indian Psychologies Asiatic Psychologies American Psychologies Chinese Psychology African Psychologies Egyptian Psychology Semitic Psychology European
Australian
General
Evidence
Psychology
Psychology.
V.
The Nature
Conditions of
of the Soul.
its
.189
Analysis of the Idea of Miniature the Soul Visual Analogies The Soul Other Attributes of the Soul The Theory of Embodiof ment The
Development
as a
Plurality
Souls.
vii
viii
CHAP.

PAGE
VI.
The Soul
The
in Being
^5
mate Objects
in Practice
The The World of Ethical Applications the Will Conclusion.

Spirits
Soul and the Self
The
Soul
as
Guardian
InaniTheory
Ideal
Ideas in relation to
INDEX
299

CHAPTER
Nature of the
can
I
PSYCHOLOGY AND PRIMITIVE CULTURE

I.
Investigation.
Few
conceptions
the
permanence,
show the universality and creative power and morphological
influence which have characterised throughout history
the Idea of the Soul.
To
beings,
it
we owe
the conception of an order of spiritual

spiritual
and of a
world existing now and
hereafter.
At some relatively late stage of culture it became absolute in the idea of God. It is thus the
basis
of
all
religion.
One
typical case
may
be cited.
The highest authority on the religions of China concludes that " the human soul is the original form of
all
beings of a higher order.

in that country.
.
Its
.
.
worship
is
the basis
originally
of religion
a
Taoism was
practices
compendium of customs and
framed upon
soul.
. . .
the prevailing ideas concerning the

It cast these into a
*
human
system of philosophy, alchemy, and

origin nor
religion."
But neither
its
its
influence
is
confined
to the religious sphere.
Just as the soul itself
is
concerned with every
mode
1.
of apprehending
1
its
total
environment, so the idea of

I. xiii.
J. J.
M. De
Groot, The Religious System of China (1891),

1

is
the soul
general.
have
its
its
bound up with the evolution of mind in We may go farther and assert that not only results upon the mind, and the difficulties
comprehension has produced, assisted mental development, or rather have been inevitable conditions
which
of
it,
but
its
origin
and development
also are identical
with the earliest steps in mental evolution.

the race and in the individual
first
Both
in
we
shall find it to be the
purely intellectual result

It
is
of
human
effort
reaction
to
environment.
early
thus our
first
first
towards an
In the
explanation of things, our

stages
act of thought.
of culture the idea provides a form for

all
consciousness, and in
the search for reality.
its development involves This search is one aspect of that desire for knowledge, that instinct of curiosity, It is not too much which is the mainspring of science. from the earliest culture known or inferable, to say that
stages
up
to the
triumph of experimental science to-day, the

all
idea has been the inspiration of

theological, metaphysical,
intellectual speculation
and scientific. may, therefore, employ another metaphor and describe it as the original cell out of which all thought and consequently all knowledge have been evolved. To trace its origin and development is thus in great measure to trace the origin and development of the soul itself, and the history of man's efforts to understand
We
both himself and
his world.
This evolution has not been adequately expounded, The anthropology of and the reason is obvious. abundant material, but, as is often an possesses culture urged against it, its results are untrustworthy because
its
methods
are inexact.
are merely those
The fact is of unaided common

to
that
sense.
its
methods
Primitive
psychology has yet
be written, but
it
cannot be
PSYCHOLOGY & PRIMITIVE CULTURE

written
by methods like these. Their ineffectiveness This, the is well illustrated by the present problem. most important and far-reaching of all sociological questions, the genesis of that great conception which divides man into body and soul, and the universe into
matter and
spirit,
still,
after years of
study, remains
unanswered.
a solution
The
statement which to-day passes for
that of Hobbes, than those of fifty years ago, or even hundred and two Aristotle and the still earlier Greek thinkers whom For all practical purposes we are Lucretius followed. no nearer a solution than were the thinkers of more Yet this problem is the than two thousand years ago. simplest, as it is the first, of all the problems presented by mental evolution in man. When once anthropology employs the verified experimental results of psychology
is little
more advanced than
the solution
is
obvious.
itself,
is
The
origin not only of the
idea of the soul
but of the idea of a spiritual or

then automatically explained.
supernatural world,
2.
Tylor
Theory.
The only classical work on the subject has been done by Tylor, who colligated the facts of savage and barbarous culture by the principle of animism, " the
doctrine of souls."
1
His study
its
illustrated the influence
of the idea in the evolution of culture.
But he was
its
more concerned with

precision
1
influence than with

is
origin.
In his explanation of the latter there
the
fact
being
that
his
no psychological explanation was
E. B. Tylor,
August 1866 Mankind," Journal of

first
"The Religion of Savages" in The Fortnightly Review, "The Philosophy of Religion among the Lower Races of
the Ethnological Society,
1870
Primitive Culture
edition
1871,
second
1873, third
1891, fourth 1903.
His Gifford
Lectures
on the subject have not yet been published.
4
completed

before
the
development of experimental Nevertheless, its main features have not psychology. all other work on the subject been materially altered
;
has
been
mainly descriptive.
Tylor's
explanation,
therefore,
must be a starting-point
for further inquiry.
an abstract of his account of animism and of his explanation of its origin, and shall then discuss some attempts at improving the explanation,
shall give
We
and finally the explanation itself. Tylor described animism as " a

tion
belief in the
animato
of
all
nature,
rising
at
is
its
highest
pitch
personification."
This belief
" bound up with that

recognises in every
primitive mental state where
man
detail of his world the operation of personal life and will," and is, in short, a conception of " pervading life
and
will in nature."
is
Animism
divided
into
" two
great
dogmas,
forming part of one consistent doctrine." The first concerns the souls of individual creatures ; the second concerns other spirits up to the rank of powerful
deities.
He
speaks of the whole as " an ancient and
world-wide philosophy, of which belief is the theory and worship is the practice," and gives as "a minimum
definition " of religion " the belief in spiritual beings."
l
in natural objects
For an explanation of the origin of the idea of souls he relies on the presupposed belief
the animation of
all
in
nature.
The
the
idea of the soul
of
man he
explains
thus
earliest
men were
confronted with two intellectual problems, (i)

living
What
body and a makes the difference between a dead ? What causes waking, sleep, trance, disease, and death? (2) What are those human shapes which
appear in dreams and visions
1
?
i.
5 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture ,
285, 287;
i.
424, 426.

The
solution
;
was that man possessed a " life " and a these were separable, but could be, and, in the end, were combined as a dual manifestation of one and the same " soul." This explanation was partially anticipated by Hobbes. " For the matter or substance of the Invisible Agents so fancyed, they could not by naturall cogitation fall upon any other concept, but that it was the same as that of the Soule of man, and that the Soule of man was of the same substance with that which appeareth in a Dreame to one that sleepeth or in a Looking-glasse which, men not knowing that to one that is awake
" phantom "
l
; ;
such apparitions are nothing
else
but creatures of the

external
Fancy, think to be reall " From this ignorance of

arise the greater part
and
Substances."
how
to distinguish
Dreams
and other strong fancies from Vision and Sense did

of the religion of the Gentiles in
times past that worshipped Satyres, Faunes,
Nymphs,
and the
like
and nowadays the opinion that rude

2
people have of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins, and of

the power of Witches."
3.
Supplementary Theories.
Little has been taken
from or added to the Tylorian
theory of the origin of animism.
On
it
have been
descriptive studies of the based many important development of cultural and social institutions. Some students assume that hallucination, such as is found to-day in persons who see ghosts, was a more or
less
1
normal characteristic of primitive man.

E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture3 ,
i.
428, 429.
We
shall preserve, as
far
as
possible, the
useful distinction between "soul," as connected with
" corporeal realities," and " spirit," as incorporeal.

2
T. Hobbes, Leviathan (1651), chapters
ii.
and
xii.
'

Others emphasise the belief
in
a "
life
" or " vital
principle " animating
all
nature.
This belief has been
distinguished by the term animatism.
The
theory
is
half of the Tylorian, and complementary to the other
half
expounded by Hobbes.
facts which, as they urge, are
Others point to
difficulty
as those "
with
brought into the category of animism, such supreme beings " occasionally found in the
lower culture.
These
are not " spirits," but complete
material personalities, magnified men.
Others, again, cite various

indicate an
phenomena which may

a pre-animistic period,
age before
spirits,
and infer that the mysterious, the awful, or the unusual became the " supernatural," and in particular led men to conceive a material " force " or objectified "will,"
existing
in
such objects as produced the feelings

manifesting
itself
of
the
awe and mystery, and

fashion of electric energy.
into
after
" personified "

is
This force would develop beings. The first half of this

the
view
as old
as
Hobbes and
Greek and Latin

"
It is
thinkers.
It
is
elaborated by Westermarck.
to
not," he
says,
" correct
say
that
'
as
the
objects
of the
visible world are conceived as animated, volitional, and
emotional, they
may
be deemed the originators of those
of which the true cause is unknown.' Man's belief in supernatural agents " is an attempt to
misfortunes
explain strange and mysterious
a volitional cause.
phenomena which suggest

cause
object
is
The assumed
the will of a
supernatural
being.
...
If
an
of nature
as a matter
is
looked upon as a supernatural agent, mentality and

are
at
life
the same time attributed to
it
of
course.
Inanimate things are conceived as volitional,
emotional, and animate, because they are
deemed the

originators of startling events."
to be the true origin of animism.
*
This he conceives
Frazer has analysed funeral and mourning customs

in connection
with the emotion of
fear.
He
is
has also
developed the idea of the external soul, and has emphasised the
frequent belief that the soul

2
a miniature
duplicate of the thing.
Kruijt, confining his conclusions to the East Indian

Islanders,
holds that they distinguish sharply between
the
soul
is
;
of
living
and of
is
dead
life
former
part
of the pantheistic
man. which
It
The
fills
all
Nature
the latter alone
individual.
does
not
come
is
into being until a man is dead. These two " souls " are never combined the soul of a man in life
;
an absolutely different thing from his soul after death. 3
Wundt
of religion,
has applied psychology to the development

ritual,
and myth, but has not given a new
explanation of the origin of animism. 4
4.
Criticism of Supplementary Theories.
These further views require some brief discussion. Hallucination is no more frequent in the lower
culture than in civilisation.
is
The
biological probability
that
its
frequency, never considerable, decreases the

is
nearer
man
to the animals.
in
By
in
hypothesis, animism
was a very early step

moreover,
1
progress.
Hallucination,
to
is
abnormal,
but,
order
explain
E.
Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas

395 f., quoting- Peschel, Races of Man, 245. G. Frazer, " On certain Burial Customs as illustrative of the Primitive
ii.
(1908),
2
J.
Theory of the Soul," in Journal of the The Golden Bough (1890). 3 A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den
4
Anthropological Institute, xv. 6+
ff.
Indischen Archipel (1906).
W. Wundt,
V'olkerpsychologie
.-
Mythus und Religion (1908-9).
phenomenon, such as the belief in the soul, normal and universal, not abnormal and occasional There is a further point causes must be assigned.
universal
:
hallucinational
objects.
1
apparitions
are
as
real
as
the
real
They might
thus, in the case
of a subject,
who by
hypothesis has not yet acquired the idea of the
soul, produce a belief in duplicate reality or bilocation, namely, that a person or thing can be in two places They could not produce, even for their at once.
occasional percipients,
belief in
an entity like the
soul, less real and less material than the body.
The
" supreme beings," not
to be
confused with
" heroes," like those of the Torres Islanders, 2 or with
" ancestral spirits," like those of the Kafirs, 3 or with

the
"
first
4
men," so generally assumed by the

are frequent in the higher barbarism
as
;
early
in the
biologist,
lowest
savagery,
is
among
the
Australians,
their
occurrence
not established. 5
If they did exist here
they would be explainable as premature sports of the Their presence or absence, mythologising imagination.
however, has nothing to do with the origin of the idea of the soul, but only concerns the origin of the idea of
a
as
God.
If this did not originate in the

it
the idea of the soul,
same way must have originated from
notions of causality.
These, however, are not early,
1 For convenience we shall employ the terms "real" and "reality "in opposition to " ideal " and " ideality," to express the " thing " or " object,"
as the
2
phenomenal in space in opposition to the mental A. C. Haddon, Report of the Cambridge Expedition
3 6 7>
reality.
to
Torres Strait,
v.
25 6
3
4
377iv.
See below, ch.

J.
Perham, Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1881), No. viii. 144. 6 Wundt decides, on psychological grounds, against the existence of a primitive Monotheism or Cryptomonotheism, Volkerpsychologie (1909), ii.
395>
404
ff.

entity.
and the notion of " cause " cannot originate a personal
The phenomena supposed

the abnormal
to result in
" pre-animistic "

like
ideas of an objectified " will " are the unusual, practically
experiences
of
life.
Notions
l
the
mana of the Melanesians, the orenda of the Hurons, the wakan of the Dacotas, expressing mysterious power,
such
as is exercised
by the professional
seer,
shaman,
"
or medicine-man, and by impressive natural " forces
or objects,
or
as,
for instance, electricity or curious rocks,
by
anything
unusual,
are
also
psychologically
late
developments.
They
are
merely different
in
degree from other ideas of activity.
Again, though
awe and wonder, terror and admiration, have had their share in the making of religion, the point here is the
origin of the soul.
Now, emotions cannot be
separated
from the sensations which institute them, and an emotion comes at the end, not at the beginning of a psychic process. Thus, we feel terror because we run we do not actually run away or want to run away This order is still away because we feel terror. constant when the sensation does not end in action.
;
Again, an emotion,
form.
as such,
cannot originate a sensible

Lastly,
A personal
concrete entity like the soul can only

chiefly visual.
be developed from sensations,

the
assumption
that
early
man
conceived
the
idea
of an impersonal, abstract "power," and subsequently,
whether from
to the
this or otherwise,
is
evolved the idea of a

always
the
;
personal concrete soul,

concrete.
an argument from the abstract

psychological order
is
The
the other way,
from the concrete to the abstract. Westermarck corrects this view by taking
Hewitt, the authority for orenda, denies that
it
ever
is
personified
Codrington, the authority for mana, says the same.
io

He
also corrects the theory
psychological order.
of
the animation and personification
of Nature
as
pre-
ceding the development of the soul.
argument does not give us the origin of animism, that is, of the
But
his
idea
of
the
soul.
If the
first,
object
is
regarded
as
supernatural being
and
later credited, as a
fallacies.
is
matter
First,
of course, with a
an object
it is
soul,
we have two
it
supernatural because
animised.
extraordinary,
?
therefore becomes
But why
person.
Because
it
behaves like
an
extraordinary
But
is
this
need not involve the idea that the extraordinary

supernatural or spiritual.
the spiritual
first.
is
the
We
late,
must have the idea of

is
In any case also there
here the
to object.
analogy, which
always
from subject
Lastly, this view assigns a universal result to exceptional
and sporadic causes.
argument may here be noticed as a curiosity of science, and a reduction to absurdity of the theory
that emotions can produce the idea of a supernatural
An
or spiritual world.
It is to
the effect that the higher
animals possess the
may
be.
This
:
is
germ of animism, whatever that supposed to be proved by familiar
a thread to a bone,
frightened a dog by tying and drawing the bone away from Most animals are alarmed by any unusual the animal. 1 The theory might derive noise or appearance.
facts like these
Romanes
support from the well-known beliefs that pigs can see The Euahlayi wind, and that dogs can see spirits.
people in Australia hold the latter opinion.
land there
is
In
MaryIrish
a belief that horses can see ghosts.
peasants suppose that
when
a horse
becomes frightened
suddenly, and the driver can see nothing to account

1
G.
J.
Romanes, Animal
Intelligence,
455
ff.
Morgan, Animal
Life
and
Intelligence, 339.
PSYCHOLOGY & PRIMITIVE CULTURE n

for
it,
the horse
1
is
in visual
communion with
the spirit-
world.
Kruijt's observation that the " life-soul " and the " after-death-soul " are never combined is an important
contribution to the subject.
He may
His
be said to have
modified
completely established his view.

that
opinion, however,
is
the
"life-soul"
is
impersonal
the
by
his
lifelife-
himself.
He
also ignores
possibility,
which
of a personal soul, not merely a " soul," being developed during life. That the "
facts suggest,
soul "
is
merely a part of a pantheistic "life-force"
pervading nature is an argument differing only in words from the Tylorian animation and personification of all nature, and suffers from the same defects. The inferences made in anthropology from savagery to primitive life are too often based neither on psychology, linguistics, nor biology. Phenomena from
widely
classed
separated
together.
stages
of evolution are
too
often
scientific
There is a good deal of the unprocess from the abstract to the concrete.
is
;
The
anthropologist
perpetually
is
guilty
of
the
psychologist's fallacy
he
always putting his

ordinary savage
less
own
not,
problems and ideas into the mind of primitive man.
As
matter of fact the

is
is
and primitive man
still
likely
all.
to have been,
confronted by any problems at
If he had
been
they would not have taken the shape given to them
by modern speculation.
ment, but
conscious.
in
Man, of
course, has always
been trying to understand and to control his environthe early stages

this
process was un-
The
matters which are problems for us

;
existed latent in the primitive brain

1
there, undefined,
;
K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe (1905), 46

Folklore, viii. 25, xi. 11.
Journal of
American
12
lay both
problem and answer ; through many ages of savagery, first one and then another partial answer emerged into consciousness ; at the end of the series,
hardly completed to-day, there will be a new synthesis
in
which riddle and answer are one. The theory of animatism will be discussed
later.
5.
Criticism of Tylor s Theory.
Tylor explained animism before psychology could The sole object of the present assist the explanation. inquiry is to apply what psychology gives us to the problem of the origin of the idea of the soul. We
have no desire to demolish any theory, still less to attempt to discredit any work of permanent value. But that anthropology is in need of some exactness of
method
is
obvious from the chaos

is
that
is
still
exists
that such a state of things

:
mischievous
"A by the following case of a Semitic language, by way of explaining objective
shown recent admirable manual

well
'
gender, informs the pupil that
to primitive
life
;
man
all
nature
seemed
endowed
with
he,
therefore,
ascribed the distinction of sex to every existing thing.' Rarely," adds Payne, " has more error been got into
two
lines.
The
writer has been misled by
'
animism.'
'
We
shall frequently
have occasion to refer to similar

the
misconceptions arising from similar causes.
Tylor
certain
himself
over-estimated
or abnormal
importance
as
of
or
for
pathological
sources
is
states
direct
indirect
instance,
of
animism.
is
The
" trance,"
pathological, that
to say, in the sense of
the term established by Virchow, biologically abnormal,

if
1
we may apply
E.
J.
this
term to a psychological phenoii.
Payne, History of the Neiv World called America (1899),
264.

menon.
" Vision,"
in
13
Tylor's use,
is
identical with
hallucination of sight, an abnormal
process.
As we
base
a
have already observed,

universal
places
it
is
illegitimate
to
on abnormal facts. Yet he " vision " and " trance " on a causational equality
"
phenomenon
with dreams.
disease,
What
?
causes waking,
sleep, trance,
Nothing but dreams and visions could have ever put into men's minds such an idea
and death
as
that
of souls being ethereal
images of bodies."
discussed,
Hallucinations
we have
already
and conincidental
cluded that they would perhaps produce the ideas of

bilocation
and of duplication of
ideas
objects.
The
influence
of epilepsy, hysteria, delirium, and of inspiration
mania,
upon
and incarnation, has nothing to do with the actual origin of animism. Rare disturbances like these might corroborate an
the
already
existing
idea
of
separable
or
unattached
abnormal.
"
spirit."
Dreaming,
insanity.
Dreams themselves in Wundt's

For
practical
are
psychologically
is
normal enough, and, as of animism has been established for two thousand years or more, we have to reckon with it. Here, as always, we must assume a tabula rasa, the naive mind of a child or primitive person, who
has not even dreamt of such a thing as the soul.
normal temporary purposes, however, dreams are the dream-theory of the origin
phrase,
a
Are then
the
inferences from
and about dreams

?
sufficient to originate the idea
of the soul
as
Children,
innocent of spiritualistic doctrine, regard dreaming as

a matter
of course,
mysterious as ordinary sensation.

difference
natural and nonYet they realise a between the experiences of dreams and of
a
process
Tylor, Primitive Culture*,
i.
450.
But there is no case on record of such a child inferring from dreams the existence of a soul, or The of a reality different from the phenomenal. Port Darwin Australians are described as having been This as it unable to distinguish between body and soul.
waking. 1
may
be,
whatever
it
means.
We are
also told that they
no explanation of dreams, though they 2 A Kafir, describing a dream, said that the dead man of whom he dreamed " came not as a snake or shade, but in very presence," and that he did not think it was the dead man until he
could give
believed in their reality.
awoke. 3
This, of course,
is
the universal experience

it
during the process of dreaming, but
is
the inference
difference
is
made on waking
that
is
the point.
then, as a rule, inferred.
Savages
who have
the idea
sees
of the soul say that the soul leaves the

persons
body and
But
it
persons or things, or, more rarely, that the souls of
and
things
visit
the
sleeper.
is
psychologically impossible for the idea of the soul, as
we
actually find
it,
to be originated by
the inferences
from dreams. In the first place, there is frequently at some point during the dream a semi-conscious realisation of self, that is to say, of the self as viewing things and
persons in the dreams.
are
In the next place, dream-figures
no less intense, generally more intense, and therefore more real, sometimes even larger, than what is seen when
awake.
It is quite
erroneous to speak of dream-figures
accordance with this super-reality speaks of seeing " him " or consciousness naive that the " her," or " it " in a dream, not their souls. Can such
as "phantoms."
It is in
an intensely real sight produce

1
the
idea
105.
of
" souls
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood (1906),
P. Foelsche in
3
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv. 198. R. Callaway, The Religious System of the Amazulu 2 231.
,

being ethereal images of bodies," or the idea of a more ethereal " phantom " ? 1
15
still
dreams might, equally with those of hallucinations, have produced the idea of bilocation, of duplicate "real" bodies; they might also have produced at a later stage, and probably have
realities
The "
"
of
assisted in producing, the idea that the visual energy
of the brain can leave the body during sleep
but they
could not have produced the idea of an ethereal, rarefied,
and often miniature

ghostly phantom.
in all its
entity,
much
less
the idea of a
The
this
chief characteristic of the soul

inferiority
stages
is
to the
body
in
the
find,
qualities
there
is
is
and extension. simple a process by which

of
solidity
As we
shall
this ethereal
body
produced.
When
produced, of course, dreams and

corroborate
it,
other
phenomena
may
or
rather,
may be explained by it, in spite of their greater " reality," but that they should have originally
produced
important
reality,
it
is
psychologically impossible.
Equally
intense
is
the fact that, in spite of their
subject
at all.
dream -figures are soon forgotten when the wakes as a rule they are not remembered
;
They have none of
the persistence, except in
their occasional
momentary continuance on waking, of

the life of " as resembling a long dream." 2 The
other impressions.
In an earlier
primitive
work Tylor had spoken of

intended
to
man
description
seems
suggest
habit
of
brooding over cosmic problems.
Such did not exist. The phrase also gives an erroneous picture of a quick, alert, and hardy animal, whose senses were sharpened
1
Codrington
01.
concludes
did
2
from
not
the
Mclanesian
the
idea
evidence,
that
the See
137.
phenomena of dreams
below,
p.
1
produce
of the soul.
E. B. Tylor, The Early History of
Mankind?
THE
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
by hunger and experienced in the continual search for In animals and food and in the avoidance of danger. children philosophical rumination and introspection do they are rare in the lowest and highest not occur Their place is pre-empted by another savages alike.
;
habit which
we
is
shall
discuss at a later stage.
If,
however,
as
perhaps
confusion
is
more probable,
between
sort
of
hallucinational
subjective
and
objective reality
is
implied by the " long dream," this
equally
rapid
false.
Man's very
existence
depended on
subjective
state
and
precise
distinction
between
impressions and objective facts.

as this confusion involves
it
Such a
of mind
would
lead, if the subject
of
survived, to a mystical monism, hardly to a dualism

soul.
between body and
Next comes the

disease,
question,
and death ? sleep, trance, discuss two only, sleep and death.
together
What causes waking, Of these we need
Now
it
must be
admitted that savage accounts of the soul, when viewed
without distinction
of peoples or stages of
development, are roughly divisible, to all appearance, into what we may call in our phraseology a " life " and
a
"form."
It is this
which has caused misconception.

is
We
may
observe at once that the former

concrete
;
abstract,
the latter
they are for
this
and for other

the
case
reasons
not
contemporaneous.
As
in
of
dreams, the
the
course.
naive mind, observing a sleeper, regards
difference
from the waking

other
fact
state as
a matter of
is
Some
of consciousness
required
to institute thought on the subject.
And when
thought
begins, will the first inference be that the soul or the " life " or anything is absent ? Assuredly not, for the
mind cannot conceive

1
the absence
2
of anything until
v.
See below, ch.
vi.
See below, ch.

it
17
has acquired the idea of that thing, and the notion of " life " as a thing is a late abstraction.
Similar
questions
What
to
a
objections
lie
against
the
answer to the
the
causes death? and
What makes
a
difference between a living
body and
dead
As we
have already implied, the inference of " life " from the contrast of life and death is a case of proceeding from
the
abstract
the
concrete.
first
It
its
is
also
case
of
recognising
thing
in
absence.
Primitive
perception involved a difference between the sight of

a living
body and
dead, but
made no
analysis or
conscious inference, any
more than
the savage
mourner
does when she treats her dead, for a time, as being still alive, though " different," or than the civilised
mourner does, who,
for a time, refuses against fact to

is
believe that her loved ore
dead.
Feeling and mental
habit are paramount.
Inference,
when
it
comes, will
of
a
vital
not result primarily in

principle,
like " life,"
the
conception
Concepts thus emphasised by contrast. " force," " energy," are not and cannot
be abstracted from the things in which they inhere,
whether they are present or absent from them, either
by early language or by early thought, just as they are not in scientific thought except artificially for analytical " Living-man," " dead-man," and the convenience. like, are ideas and expressions which precede by long ages the conceptions of "life" and "death," and " when formed are not formed by any " combination of the concepts " life " and " man," " death " and
" man.
Others have assumed an " awfulness felt to attach to the dead human body in itself," and combine this emotion with the experiences of " trance and dream,"
the result being " the mysterious potency of the dead
"

The
origin of the
developing into manes-worship. 1
worship of the dead presents no difficulty, and can be explained without the aid of potency, mysterious or
otherwise
2
certainly
it
does
not need the
artificial
This last notion aid of the awfulness of the corpse. Savages are not normally afraid requires confirmation.
of dead bodies.
they
fear
They
often eat them.
In some cases but what they
the
is
infection
of death
generally fear
will
the ghost.
The
reasons for this fear
concern
us later on.
is
The view
mentioned,
not as
being
directly
connected with the origin of animism, but as illustrating the tendency to explain normal results by
abnormal emotions.
Another
is
illustration
may
good
be taken
deal
from the
theories
about blood.
In
In a
of
early thought the blood
connected with or identified

is
with the "soul."

a
anthropological works there
at the sight of blood.
current notion that primitive man The " mysterious potency " of
experienced awe
beliefs has
blood in certain savage customs and 4 attributed to this assumed emotion.
been
A
at
child
is
distressed, perhaps, or
somewhat alarmed
the
first
sight of blood, but adult primitive man,
though childlike, was not a child. Certain animals show excitement, a very different emotion from awe, Cows, at the sight, or rather at the smell of blood.
for
instance,
5
are
much
excited
in
the
presence
of
blood.
Carnivores, for
obvious reasons, are greatly
excited
fairly
1
by
it.
Now
among
cannibalism
must have been
frequent
the earliest men.

ft.
At any
rate
R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion (1909), 26

See below, ch. v.
A. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (1902), 95
ff.
E. Westermarck, The
Origin and Development of the

*
Moral
Ideas (1908),
ii.
303
ff.
Marett, 29.
F. Galton, Inquiries into
Human
Faculty
(1908), 41.

blood
is
still
19
among
the lowest savages a valued food
and drink, conveniently obtained from human beings.
Among
open
blood
is
the Australians, for example, a

;
man
will readily
a vein for a thirsty friend a regular custom.

1
the drinking of
is
human
There
no reason why
blood should originally
have inspired awe, or have
been
regarded as mysterious,
such as
any more than other

filtered
secretions,
milk, itself merely blood
through a gland.
We
thing
is
have next to
all
consider
.
the
" belief
its
in
the
animation of
nature
rising at
highest pitch
to personification."
alive,
This statement implies that everyis
as
an animal
alive,
and that
at a late
stage of evolution everything was also conceived as a
" person," presumably a

process
is
human
person.
The
latter
anthropomorphism, and may be illustrated by such gods as those of India, Greece, and Italy. Thus the sky, already alive, became a personally human god with human form and attributes Zeus, represented
mythology and art as a glorified man. Anthropomorphism, however, is late, and is chiefly confined to the greater forms of natural energy. Other students go so far as to assign this late development of anthropomorphic personification to As to this, it has been observed by primitive man.
in
Hoffding,
that the
personification
theory " seems to
impute to primitive man a creative imagination which possible only at a higher stage of development. And were the theory correct, it would necessarily be expected that language would denote material things by terms originally applied to mental things, whereas in reality it
is
denotes mental
1
things by terms originally material."

Gillen,
2
See
Spencer and
461, 475.
The Native Tribes of Central Australia, H. HOffding, Outlines of Psychology (1896), 7.
20
This

observation applies,
" that
as
will
be noticed, to the
Tylor himself primitive mental state where man speaks of recognises in every detail of his world the operation of personal life and will." This looks like the analogy from the subject to the object in a form which shows a process from the abstract, " life " and " will," to the concrete. Otherwise we have personificational anthropomorphism, If, however, the not at a late but at a primitive stage. statement means neither of these, it is hard to see what it does mean that is at all different from animatism.
analogy from the subject to the object.
" Personalisation," perhaps.
We
shall find that this is

it is
an early habit of language, but

thing
note at once that
it
a very different
from personification or animatism.
We
may
actually precedes in order of time
the ascription of " life."
With
at
regard to this ascription,
it
is
not likely that,

alive, and, at
one stage,
man
regarded everything as
a later stage, gradually discriminated between animate
and inanimate.
The
fact
is,
that he began by regarding
everything as neutral, merely as given.
Yet, though
he never thought about the matter at all, in his acts, reflex as they were, he distinguished as well as we do " Whatever power between animate and inanimate.
and importance he may have ascribed to inanimate objects, he drew the strongest of lines between such 1 Even objects and what was endowed with life." depends upon it. survival their animals do so
;
One of
the best observers of savage
life,
who
has
lived with Kafirs, remarks as to the notion that they
" imagine everything in nature to be alive," that they
When questioned, very rarely think of the matter at all. animation of stones, they of the subject the on however,
1
E.
J.
Payne, History of the Nenv World called America (1899),
ii.
265.

laughed, and said, "
it
21
would never enter

l
a Kafir's head
to think stones felt in that sort of way."
The whole
theory of animation and personification

if
is
probably largely,
not entirely,
due to the misunderand action. 2
standing of two characteristics of the early mind, shown,

as
we
shall see, in language, imagination,
Lastly, with regard to the combination of " life " and " phantom " into one soul, we may first observe that this
process seems to be confined by Tylor to the human soul. Yet lifeless objects have " phantoms," as is shown by
their appearance in
dreams
they are also, by hypothesis,

life
already animated and in possession of personal

will.
and
Let us take the case of modern popular notions of the ghost or " wraith," which are quoted by Tylor
as
exemplifying the combination of

ghost, as " as the
is
life
and phantom.
The
"
life
an hallucinational sight, has as
much
percept
himself ; it is a percept, and the the man. The " wraith " seems to denote
man
those illusions by which an association calls
up
a sight
of the thing
these are
momentary and very evanescent,

If the
if
but in themselves are equivalent to a percept.
"wraith" appears
the " ghost "
case
is
is
as lifeless
no more need be said;

the "
full
of
life, it is
man
"
;
in neither
there
any " combination."
Tylor wished to
explain the facts that
savages speak of parts of " the living body as the soul," and that a dead man
many
may
be dreamed of as a living person

all
also that in late

in
language
aspects of the soul are
combined
life
one
verbal concept.
Kruijt has shown that the " soul " as soul as " form " are not combined. The
is,
and the
we
shall see, itself a psychological

1
phantom.
"phantom" The
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood,

2
145, 146.
vi.
S.*e
below, pp. 41
ff.
ch.
22

a late result,
combination of various "souls" in one verbal concept

is
and even when effected the mind does
not realise the combination except in the memory-image
of the word
itself.
6.
Essentials of Method.
In order to trace with any approach to accuracy the

origin and
it
is
growth of such an idea as that of the soul, essential to employ exact psychological principles.
The
is
material available for the study of early thought
actually
more
considerable than that available for the
study of civilised thought, except as regards experiment,
but
it
is
not likely to yield further results by the
application of unaided intelligence.
Psychology supplies
an
infallible test
it
proves what can
not exist in the brain,
and
at
exist, and what can what stage of evolution a
phenomenon can
appear.
it is
In the next place

plain a universal
essential to confine the inquiry
within the limits of normal mental experience.
To
ex-
phenomenon,
universal, or, at least,
normal and regular experience must be applied. The use of abnormal experience is only legitimate when a clue is needed to the normal phenomenon.
Another
test
remains to be applied.
The importance
of language as a clue to savage thought has lately been Max Mttller, the chief exponent of the overlooked.
typical of primitive thought,
method, unfortunately regarded an advanced culture as and applied the test to a

mythological stage of consciousness.
culture, or mental
The
results
were
not satisfactory as explanations of primitive religion,

processes
is
generally.
If there has
been a reaction
has gone too
far.
it
not surprising, but the reaction

All our evidence from the culture of savages
the end, what they
think.
tell
is,
23
in
us of what and of
is
how
they
It
it
is,
Now, language
embodied thought.
;
metaphysically, a physical reality
psychologically,
is
an objectification of mental processes.
The
latter can
only be studied in one or other of their expressions, and
of these language possesses the highest degree of immediacy.

It is a sort
thought
itself
Civilised of replica of psychosis. " has been described as a process of speech
imperceptibly carried on in
the
central
parts,"
and
standing in the same relation to actual speaking as the

will to actual
movement. 1 Words, on the other hand, are for us "the common denominator of all ideas or perceptions. Every adult mind is made up to a con2
siderable extent of word-ideas."
As compared with
intellectual
other constituents of the conis
ceptual store of the mind, the idea of the soul
an
product, especially in
its
early
forms
will.
It
result of cognition rather than of feeling or

is,
of
therefore,
more
fruitfully studied in the light

all
of the
most
and and
intellectual
of
physical expressions of mental
action, language, than in that

ritual,
of expressions like worship which are chiefly conditioned by emotion Language and thought, moreover, throw volition.
upon each other, especially in their early stages, owing to the fact that they have, to a great extent, grown up together. The margin of error to be allowed for in ethnological It is increased, by evidence generally is considerable.
light
the nature of the case,

facts
1
when
the facts concerned are
of consciousness.
It is difficult
enough to decide
L. Geiger, Ursprung
i.
Vernunft,
hoarseness.
58.
He
notes
a
und Entnuickelung der menschlichen Sprache und cases where intense thought has produced
E. B. Titchener, Primer of Psychology (1898), 126.
24

let
with precision what any man,

or does
;
alone the savage,
is
but the difficulty
is
greatly increased
when
the observer has to describe what he thinks and
how
Language, however, though it may be used by the subject of observation to conceal his thoughts and mislead observation, is in itself a witness to the character of his thought. The words of the savage
he thinks.
telling
us,
falsely
perhaps, what he thinks, or rather
what he
proof of
himself. 1
believes
we wish
to
to be told, are an absolute
how
It is
he thinks.
easy for
The
the
psychological test can
be profitably applied
words of the observer those who have seen and lived

critic.
with savages to deride the arm-chair

is
Neither
a reliable authority
on the
facts
without the help
of linguistic and psychological principles.
When
both
have
this
essential
equipment
there
is
is
no need for
mutual recrimination, and there

ing the truth.
a certainty of reach-
recently developed side of psychological inquiry,
the study of the
mind of the
it
child, is peculiarly well
adapted to the solution of primitive mental problems.

It is
not to be assumed, as
often
is,
that the savage
and
his primitive predecessor are
overgrown children.
Nor
all
again
is it
likely that the unscientific doctrine that
the child in his individual development passes through

the stages of the mental evolution of the race, will
survive any addition to our psychological and biological
knowledge.
the
in
is
But
can
the
permanent value of the study of

the
soul
at
consciousness
of children rests on the fact that

observe
liberty.
It
them we
as
yet free, spontaneous, and unspotted
from the
world.
1
See A. Binet, "

ff.
La Science du tmoignage "
in
V Annie pychologique,
(1905), 128

The
of the
child,
25
chief expression of the spontaneous free activity
known as " play," gives the clue to the solution of many problems, and illuminates the whole Here we meet with subject of primitive psychology. The savage is bound in the an early form of volition.
chains of custom,
but
these
chains are lighter than

is
those of civilisation, and his soul
relatively childlike
and
free.
Hitherto the phenomenon of play, perhaps

all
the most valuable and the most full of promise of
human
tendencies, has been ignored
in
the study of
light
1 primitive animism and religion.
By
its
whole
areas of early thought and practice, as yet misunder-
stood, are obviously explained.
Mental evolution in the race and the individual proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, from Yet synthesis to analysis, from the whole to the parts. continuously syntheses, series of the whole evolution is a Hence the facts that developing around the analysis. the original synthesis is so often forgotten, and that much misconception arises from the clash of competing
syntheses.
We
shall find that the idea
of the soul
is
an
automatic result
of elementary
mental processes.
so-called savage
These
will also explain a
number of
throw
light
" peculiarities."
They
will
meaning of worship and and religion.
ritual,
on the original omen and myth, magic

the same
It
Our
the
analysis will
proceed
abstract.
in
way from
assumed
concrete
to
the
will
be
that there are four main stages in mental evolution.
The
first
is
is
the primitive
this
we must
infer.
The
second
the
lower
culture,
roughly corresponding
1 See A. E. Crawley, " The Social Dynamics of Religion," in Transactions of the Third International Congress for the History of Religions (Oxford, 1908),
ii.
447.
26
to

" savagery "
;
the
corresponding to the
is the middle culture, " higher savagery," barbarism,"
third
and the lower

fourth stage
empiricism.
is
strata
of
civilised
intelligence.
The
the higher culture, the epoch of critical
These stages
there will be a
necessarily overlap.
In the second
;
there will be the beginning of the third
in the third
;
good deal of the second

remains as
is
and in
all
the
primitive
stage
foundation.
The
evidence of actual beliefs
necessarily taken
lower and the middle cultures alone.
from the From these and

of primitive
from the
stage
tests
supplied by the science of the fourth

infer the first stage, that
we
shall
man.
In the
first
stage the original

;
form of the idea of the

of the
;
soul was developed

original whole
in the second, various parts
in the third, abstract conceptions
were separated and developed singly were formed by the
help of language.
For the
first
to assume a tabula rasa, a
and most important stage it is necessary mind for which things are
simply what they seem, namely, " things," objects for consciousness ; not merely " bodies," since this term
is
too narrow and also implies a " soul," but complete
totalities
produced by sensations.
In other words,
we
shall discuss the
Since,
most elementary form of perception. however, all examples from early thought are
the original
necessarily stratified combinations

will be difficult to find
isolation.
of various dates, it form in complete
We
must
effect this isolation ourselves
by
psychological tests applied to concrete examples taken
from various peoples, in some of which there will be It growths from two stages, in others from three.
will be necessary, therefore, in the
explanatory criticism

to
27
anticipate
at
one
point,
at
another
to
defer.
Explanation
may
be repeated, but examples will not be

is
multiplied beyond what
necessary for
supplying a
material, general or typical

analysis.
enough
for psychological
CHAPTER
II
ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE
I.
Connection of
Language with
Subject.
the
General
It will be convenient to discuss the character of the

earliest
forms of language before we discuss that of

processes.
mental
cleared
Several
this
misconceptions
may
be
away by taking
order, and our view of
early psychology will thus be

It is in
more
distinct.
the languages of the second stage of mental
evolution, in
some
cases entering
upon the
third, that
the answers are given by savages and barbarians to

the ethnological inquirer.
The
questions are asked in
languages of the third stage, highly developed.
These
answers constitute our chief direct evidence for the
psychology of the lower culture. Confusion and misunderstanding
are
inevitable.
The lower languages

abstract terms
;
have, practically, no general or
the higher are well supplied with them,
But and employ them freely in scientific inquiry. even the popular culture of the third stage employs
abstract terms with facility.
Accordingly, one student
may draw up
it
of savage languages in which, as appears, the term for soul means " breath," another
a list
does the same with terms meaning " shadow " ; and Again, the another with terms meaning " life."
28
ordinary
the term
traveller
29
or
missionary,
accustomed to use
freely as
"soul," without any psychological analysis

it
of
a
its
connotation or denotation, employs

category
under which to frame his The native answers will obviously not be questions. direct answers at all ; they will consist of confusions
convenient
between
wholes
and
parts,
general
and
individual,
concrete and abstract notions.
As
first
far as primitive
man, the representative of the

is
stage of mental evolution,
concerned, language
has nothing to
brief
do with
of
will
his
idea of the soul.

principles
light
But a
earliest
description
the
of
the
on the mental habits both of the lower culture generally and, by inference,
languages
known
throw
of the primitive
with the
also.
We
are,
moreover, concerned
terms employed in various stages for the
various conceptions of the soul, and with the influence
they have exerted on those conceptions.
For
these,
and
for other reasons
mentioned
considered
in the first chapter, in
language
thought.
must
brief
be
sketch
connection
with
Our
will
show
close
parallelism
between early thought and early language. All the processes of mind can be carried on to some extent
without
simple
language,
free
even,
;
as
in
infants
and animals,
perception,
thought
sensation
and
of
course, can
make
little
use of words.
But the con-
venience of general and abstract word-ideas for the

classification,
is
storing,
obvious, however true

in
no difference
and recognition of knowledge it is that " it makes little or what sort of mind-stuff, in what
*
quality of imagery, our thinking goes on."
Language originated
1
in
feeling,
but was developed
W.
James, Textbook of Psychology, 169.
3o

;
under the influence of attention directed to the external world. 1 In perception the mental vision is outwards speech is an attempt to exteriorise the effect of sensations
on the
self,
just as
all
forms of motor activity
are such attempts.
2.
The Holophrase.
a circumscribed outlook on the
facilitates
Primitive
man had
world, a fact which
investigation
into
his
mode of
group
expression.
;
His was "
the standpoint of the

2
small food-group
and the language of the small food-
gives the clue to his mental condition."

test his speech.
His
mental condition in turn will
We
ideation
shall
find
that
primitive
perception
is
com-
The prehensive and simultaneous in a high degree. mode of expression corresponding to this mode of
is
known
as
holophrasis,
and
its
it
is
the
chief
characteristic
of early language.
In
translation of
the percept, language here
seems, as
were, to be
trying to reproduce in sound coexistence instead of It lumps the whole impression together succession.
in
one phrase, which
is
actually one word.

:
The
process has been thus described

'
" Primitive
language was a machine working by starts,' each start completing a definite quantity of work, and so contrived that nothing less than a whole start or quantity
of work could be executed by

conception or nothing.
as
'
it
it
expressed a whole
Hence
'
it
has been described

'
holophrastic,'
or
whole-phrasing
its
each
of
its
phrases and even most of
complete sentences had
E.
J.
1 H. Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology, 2. Payne, History of the New World called America, 3 The term was invented by Lieber.
ii.
327.
the general character of a single long and
31
irregular
:
word."
the
word
An example may Kwa mamengalahlw

'
be supplied from Zulu means " there where one
shouts out,
" ; it is used to 2 " express the idea of far away." " Essentially the integral embodiment of an integral idea^ the holophrase, whether monosyllabic or polyI
Oh, mother,
am
'
lost
syllabic, is essentially irreducible into significant parts

it
can
represent
nothing except when heard

.
. .
in
its
Grammatical language has been produced by the expansion and disruption of the holophrase, which has been loaded, so to speak, with more and more meaning, until it has burst its material envelopment, producing by its disintegration the various parts
entirety.
of speech."
The
start
analogy
between
the
is
holophrase
close.
and
the
primitive percept and
concept
In both
we
the
with masses, which are gradually divided,

analytical,
in the
in
one case by perception becoming

other by an attempt
on the part of the
articulating
muscles to keep pace with this mental analysis.

first
its
At
in
the percept also
would be meaningless except

have
" names "
or
entirety.
Savage
earlier
languages
nouns, but
still
rarely general names.

stage,
We
have to deal with a
when names even
for individual things
were yet in the making. Both of these were latent in the interjectional holophrase, which is the first step in language after the mere " cry," and expressed feeling plus some relation. As to the " cry," the " danger-note " used by gregarious
1
Payne, History of the Nenv World called America, 2 Dudley Kidd, Salvage Childhood, 74.
3
ii.
115.
Payne,
op. cit.
ii.
115-6.
32
animals
is

a familiar example which
its
shows the expression

It is a
of feeling by sound and

vocal gesture.
in
easy recognition.
Let us take an illustration of the way which the vocal gesture grows into the interjectional
In a simple action, such as a beating, there
is
holophrase.
"
first,
the action
itself,
then the agent or person
who
is
beats,
then the person or thing which suffers or

and,
lastly,
beaten,
the
manner of
exist
beating, whether quickly or
slowly,
gently or severely.
The
in
action
and
all
these
circumstances
together
nature "
along with
other adjuncts, such as time and the feelings of agent and patient. " The savage, therefore, considers them
all in
the lump, as
his
it
were, without discrimination, and
so forms
this
idea
of the
it
action,
x
and
according to
idea expresses
in
words."
percipient
of
the
scene,
and
eliminate
Let us suppose a from his
ensure a scientific attitude.

its
is
is,
consciousness both familiarity and contempt so as to His prolonged " Oh " or

!
equivalent, a guttural cry, as used
by the anthropoids, 2
the vocal reaction to the aggregate of stimuli.
He
by hypothesis, trying to express in sound a situation His exclamation is the to which he cannot do justice. undeveloped germ of a complete articulate description ;
it
contains
all
the elements of language, in time to be
differentiated
and
set free,
but
as
Is
as yet indeterminate.
The
primitive
speaker,
we
shall
see,
has
comprehensive perception. In one sense, express the totality ?
he then attempting to
yes, in another, no.
Economy
that
1
begins at once.
is
Linguistic science tells us
language
not
primarily
concerned with
iii.
the
Lord Monboddo, Origin and
Progress of Language,
!
ch.
7.
The
ciy of the gorilla
is
Kk-a/i
kh-ahl prolonged
that of the
Siamang
gibbon, Goek gdek ha ha, each part being repeated.

vii. 54. ff.
Huxley,
Collected Essays
designation of objects, as the
1
33
mind
is
with the ideation

all
of objects
attempts
is
therefore in this early stage

to express the relations
that
it
between the objects

is
presented
to
consciousness.
There
obviously no
necessity for expressing orally the

still
objects which are
present to the senses.
They go without
saying.
With
all,
regard to relations, some further explanation is " If there be such things as feelings at appropriate.
then, so surely as relations between objects exist in
rerum natura, so surely and more surely do feelings

exist to
which these relations are known.

conjunction
or
a
preposition,
There
is
not a
in
and hardly an
adverbial phrase, syntactic form, or inflection of voice
human
speech, that does not express
some shading
2
or other of relation which
we at some moment actually feel

remembered, without the objects which are
to exist between the larger objects of our thought."
Now these
related.
relations are felt, but cannot be
certainly not visualised,
Speech undertakes to express these relations,

is
and
of
this
one case where speech has rendered service

"
to the mind.
its
Knowledge about
3
;
relations"
a thing is knowledge every " thing " in consciousness is

4
surrounded by a "fringe" or "halo of relations."

important
conclusions.
are
In the stream of thought the only images intrinsically

the
halting - places,
all
the
substantive
"
Throughout
5
the rest of the stream
the feelings of relation are everything, and the terms

related
naught."
the
When
therefore a halting-place
is
reached,
brain innervates the vocal organs,
and
gives expression to
solidifies
the transitive part, or, so to say,
the previous stream.
In the
first
stages of
ii.
E.
J.
Payne, History of the New World called America, 2 W. James, Textbook of Psychology, 162.
Id. 167.
4
115.
Id. 166.
Id. 169.

34
language,

however,
speech
omits
the terms, because
they are obvious.

the case
is
When
it is
applied to absent things
different, for the speaker
soon
realises
that
the listener has nothing to inform
him what
objects he
has in mind.
This
given
is
well
illustrated in the case
of
by uneducated persons to-day. They generally assume that the listener knows the thing they are talking about, and practically express its
explanations
relations alone.
This priority of relation in the evolution of speech

be shown by a Fuegian holophrase. mamihlapinatapai signifies " looking at
may
In Fuegian
each
x
other,
hoping that either
will
offer to
do something which
It
is
both parties desire but are unwilling to do."

clear that the relation
amenities
and
one extremely
else
is
typical of
human
nothing
here
expressed.
;
A
will
holophrase like this will apply to any persons
it
apply to animals.
In the
It
contains no names or nouns
they are unnecessary.

earliest
speech
all
holophrases are without

in
meaning when divided.
Even
is
developed savage languages this
most highly the case with many.

the
At
this early stage, then, articulate
sounds are merely
contrivances for expressing the relations between things.

It is
obvious that here
we have
form of generalisation
of extraordinary usefulness, but without symbols for

things
it
does not advance knowledge.

that the
This characteristic helps us to appreciate the well-
known
fact
savage uses as
many
as
twenty
different
general word.
words for one action or thing, but has no For instance, the action of cutting is not expressed by one word applied to different ways of
1
F. B. in Buenos Ayres Standard,
nth
ii.
Sept.
1886, quoted by Payne,
History of the
Neiu World called America,
228.
cutting or things cut, but there
is
35
one word for cutting
wood, another for cutting meat, and others according In these words there is to the instrument employed.
In the no common element expressive of cutting. same way he has a name for every bird and animal, but no general name for either.
We
need a unifying principle to

this flux
start
the process
of solidifying
of particulars.
Personalisation.
3.
Putting
say,
it
it
logically in reference to names,
we may
" Let
be supposed that each individual thing
actually
has
some
distinct
What
distinctive attribute
name conferred on it. would these names express ?
All attributes that could be possessed in
common
with
any other thing having been eliminated by hypothesis, each name could only express or aim at expressing a
single
distinctive attribute
the separate individuality

it is
or personality
Personality
is
of the thing to which
attached.
all
a hidden attribute involved in
general
we shall identify the effort to express it as the hidden germ of language itself, the essential characteristic
terms
of
;
its earliest
stage,
and the formative principle of the

it
grammatical system which
ultimately creates."
The case in which this distinctive attribute first emerged was, of course, that of the speaker himself. " One great splitting of the whole universe into two The altogether unique halves is made by each of us. kind of interest which each human mind feels in those parts of creation which it can call me or mine may be
a moral riddle,
fact."
1
but
it
is
a fundamental psychological
Personality
J.
2
is
thus the primal unifying factor
E.
Payne, History of the
New
World called America,
ii.
104-5.
W.
36
in

both thought and language.
expressed
In the latter
cry,
it
would
be
by the
interjectional
meaningless
except as an expression of personal feeling and interest,
but involving, in germ, not only relation between the

self
and the
object,
but
inverted
relation,
relations
between the object and other

infant's ejaculation
objects, just as in the
on
its
first
feeling of
some massive
thus
to
sensation there
perceived.
is
identity
of the self and the thing be

the
"I+x
How
n,"
The earliest holophrases would "/+>*," "7+2"," according

and the
is,
different relations between the speaker

is
object.
the next step taken, that
the transference
?
of personality to other things than the speaker
The
answer
is
worth while tracing
in detail.
The
lesson, like other early lessons,

it
was learnt in
the primitive food-group, as
seems best to describe
1 the social unit of primitive humanity.
The
necessary
conditions are the mental impact and resistance of

personalities,
the
the
speaker
other
facts
recognises
certain
in
and the " through

which
are
listener.
two Each
but
the
medium of
to
oral
signs
similar
substantially
his
different
from other
2
facts
belonging to
own
consciousness."
The
symbolisation of the
elementary feelings would be readily understood from Such feelings would, of course, have been the first.
first
realised
under the form of personality, personal
experience,
long before language
commenced.
Each
would use much the same sound

1
to express the self-
The
earliest social
unit for
Aristotle
anthropology has substituted, according to the " horde," the unit of a promiscuous herd
political society
was the "family." Modern its changing preconceptions,
the "clan,"
is
ii.
the
" tribe," the unit of a

all
the unit of blood-relationship,

is
without
success.
The
ultimate factor in sociology
economic
the
is
complement
sexual.
of the food-quest
2
not relationship of status or of kin, but

107.
Payne,
op. cit.
feeling " I-hungry," in relation to food
;
37
each would
1
recognise the reference in the other's

as the subject was himself disposed to
voice.
" Just
have recourse
it,
with the same idea to the same sound-symbol of

too
the
so
sound became familiar to others by being repeated. Thus the means of sharing and understanding 2 We have here the way the idea was formed." prepared for a term for food and a term for hunger, both fused with the speaker's personality. So far " things " may be described as mere " appendages of
personality."
How,
then,
was
personality
" shifted "
The
answer goes to the roots of epistemology and aesthetics. The typical form of a child's " play " is a motorexpression of identity of self with thing.
He
carries
on a living dialogue, in which the speakers are the " things," he taking each part in turn, and using the
pronoun "
" for each character.
This, in the
mind
of the dramatist,
The child is the essence of drama. and the dramatist each shifts his own personality to the Savage character speaking, one " I " serves for all.
speech
illustrates
this
process.
A New
Caledonian
expressing the fact that some fruit was not high enough for the native palate, said not " it-not-yet-eatable," but
" w^-not-yet-eatable."
It
is
worth while pointing out the bearing of personality and of the identification of subject and object upon science. In epistemology "the object of knowledge must be the object plus self. Self is an
integral
and
essential part
of every object of cognition."
is
1 The Fuegian Tammerschooner, familiar to readers of Darwin's Yanamashaguna, " we are hungry." 2 Ud-viiling og Liu, 9. J. N. Madvig, Om Sprogets Vasen, 3 Foley in Bulletin de la socie'te' a anthropologic, 6th Nov. 1879.
narrative,
Ferrier, Institutes
of Metaphysics, Prop,
ii

38
In

logic, in
the act
of judgment " I-go " or "
my;
going,"
the ideas of self and of action are not of
independent origin, any more than they are in language " their association in one conception is the earlier, their
separation the later form."
Once realised in language, " the conception of personality must gradually cover
the whole field of consciousness, bringing whatever
men
can
feel,
think, will, or do, within the range of objective
speech.
The
recognition of the facts of consciousness
through the medium of personality thus imprints upon

the
mind
in the very inception
of language a habit of
contemplating them in at least three different ways
of considering them as connected either (i) with the

speaker, or with
some body of persons
in
whose name
he speaks, (2) with the person or persons addressed, or (3) with persons and things outside the play of the
two primary
personalities."
The
question whether this
shifting of personality
produced a kind of plurality
in the personalising prefix,
or the personalising prefix was itself originally dual or
we may follow out " the probable process of isolating thou-" and " he-"
plural, hardly concerns us here, but
personality.
It is to
;
be noted that in thought there

is
is
no " thou "
the second person
for the
same
as the third.
But
it
is
latent in "
we
mind the " and " I."
Their liberation
plural.
may
be illustrated by the distinction in

exclusive
early languages between the
and inclusive
Thus, in Apache, shee means " I " or " me," but sheedah means "I-myself"; dee means " thou " or "thee," but deedah " thou -thyself," that is to say, " especially," without reference to any other person. Among the Haidahs and Thlinkits, to such a question
1
W. Wundt,
Logik,
i.
135-40.
Payne,
op. cit.
ii.
107.
"
as "
39
Who
?
the collective " I," but "

child
absolutely. 1
would generally be Who is the mother of the " would receive a selective answer meaning " I
will help
?
" the answer
Similarly other savage peoples, like the Australians, distinguish between " wife " collective and
"own-wife,"
former
ship.
"brother"
and
"own-brother,"
the
indicating, according to the current anthropo-
logical doctrine,
" tribal " or " classificatory " relation-
Dobrizhoffer gives a luminous instance of the
difference in practice of collective
and exclusive
plurals.
If the missionary, in a prayer addressed to God, were

to use the collective plural in the formula "
we have
the
sinned,"
the
congregation
would
understand
;
Almighty to be included among sinners while in a sermon the inclusive form would be necessary for the same statement "we have sinned," otherwise the congregation would be excluded from the category, which would be occupied by the preacher alone. 2
It
may
therefore
be
inferred
that
process
of
combined with selection, and aided originally by gesture and change of tone, produced the liberation of the second, as also of the third person, from the first, Variation, aided by repetition, yet the original form. to be discussed, would assist in stereotyping a difference between the three persons. As language progresses, the first and second are employed to cover persons and things absent in time, the third deals with what is absent in space. The conquest of the external world
variation
belongs to the third person.

1
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the
Pacific States, Hi.
597
F. Boas,
Fifth Report of the British Association on the North-lVestern Tribes of
Canada,
62, 74.
is
The "we
" of the author, taking the reader with him, so to speak,
a
2
modern
instance.
Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus, quoted by Payne, History of the

ii.
Ne<w World called America,
186.
4o

From
the
nouns developing thus, the solidification of personal-general terms comes easily. From "he-tiger" is developed " a-tiger," or, to quote
personal
Payne's example,
like
if
we suppose
in
primitive
the
man
beholding,
Crusoe,
footprint
into
sand,
"his -foot"
naturally
expands
*
"somebody's,"
"anybody's,"
produces
" a man's foot."
Such
a process automatically
dispersonalisation.
The
process can be traced in every

is
language, and the result

terms.
general nouns and general
As an example of
are
the
way
in
which general nouns

following
developed
from
cited.
personal,
the
Otomi
yaAll
2
words may be
The
plural personal particle
represents indifferently " our," " your," " their."
Otomi general nouns
retain the personal particle, the
great majority taking that of the third.
"
Even proper
the
first
names, those of persons

the personal
person.
particle,"
and towns, invariably take

by
the latter especially
Similarly Iroquoian forms general nouns
the prefix of the third person masculine.
the general particle

i-
-itl
or
-///
in several
the particle of the third person, as in
In Mexican words retains it itl " stomach "

;
icxitl,
" foot"
3
yollotl,
;
" heart."
" My-nose "

is
is
" a-nose," yacatl

tecpatl.
" my-knife "
notecpa
noyacauh ; " a-knife,"
English after the phrase revert to " he."
"a man
says "
may
But we have
still
to illustrate personalisation generally.
The
is
first classification
is
of things, both in mind and in
language,
assisted
a possessive or personal one.
This result
by early conditions.
" Regarding
op.
cit. ii.
To
early
man
nature
it
presents far less complexity, far less objectivity, than
does to
1
us.
Payne,
it
mainly as a repertory of
2
236.
3
Id., op.
cit. ii.
236.
Id.
ii.
236-9.
things capable in
necessities,
41
some way of ministering

its
to his daily
he brings to
exploration the dominating

the
fruitful
conception
thought."
1
of personality,
stimulant
of
Everything
between
is
a " person," grammatically,

;
and, originally, psychologically

is
even
as for science there
no
distinction
" objects" beddre was " my-father "

alike are
persons" and "things," all Among the Waicuri of California

;
c<
edare,
" thy-father," and so
on
It
but are^ the not

2
common
element, was unintelligible.
did
mean "
father," for
which there was no
In fact, they were unable to express general term. the ideas of " father," " mother," and the like, without
personal relation. unable " to conceive
a related to
his
We
a
read of a
Kurd
as being
hand or
'
a father,
except as
own
or some other personality

his-father.' "
'
hand,'
'
his-hand,'
'my-father,'
myThe
personalising prefix
from
speaker,
always,
to
its
shifting
commencement with the among external things, was

its
it must be understood, an ejaculation introducing and vibrating, as it were, through the holophrase. When the third person was developed, " he-tiger " was the type, there being, as must also be understood, no
the " thing " designated being a " person " in just the same grammatical and scientific way as a " person " was, and now is, for science, a
need for gender,
" thing."
It is
probable that a good deal of misconception on
the
subject
of
animism,
or
rather
animatism,
and
" personification," anthropomorphism, and the like, in

primitive culture, has been due to a misunderstanding
early language.
of the principle of personalisation

1
in
Payne,
ii.
14.6.
Bagert, Nachrichten <von Californien, 181.

St.
Latham, quoted by
G. Mivart, Origin of Human Reason, 275.
42

this subject
Let us introduce
with another misconception
on the question of primitive marriage.
man addressing a person older " than himself says my-father," " my - mother " ; a person equal in age, " my-brother " ; juniors and inthe Basutos a
feriors,
Among
"my-children."
"In Hawaii
father's
'father'
and other
;
kinsmen of the same generation

mother, mother's
sisters,
are called
sisters,
makua kana etc., makua

daughter
waheena.
...
A
2
son
is
called kaikee kana, a
kaikee waheena."
It is illegitimate to infer
from such
Central
"
cases of a linguistic principle any survival or tradition
of promiscuous marriage and

Australians, as
kinship.
The
was noticed, and many other peoples,
have actually developed a selective prefix, thus " wife and " own-wife " but we cannot infer that the selective
;
process applies to a change in marriage-law,

that the
original
much
less
marriage-law was promiscuity.
To
may
show
that
misconceptions arising from language
have serious
results, we may instance a notorious case. The Veddahs of Ceylon had for long been supposed to regard the marriage of a man with his younger sister The latest as being not only lawful, but incumbent.
evidence, however, proves that this
is
a gross mistake,
and that the Veddahs do not

practised this custom.
practise
and never have
It also shows that the mistake, from which the Veddahs have suffered a stigma in the outside world for generations, arose from a misunderstanding
of
the
Veddah language.
In
Veddah
the
mother's
is
brother's daughter, or the father's sister's

3
daughter,
the usual bride, according to the well-known system of

cross-cousin-marriage.
1
The name
and
Rose,
for this
woman
is
E. Casalis, The
Basutos, 207.
E. Westermarck, The History of

Systems of Consanguinity
Human Marriage3
Affinity.
90,
quoting L. H.
to Tylor,
Morgan,
3
A. E. Crawley, The Mystic
470
the term
is
due
who
naga, which
is
43
sister."
1
also the Sinhalese for "
younger
Sinhalese interpreters are responsible for the mistake.
" regard to the current ascription of " animation to the external world, " personification " of inanimate
With
objects,
and
similar theories, the case
is
perfectly clear.
all
Primitive
man
" finds personality everywhere, in

life,
the
forms of animal
animate
objects,
in
whatever yields the sensation of

;
sound, in whatever has perceptible motion

not excluding instruments
even
in-
made by
hands, are capable of producing personal impressions.
Whatever fills a certain space in the consciousness tends to become personalised whatever speaks to his ear 2 is a person." But all this personalising is grammatical
.
or scientific.
identification
else.
It is associated
with the play-instinct of
and shifted personality, but with nothing
The
savage answers external stimuli as a child
answers, or as an angry civilised
man
answers an inif it
animate object which has startled or hurt him, as
was a person. Primitive man has only one mode of thought, one mode of expression, one part of speech, Conversely, as we have seen, he is not the personal.
fully conscious
of personality, even his own

objects,
things
their
and persons are

relations only.
and he speaks originally of
We
have no right to
say, therefore, that
he
infers objects to
;
have a personal
he has
he does not
know he
is,
has,
life and will, because and he gets to know
that he has
from external persons.

in fact,
The
current theory
from every
scientific
point of view a gross error.
When
once we grasp the

in language,
is
import of the personalising tendency
remember
first
that in consciousness there
and no respect of
noted the facts of this kind of marriage, Journal of the Anthropological

xviii.
Institute,
1
267.
i.
Nevill, in Taprobanian,
178.
Payne,
op. cit.
ii.
146.
"
44
persons and things, each ideated thing being a " that a host of so-called " peculiarities " of the savage mind
are
explained,
and a great deal of
false
animism
is
cleared off the road of science.
When
the savage speaks of " he-tiger," he does not

is
believe that the tiger
human
but a grammatical and than he means to

female.
scientific
person, or anything " person," any more

is
imply that the specimen
not a
He
speaks of " he-rock," not because by some
animistic process he imagines the rock to be a
human
being in disguise, but simply because this

earliest
is
his
way, the
way, of symbolising a
fact
of consciousness.
is
And
his
behaviour to these " persons "

it
one of the
earliest,
" person-play
and
may
"
;
be the highest, forms of behaviour,
but he does not believe the thing

being, any
or animal to be a
human
more than
the child
believes his toys to be
human.
(full
I
When we
read that in
Manchu wood when Hebrew Scriptures

corruption
father,"
cut utters a " voice," and in the
of
personalisation),
said,
[masculine]
have
Thou
art
"To my
and so on, we need not increase the stock of The former of these is not, the latter is tending to be, a development of " person-play," which does not concern us here, namely, artistic anthropomorphism
animism.
and the "pathetic fallacy." The artist instinctively goes back to the ancient mould and fills it with indisBut this is not the same thing as the criminate life. method of primitive man. In reference to a manual of Semitic grammar, which asserts that " to primitive man he therefore all nature seemed endowed with life
;
ascribed the distinction of sex to every existing thing,"
Payne remarks, " Rarely has more error been got into two lines. The writer has been misled by animism.' Language proves that primitive man, whatever power
'
"
45
and importance he may have ascribed to inanimate objects, drew the strongest of lines between such objects We might as legitiand what was endowed with life." mately infer from a study of the German language that the modern Teuton ascribes sex and human personality 2 to turnips while denying them to young ladies.
1
question of how many " animated " objects owe their " life " to the savage imagination, in its artistic
The
moments, developing by association the grammatical must be reserved. It applies only to the higher savagery. There is still work for the theory, regarded as obsolete, that mythology is
personality into artistic creations,
a disease of language.
Certainly animatism
is
a disease
of the language of modern anthropology.

Before taking leave of personalisation, some interesting
varieties
of this
far-reaching
principle
may
be
adduced.
Choctaw has
a different set
as
denote
personality
conceived
3
of particles to " relative." Many
languages distinguish personality according to bloodrelationship and status.
Gender
is
a late development.
curious form
is
the distinction between the language
used by males and females. 4

things as rational or irrational. 5
Two
primary
classifica-
tions are (1) of things animated or inanimate, (2) of
In Japanese and other
languages there
is
a distinction between " reverential
and
"contemptuous" forms of verbs and pronouns. frequent distinction is drawn between transferable
;
and non-transferable personality
the latter includes

;
parts of the body, blood-relations, and the like
the
former includes things which can be transferred to

1
Payne,
op. cit.
ii.
264.
See
Mark Twain, A Tramp

ii.
Abroad, Appendix D.
Payne,
op. cit.
192.
5
Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 46, 47.

ii.
Payne,
op. cit.
198.
46
others.

Many
languages have forms and non-substantiality.
distinguishing
substantiality
4.
Repetition
and
Variation.
A
and
subsidiary
source of names
may
be noticed in
passing.
their
Imitation
of sounds expressive of feeling,

has
recognition,
been described.
But the
kling-klang or "
different matter.
bow-wow " theory of language is a The results of this kind of imitation

late.
are sporadic,
and mostly
There
is
an interesting
:
exception which has had some influence

the earliest " mother " and
the use of
as
sounds produced by infants

" father."
terms for
Preyer notes that "papa,
mama, by the
tata, apa,
lips
(/>,
ama,
ata, are automatically
produced
1
m), or by the tongue (d,
*)."
But
examples are rare outside the Indo-European pa- and The Tupi paia, father, maia, mother, are ma-.
examples.
language.
imitation has no " root," the monosyllabic, or the more reality than the
Most " imitative " sounds As a theory of language,
are curiosities of
gesture theories.
to
Gesture, of course, was early used

significance,
I
help
out
imperfect
for
instance,
I
to
bridge the gulf between "
" and " thou," "
" and
"he."
The
next processes of language which influence
its
early stages
and
illustrate early
thought are repetition

kept
and variation.
In perception, the
first
shock of a stimulus
is
up by a
sort of cinematographic vibration.
This can
be illustrated by experiment.
" Illuminate a drawing
by electric sparks separated by considerable intervals, and after the first, and often after the second and
1
W.
Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, 321.
third spark, hardly anything will be recognised.
47
But
each
last
the
confused image
attain
is
held
fast
in
it,
memory
and so
1
successive
illumination
to a
completes
at
we
clearer
perception."
The
in
same
given
repetition takes place in
memory.
its
" Being altogether

a
conditioned on brain-paths,
individual
partly
will
excellence
depend
partly
on
the
number and
2
on
the
persistence
of these
in
paths."
in
It
is
interesting to see
how both
an
a
mind and
language
evolution passes from

a partial analysis,
to
undifferentiated
whole,
by
fully
discriminated
synthesis.
Repetition
in this
and variation are the chief factors, then, analysis and recombination, but here language
to
influence
comes
a
in
thought, just as
thought has
result
is
influenced
language
previously.
in
The
of
final
classificatory
labels,
system
all
.which
processes
general
terms
are
the
and
the
thought
the
storers
and
classifiers,
provers and developers of the

to
to
contents.
But we
language.
there
is
must
the
return
repetition repetition
in
primitive
Corresponding
in
of stimulus
tendency.
holophrase
polysyllabic
"
The
simple closure of the
lips,
or the elevation of
the tip of the tongue to the forepalate or teeth, in
the course of vocalisation, followed by a relaxation of

the
muscles employed, at once produces a dissyllabic
sound, divided by These movements, there would be a would indefinitely
one of the
natural
anterior
explodents.
repeated one or more times
and
them
tendency to
variety,
repeat
produce words of three or more

infinite
syllables, capable
of
when
the various
different
kinds
1
of vowel sounds are used,

Wundt, quoted by W. James,
2
and the
Textbook of Psychology, 233.

292.
W.
James,
op. cit.
48

explodents
1
methods of relaxing and modifying the

are applied."
Mexican example of variation
is
the holophrase
for letter-postage, amatlacuilolitquitcatlaxtlahuilli,
meanis
ing " the payment received for carrying a paper on
which something
will
is
written."
One from Cherokee
winitawtigeginaliskawlungtanawnelitisesti)
meaning " they
by that time have nearly finished from a distance to thee and me." language, " conceptions which may the words of Hamilton as " vague
found
expression
in
granting favours
In this stage of
be
described
in
and confused,"
semi-voluntary vocalisation, called an " indeterminate Caspari has exhibiting what

a
linguistic
words, was and solidification of a polysyllabic flux, slowly passing from an involuntary to a voluntary stage, and comparable to,
condition."
Speech,
in
other
formed by the gradual
rationalisation
though in its material aspect doubtless widely dissimilar from the song of birds or the chatter of monkeys. 2 Repetition is the life of the intellect and the basis In speech, its of order in speech and thought. possibility depends upon a set of organs not originally
adapted for the purpose.
tion.
It
The "play"
use of these
is
responsible ultimately for their adaptability to articulais
of great biological interest to trace the
mechanical
dependence of evolution
necessities
in
speech
and
thought upon the alimentary

In the
first
of the organism.
place,
it
is
hardly possible to overrate the
prominence of food among early
ideas. Savage thought and talk constantly turn upon food, the search for
food, the character of food-stuffs, the satisfaction of

1
2
i.
Payne, History of the Ne-xv World called America, ii. 127-8. Id., op. cit. ii. 129, quoting Caspari, Die Urgeschichte der Menschheit,
143.
hunger.
social
49
earliest
The same
was
is
true of children.
The
unit
undoubtedly a small group united
ultimately by the complementary demands of sex and " Whether man is savage or civilised, alimentation.
food
is
his
prime necessity.
Food, we may be
sure,
during thousands of years occupied the largest space

in
man's mental area
of vision.
The
necessity
of
providing food led primitive
man
to invent his
first
weapons and implements

or
less
to unite in aggregates
more
and
it,
large
it
;
for
the
purpose
to
of
discovering
securing
to
penetrate
solitude
and
to
navigate
waters
until
previously
at
unknown
him
in
his
in search
of
very early period
history he
had
reached every part of the four continents which was

it, and strained his mental and powers to their uttermost in the effort of winning it." 1 In the evolution of language an early
capable
of yielding
physical
step
is
signifying "
marked by the development of adjectives good " and " evil " from the attributes of
the
food, just as
into
*
African guide
'
" divides
all
plants
in-
bush
'
and
good
for
nyam' the
but
latter
cluding the eatable ones, the former the residue.
The
their
Tupi can only count up to gives 1224 Tupi words

parts.
-
three,
Von Martius
and
for
animals
Biology proves that the oral cavity was originally

adapted
to
alimentary functions alone.

lips,
The
further
their
adaptation of tongue,
teeth,
and palates to
secondary and acquired use in speech, depending as

it
did on the upright position of the body, and on the exercise afforded by the " play " of the muscles,
is
one of the most remarkable transitions in organic

1
New
2
World called America,
i.
278-80.
Id,, loc. at.
5o

The
capacity of
is
evolution.
tion
man
for plastic
modula-
of sound
in
the
result
of exercise of the oral
the satisfaction of hunger and in the enjoyment of " play." The cry was gradually moulded
muscles
into articulate
with eating.
speech,
form by the muscular contacts associated The repetitive power of the organs of
in
is
exemplified
guttural
the
holophrase,
where
the
preliminary
carried forward
mouth
in
a diminishing scale,
mobility
of
tongue,
lips,
through the was developed by the and teeth acquired in
mastication.
The
exercise
of the oral muscles in eating had a
still earlier and equally emphatic reaction upon the development of the mind. It is an ascertained fact
that strength of character
is
intimately connected with
strength of jaw.
are
largely
Further, our conceptions of things
composed of remembered sensations of resistance and yielding, pressure and release, contact and severance, roughness and smoothness, hardness and softness, largeness and smallness, and the like, all derived in the most personal way from the phenoaccompanying original sense from
developed.
It
is
mena
mastication.
Touch
others
is
the
which
all
have
been
;
the ultimate test of substantiality
its relations are far
more
subjective, through
its
nearer
connection with the vital feeling, than those of sight
or sound
and
its
results in conception are consequently
more
real, in
the sense of being
more
intimately realised,
processes has, as
Ideation of these than those of the higher senses. we shall see, not failed to condition
From this point of and develop the idea of the soul. view we may compare the fact that in the rudimentary
religion of the Central Australians ritual
1
is
primarily
Payne,
op. cit.
ii.
144.
concerned with the securing of the food-supply. 1
facts,
51
Such
taken
in
connection
with
the
psychological
evidence,
ritual are
show that sacred meals and eucharistic modes of consecrating not only food but the
also.
alimentary act
The connection of the development of the brain and of the vocal organs and its relation to speech is
an
interesting
subject,
in
particular
the
connection
between pre-perception and innervation, and of both

with ideation
ness,
;
that between speech
and right-handed-
and so on, but we cannot pursue the subject here.

expressing tactile relations, the tongue,
As machinery for
teeth,
and
lips
could
hardly
be improved
is
for
ex-
pressing changes of emotion the voice
unsurpassed.
We
speak because
we
eat, just
as
we
sing because
we
breathe.
As
cases
is
simple examples of repetition in language two
may
suffice.
In
many
the
languages a plural noun

singular,
formed
Quichua,
by repeating
llama,
for
example,
In
;
in
singular,
llamallama,
plural.
Polynesian dialects mana expresses personal influence
manamana
language
expresses
is
used
for
expresses
by
;
superhuman power. repetition what the

the
idea
Thus mind
is
by repetition
of
of the
soul
double, both in language and in thought.
Reproduction
repetition
itself
sensations
is
never
identical
in
involves
variation,
both
nerve-
and the germ-plasm. Any change, moreover, in the environment of an object, however familiar, is marked by a corresponding variation in ideation, and consequently in its vocalised representavibrations, language,
tion.
1
Change along habitual paths

To
the
is
the life-story of
s.<v.
Spencer and Gillen, The Native Tribes
of Central Australia,
intichiuma.
Hindu dinner
is still
a religious act.

52

as
language
of
protoplasm.
Recombination,
again,
may change any
idea of any individual object or
mass
of objects, some special features being obliterated and

others introduced.
To
such an extent does variation
most savage languages are changed in two generations. 1 The Paraguay language gives us a good example of the application of variation a male present is eneha, a female, anaha if he or she be sitting, the forms are hiniha and haniha if walking and in sight, ehaha and ahaha if walking and out of sight, ekaha and akaha?
influence early speech that
entirely
:
5.
The Name.
between
speech
The
ment
process
of
interaction
and
psychosis which produced, by a sort of tacit arrangeafter a combined effort, the power of symbolising " things " as well as their relations, cannot of course
be exactly described. It may be realised by analogy " the force which underlies the motion of the mind
undergoes a change.
physics,
it
To
loses
the
character
borrow an of a
illustration
'
from
finite
'
force
one which requires a definite time to generate a definite amount of motion, like the force arising from the
gravitation
of bodies
and
acquires that of an
definite
3
'
im-
pulsive
'
force,
in
which generates a
amount of
motion
an indefinitely short time."
The
effort
required to symbolise the absent, the unseen, and the
imaginary,
is
connected with this development into an

;
impulsive
force
repetition
and
variation
are
the
the
mechanical
means
N.
of
transition.
In
thought,
influence of external stimuli being absent, attention to

1
See, e.g.,
2
W.

8
Thomas, Natives of Australia (1906), 28. New World called America, ii. 192.
Id., op. cit.
ii.
201.
the " thing "
is
$3
Thought is also experienced in the use of association. Thus the Indian calls iron "black stone" and copper "red stone." Language
easier.
and thought
their
alike
are
experienced
the
earliest
in
relations,
and
expression
language.
of Given, then, " I-hungry," solidifying with
was
achievement
variation into terms for a particular meal,

particular
and
for a
" hunger,"
?
how do we
say
get a general idea
and a general term

Provisionally,
large
itself.
we may
by
;
repetition,
is
but so
in
an
epistemological
question
subject
We
have seen several tendencies towards the
general idea and the general term
we
shall later
its
meet
with the standardisation of the idea, and
occasional
in language we have repetition. nature Thus a little girl, " after getting pain from certain bumps on the head, got to calling all bodily pain The " general " has been noted as bump bump.' "
composite
being
rather
an
attitude,
an
expectation,
2
motor
tendency, than an absolute form. " come," finally, " to have
We
abstracts for our objects.
We
also
and come to think of

universals
which are only problematic," as inventions, artistic creations, and the various curious entla rationis? For these thought requires language, for ease of reference and for accuracy in recognition.
objects
When
is
the idea of the soul gets a general name,
it
subject to the defects as well as the qualities of both
speech and thought.

it
But,
to
its
more than most

psychological
concepts,
tends
to
revert
origin.
To
anticipate,
we may
is
say
that
the
all
first
result
of the
general term
1
to fuse artificially
the manifestations
Baldwin, Mental Development in the Race and the Child, 325. 3 Id., loc. cit. James, Textbook of Psychology, 241
54
of the idea into one whole, a new synthesis with fully distinguished parts, developed step by step from a long
analysis
of the original comprehensive

is
totality.
The
its
curious thing
that the
general term rarely in

;
etymology expresses anything of the kind

always a part of the whole.
Abstraction,
it is
almost
Thus
the
the general terms of " imagination "
language have to be helped out by the mind.

again,
and
of
problematic
realities
play their part under the aegis of
the general term.
Summing up
early thought
few characteristics of early language
which have especial reference to the connection between and early ideas of the soul, we infer a
totalities,
tendency to express
and
more than
this,
whole scenes, the expressions for these varying accord" I " or " heing to difference of circumstances.
doing-so-and-so "
the
is
the
type.
This corresponds
to
widest
view of personality.
The
abstraction of
parts gradually gains
ground
adjuncts
personality with
its
but the connection of " His-body," persists.

with
circumstances
;
" his-head,"
are
types,
varying
but general terms for

arise
till
"body" and "head" do

notions
like
**
not
is
the third stage of mental evolution.

case with abstract
This
life
also
the
" and
" soul."
as types " man-living,"
Until language helps to isolate them we have " man-soul." Language finally
;
does what thought can never do

abstractions.
it
isolates
these
Early
man,
curiously
enough,
agrees
;
with the modern in not separating matter and energy he disagrees in keeping them
still
combined
in language.
Such an abstraction is the soul ; in its early forms, In the third and fourth stages however, it is concrete. it is reduced to an abstraction, under the combined influence of science and language, but even then in the
end
it
SS
primitive
shows
a tendency
to
revert to
to terms
the
concrete
reality
form.
With regard
they
arose
reality
for psychical
generally,
before
abstraction
differs
had
the
created
material
an opposed
as
which
from
from concrete. They arose in a stage when psychical reality was regarded as correlative, not opposed to material. It is not correct to say that
abstract
the earliest terms for mental facts are terms used for
material facts
they
are neutral, just as
all
facts
it
were
had
the
is
neutral for the naive consciousness, even
when
conceived a duplicate correlative

Finally,
reality.
with
regard
to
names
generally,
important result for the early stages of evolution

the
name of
the personality or thing, the

It
is
name
this
in
its
individual and particular reference.
that, in
the sphere of vocal reality,
is
to the personality
reality.
what
the soul
is
in
the sphere
of psychical
The
name
calls
is
a sign, symbol, or signal, which,

in
when
It
uttered,
up
mind
the totality of the object.

it
has thus
is
some claim
to be regarded, as
frequently
in the
lower culture, as being
itself a soul.
CHAPTER
III
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
I.
Description of the Soul.
In order to visualise the problem of the origin of the

idea of the soul, a general view of the idea, as
it
has
been described for the lower races,
The
conception
of
the
soul
may be taken at once. among savage and

:
barbarous peoples is thus described by Tylor It is " a thin, unsubstantial human image, in its nature a sort
of vapour,
film,
or
shadow
it
the
cause
;
of
life
and
its
thought in the individual
animates
independently
possessing the personal consciousness and volition of
corporeal owner, past or present
capable of leaving
to
the body far behind, to flash swiftly from place

place
;
and invisible, yet also manifesting physical power, and especially appearing to men waking or asleep, as a phantasm separate from the body of which it bears the likeness continuing to exist and appear to men after the death of that body able to enter into, possess, and act in the bodies of other men, of animals, and even of things." It is "an
mostly
impalpable
; ;
animating,
separable, surviving
l
entity,
the vehicle of
individual, personal existence."
Frazer describes
it
thus
"As
the savage
commonly
in or
explains the processes of inanimate nature by supposing

that they are produced
1
by living beings working

i.
E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture*,
429, 501.
56
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
57
behind the phenomena, so he explains the phenomena If an animal lives and moves, it can only of life itself. be, he thinks, because there is a little animal inside
which moves
it.
If a
man
little
lives
and moves,
it
can only
be because he has a
man
or animal inside
moves him. The animal inside the man, is the soul.

animal or
so
inside the animal, the
who man
And,
as the activity
of an
its
man
is
explained by the presence of the soul,

is
the
;
repose
of sleep or death
explained by
absence
sleep or trance being the temporary, death
Again, the being the permanent absence of the soul." savage often " regards his shadow or reflection as his
soul, or at all events as a vital part
of himself"
"as
some peoples
believe a man's soul to be in his shadow,

it
so other (or the same) peoples believe

reflection in water or a mirror."
l
to be in his
These accounts are here given without prejudice to

any conclusion we of the soul
these
may
reach concerning the

in
nature In
in primitive or
barbarous thought.
there
is
summaries,
we must remember,
no
is
distinction of peoples or
of stages of evolution.
It
necessary to add two

the soul or
to
life
common
identifications, those
of
2 with the breath and the blood.
As
until
the
idea generally,
civilisation has
we may note made some progress does
that
not
the soul acquire
an immaterial substantiality. 3
2.
The Primitive Mind.
Ideas can arise in the to examine, in the

1
mind
alone,
and we now proceed
first
of our four psychological stages,
G. Frazer, The Golden Bough 2 (1900), i. 247, 285, 292. A. E. Crawley, The Mystic i. 432 Payne, History of the Ne<w World called America, i. 393. 103 3 Crawley, The Tree of Life (1905), 242. Payne, op. cit. i. 391
J.
2
Tylor, Primitive Culture 5
Rose,
58

mind
to certain stimuli
;
the material out of which the idea of the soul arose,
the reaction of the primitive
which determined its morphology, This the cognitive methods of the primitive brain. primitive type must necessarily be reached by inference from material which is composed of several strata. We shall isolate the simplest undifferentiated form which can arise direct from mental reflex action. For
and the
factors
the sake of clearness, terms like

will
mind and psychosis
be substituted for " consciousness," owing to its " Conscious " and " consciousness " will be ambiguity.
as
used in reference to reflection and mental realisation opposed to " unconscious " and "unconsciousness,"
the unreflecting, unrealised perception of phenomena.
Only in the case of dreams will they bear the further meaning of "wideawake " and " insensible." When we consider the idea of the soul, as described
above, with impartial attention,
it
is
an extraordinary
origin
phenomenon.
simple enough.
Yet the mode of

It
is,
its
may
be
of course, one result of the

to
never
in
completed
that
being.
attempt
understand the world,
particular
human
most complex of created things, This attempt we must make ourwhich

attend
its
selves.
The
difficulties
the
study
of
all
personality are increased
when
object represents a
low culture ; they are multiplied when he also belongs to a remote epoch, and has to be interviewed by inference. A shrewd observer, speaking of the
hopelessness so generally experienced in attempting to
elicit
the real
beliefs
of the savage, remarks of the

they can
safely
Kafirs, that they " have not yet arrived in the course
of evolution
at
that stage in which
make any
critical
examination of the content of their
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
own
consciousness.
59
Their
self-realisation has hitherto

line
been sought solely along the
of their animal nature.

believe,
They cannot
good reason
tell
you what they
for the
very
.
.
that they hardly
know this
themselves.
They are but dimly conscious of large tracts of their own individuality, which lie below the level of full consciousness. The subliminal self is enormously
.
. .
greater than that portion of

consciousness.
great deal, they
believe,
beliefs.
it
which
rises to full self-
In a word, though they believe a very
do not
quite
sit
for they never
know what they actually down and reflect on their

try to find out
And
the
moment you
what the
Kafir believes, your very questions, unless carefully thought out beforehand, are sure to suggest to them
ideas
which they can
easily
fit
in with their other ideas.
Your very
question will cause the development and
crystallisation
of their ideas."
It is therefore idle to assume that the mind of the savage contains " some inexplicable mystery," or that " the mirror of his intellect is of abnormal focus, or
throws off" distorted reflexions." As Payne remarks, " platitudes such as these could only result from
superficial or prejudiced observation.
Mind
is
essentially
the same in
all
varieties
of
man
the lowest American

2
Indian thinks and reasons like ourselves."

little
There
is
qualitative difference between savage
and
civilised
mental capacity
were made
difference
is
inventions
the most important discoveries and

is,
those, that
in the period
which have led to all others of savagery. The apparent

Firstly,
civilised
due to two
facts.
man
has had for
many
ages the use of an analytical language,

the acquisition and storing of
Essential Kafir (1904), 71.
ii.
the value of which in

1
Dudley Kidd, The
Payne, History of the Ne-zu World called America,
246.
60

;
knowledge cannot be over-estimated

savage, "like the
real
secondly,
the
lower animals,
;
lives
mainly
sensible
in the
and
its
present
l
his
mental
action,
insufficiently
stimulated by
for
mere thought, requires
things
support."
is
There
no reason
It is
for supposing that the savage
mind
is
animal, or infantile, rudimentary, or in a state
of dream.
civilised
latter,
merely undifferentiated.
It
does not
seem to have occurred to those theorists
who compare
and uncivilised man to the disadvantage of the

Early
that they are applying a different standard to
each case.
record
the
men have no
literature in
which to
thought
of their best specimens.

civilised
average mental processes and capacity of

are not to
The men
be judged by the psychology of scientific
and
artistic literature
which shows merely the results of
the best specimens of mind.
That
is
a false
common-
place which assumes a wider gulf between the brains
of a Newton and an Australian black than between the latter and a chimpanzee. The last has no language ;
the black has a language of an early type
;
the scientist
has a language which
is
analytical
with general and abstract terms.

the savage, as
and fully equipped Handicapped thus,
we read of
is
the Brazilian Indian, never
troubles about anything that does not concern his daily
wants. 2
no need for him to analyse his perception and a ruminative memory are thoughts good enough for him. He lives the more or less comfortable life of a natural tramp, and never thinks of the problems invented for him by the interviewer.
There
;
Except in the act of perception, we may regard the mind of the savage and of his predecessors as being in
1
Payne, History of the Ne<w World called America,

2
ii.
246.
Bates,
The Naturalist on
the
Amazon,
ii.
163.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
a
61
more or
less fluid state.
Free thought was necessarily
a stream of images,
having no generalised terms or
symbols for abstractions.

alone thought
position
;
With
a
is
" sensible supports "

a
is
more
like
panorama than
;
pro-
classification
exist.
difficult
abstract
notions
can hardly
The mind
passes
from one memory-
image to another, and each of these is a particular. During this ruminative thinking between perceptive Mental acts the threshold of consciousness was high.
action
starts,
was discontinuous, working, so to speak, in and from beginning to end it was imaged.
namely, single acts of perception,
In these starts,
it
is
probable that cognition was not so

feeling,
much
were
distinct
from
nor feeling from
will, as
is
the case with

finely
civilised
psychosis. 1
But
the
senses
developed,
exercised.
primitive
and concentrated attention had been well There is every reason for supposing that man, like an animal, had a very keen
perceptive and inferential power for what he needed,
such as food, for what he feared, and generally for
what he knew.
well developed.
His preperceptive faculty would be His mind, of course, possessed all the qualities of human mind it was well trained in the use of the fundamental powers of comparison and recognition, and it worked, as all mind works, by means of memory and association. It was merely innocent of analysis.
;
3. Perception.
Perception, which
in all cases, not
is
a synthesis of sensations, begins,
with minima, but with masses.'2
The
trained analytical mind proceeds to divide the whole

1
Hciffding, Outlines of Psychology, 93.

i.
W.
Hamilton, Lectures on Metaphysics,
243,
ii.
327.
62
impression,

more or less rapidly, into its elements. untrained mind keeps the mass in a more
is,
But the
or
a
less
undivided condition, unless, that

for
selective
there
is
particular reason
perception
of some
one part or aspect of the impression. In this comprehensive stage of perception there
is
succession. But there is no no constituent of the whole is On the contrary, observers have remarked the lost. photographic power possessed by the savage of preserv1 In civilised perception, on the other hand, ing detail. the habit of analysis and the influence of names actually
more simultaneity than

;
confusion or chaos
from the synthesis many important details, while adding others that are pure abstractions, the results of Primitive perception was a comconceptual analysis.
erase
prehensive ideated synthesis.
We
parts,
it.
may
therefore characterise primitive perception

totalities,
as being
concerned primarily with

in a
not with
with the
is,
concrete, not with abstractions from
It
word, synthetic, and for
this
type of
mental action the term holopsychosis, or whole-thinking,
may
perhaps be suggested.
arrived at this general character of early
Having
mental processes, an indeterminate stream broken by vivid and comprehensive percepts of the ideational
sort,
we may
for
clearness' sake sketch
some of the
of perception, in order to obtain a better view of their combination and its results. Whether a man has just emerged from the anthropoid stage,
elements
and
or
a
is
is
ignorant of the soul and of
many
other things,
the heir of a thousand ages and the legatee of

idea,
hundred aspects and applications of the

all his
he
has for the foundation of

1
thinking nothing but

;
Dudley Kidd, The
Essential Kafir, 280,
282
Galton, Inquiries
2
,
etc.,
272.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
sensation.
63
in sensu.
Nihil
is
est in intellects
quod non fuerit
The
soul.
principle
well illustrated by the idea of the
All concepts depend ultimately on the sensations
produced in the brain, but, whereas most concepts are

soon influenced and often transformed by the abstractions
of language,
a
the
concept
of the soul
has
tendency to preserve the ideational form.

Perception
is
cerebro-sensory
duced by an action on the senses " It may be compared to the brain.

centrifugal
itself
phenomenon proand a reaction of

a
reflex,
the
period
of which,
instead
of manifesting
externally
in
internally
in movements, would be expended awakening associations of ideas.' The

'
discharge
follows
*
channel."
Sensations
2
mental instead of a motor are " first things in the way
of
consciousness."
We
;
are
not
concerned
with
immediate sensations
tions
;
for
practical
nor with pure or single sensapurposes these do not exist.

its first
"
From
its
the
moment of
coming
3
into being, the
existence and properties of a sensation are determined
by
relation to other sensations."
" Anything which
affects
our sense-organs
arouses processes in the
hemispheres which are partly due to the organisation
of that organ by past experiences, and the results ot
which
the
that
in
consciousness
suggests.
are
described as ideas
first
which
is
sensation
The
of these
ideas
of the thing to which the sensible quality belongs.

consciousness of particular material things present
is
The
to
sense
perception."
"
No
state
it
once gone can

5
recur and be identical with what

1
was before,"
5.
nor
A. Binet, Psychology of Reasoning (1899),
W.
3
4
James, Textbook of Psychology (1892), 12. H. Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology, 114.
W.

6
Id. 154.
64
can
the
same object be perceived again absolutely, but the vibration of the same nerve-centres practically produces an identity of sensation and of thing perceived.
Lastly,
perception
contains
all
the
elements
of
" thought,"
of
imagination,
conception,
reasoning.
Remembered images
or ideas, and
new
percepts, which
will reinforce or alter the old
images or add new ones,

intellectual operations
;
" constitute the materials of
all
memory, reasoning, imagination,

in
are acts
which
consist,
ultimate
analysis,
of grouping and
in
co-ordinating
images, in
apprehending the relations already formed
between
relations."
them,
l
and
reuniting
them
into
new
and abstract terms are brought to the assistance of the mind, thought is yet still imagination, with names instead of images ;
general
When
even then the mind employs memory-images, which are images of those names.
In primitive man, as in
all
who
are not thinking
of their mental processes, the image formed by perception, though it is the essence of thought, is, during
the act of formation,
are conscious of in
unconsciously realised.
is
All
we
perception
the thing,
identical
This with the " sight " of the thing, and its relations. is another way of describing the exteriority of sensations
;
every thing or quality
felt is felt in
outer space.
The law of association, again, brings us back to the comprehensiveness already claimed as a characteristic " When two processes have of primitive perception.
been active together or in immediate succession, one of them on recurring tends to propagate its excitement 2 But " all brain-processes are such into the other."
as give rise to
1
what we may
call
figured consciousness.
Binet, Psychology of Reasoning, 10.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
If paths are shot-through at
in consistent systems,
all,
6s
they are shot-through
objects,
and occasion thoughts of definite not mere hodge-podges of elements." x In

selective attention
perception, again, the sensations are held fast by their

stimuli
2
;
may
therefore be difficult.
In
free
in
thought,
free
it is
combination or succession of
easier.
images
In
memory,
next
the
place,
all
the
qualities
of volume
and
intensity inhere in
sensations.
All sensations also

exact knowledge
involve extensity, out of which, discrimination, association,
and selection have produced

all
all
of space. 3
Again,
has
psychosis
is
motor.
"
The muscular
sense
do with defining the order of position of things seen, felt, or heard, no less than with suggesting volume and extensity. When we think of a ball, the idea comprises the optical impressions of
to
much
the eye, impressions of touch, of muscular adjustments
of the eye, of movements of the fingers, and of the
muscular sensations which result therefrom."

In perception, to
sum
built
an imaged
reactions,
totality
we have the " thing," up in a moment from the

up,
stimuli affecting particular sense-organs
involving
all
and from the mental processes, of exercised
centres.
What
" combination of sensations gives us the " thing

?
most completely
In order to answer this question
we must
is
briefly
compare some characteristics of the senses. Touch, the mother of the senses,
1
the
most
Id.
316.
E. B. Titchener, Primer of Psychology, 97.
James,
op. cit.
335, 337.
;
James, Textbook of Psychology, 370, 341

(1880)
;
id.
The Feeling of
5
Effort
"
66

least intellectual.
1
emotional and the

condition
all
our estimates of
is
size, shape,
Yet touch-ideas and distance.

gives the least
The
space-element
a
strong in the skin.
Smell,
precise
kind of chemical sense,
and the most

olfactory
sensitive impressions.
In
man
it
has become almost rudimentary, but savages have

a
still
keen
sense
as
compared with
civilised
by smelling is a frequent custom. Many savage peoples say, "Smell me!" instead of " How do you do ? 2 The Nicobarese are able to distinguish by smell members of each of their six
races.
Salutation
tribes.
Taste
is
hardly to be reckoned as a separate sense.

all
Smell and touch enter into
taste-sensations.
The
ear gives sensations of greater vastness than the

is less
skin, but
able to subdivide them.
Loud sounds
produce a feeling of enormousness. 4
Nietzsche was of
opinion that delicacy of hearing could only have been
produced under conditions where vision was unnecessary. " The ear, the organ of fear, could only have developed
in
the
.
night and in the twilight of dark

.
woods and
5
caves.
In the brightness the ear
is less
necessary."
Voice
is
one of the best unaided means of recognition,

taste,
but hearing, like touch, smell, and

a thing.
merely infers
to see.
For
all
practical purposes, to perceive
is
The
sight.
space-element is most active in the sensation of " Not only does the maximal vastness yielded
retina surpass that yielded
by the
by any other organ,
but the intricacy with which our attention can subdivide

2
1 Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, iv. H. Ling Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute,
3, 6.
xix.
165
ff.
3
4
E.
H. Man,
ibid.
391.
W.
5
James, ^textbook of Psychology, 336.

F. Nietzsche, Morgenrothe, 230.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
this vastness,
67
lesser
and perceive
it
to be
composed of
alongside
l
portions
simultaneously coexisting
of each
other
is
without a parallel elsewhere."

senses,
little practical result.
As compared
exception of
is
with vision, the other

hearing, have but
in
with the
That
to say,
the
conscious perception
of the thing and in the
memory-image, it is the sight of the thing that gives its " Sight is the supreme and totality and character. dominant sense in man. It is the main channel by which he receives his impressions. To a large extent
it is
has slowly superseded

practically
;
all
it
the other senses.
Its
range
infinite
brings
before
us
remote
worlds
it
enables us to understand the minute details

~
of our structure." of
Through
;
it
we
obtain our inferences

;
life,
and substance our impressions of and causation our recognition of beauty. Even when language has invaded much of the original
reality, extension,
action,
domain of vision, more than half the mind is built up of visual images. Though to us the first impression produced by an object is generally a word-idea, yet and we absorb even this is frequently a visual image our general and abstract knowledge from the sight of Binet speaks, in no mere metaphor, the printed page. of "logical vision." "To know, to understand, to explain, to know the why and the how of things, all
;
this culminates in
is
an act of vision.
epitomised in these simple words
The
in
highest science
3
to see."
A
may
curious instance of the
way
which the mind
turn round upon
" idea."
be seen in the word Its original meaning was the " sight " of a
itself is to
its visible
thing, the impression of

1
form upon the
brain.
James,
op. cit., I.e.

iv.
H.
Ellis, Studies in the

:i
Psychology of Sex,
135, 136.
68

it
But
came
is
to
mean what
is
in a
thought
the opposite of this,
good
deal of civilised " the inward " spirit
of a thing.
thought, and
the soul.
The word
microcosm of the history of
in particular
of the history of the idea of

a
We
see,
then,
that
thing
is
most completely
perceived by vision.
;
Visual perception involves various
motor sensations it may also be assisted by auditory, tactual, and olfactory sensations, but the totality of the
thing
is
complete without these

is
latter aids.
The
stature,
sight
of a
man
thus for the percipient his total personality,

its
including his body and
parts, shape,
and
colour, his quality as a living, moving, and breathing

totality,
and, by association, the
quality of his acts,
emotions,
perception
object of
and
is
volitions.
The
;
thing
it
is
envisaged
in
a complete reality
all
the thing as an
all
thought and
science.
Now
this,
a living coloured voluminous photograph like

a
stamped upon the brain by
cinematographic
reverberation, leaves an impression, the importance of
which cannot be over-estimated.

identical
This visual image,

is
with
the
thing
itself,
repeated in every
perception of the thing.
It is also
repeated in
memory,
;
is it where it stands for and represents the thing employed in every process of thought. It may recur
involuntarily,
or
it
may
be
voluntarily
;
called
up.
is
Imagination
a
is
a synthesis of such images
reasoning
form of
this.
The
in
his
primitive percipient has no other

;
content of consciousness
is
nor have we,
the
difference
that, while
case the images were entirely of
through the influence of language and other aids to civilisation, the images are to some extent auditory and visual images of words, not of things
objects, with us,
alone.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
That
question.
this
is
69
the
character
of perception and of
is
thought unassisted by analytical language
beyond
That
all
it is
the fundamental character of these
processes in
stages of evolution
psychology to-day.
upon by Even the psychology of feeling

is
insisted
has to reckon with ideas.
4.
Ideation.
In order to present the main features of our explanation as clearly as possible,

it
will be well to give
some sketch of ideation from the point of view we have

taken.
Modern psychology may

imagery. 1
Its
be said to date from the
researches of Taine and Galton
fundamental
on the subject of mental importance had been
observed by Aristotle, who stated the fact that it is impossible to think without a " sensible image," but the
shadows of abstraction obscured the idea for more than two thousand years. In 1865 ^ was st ^ possible for eminent psychologists to hold that " an impassable chasm separates the conception of an object which is absent or imaginary otherwise called an image and the actual sensation produced by a present object that the two phenomena differ not only in degree but in kind, and that they resemble each other no more than the body and the shadow." The story of the idea of the soul illustrates the story of the soul itself, and this
idea of 1865
is
a curious coincidence.
in a questionnaire, "
Galton asked,
internal vision,
1
whether one was
able to represent absent objects mentally
he took
'intelligence
by a kind of
thoroughly English example,

;
H. Taine, De
I'
(1870)
F. Galton, Inquiries into
Human
Faculty (1883).
70

when
served,
the appearance of breakfast

entirely
and
if
this
subjective
representation
had
*
common
char-
acteristics
with the external vision."
His inquiry was
confined to vision. The different kinds of images are, " of course, as numerous as the different kinds of
sensations.
Each
sense
has
its
images,
these
being,
therefore, visual, auditory, tactile, motor, etc.

able,
We
are
when we
exercise our
memory on
an object, to
his
cumulatively employ every kind of image, or to have

recourse to only a single kind.
Every person has

his
own
habits
depending on the nature of

several
organism.
We
must, therefore, distinguish several

types."
varieties
of
the
a
individuals,
indifferent
common
when
type
is
type.
The
mind
indifferent,
recalling
form and colour of his sound of his voice. The audiles conceive all their recollections in sound in order to recall a passage they impress upon their minds " When I write a scene," said the sound of the words. Legouve to Scribe, " I hear you see at each phrase which I write, the voice of the person who is speaking strikes my ear. You, who are the theatre itself, your actors walk, act before your eyes I am the listener and you the spectator." Those of the motor type employ images derived from movements. " When I
person, sees in his
the
figure as clearly as he hears the
;
;
form," says Strieker, " the image of the
letter
P, the
I
same sensation
really
is
produced
it."
2
in
my
lips
as
if
were
about to articulate
Visuals,
The most common

type.
1
except
for
words
is
the visual
his figure,
a connection
Binet,
when thinking of a friend, see Psychology of Reasoning, n. We may suggest

of the modern world.
between a loss of visualising power and a strengthening of the auditory image, due to language and reading, and the predominance of music in the
aesthetic life
2
Id.
13, 14, 25, 27.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
but do not hear his voice
see the
;
71
air,
when they
But
it
recall
is
an
they
notes of the score.

is
not only their
memory which
they
exercise
visual
when they
reason, or
when
visual
their
imagination,
they
employ
images alone. 1
Binet's account ignores the motor-elements in and the frequent combination of the audile and
vision,
visual
types.
We
quote
it
for
its
clearness.
With regard
to
the
memory-image
itself,
the description already given

will
of the " thing " in perception
serve as a general
example of what it becomes on reproduction in the mind. 2 Some points concerning the visual type of
image deserve
image
is
notice.
Galton remarks that "
a visual
the most perfect form of mental representation
wherever the shape, position, and relation of objects in

space are concerned."
The
best
workmen
are
those
who
whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool in their hands. 3 We have Galton notes that mentioned the quality of volume
visualise the
;
vision,
being
binocular,
has
stereoscopic
quality,
especially in children,
who
can focus very near objects.
"
find," he
says,
" that a few persons can by what
they often describe as a kind of touch-sight visualise at
same moment all round the image of a solid body. An eminent mineralogist assures me that he is able to imagine simultaneously all the sides of a crystal with which he is familiar. I may be allowed to quote a
the
curious faculty of
my own
in
respect to this.
It
is
exercised only occasionally and in dreams, or rather in
nightmares, but under those circumstances

conscious of embracing
perception.
It
1
am
in
perfectly
a
an entire sphere
lie
single
appears to
within
my
mental eyeball,

3
See above, p. 68.
Galton, Inquiries, 78.
72

centripetally."
l
and to be viewed
faculty
is
This last-mentioned
;
perhaps not
uncommon
the present writer,
when awake, with
eyes open or closed, can embrace in

figure.
one view the whole of a human
The word
"embrace" gives exactly Let us now consider

early
the sensation experienced.

the
power of
visualisation in
man. and trained

civilised
is,
We
have already credited him with keen

It
is
senses.
significant
that,
?
while
the
"
see
is
greeting is " 2
"
you
How is your health " the Kafir Galton found that the visualising
faculty
very marked in such low races as the Bushman
and the Eskimo, who draw unerring pictures without The method adopted is remarkable correcting a line. they copy on the slate the visual image which they have in their mind as a preliminary a few dots, without any
:
apparent connection, are made, round which the outline

is
drawn.
young Indian was seen
tracing the out-
line
of a print with the point of his knife ; he explained that " he would remember better how to carve it when he returned home."
these
I
two
cases, that of the
Galton observes on the first of Bushman, " It is impossible,
think, for a drawing to be
made on
this
method
unless
the artist had a clear image in his mind's eye of what
he was about to draw, and was able, in some degree, to 3 The projection of project it on the paper or slate."
an after-image
well-known " illusion " of sight the projection of memory-images must be classed as abnormal, though it is by them that ghosts, if not souls, As draughtsmen the palaeolithic men of are seen. Europe were superior even to Bushmen and Eskimo.
is
Id. 68.
2 3
Dudley Kidd, The

Galton, Inquiries
in
Essential Kafir, 37.
worthy
Human Faculty", 70 ff. The method is noteconnection with the zodiacal drawings, the figures traced round
into
the stars of each constellation.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
Their drawings of reindeer and of visual genius.
tinguished
for
73
are
mammoths
works
Generally the lower races are dis-
power.
detail."
reproductive " Kafirs copy well and faithfully reproduce every
wonderful
memory and
They have "the most marvellous memories Having no written for facts that interest them. language they have to rely on a memory which is not
burdened
schools."
1
in
childhood
by the
conclude
discipline
of
board-
We
may
2
that
the
visualising
in
powers of primitive man were above the average

their
tion.
normal state. The Like most animals, early men were habituated The food-quest consisted of long periods to fasting. of hunger broken by spells of repletion. It is known
is productive of visual hallucinations, that abnormal projections of visual images in any case
abnormal supplies corrobora-
that fasting
is,
it is
sharpens the visualising power.
The
" seer," again,
frequent in savage society, and there are

exhibited by crystal-gazers.
many
cases
as
is
which indicate a trained visualising faculty, such
say of a
man who
Central Australians can see spirits that he " has his eyes
The
open.
5.
Origin of the Idea of the Soul.
Primitive perception was likely to

its
make
the
most of
visual images of
it
men and
things.
Besides keenness
and intensity
totality.
possessed comprehensiveness, a grasp of
Primitive
else
was nothing
stocked memory was with well-developed images of persons

well
there
in
and things, always being renewed

1
perception
by
Dudley Kidd, The

See R.
Essential Kafir, 280
ff.
Brudenell Carter in Journal of the Anthropological
Institute,
xv. 121.
3
Spencer and Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, 515.
74

Now
the
contact with the real presence.
stream of
consciousness (excluding perception, for the

consists of alternations
moment) " The of movement and rest.
resting-places
are
occupied by sensorial imaginations
mind for an indefinite time and contemplated without changing the intervals are filled with thoughts and relations that for the most part
that can be held before the
;
obtain between the matters contemplated in the periods
of comparative
stantive,
rest.
The
latter
may
be called sub-
stream
of
and the former the transitive parts of the The only images intrinsically thought.
1
important are the halting-places, the substantive conclusions " of the thought.
In our primitive subject these substantive conclusions

are
memory-images,
chiefly visual.
They
are the stored
results of his acts
of perception, of the camera and

in his
phonograph of
his brain.
turning these over

time
time,
is,
Let us compare him, when mind, to a man turning over

the
originals.
an album of photographs, and being interrupted, from

to
by the sight of
of course, not
like
The
comparison
fair to the
is
memory-image,
a photograph.
which
is
far
more
let
reality than
Nevertheless,
us consider what difference the fingerer

is
of the mental album, who, by hypothesis,

cated, will feel
unsophisti-
between the originals and their copies.

is
The photograph
a
the person over again, but there

:
is
twofold
difference
the
;
observer can refer to the

is
likeness
when he
pleases
it
in his
power
but he
cannot always see the original.
In the next place, the
copy
is
much
is
less
is
real, less
complete.
The
it
facsimile,
then, both
and
not the man.

real
;
Make
the
copy more
W.
give
the
colour,
volume, and movement possessed by the memory-image,

1
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
and
it is
75
But it is not confused with him for the reasons mentioned before.
practically the original himself.
It is less real still, less
it is
complete,
less intensely
it
is
human
not external or tangible, but

it
in the brain of especially
the observer, where

closing the eyes.
can be actually
felt,
on
Let our observer now see the original

leaving his presence, close
person, and
his eyes
then, without
call
and
him up
in
mind.
What
is
it
that he
sees
It is
worth while pausing here and attempting to
put ourselves in the place of a naive person
who
is
has
never yet seen or realised a memory-image.
To
such a
one the sight of a

about than
man
in the act
;
of perception
it
simply
taken as a matter of course

is
is
no more thought
If this naive person
the act of breathing.
possesses language, this very fact
may
delay his discovery

this
is
of a new world of mental objects.

discovery amounts to
For
what
his
new world. This discovery, doubtless one of the earliest, was more pregnant with possibility than any discovery since made by man,
inasmuch as it was his first acquaintance with the soul and with the world of spirits, in other words, with mental existences, and therefore a world for his own soul to explore and to plant therein the colonies of science. If
our explanation
is
correct,
what
a simple thing
!
was
this
achievement, and
how
inevitable
In the one case, then, perception, our subject has

the person or object, the thing
;
in the other,
memory
idea of
or thought, he has the soul of the thing.

the soul
is
The
thus an automatic result of the reaction to

;
perception
illustration
it is
a mental repetition of sensation.
For
the illusions
we may compare a quasi-normal example, known as after-images. After looking at

its
the sun one can see
image mentally for some time.
76

primitive
When
man
first
first
saw an object
time
;
in
memory, he
replica,
saw the soul for the
he was then conscious
of something besides the thing,

the thought of the thing.
;
the
mental
two respects, the real presence was external, as we have noted the imaged presence was felt tangible, and intense in the brain, or the eye, or ear, and was seen as less 1 intense, less complete, intangible, and internal. Our world is divided into two halves, outer and inner, which correspond to peripheral and central nervous reaction, to outer and inner consciousness.
It
differed in
Sensation
inner half
is is
the outer,
memory
the inner half.
The
;
a duplicate or repetition
of the outer
it.
the
brain repeats what the senses give
The
the
real
the
ideal
interact
harmoniously,
the
as
but be
and normal
say
it
consciousness
consciousness
precisely
in
recognises
because,
distinction.
will
We
noticed,
is
memory-image, when realised, that the mind for the first time becomes really conscious.
the
In
perception
unconsciousness
may be
indefinitely
maintained.
and
in
Thus the soul itself has, in perception memory, a real and an ideal duality, which it
its
repeats in the duality of the thing and
soul.
This, then,
idea
we may regard
as the primal
form of the
the sensory, chiefly visual image, in

totality
memory, of
the
whole personality or
of the person or
object,
being the result of a primitively keen and comprehensive act of perception. It is, in a word,
the " idea " of the thing.
Though
fact
1
apparently seen in dreams and the projected

it
sights of hallucination,
it
is
not seen there

all.
first
in
is
never seen there at
Now
see
that
we have
Outlines of
On
the incompleteness of the
memory-image,
Wundt,
Psychology, 246, 247.
ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT
discussed perception,
77
disproof
of the "dream-theory" of the soul.

realisation
we may submit a The

is
final
essence of the
of a new entity
precisely the state of being
conscious of
in
it, and of its individual character. Now dreams the mind is not conscious, much less is it conscious that what it sees are not the things themselves.
In the next place, the dream-sight

practically
is
identical,
both
tion
in
and psychologically, with an act of percepordinary primitive perception there is no
consciousness,
Lastly,
much
less
is
there
any
in
dream.
how
does primitive man, or any man, come to
any conclusion whatever about the nature of his dreams ? By remembering them, by calling the
dream-image up
being
so
(to
in
memory,
as
after
he wakes.
the
This
exclude
irrelevant
occasional
we have, even on the dream-theory, simply the memory-image of the dreampercept we never get the dream itself.
persistence
of dream-images)
primal idea, then, is essentially different from " If it had been real sights." It is not exteriorised.
it
The
would never have been marked off from reality there would never have arisen a dualism between The essence of it matter and spirit, person and soul.
;
is
that
it
is
mental, actually
felt
in the brain, never
confused
with
the
is
reality
When
the idea
deliberately
we have
Thus
outline,
interesting results
normal consciousness. compared with the reality which will be discussed in

in a
their place.
the soul
is
neither
phantom or skeleton
nor a second self or double.

is
The
the
is
;
origin of
these
two extremes of which the soul
mean
is
will
concern us later on.

it
The
soul, again,
not an illusion
it
is
not mistaken for
shadow,
the
reality
not
the
it
has
three-dimensional
volume,
form,
78
feature,

colour
;
it
is
not a ghost or wraith.
When
not
inanimate objects are in question their souls are

animated.
It
is
not a part of or secretion from the
Lastly, it is not organism, such as breath or blood. " " " as " life " or force or principle," such abstract an " breath of life " ; nor a concept, such as " reason " or
"conscience."
or less
existence
It is
the ideal totality including
more
is
of the attributes
is
of
;
the
reality.
Spiritual
mental existence
world.
the world of spirits

that
the
mental
Everything
of a soul,
can
through
perception lay the foundation of a claim

the possession
memory-image can
an existence in the
spiritual
in the
world here and hereafter.
And
this
world
is,
incomplete and long-suffering term, the super-
natural.
CHAPTER
IV
PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGIES
General Character of the Ethnological Evidence.

described
the
is
We
that
in
have
primitive,
and,
as
far
as
pre-scientific culture
concerned, the
soul.
It
only complete
form of the idea of the

it is
has the advantage
necessarily universal,
case.
It
is
and can be presupposed

;
every
no abstraction
is
if,
therefore,
" primitiveness " in

idea of the soul
for the study
man
an abstraction, the primitive
still remains as a working hypothesis of " primitive man." Before comparing

it
the idea with the ethnological evidence,

to repeat
may
be well
that
it
comprises
life,
practically
everything
personality,
body,
breath,
movement, and the
various attributes of the object as seen in the percept.
We
each
far
shall
not abstract details from the psychology of
people,
is
such
as
may
as
bear
far as
out our view
as
as
possible,
and
be
space permits, the
doctrine of the soul in

will
more or
less typical
completeness
individual
is
in
each
case
will
presented,
and
the
peculiarities
receive due emphasis.
This
the
only
scientific
method.
The
principles already discussed
will enable us to discern the original idea
below
later
deposits.
Critical
remarks, when they occur, are those
of the original observers, or based upon them.

79
80

Few
of these psychologies preserve the original idea
in isolation.
Those which represent the second stage of mental evolution, corresponding to savagery, sometimes overlap into the third
;
this,
corresponding to
barbarism and pre-scientific culture, supplies examples
which have three

primitive.
strata
their
own, the savage, and the
explained ; or the " ghost,"

idea,
be tested by the means already thus, behind most cases of the " double,"
Each may
we may
legitimately infer the original

justified
itself.
and our inference will be meet with the original idea
when we
In
actually
most of the
examples we have instances of a process of abstraction, in one sense of this term, namely, the taking of concrete
parts for
the whole.
This process characterises the

stage.
it
second
but we
psychological
It
is
complicated
by
association.
Special cases of
will be dealt
with
later,
may
note the simple reasons for the process.
The mind
form
in all stages
of evolution finds
it
difficult to
a generalised conception,
including every phase
of experience which concerns the particular object of the generalisation. The mind also is prone to economy ;
that
is
to say,
it
prefers the simple
method of
the label,
symbol, or tag, to the effort of grasping the idea of
Such economy is actually essential for the development of knowledge, and in the second stage we see the method at work. Lastly, the memoryimage is continually being modified by new percepts of
the total personality.
the original object
;
the soul
is
accordingly varied as
circumstance directs.
Thus
the soul of a living healthy
man
is
in the
memory
;
of the observer correspondingly
living
and healthy
while the soul of a
man
just dead
is curiously tossed about between the memory-image of him when alive and the memory-image of his There are other interesting developments of corpse.
this principle.
81
totality
assumed (first, the primitive second, the substitution of parts or tags, and
stages
The
'
the indefinite alteration of the
memory-image
third,
the beginning of abstract concepts) follow the order of
psychological predicates.
With regard
to terms for the
soul, these illustrate the psychological principles.
They
are of no value whatever for inference as to the original

idea of the people in question or of
mankind
at large.
By way of
difficulty
illustrating the
above remarks, and the
of reaching the actual belief of savages, for

is
whom
the original idea
only half-conscious, and

the parts,
who
the
cling to the easy
way of
we may
cite
following observations of two experienced workers in

the ethnological
field.
Dennett remarks,
in connection
with West
used
African ideas, "
When
read that, according
to the observation
is
of Mr. So-and-so, the same word

certain
among
is
a
I
people for breath, shadow,

that the observation
ghost, and soul,

in
do not conclude
question
wrong.
people."
l
Neither, however,
am
led
to suppose that these four distinct ideas are one in the
mind of
that
In
connection
with South
the subjects
in
African ideas, Macdonald observes, 2 "

the doctrine of souls
to understand fully
residence,
Of all
is
connected with savage and semi-savage

is
life
Africa,
that which
it
and state clearly. and daily intercourse with the people, new
that
most difficult After years of

spirit-world,
phases
of
mysterious
region,
the
present themselves, and the corrections of one's early and crude conclusions have to be re-corrected, and often new conclusions formed. Facts regarded as fixed and permanent, and accepted as such by one
1 2
J.
R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind (1906), 79. E. Macdonald, " Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of
in
South African Tribes,"
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx.
19,
20.
82
writer
local

after
another, have to be discarded as merely
or
tribal,
or even sub-tribal.
the
From
magicians
are
belonging
differing
to
same
tribe
it is
statements
heard
so widely, that
difficult
last
impossible to reconcile
them, and often

origin."
also
to trace
them
to a
common
we have
have
As
deal
the
observation
suggests,
to
with
individual
additions.
We
noticed the fluidity characteristic of the early mind, and have discussed the same characteristic in early language * what has often been noted in the latter is probable enough in the case of early psychology it is probable, that is to say, that the doctrine of the
;
;
among a particular people is itself in and may be completely changed in a We may finally remind ourselves few generations. that each idea, though it may be a part, or a tag, or
soul obtaining
a state
of
flux,
an association only,
there
is
is
psychologically a whole
that
no fusion of incompatible
;
ideas, or ideas
not
synchronous
that,
lastly,
the
creation
of
abstract
concepts, such as " life," only begins to appear in the

third stage, and
is
then, as always, entirely a matter
of language, not of thought.
2.
Australian Psychology.
The
Australians of Port Darwin,
we
2
are told, " cannot
distinguish between
body and
soul."
In South-Eastern
finally
Australia there
is
an idea that the soul does not
escape from the body until decomposition sets it free. 3 " The Kurnai believe that each human individual has
within
Yambo,
2
him a spirit which they call Yambo. This it was supposed, could during sleep leave the
1
See above,
p. 52. Institute, xxiv. Institute, x.
P. Foelsche,
3
Journal of the Anthropological L. Fison, Journal of the Anthropological
198.
141.
body
which
this
;
83
;
could confer with
other disembodied spirits
could even
lies
*
wend
its
way
.
to the celestial vault,

. .
beyond
ghost -land.'
With
the
Woi-worung
Murup. It was supposed that leave the body during sleep, and the exact period of departure was said to be during the snoring of the sleeper. It was also believed that the Murup of an individual could be sent from him by magic, as, for instance, when a hunter incautiously went to sleep when out hunting, or at a distance from his
called
human spirit was the Murup could
camp.
The Murup
being thus temporarily banished,
and the wakening of the victim prevented, his enemy was supposed to abstract his kidney-fat, and thereby
cause his ultimate death.
. . .
The Murup of the
living
was supposed
to be able to
communicate with other
who were dead. became after death what we may call a ghost.' With the Kurnai it was a Mrart but I am inclined to think that the Tambo was also generally supposed to exist for some little time after death as Yambo, and before it became Mrart for I have heard the ghost of the dead spoken of as Tambo, or sometimes as Turdi-Kumai, that is, dead man.' With the Ngarego and Wolgal, the dead man's ghost was Bulabong with the coast Murring, Tu/uga/y that is, 'belonging to the dead.'". The Kurnai "ghosts" " were believed to live upon plants they could revisit the earth at will, to communicate with the wizards, or on being summoned by them. The Woi-worung believed
Murups,
. .
either of sleepers or of those

spirit
The human
'
'
that the ghost wandered, at least for a time, in
the
this
I
hunting-grounds
must,
I
it
had used when embodied, but

that, at the
think, have been after ascending to the sky.

it
learn that
final
was thought
very
first
it
of the
separation of the
Murup from
the body,
proceeded
84

sun
a
to the west, and there falling over the edge of the earth,
went into the receptacle of the

sky.
I
the
Ngamat,
wizard
falling
thence ascending in the bright tints of sunset to the
have
an
account
spirit,
how
it
celebrated
pursued the escaping
and returned successful,

just as
it
saying that he had overtaken middle, and brought

rug.
was
it
over into Ngamat, and that he had seized

it
back captive under

still
his
by the possum
Being thus restored to the
breathing body,
the sick
"
man recovered consciousness and revived." The ghost was supposed to return at times to
and contemplate
its
the
grave
mortal remains.
William
:
me of this, put it in this way Sometimes the Murup comes back and looks down into the grave, and it may say, " Hallo, there is my old there are my old bones." possum rug The ghost
Beiruk, in speaking to
'
'
was supposed to kill game with magically deadly spears. It was even believed that when fires were left burning
in the
bush where hunters had cooked part of their
game, the ghosts would come after they had gone, and warm themselves, and consume the fragments. Finally,
the
ghosts were
'
believed
to
inhabit
the
country
beyond the sky, or perhaps, to which was the other side of the vault. The Ngarego and Wolgal also thought that the ghost for a time haunted the neighbourhood of the grave, and that it could kill game, light fires, and make camps for itself. In the case of the interment,
correctly, the country
. . .
gum-tree speak more

'
not
many
years ago, of a
man
at the
Snowy
River, the
survivors were
the burial, by
much
alarmed, during the night following
what they supposed to be the ghost of the dead man prowling round the camp, and as one of " them said, coming after his wife.' " These beliefs as to the human spirit in and after
'
life
I
85
find to be
widespread
and they are important
in
their
bearing.
Bulabong, or
represents
The Tambo, the Afurup, the whatever name we choose to take, clearly
life
during
the
self-consciousness
of the
The apparent power of this self-consciousindividual. ness to desert the body during sleep for a time leads naturally up to the further belief that death is merely Moreover, its permanent separation from the body. ghosts of others who were as during dreams the
'
'
dead were apparently perceived, the belief

that
is
natural
the individual
invisible
still
existed
after death,
although
generally
to
the living.
the
This was brought

his
'
out very clearly to

Kurnai,
me by
'
argument of one of the
whom
'
asked whether he really thought

during sleep.
sleep
I
Tambo could must be so, for when

I
go out
He
said,
It
;
I
I
go to distant places
cases
see distant people
even see and speak with those

all
that
are
dead.'
...
In
these
we
find
the
tightly cording of the dead

his ghost
still
man, and the
belief that
It
lingered near or revisited the spot.
seems to
the dead
me
man
not only that these aborigines believed

himself, unless tightly
that the ghost could follow the survivors, but also that
bound and buried
under tightly-rammed logs and earth, might likewise Bearing in mind the belief follow them in the body.
in the existence
of the
the
human
sleep
after
it is
individual independently
this
'
of the body,
invisible
in the
power of
spirit
'
to
in
wander
the
in-
during
as
of the
death,
body,
dividuality
ghost
present with the
survivors, yet invisible,
easy to arrive at
some of
the
the motives which render these savages so averse to
speak of the dead.
In one instance,
when one of
'
Kurnai was spoken to about a dead friend, soon after the decease, he said, looking round uneasily, Do not
86

;
do that
also
he might hear you and

that
kill
me
'
It
is
evident
while
'
communicate with the
any one might be able to ghosts during sleep, it was

'
only the wizards who were able to do so in waking " In all cases the wizard is credited with hours." *
the
power of seeing man
in an incorporeal state, either
temporarily or permanently separated from the body,

as a ghost
which is invisible to other eyes." 2 According to Moorhouse, the natives near Adelaide
It
believed that the soul was of the size " of a boy eight
years old."
lived after death.
These people
the
soul.
3
also
spoke of the shadow as

three or four souls
being
In
the
Euahlayi tribe each individual

:
is supposed to possess the yowee, " soul-equivalent " ; the

;
doowee, "dream-spirit"
the mulloowil, "shadow-spirit";

last
is the individual totem, or " a sort of alter ego ; a man's
and the yunbeai.

" animal familiar "
spirit
is
The
;
it
is
in
his yunbeai,
and
his yunbeai s
spirit
is
in
him."
wirreenun, or medicine-man, can take the
shape of his yunbeai, and he has the power "to conjure
up
as
a vision of it."
The yowee never

;
leaves the
body
soul
of the living
he decays.
enters the
man
it
grows
birth
as he grows,
and decays
Spirits are visible to

;
dogs.
The
is
body before
individual.
it is
not a reincarnation,
yunbeai
also
but a new spiritual creation.

for
The
a
new
each
It
is
sort
of external soul,
identified with
" Addressing
1
some animal chosen in various ways. 4 some Australian blacks a European

On some
xiii.
A. A.
W. W.
Howitt, " Howitt,
Australian
Beliefs,"
in
Journal of the
Anthropological Institute,
2
186-191.
"On
Australian Medicine
Men,"
in
Journal of
the
Anthropological Institute, xvi. 52.

3 Moorhouse, in E. J. Eyre, Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia (1845), ii. 356. 4 K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe (1905), 21, 30, 35, 46, 50.
' !
missionary said,
*
87
am
not one, as you think, but two.'

'
Upon
as
this
they laughed.
You may
'
laugh as
much
;
you like,' continued the missionary, I tell you that am two in one this great body that you see is one I within that there is another little one which is not visible. The great body dies, and is buried, but the little body flies away when the great one dies.' To this some of the blacks replied, * Yes, yes. We also are two, we also have a little body within the breast.' On being asked where the little body went after death, some said it went behind the bush, others said it went into the sea, and some said they did not know." According to the Central Australians the individual is a reincarnation of a " spirit-individual," whose origin dates from the Alcheringa time, the period of " the These left their u spirit-parts " here and ancestors."
; *
there at spots called nanja.

parts,"
The
mai-urli, or " spirit:
were producible by a sort of budding
an
Alcheringa
man would
shake
himself,
and
spirit-
children would then drop from his muscles.

is
story
told of an ancestor
who suddenly found

;
a duplicate
of himself appearing
that
is
at his side
he exclaimed, " Hallo

en
me
"
!
They
are also described as emanations

as
from the body, and

enters
being
sacred bull-roarers, churinga.

the
The
rapport with the " spirit-individual "

navel,
woman's
body by the
"
when
she
happens to be near a nanja.

can also cause conception.
The touch of
a churinga
When
'
spirit-individual
goes into a
woman
there
still
remains the Arumburinga,

its
which
may
be regarded as
double."
This
is
also
described as the double of the man himself, and as his guardian spirit. It is " changeless and lives for ever."
1
Memoir es
2
,
historiques sur
P Australie, 162, quoted by Frazer, The Golden
Bough
i.
248.
88

spirit-part "
The "
"
also
of the Alcheringa individual

Strehlow
lives for ever,
but undergoes reincarnation."
modifies this account as far as it concerns the Arunta " Birth," he says, " is an theory of conception.
incarnation of invisible individuals, not merely spirits,
which
live in
trees
and other
objects, in a
human
churinga
or
animal form."
The
soul after death wanders for a
while and then suffers annihilation.
The
is
not the abode of the soul

in
the soul dwells for a time
the
body of the dead person.

is
The Warramunga
very minute, about
tribe imagine that the " spirit "
the size of a small grain of sand. Others speak of " spirit-children " travelling in whirlwinds ; others of
the
churinga being
made by
the whirlwind.
Grains
of sand are a
common
size
object in Australian sand-storms.

is
The minute
of the soul
bodies
in
connection with
Lastly,
its
entrance into
the
of women.
these
"spirits" wander about in dreams. 1

Australia
the
son
is
In South-Eastern recognised " as the actual re'
incarnation of the father.
Here
am, and there you
body cried an old blackfellow to his 'There you stand with my body, " and yet you won't do what I tell you The Wotjobaluk tribe of South-Eastern Australia
stand with
'
!
my
disobedient son.
'
believed " that
the
life
of Ngunungunut (the Bat)

life
is
the
life
of a man, and the

is
of Yartatgurk (the
the
Nightjar)
either
the
life
of a woman,'
is
of these
creatures
is
killed
and that when life of some

In such a case
feared that
man
every
1
or of
some woman
or every
shortened.
in
man
woman
the
camp
B. Spencer and
F. J. Gillen,
id.
(1899), i24ff,
138,514,515;
The Native Tribes of Central Australia The Northern Tribes of Central Australia
;
(1904), 145, 146, 157, 158, 163, 279, 373, 450, 608
xvi. 430, 431.
Strehlow in Folk-Lore,
great fights arose in this tribe.
fights,
89
he or she might be the victim, and from this cause

I
learn that in these
men on one
at
all
side
and
women on
the other,
it
which would be victorious, for at times the women gave the men a severe drubbing with their yamsticks, while often women were injured Throughout this part of the or killed by spears." continent the belief was very real the men protected " their life-animal even to the half-killing of their
was not
certain
*
;
wives for
its
sake,"
while
the
women's animal was

If a
it
"jealously protected by them.
man
kills
one,
their
2
they are as
children,
much enraged
will strike
as if
was one of
is
and
to
him with
is
their long poles."

it
point
be observed
that
is
no individual
animal, but the species that

soul.
identified here with a
White men when

thought to be
first
seen by the Australians were
dead
blackfellows
returned
to
life
"tumble down blackfellow, jump up whitefellow," has become classical. The white man everywhere was
first
regarded
;
as
ghost. 3
The
reason for
this
is
curious
the natives burned their dead and

;
epidermis
this process left
removed the the corpse for some time

fact
with a whitish colour. 4

are at first white
The
that
native
babies
may
also be suggested as a reason.
The Tasmanians
the
disease-spirit.
held that the warrawah, or shadow,

it
was the ghost, and that
cured disease by expelling
the bones of dead " friends to secure the protection of their spirits, who
1
They wore
A.
W.
Howitt
in
Journal of the Anthropological

Aborigines, 52.
;
Institute,
xiv.
145,
xviii. 58.
2 J.
3
Dawson, Australian
Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, 248
Journal of the Anthro-
pological Institute, xxiv. 190.

4
A.
W.
Howitt, The Native Tribes of South- East Australia (1904), 442.
9o

the
were
a
manes-deities
in
to
whom
in
they
looked
for
guidance and help
trouble.
life
The
some
native
distant
belief in
future state involved
region,
and
especially the foreigners
were as elsewhere identified
with dead Tasmanians returned from the spirit-land."
Their name for echo was kukanna wurrawina, that

talking shadow.
1
is,
3.
Polynesian
and Melanesia n
Psychologies.
Among
" reflected but
the Maoris of
light,"
wairua,
the
New Zealand the word ata, was sometimes used of the soul, etymology of which is unknown,
was the commoner term.

ideas."
It
" It seems to have signified a shadowy form," but there is " a discrepancy in the
resided
in
the head.
in
The
sacrifice.
soul of food
was absorbed by the gods

fairies
When
the
accepted
the
" souls "
or
present of jewels, they took only " similitudes " of the ornaments.
exactly supposed
to
Weapons were not
have
souls,
but those which had been used in war possessed mana,

" power, prestige, holiness,
intellect,
influence."
The
was not feared unless the funeral ceremonies In this case he might become a were neglected. kahukahu, the germ, that is, of an infant contained Such spirit-germs were feared on in the catamenia.
ghost
2 account of their powers of mischief.
According to
of a dead
chief.
another account the atua was the
spirit
living chief himself
was
an atua.
because
Any
the
one eating
chief
in the chief's house ran the risk of swallowing an atua,
which would
1
make him
On
the
ill,
was
E. B. Tylor, "
in
Tasmanians
as Representatives of Palaeolithic
Man,"
2
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii. 151. E. Tregear, " The Maoris," in Journal of the Anthropological
Institute,
xix. 98, 101, 105, 118, 119, 120.
always entertaining the atuas of his predecessors.
91
Maori warrior would gouge out and swallow the eyes

of a chief
the eyes.
soul
whom
he had slain in battle, hoping thus
to appropriate his atua, which,
we
are told, resided in
Hence we may
1
identify the atua with
the
ate
of man.
In
the
world after death

taro.
souls
the souls of
kumara and
in
Seed-taros, for instance,
were placed
the hands of the corpse.
The
natives
explained that in case the body took the soul under-
ground, the taro-seeds would grow and produce taros

for
its
consumption.
They were
body
not sure about the
soul going up, but the
certainly
went down.
In
order to catch the soul of a distinguished

installation in the
JVahi Tapu, the

clothes.
man for Westminster Abbey

bit
of the
in
Maoris,
it
was enticed by a
of
its
body
was killed was believed that his soul entered the stones of the oven in which he was cooked, and that these retained it so long as
or a piece of
battle
its
When
chief
It
he was cooked and eaten.
they retained
intoned to
any
heat.
Karakias,
or
charms,
heaven.
2
were
assist the soul in its ascent to
The
soul, according to the Tahitians,
shape the
human body, and
in this
form
it
resembled in " sometimes
Everything had appeared in dreams to the survivors." " They were accustomed to consider thema soul.
selves
surrounded
by
invisible
intelligences,
and
the
recognised in the rising sun, the mild and silver moon,

the shooting stars, the
meteor's
transient
flame,
ocean's roar, the tempest's blast, or the evening breeze,
movements of mighty poetical way of stating the

the
1
spirits."
This
is
Ellis's
fact of animism.
R.
When
and
R. Taylor, Te ika a Maui (1885), 352
Polack, Manners
Customs of the
2
New
Zealanders,
i.
51.
104..
R. Taylor, Te ika a Maui, 100, 101,
92
speaking
of psychological facts they used a term equivalent to " inner parts of the body," thus, " my
inside thinks," "
my
inside wishes."
The
act of death
was compared to the drawing of a sword out of the scabbard was termed unuhi te varua e te atua, it
;
" the voice (or spirit) drawn out by the god," unuhi meaning " to draw something out of its case." " The
unus are
curiously carved
pieces
of wood,
marking
the sacred places

tits,
tikis,
of interment, and emblematical of or spirits " ; 1 or rather, " the unu was the
symbol of a man whose spirit had been drawn out of his body, and the holes at the top of it probably represent the openings through which this abstraction was made." 2 When drawn out of the head the soul was carried off by the oromatuas. These " were considered the most malignant of beings " they were recognised by the whistle of the wind through the
;
skulls
in
the marae, or sepulchral enclosure
" they
were not confined to the skulls of departed warriors, or to the images made for them, but occasionally
resorted to sea-shells, and the
murmur
perceived on
applying the valve to the ear was imagined to proceed
from the demon."
The
it.
oromatuas took the soul to the gods,

it
who
ate
was eaten three times it became deified and invisible, and could return to earth to incarnate itself in men. The place to which departed spirits repaired was generally called the po, " state of night," which was also the abode of the gods. Tits or tikis
If
are ancestral spirits.

1
W.
Ellis,
Polynesian Researches,
i.
331, 361, 397

a
ii.
214, 422, 423.

in
H. C. March, " Polynesian Ornament

Ellis, op. cit.
i.
Mythography,"
Journal of
the Anthropological Institute, xxii. 309.

3 4
363.
i.
W.
Ellis,
Polynesian Researches*,
396, 334.
to
his
93
In the Marianne Islands a man's soul was according

character,
powerful or feeble.
belief
The
are
souls
of
women were
Throughout
of the
belly.
2
of less importance than those of men. 1
Polynesian
that
there
indications
in
idea
the
c<
inner
man
"
resides
the
According to the Hervey islanders

fat
fat
men have
Loops
small
souls,
thin
souls
men
as
;
thin
souls.
The
sorcerers used
to
snare
part
of
If a
their
business.
fat,
of cinet were used

hated
house.
large
loops for the
loops for the thin souls.

fell
ill,
man whom
set
a sorcerer
these snares
souls
The
up near his were generally caught in the form
would be
soul
is
of a bird or an
insect.
The
an airy but visible

spirit
copy of the man.
Sometimes the
of a
sick
man
land.
is
conceived as an insect or bird.

because
"
The
visible
world
hidden
itself is
but a gross copy of what exists

burns,
it
in spirit-
If fire
in the
is
latent
it
flame was
is
wood.
If the axe cleaves,

is
because
seat
the fairy of the axe

parts " of the body.
inside
invisibly
present."
is
The
of the emotions and the
intellect
in the "
inward
mother says
the
to a child, "
belly,
liver,
My
and
loves
you."
Similarly
heart are used as subjects for psychological predicates.
In connection with
cosmogony
Gill
states
as
that to
" the
primary conception of these islanders

existence
spiritual
is a point." In the scheme drawn by him from their descriptions the world-root tapers downwards to a point, at which the Worm, the spirit of creation, the "root of all existence," supports the
d'Urville, Voyage pittoresque autour du monde, ii. 495. Davies, Dictionary of the Tahitian Dialect (1857), s.w. mananja, and opu ; W. Williams, Dictionary of the Nenv Zealand Language (1852), s.<v. mana<va ; H. C. March in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii. 308.
1
Dumont
94
universe.

The
you
spirits
of warriors " ascend to the blue
sky, where
see
The
it is
soul in
them floating as specks." l Samoa is anganga^ " that which goes
or comes," the reduplication expressing the fact that

distinct
from the body.
The Samoans
;
emotions by using the belly as subject

belly
is
thus,
expressed " my
alarmed."
as the
feels
its
The
c
soul
is
said
lands,'
to
be
" the
daughter of Taufanuu,
clouds
on,
;
vapour of
which forms
dark cloudy covering of night comes

sleepy,
man
visit
because his soul wishes to go

In
and
Tracey Island there is a story that man was originally formed from vapour. Elsewhere we find that he was formed from a worm. In another story the soul of a dying chief is handed
mother."
about wrapped up in a
leaf.
When
the
man had been

spread
a
drowned, or
cloth
killed
in
battle,
relatives
near the place, and offered
prayer.
The
first
thing that settled on the cloth

or whatever
it
might be was supposed to contain the dead man's soul, and was therefore caught and duly After death the skull was kept as a receptacle buried.
for
grasshopper, butterfly,
the
soul,
The
souls of the dead hovered
which would come to it when called. round the living. At

to
death they went

ocean, which were
the
Hadean
as
regions under
the
known
Pulotu?
The
finer or
soul according to the
Tongans was described
a century
ago by Mariner.
suddenly
at
"
The human
It
soul
is
the
more aeriform
body
part of the body, and which

death.
leaves
it
stands in the same

essential
2,
relation to the
1
as the
perfume and more

the South Pacific, 32, 181
ff. ;
W. W.
Gill,
;
Myths and Songs from

Life in the Southern
vi. 4.
i,
20,
154,
171, 199, 206

2
id.
Isles,
id.
in
Journal of
the Anthropological Institute,
G. Turner, Samoa (1884),
8,
16,
17,
56,
142, 150, 282, 283, 288,
301, 314.
qualities
95
of a flower do to the more solid substance

fibre."
which constitutes the vegetable
There
is
no
proper term for it. The word loto may be used, but this " rather means a man's disposition, inclination,
passion, or sentiment.
exist
soul is rather supposed to throughout the whole extension of the body,
The
but particularly in the heart, the pulsation of which

is
the strength and power of the soul or mind.

life
They
soul,
have no clear distinction between the

but they will
tell
and the
you that the fotomanava, 1 the right auricle of the heart, is the seat of life." During life the soul is not " a distinct essence from the body, but only the more ethereal part of it, and which exists in Bolotoo in the form and likeness of the body the
moment
visit
after death."
Bolotoo (Pulotu)
spirits.
is
the island
of the blessed, the abode of

includes
there,
it
A
the
story
of a
an
attempt
to
pluck
bread-fruit
growing
hold
but the
human hand
time.
" could not lay In
of
any more than a shadow."

lasts
Bolotoo
soul
everything
for
all
After
death the
becomes a hotooa (atua), god or spirit, and can return, if it will, to Tonga. It exists in the shape of the original individual and can appear to living men. Its " If an animal or plant die, voice is thin and small.
its
soul immediately goes to Bolotoo

is
if a
is
stone or
any other substance

reward
;
broken, immortality
equally
its
nay,
artificial
bodies have equal good
luck
with men, and hogs, and yams.

is
If an axe or a chisel
flies
is
worn out or broken up, away

If a house
its
its
soul for
the service of the gods.
taken
down
or
any way destroyed,

tion
immortal part
;
will find a situa-
on the
plains
doctrine the Fiji
and to confirm this people can show you a sort of natural

1
of Bolotoo
See above, pp.
9,
93.
96
well,

or
deep hole
across the
in
the
ground,
at
one of their
bottom of which runs a stream of water, in which you may clearly perceive the souls of men and women, beasts and plants, of stocks and stones, canoes and houses, and of all the broken
islands,
of this frail world, swimming or rather tumbling along one over the other pell-mell into the
utensils
regions of immortality."
In Fiji, as
it
has been phrased, " there

2
is
a heaven
even for coco-nuts." we gather from Williams that each individual possessed
Returning to the soul of man,
two souls. " His shadow is called the dark The other which they say goes to Hades.
'
spirit,'
is
his
is
likeness reflected in water or a looking-glass,
and
supposed to stay near the place in which a
man
dies."
The gods
by men. 3 In sleep, faints, and other seizures, the soul is supposed It may be brought back by to have left the body.
eat the souls of
men who
are eaten
calling after
it.
" Occasionally the ludicrous scene
is
witnessed of a stout
man
lying at full length and bawling
out lustily prevent

the
for
the
return
soul
of
his
own
soul."
To
from walking by night, and injuring the living, the body is doubled together 4 the chin, and securely bound. till the knees touch Fison throws doubt on the two shadows spoken of " I inquired into it on the island where by Williams He he was, and found that there was no such belief. took the word for shadow, which is a reduplication of
departed
:
W.
Mariner, The Tonga Islands

is
(1818),
ii.
99, 102, 127, 129,
130.
this
Mariner's account
is
as distinctive as his
idiom " and which " (unless

States
due to
2
his editor
Martin).
H. Hale, Ethnographical Report ofthe United
Exploring Expedition,
553 4
T. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians (1858), i. 241, 24.2, 247, 248. L. Fison, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, x. 145, 147.
yalo,
97
the word for soul, as meaning the dark soul. But yaloyalo does not mean the soul at all. It is not part of a man as his soul is. This is made certain by
that
it
the fact
does not
take the possessive suffix

nona-yaloyalo
yalo-na
'
his
soul,'
but
= his
shadow.
This settles the question beyond dispute. If yaloyalo were any kind of soul, the possessive form would be
yaloyalona."
l
We shall later meet with ideas resembling

Thomson
thus remarks on
is difficult
the double "reflection."

the question, " It
what the Fijians believe to be the essence of the immortal part of man. The word yah has the following meanings yalo, with pronoun suffixed = mind, as yalo-ngu yalo, with possessive pronoun separated = shade or spirit ; yaloyalo = shadow. From the possessive pronoun being suffixed, we may gather that the mind was regarded as being as intimately connected with a man's body
to say precisely
:
as
his
arm, but that
the
spirit
could
be
detached
from it. Navosavakadua told his followers that he had left his soul in Tonga, and that his body only was before them. The Fijians seem to have recognised some connection between the shadow and the spirit. It was an insult to tread on a man's shadow, and to stab at it with a spear was to compass his death by a lingering sickness. The question of the material of the ghost was as much vexed as it is in English ghost stories. Sometimes the ghost is invisible, sometimes it eats and drinks, and gives hard and very substantial knocks. A man in Vatulele once played a trick upon Ceba. He smeared over his body with putrid fish, and stood on the bank of the River of Shades, calling to Ceba to bring the hard-wood end of his canoe.
1
The Golden Bough
L. Fison, in letter to Dr. J. G. 2 , i. 292, note.
Frazer,
26th Aug.
1898, quoted in
98

;
Ceba knew by the smell of putrefaction that he was a but as soon as the canoe drew shade, and obeyed near, the trickster threw a great stone he had hidden behind his back, smashed the canoe, and seriously upset
thereby the designs
did Ceba
of the
Universe.
Not
till
then
and pronounce his punishment, which was to refuse him and his descendants So for two generations passage over the silent water. you see the shade bears the human shape and is subject
for a mortal,
know him
to decomposition like the

eat
fruit,
human
1
body.
It
can also
laugh,
drink
kava,
throw
souls
stones,
weep,
is
compose poetry, and dance."

Charon,
Ceba
the Fijian
who
ferries
across
" the
Water
"
of
Solace," the Fijian Lethe.
further distinction
is
introduced by Fison.
as
The
Fijian conception of the soul
a tiny
human
being
comes
certain
clearly
out
in the
customs observed
tribe.
at the death
of a chief in the Nakelo
When
a chief dies,
men, who are the hereditary undertakers, call him, as he lies, oiled and ornamented, on fine mats, saying, " Rise, sir, the chief, and let us be going. The
day has come over the land." Then they conduct him to the river-side, where the ghostly ferryman
Nakelo ghosts across the stream. As they thus attend the chief on his last journey, they hold their great fans close to the ground to shelter him, because, as one of them explained to a missionary, " His soul is only a little child." 2 Fison's earlier "Three elders of a clan account should be compared source of the gods,' come with fans called Vunikalou,
comes to
ferry
:
'
Basil
H. Thomson,
"The Kalou-Vu
J.
(ancestor-gods) of the Fijians,"
in Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1895), xxiv. 354.

2
L. Fison in letter to Dr.

2
,
G. Frazer, 3rd Nov. 1898, quoted by him
in
The Golden Bough
i.
250.
PRE-SCIENT1FIC PSYCHOLOGIES
in their hands. face of the
.
99
One
and
flourishes
the fan over the
corpse,
calls
him.
The
soul
of the
Holding the fan horizontally from the floor, and walking backwards, The other two he conducts the spirit from the house. join him at the doorway, holding their fans in the same way, two feet from the ground, as a shelter for the spirit who is supposed to be of short stature." The procession is followed by a large crowd, no woman
dead chief rises
at his call.
a short distance
being allowed to be present, to the river-side.

calling for the
After
ferryman they wait until a wave rolls which is a sign that he is come. " A blast of wind accompanies it. At this they avert their faces, point Go their fans suddenly to the river, and cry aloud, their lives, for no for sir,' and forthwith run on board,
in,
'
eye of living
man may
is
look upon the embarkation.
Thus
is
the spirit conducted
away from
his
realm
and
now
face
the
body
disposed
of.
It is laid in the
grave
to face with a strangled wife,

at
or his mother, if
still,
living
the time
of his death, or better

old coco-nut
is
his
grandmother.
An
broken with a stone,
and held so that the milk runs down on his head. The meat of the nut is then eaten by the Vunikalou, and
the grave
filled in."
1
In the Marquesas the nose and
mouth of the dying

relative in order to
man
are both held
by the nearest
prevent the escape of the soul. 2

In Melanesia the soul
atai, the
is
" reflection " of a

die
man.
He
Fison,
and
his atai live

atai,
together.
1
The
and flourish, suffer and Codrington says, refers both

Customs,"
in
to
L.
" Notes on
Fijian Burial
Journal of the
Anthropological Institute (1881), x. 147, 148.

2
Waitz, Anthropologie der Natur-uolker,
vi.
397.
ioo

we
call
the " invisible second self which

also
the soul," and
to the " likeness," and

It is
visible
at
tamaniu.
This
is
latter
term means
atai,
Aurora
used for the
the
soul.
some animal,
as a lizard, or a snake,
or a
stone,
close
" which they imagine to

natural relation to
have a certain
"
or
very
themselves."
;
dictates the choice
of a tamaniu
it
Some fancy may be found

thing
is
by drinking the infusion of certain herbs and heaping

together the
seen in or
dregs.
Whatever
is
living
first
is
upon the heap
the tamaniu."
This
case of association repeated in English folklore to-day,

in the practice
of telling fortunes by inspecting the tea-
leaves left at the
bottom of the cup.
watched, but not fed or worshipped.

that
it
comes
life
at call.
The
life
;
of
The tamaniu " is The natives believe the man is bound up

broken, or
with the
lost,
of his tamaniu
will
die.
is,
if it dies, gets
the
man
In sickness they send to see

issue accordingly."
how
In
the tamaniu
and judge the
Maewo
atai.
tamaniu
is
used for the ordinary soul, instead

is
of
is
In Pentecost Island the soul
nunuai.
" the recurrence of an impression long

;
after
Nunuai it was
made
it
for instance, a
man
hears a scream, and hears
again ringing in his ears."
Some hold
that the food

is
offered to the dead also has a nunuai, which
absorbed
by the human nunuai of the dead man. In where atai, not nunuai, is the soul, nunuai
described
:
Mota,
is
thus
all
man
fishing
for
flying-fish
paddles
day alone in his canoe with a long light line fastened round his neck. He lies down tired at night, and
feels the line still pulling
It
is
this
is
the nunuai of the line.
like,
ornaments, and the " Yet have a nunuai, but not really an atai"
Pigs,
described as " real."
pigs have souls.
shrewd business man
selling a pig
in a safe
keeps back
its
tarunga,
which he deposits
place.
101
Thus he does
;
not lose
more than
the fleshly
accidents of the pig
the tarunga remains, waiting to
animate some new pig when born. In Aurora a child " may be the nunu {nunuai) or reflection " of a man ;
and, generally, the souls of the dead are reincarnated
in children.
Sickness
tion
is
is
due to the absence of the
soul.
Applica-
made by
a friend of the patient to the
owner of
the sick
a sacred place.
He
calls
aloud the
name of
man, and
listens for
kingfisher or
an answering sound, the cry of a " If he hears a of some other bird.

'
sound he
calls
Come
'
!
back
' !
to the soul
of the sick
lies,
man
cries
;
'
then he runs to the house where he
He
is
the
life.
it
him,
it."
and will live meaning that he brings back If it happens that a lizard runs up upon enough he has the life and goes back with
;
At death
It
the soul separates itself from the body.

in
can be condensed and grasped

an incorporeal
the
hand.
In
the Banks Islands the ghost of the dead

tamate,
spirit.
becomes a
not
burned.
deaths
violent
shot,
The dead are buried, The ghosts of those who have died keep together those who have been
with
the
arrow
sticking
in
the
body,
those
in
who have been

head.
clubbed, with
the
club fixed
the
Panoi,
the
world of the
is
is
dead,
the
is
underground.
The
vegetation
red.
In
it
New
Hebrides the
foliage of
Panoi
red
is
is
an " unsubstantial " sort
of place.
descend
Islands'
Below
turn
it
another, in
into
burning
ghosts
as
fire.
embers.
which those who In the Banks

;
Hades
the
it
appear to
are red
men
is
do nothing when they New Hebridean ghosts

actually they are black.
when seen by men, but
102
In

A
in
the Solomons they look like persons lately dead, and their voice is " a hollow whisper." Fairies exist ;
they are very small.
story
is
told of a
woman who
was dying.
caught a moth
at the
moment when
the
a friend
She put the insect

but without success.
mouth of
the dying person,
With regard
possess some, a
to
order to have
the
it
mana^ the power of which all men man must have had it when alive in when dead. The more he had in life,
more he has after death. While living he gets mana from the dead who have gone before, but may
it,
also get
will give
by contact, from other men.

to a boy, to help
kind
man
is
some
his
him on
is
in the world,
by " laying
object
hands on him."
Not every ghost

is,
an
of worship.
He who
" the
;
spirit
of a
man who in his lifetime had mana in him the souls of common men are the common herd of ghosts, nobodies The supernatural power alike before and after death. abiding in the powerful living man abides in his ghost
after
death,
with increased vigour and more ease of

After his death, therefore,
it
movement.
"
if his
is
expected
work." A test is applied, and power should show itself, his position is assured " as one worthy to be invoked and to receive offerings and to dwell in a shrine. In the Banks Islands man is also credited with a For instance, if a stranger sleeps property called uqa. in another man's sleeping-place, and subsequently falls " struck " by the man's ill, he knows that he has been
that he should begin to
uqa.
Codrington concludes that " it does not appear that the belief in the soul comes from dreams, or that belief
in
corporeal
spirits
{Vuis),
generally
connected with
life
stones and the like, comes from any appearance of
'
or motion in inanimate things "
;
103
is
nor, lastly,
1
there
any idea that the shadow is the soul. In Malekula of the New Hebrides the soul has to
die three times in the other world, " each time getting
more
its
ethereal,
state,
and
that
finally
is,
fading
out altogether.
earth-life,
In
it
first
immediately after
inhabits a region thirty miles below the surface of the
ground, where
it still
bears a semi-corporeal existence,
and to which region the sacred men have often been on a visit, and consequently know all about it. Here the dead order the affairs of earth, and punish with death
those
who
transgress
especially
in
etc.
the
matter
of
keeping them provided with pigs,

they nourish themselves on), which
sacrificed to
(whose ghosts
are consequently
them from time

this
to time by their descendants.

years,
The
and then comes the second death, and so on as mentioned above. The soul in this condition is known under the name of temate (jamate)" and its " official hieroglyphic is a conventional face." In Efate the soul had to pass through six stages of existence, after which it died
souls enjoy
existence for thirty
altogether.
In the Bismarck Archipelago the soul of the dead
is
and unsubstantial, but dead are feared at night, when they appear in the form of sparks or little flames, but not in the daytime because
as sasik.
It is invisible
known
" present."
Yet we
are told that the souls of the
then they are

1
invisible.
spirit
named Kot
abstracts
R. H. Codrington in Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1881), x.
229, 267, 270, 280, 281, 282, 290, 292, 293, 300 ; id. in Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, xvi. 136 ; id. The Melanesians, their Anthropology
and
2
Folklore, 121, 146, 147, 153, 222, 250, 251, 287.
B.
T. Somerville, " Notes on some Islands of the

xxiii.
New
Hebrides," in
"Journal of the Anthropological Institute,
10.
io 4
a

is
ill
;
man's soul when he
by exercising the fancy,

" surrounded by the
is
one can see the Kot

light."
at night,
fire-
After death the soul
driven away to
the
sound of music. 1
4.
Papuan and Malayan
Psychologies.
the
is
The Papuans of Geelvinks Bay make an image of

dead man.
called
This
is
of wood, about a foot long, and

priest,
whose business this is, enter the korwar by dint of earsoul to forces the splitting shouts and noises, often continued for several When it has entered, the korwar is used as nights. it a medium of communication with the spirit-world
a korwar.
;
The
also serves to enable the soul
of the dead
an interest in his friends, to share their

is
man to life. The
take
doll
handled, fed, and spoken to.
The
spirit
mists round tree-tops are believed to enclose a
called Narbrooi,
who
abstracts the souls of
men.
When
man
trees,
is
sick, a friend calls at
one of the mistreturn
crowned
and pleads with the
spirit for the

it
of the soul.
his
If successful, he takes
home
in a bag.
Arrived, he empties the bag on the patient's head, rubs
hands with ginger, and
ties a
cord round his wrists

Generally the;
to prevent the soul escaping once more.
head
is
regarded as the seat of the soul,

the Sea
and blood and
2 soul are identified.
Of
"It
1
Dayaks of Sarawak,
St.
John reported
is
very satisfactory to be able to state that the Sea
R. Parkinson, Dreissig Jahre in der Siidsee (1907), 159, 185, 187, 308,
387.
2 A. B. Meyer in Jahresbericht des Vereinsfiir Erdkunde (1S75), xii. 26 ; A. L. van Hasselt, Folksbeschrij-ving 'van Midden -Sumatra (1882), 28 Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde -van Nederlandsch /<#<?' (1854), Goudswaard, De Papoe--wa's 'van de Geel<vinksbaai, 77. 375, 376
;
;
Dayaks have
created and
a clear idea of
105
one Omnipotent Being
who
him
now
rules over the world.
They
call
Batara."
This statement
common
It
misconception.
is a good example of a very Perham shows that Petara is a
collective phrase,
meaning the aggregate of " spirits." may be compared to the Elohim of the Old Testament.
he says, a superficial acquaintance leads to the idea " What the Malays is equivalent to Allah.
As
call
that Petara
Allah Taala
the
we
call
Petara,"
is
common
It
'
saying
among
Dayaks themselves, who show the same

is
" misconception as their first reporter. adds Perham, " in so far as both mean
there
is
true,"
deity,'
but
an immense difference."
Petara
;
is
simply the
soil,
spiritual aspect
of every object
in nature
thus the
and the trees have their Petaras, through which they produce their fruits. The sun, the moon, the stars, and the clouds have theirs. The latter possess
the
hills,
" an invisible belonging," a Petara.
The Dayak "

of
spirits.
has
surrounded
himself with thousands
Any
is
unusual noise or motion in the jungle, anything which

suggests to the
Dayak mind an
invisible operation,"
spirit.
thought to be the presence of a

objects, not
it
"
No
inanimate
;
even the sun, are supposed to be divinities

spirit
them which is adored." He has, of necessity, to invoke the Petara of everything connected with his life and sustenance. He is always anxious to know the future. Yet this is no worship. An act of worship is a mere opus operatum, to obtain communion with a Petara. It is an external act, and has no connection with morality it is a piece of magic
is
an underlying
in
which
effects its object irrespective
of the condition of
mind or habits of life of the " worshipper." The Dayak has no necessity for or idea of veneration,
1
Spenser
St.
John, Life in the
Forests
of the Far East (1862),
i.
59.
106

As
regards
Petara is derived from the Hindu avatara. men, " there are as many Petaras as men.
Each man
'
his own peculiar Petara, his own tutelary deity. One man has one Petara, another man another. A
has
man, a wretched Petara,' is a common expression, which professes to give the reason why any particular Dayak is poor and miserable. He is
wretched
1
a miserable
rich
man
because his Petara
is
miserable.
The
and poor are credited with rich and poor Petaras

the state of
respectively, hence
Dayak gods may be
from the varying outward circumstances of There is no idea of the unity of deity. There was one Petara to begin with, just as there was a first man. When a person is born on earth a flower grows up in the soil of spirit-land. 2
inferred
men
below."
Sorcerers are
provided with finger-hooks

souls,
for
the
purpose
recovery
of catching
their
business
to
sick
being
the
and restoration of
souls
persons. 3
Notched
stick-ladders are set upside
down
in the
path
near the cemetery " to stop
any departed spirit who others may be starting on questionable wanderings plant bits of stick to imitate bamboo caltrops to lame
;
their feet should they venture in pursuit."
The Bahau-Dayaks of Central Borneo men and their domestic animals, and a few
have two souls
objects have
;
believe that
wild species,
other animals, plants, and inanimate All

trouble and sickness
is
;
only one.
ascribed to the absence of a part of the personality

in this aspect the soul
is
bruwa, a word connected with
1 " Petara, or Sea Dayak Gods," in Journal ofthe Straits Branch J. Perham, of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ho. % (1881), 133 ff., 144 ff. ; No. 10 (1882), 214,
225, 227, 241, 242.

2 3
Perham, in Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak, i. 278. Ling Roth in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. 1 15. Perham, in Ling Roth, The Natives of Saravoak, i. 291, 292.
107
" two." The other aspect of the personality is ton luwa. This does not appear till after death, when it hovers round the grave until it becomes a harmful
spirit.
1
Dayaks
It is
are very careful
and jealous of
their children.
is
with the utmost difficulty that a stranger
allowed
to
come near them.
The
parents believe that the

its
strange sight
may
2
frighten the child, and so cause
soul to fly away.
They
is
are afraid of photographers,
the soul
is
is
taken away in the picture. 3

tree
When
a child
named, a
;
planted
as
it
thrives, the child
thrives
if it withers,
4 the child suffers.
"
The Land Dayaks of Sarawak

;
say they have only

5
one soul
idea of
the Sibuyaus talk of several."

is
"
The Dayak
is
life
this,
that in
mankind
;
there
a living
is
principle called semangat or semungi
that sickness
caused by the temporary absence, and death by

total departure,
the
of this principle from the body.

is
Hence
the object of their ceremonies
to
bring back the
departed souls."
The
priest carefully
wraps up a small
cup in a white cloth, and places it among the offerings. " Then with a torch in one hand and a circlet of beads and tinkling hawk-bells in the other he stalks about, shaking his charms. After a little time he orders one
of the admiring spectators to look in the cup previously
and sure enough there the soul always is, in the form of a bunch of hair to vulgar eyes, but to the initiated in shape and appearance
wrapped up
in the white cloth,
A. W. Nieuwenhuis, SZuer durch Borneo (1904), U. 73, 74. Id. " La Recente Expedition scientifique dans
i.
i.
103
ff.
Tile
de Borneo," in
Tijdschrift <van het Bata'viansch Genootschap,
xl.,
quoted by A. C. Kruijb
v.
Het Animisme
4
in
den Indischen Archipel (1906), 79.

in Internationales Arc/iiv fiir Ethnographie,
Forests
F.
Grabowsky
133.
6 St.
John, Life in the
of the Far East,
i.
179, 180.
108

human
being.
like a miniature
This
is
supposed to be
thrust into a
invisible
hole in the
top of the patient's head,
to
all
but the learned
man.
it
He
has
thus
recovered the man's soul, or, as

principle of life that
may be
called, the
*
had departed from him."
Some
of the Dayaks think that the soul resembles a cottonseed.

2
Souls
die
seven times after the death of the
successive dyings,
"After having become degenerated by these they become practically annihilated by absorption into air and fog, or by a final dissolution
body.
3
into various jungle plants."
"
When a Dayak
hears a
good bird on his way to see a sick friend, he will sit down and chew some betel-nut, sirih leaf, lime, tobacco, and gambier, for his own refreshment, and then chew a little more and wrap it in a leaf and take it to his friend, and
if
the sick
;
man
can only
it
eat,
it
will materially help the
cure
for does
elixir
not contain the voice of the bird, a
mystic
funeral
of life from the unseen world ? " 4 At a feast " each bit a piece of iron and drank a
mouthful of arack to strengthen her (the widow) against " They have very little respect for the the Antus." 5
bodies of the departed, though they have an intense fear
of their ghosts."
leave the
;
The Kajans of Borneo hold

:
that at death both souls
body the mata kanan goes to the realm of souls the mata kiba remains on earth, and apparently some animal. Snakes are sometimes is embodied in regarded as the souls of the dead. 7 The Mualang Dayaks believe that a departed soul lives the time of an earthly life, then dies and descends as dew on the
1
Spenser
i.
St.
John, Life
3
in the Forests
of the Far East 2
i.
177, 178, 179.

i.
Id.
183.
4
Perham
Id.
i.
in
Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak,

i.
213.
H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak (1896),

5
195.
258.
Id.
i.
137.
i.148.
A.
W.
Nieuwenhuis, In Centraal Borneo (1900),
rice.
109
The more
1
souls thus descend the richer the rice
harvest.
The Olo Dusun Dayaks of South Borneo have the word amirua for the living soul. This may be connected
with rua, " two," and may therefore point to the idea of a " duplicate." Another soul appears after death,
the andiau.
They
is
tie
cords round a sick man's wrists
to prevent the soul escaping. piece of iron

it
When
child
is
ill
placed on
its
head, with a prayer that

Fireflies are the
may
strengthen the child's soul.

Butterflies
souls of animals.
relatives.
2
are
the souls
of dead
in
The Olo Ngadju Dayaks of South-East Borneo

enemy
are expected, calling out their name, hope of enticing their souls and getting them
in
time of war strew rice in the direction from which the

the
in their
;
power.
The
soul
leaves
the
body
in
sleep
its
adventures are dreams.

result
It also leaves
illness.
the
a
body
as the
sick,
of fright and of
When
man
;
is
is made of paste, about a span long. This is thrown away as a substitute for the man the evil spirits are supposed to mistake it for his soul. Butterflies are regarded as the souls of dead relatives.
a doll
They
assign a soul
is
to
everything in nature.
In
between a material life-soul, and one expressing the inThis latter is separated from dividuality of the man. During life they are combined the body at death. under the name hambaruan. That which is separated the hambaruan then remains at death is the liau
there
is
man
a distinction
which
impersonal,
unconscious
in
the
corpse,
and
is
called
karahang.
The meaning of hambaruan seems

1
to be "duplicate."
Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 179, 3S3.

2
Id. 12, 76, 120, 175, 156.
no

inanimate
objects
for soul
is
In the case of plants, houses, and

generally, the term
liau goes to the spirit-land.
spirits
gana.
At death
the
At
the funeral the
good
are prayed to take the karahang where the liau
has
The idea is that the liau remains in a gone. " " dead condition until the hambaruam, the soul which
the
man
possessed
when
living, is
brought to
it,
and
female spirit is it life and embodiment. supposed to collect from every place where the man has been in life, all the scattered parts of his personality,
thus gives
nail-parings,
hair,
and the
;
like,
and everything that
ever belonged to him
these she then joins to the liau.
A
is
dead
man
is
can also be re-embodied in a child.

1
He
represented as being anxious to live again, and for

this
him
the only way.
The
which
literally signifies
Kindjin Dayaks believe that the soul, urip-ok, " fine ethereal life," comes back
to the house after the funeral,
and awaits an opportunity
Male souls confine of entering the body of a child. children, female to female the male to attention their
;
intention of the soul, here,
is
to
fill
the children with
sound
and to make them good citizens. 2 The Bataks identify emotions with the movements
principles,
of the soul inside the body.
The
belly
is
the centre
of the soul
liver
and soul are
also used
synonymously. 3
The Karo-Bataks
think of the breath, a manifestation

in the belly.
4
of the soul, as resident
The Bataks of
;
1 Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 81, 166, 169, 175 ; A. Hardeland, Dajaksch-Deutsches Worterbuch, i. v. hambaruan, gana G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken 'van den Indischen Archipel,
i.
7, 32.
2
H. E. D. Engelhard
in Tijdschrift <van het Bata-viansch Genootschap,
xxxix. 479.
3
4
J.
Warneck in Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, xxxi. 121. Neumann in Mededeelingen van wcege het Nederlandsck
Zendeling
Genootschap, xlvi. 127.
Toba regard
fireflies
in
as
the eyes
1
of dead
relatives.
Snakes are the souls of the dead.
Many
of the
It
is
Batak
tribes consider the
head to be the
is
seat
soul.
The
usual
quite
separable
word
in
it is
for soul
tondi or tendi.
fact,
has
an
existence
in-
dependent of the body

leave
luck.
it
the body's protector, can
when it pleases, and can bring it good or illThe worst curse a Batak can utter is " Tondimu alomu" " May your soul be your enemy " Sickness 2 is caused when evil spirits take the tondi prisoner.
!
Everything
furniture,
is
in
nature, including inanimate objects,
and
tools, has a tondi.
tondi-ni-eme.
Offerings are
The soul of the rice made to it in order to

Smiths feed their
promote the growth of the

3
rice.
All the Bataks have the custom of making tools. an image of the sick man as a substitute ; 4 in some tribes, what Hurgronje describes as a dubbelganger, a piece of wood the length of the man's body, is left at the place where the evil spirit that has taken the man's
soul
is
believed to reside. 5
iron ornaments
is
The custom of wearing
closely
connected with the idea of making one's soul strong
with the strong soul of the metal.

to strengthen his semangat"
into his soul.
nostrils.
7
"
The guru
the
iron
often
advises his patient to wear an iron ring on his finger
Thus
enters
The
hold
soul leaves the
body through the

are
All Bataks
1
that
the
souls of the dead
2
i.
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indiscken Arckipel, 173, 179. G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken 'van den Indiscken Arckipel,
Id.
i.
8, 9.
3 4 5
32, 33.
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indiscken Arckipel, 97, 98. C. Snouck Hurgronje, Het Gajo-land en zijne Beavoners (1903), 310.
Id.
311.
W.
Marsden, History of Sumatra, 386.
ii2
black.
lives
1

The Toba Bataks
or
consider that the individual

his
again
continues
existence
in
his
sons.
Daughters are of no account. 2 The Karo-Bataks of Sumatra hold that man has a The first disappears at tendiy a begu, and a body.
body perishes the begu survives. Tendi and "self" are the same; a Karo, instead of saying
death
;
the
"
I will,"
says
"my
then
tendi will."
The
suffers
tendi
can leave
Its
the body, and

place
his
c
the latter
it is
or dies.
is
in the
body, and
"
It
" the copy of the owner,

death through the
other
self.'
departs at
suture of the bones of the skull.
speaks of the tendi as being outside the body

its
Another account yet on

;
position and welfare the safety of the
man
depends.
man
has also two guardian
spirits,
kaka and agi
one being the seed by which he was begotten, the other the after-birth ; a man calls these his elder and his younger brother. The Bataks generally, in some accounts, ascribe
seven souls to
in the pulses
man
others explain these as functions

soul.
and movements of one

;
The
first
and second are

;
the third and fourth in the upper arms

;
the fifth in the fontanel
the sixth in the heart
the seventh in the neck.

the pulsation of the blood
it
is,
and These are the places where

;
is
observable
in the fontanel
of course, only observed in infants
before the
bones have met.

is
Neumann
is
concludes that the soul
in the
blood
as its essence.
Another account says

the seven
souls
It
that one of the souls
in heaven, the rest are in close
connection with
the man.
is
One of
of the Toba-Bataks
1
buried with the after-birth.
Kruijt,
J.
op. cit.
240.
in Allgemeine
Warneck, " Der batak'sche Ahnen- und Gtnsterkult,"
Missiomzeitschrifl , xxxi. 68.
is
113
called " the

is
birth
called
states
:
Hagen
but
that
in
younger brother of the soul " the after" the younger brother of the child." that some Bataks speak of three souls
;
or tondis
two
are in
the
body, the third
is
outside,
very intimate connection.
Van der Tuuk
says
most Bataks speak of one soul only, generally supposed to have its seat in the head. The practice
of enticing the souls of the enemy out of their bodies
is
followed by the Bataks as by other Indonesians. 1
Among
the sumange
the natives
is
of
Minangkabau
it
in
Sumatra
fear,
held to be the cause of the impression

others
; ;
man makes on
wonder
produces in
them
respect, or
it
gives strength, splendour, and

;
vitality to a
man's appearance
it
is
expressed in his
look and his carriage.

ance
is
weak or
is
sickly, or
man whose external appearwho has little expression in

soul.
his face,
said to
have a feeble
Besides this soul
there
is
the njao, a term equivalent to breath.

;
This
is
quite impersonal
after
his
a man's njao cannot appear to others
death
in
the form
of a soul.
;
According
others say
to
some the sumange

it
resides in the heart

It is
that
resides in the
;
whole body.
quite separable
from the body it possesses consciousness, will, thought, feeling, and gives strength and vitality to the person. To prevent it from leaving the body during the pain of childbirth cords are tied round the wrists and loins. Dogs have sumange. The sumange leaves
and
1
J.
H. Neumann
tot
in
xlvi.
Mededeelingen
127
ff.;
<van
nvege
het
Nederlandsch
J.
Zendeling Genootschap,
in Bijdragen
xli.
xlviii (1904),
104
ff.;
C.
Westenberg
de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
van
Nederlandsch Indie,
228
ff.
i.
Archipel,
80, 81
;
G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 7, 8, ;
in Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, xxxi.
J.
Warneck
10
ff. ;
von
Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras, 239 ; Hagen in Tijdschrift rvoor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, xxviii. 514; Van der Tuuk, Bataksch Woordenboek, i. v. tondi.
ii 4

its
and returns to the body of
own
free will
but
it it
may
also
be coerced.
Sorcerers
it
when manipulating
profess to be able to see
human
being.
1
To
form of a miniature the layman it nowadays appears

in the
shapeless.
In Buru,
soul
is
Ambon, and
other of the Moluccas, the
sumangan, or esmangen.
is
That which
lives after
death
the nitu.
fire-fly.
grave as a
are tightly
The latter In Ceram

to the body.
often appears near the

the knees of the corpse
bound
is
In Babar the corpse

if a
is
bound with
a spirit he
fishing-lines.
In Watubela
man
sees
sure to die very soon.
In the islands of
Saparua,
Haruku,
and
detained by evil
spirits
image of the patient is spirits in exchange for his
the sumangan is owner is ill. An dressed up and offered to the
Nusalaut,
its
when
soul.
The
;
Uliasers
this
is
make an
image of the
sick
man
is
like a doll
offered to
the evil spirit which
3 destroying him, as a substitute.
In the islands of Kei and Kisar the spirits of the dead

lure
and keep the souls of those who go near the

4
graves.
In the former island the placenta

If the child
sister.
is
is
placed in
it
the branches of a tree.
a boy,
is
is
his
brother
if a girl,
all
her
In Leti a soul
all
ascribed
to the rice, to
plants,
and
things
created
or
manufactured.
1
J.
L.
Van
tot
der Toorn, "
Bijdragen
2
de
Taal-,
Het Animisme bij den Minangkabauer," in Land- en Volkenkunde 'van Nederlandsch Indie,
in den
serie 5, v. 48, 49, 56, 58, 61.
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme
Indischen Archipel, 7
J.
G. F.
Riedel,
De
J.
Sluik en kroesharige Rassen tusschen Selebes en
Papua
(1886), 27,
141, 359> 3973
W.
J.
Van Schmid,
Riedel,
in Tijdschrift njoor Nederlandsch Indie (1843), "
510.
4
G. F.
De
Sluik en
kroesharige Rassen tusschen Selebes en
Papua, 221,414. 6 Neurdenburg, in Mededeelingen 'van tvege het Nederlandsch Zendeling

Genootschap, xxviii. 189, 190.
115
A
and
remarkable belief
in these islands
between Celebes
evil
spirits,
New
Guinea
is
to
the
effect
that
suwanggi, are in the habit of appearing in the form of
well-known persons. Women in the forest frequently meet such and mistake them for their husbands. The people of Timor imagine man to have seven souls. If one of these departs the owner falls ill when all seven have departed he is dead. Of these, the good souls go at four are good and three are bad death to heaven, the bad souls remain on earth and become black. The latter may change into animals. A man once shot a pig that had some rags of a burial-mat on its back. It was supposed to be a metamorphosed man wearing the remnants of the native shroud. 2 The Tontemboan of Minahassa in Celebes have the term katotouan for soul, which means " little man."
1
:
The
soul that lives after death
is
nimukur^ the " soul or
individuality of a
man
alive
or
dead."
is
The
latter
term seems to mean " that which

the
separated " from

a
body.
The
katotouan
has
also
name which
means
companion,
mate.
Kruijt
to
compares
Toumbulu
rengarengan, equivalent
the " companion,"
and the Sangir kakeduang, " duplicate." 4 In Minahassa the first man fed on dew 5 the souls of the dead are finally merged.
ascribed to the absence of the soul.
It
is
in
dew
is
Illness
may
be lured
back and caught

man's head.
1
in a cloth
which
put on the sick

to a
When
a family
moves
new house
Riedel, op.
H.
J.
cit. 57, 58, 252, 340. Grijzen, in Verhandeling van het Bata<viansch Genootschap,
liv.
3 (1904-), 85, 86.

3
J.
A. T.
Schwarz,
in
Mededeelingen <van nvege het Nederlandsch

in den Indischen Archipel, 13.
4 5
xlvii.
(1903), 104.

Id. 47-
n6

in a bag.
the priest takes charge of the soul of each
keeping them
the bag over
They
are
member, restored by placing

of the family.
the
head of the head
When
is
a priest brings
back the soul of a sick man, he

girl
often attended
a
by a
with an umbrella, and
is
followed by
evil
spirits
man
with a drawn sword, to prevent the

soul.
from recapturing the
The
is
practice
of substituting a small doll for one

is
who
in
danger
here followed.
is
Before the funeral commences, the
corpse
run three times round the house, presumably
to prevent
after
him from finding the way back. The soul leaving the body is supposed to undergo nine
deaths.
The
is
identification
of butterflies with the souls

the soul of a sick
officiating
of the dead
found
thus
in
Minahassa. 1
In Bolaang
Mongondu
:
man
is
brought
back
the
priestess,
with
much
caught
ceremonial, entices
it
the
soul
into a doll, with

;
which she angles for

it
at the
end of a spear
his
when
is
quickly wrapped in a cloth, and restored
to the patient by the
method of wrapping
2
head in
the cloth containing the soul.
In Central Celebes iron-working

industry.
a
is
a considerable
The
metal has a soul.
Every smith keeps
bundle of lamoa near the anvil ; these are the souls Lamoa of the pieces of iron manipulated by the smith.
is
term for " gods." "If," they say, " we did not hang the lamoa over the anvil the iron would 3 flow away and be unworkable."
a general
1 N. Graafland, De Minahassa (1867), i. 248, 249, 326, 327, 331 ; F. Riedel, "De Minahassa in 1825," in Tijdschrift <voor lndische G. J. Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, xviii. 523. 2 N. P. Wilken and Schwarz, "Allerlei over Land en Volk J. A. T.
van Bolaang Mongondou,"

3
in
Mededeelingen <van <wege het Nederlandsck

10
xi.
263, 264.
ff.
;
A. C. Kruijt,
ibid,
xxxix. 23
xl.
ff.
117
The Toradjas of Central Celebes speak of the soul of a living man as tanoana^ a word derived from toana, " man," with the diminutive infix an. Thus the term
means the miniature image of man, homunculus.
soul
that
lives
1
he
after
death
is
the
angga, or
ghost.
The
it
natives tie cords or withes
round the
wrists
and
ankles to prevent the soul leaving a sick person after

has been restored to him.
friends.
Butterflies are the souls
of dead
that
his
So
also are snakes.
When
his
Toradja
sneezes immediately on waking from sleep, he believes

soul,
which
is
in
sleep
leaves
body, has
getting
returned.
soul
Sneezing
also a sign that a sick person's
has
returned, and
that
he therefore
is
better.
The
souls of
are in the
men who have had same headless condition

is
their heads cut off

in the spirit-world.
The
soul after death

is
of a black colour.
" Black as
a spirit
a proverb.
The
still
soul
is
supposed not to
enter the state of death so long as the body gives out
any fetor and the
flesh
it,
remains.
is
While
this
is
the case, as Kruijt puts
the soul
still
" man," and

it
cannot be admitted to the realm of wholly soul.

1
spirits until
is
The Toradja
;
departed
spirit dies eight
or nine times
then
it
changes into water, and disit
appears in mist.
The
Hill Toradjas say
dies seven
times and then becomes a pig or a cloud.
The
belief
is
very strong that

is
if a
of a dead
man
he
sure to die soon.
man sees the soul The conviction,
from personal experience, is so rooted that influence on the health of the it has a profound Animals, for natives, and often leads to death. example a dog when he howls for no apparent reason,
says Kruijt
1
in
den lndischen Archipel, 12, 76, 92, 175,
'79. 2 35> 2 48, 328, 329.
n8
is
THE
is
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
When
a child
;
are supposed to be able to see spirits.
born, a palm
planted as the external soul
it
is
called the child's
" birthmate."
is
Annually a
feast
held in the smithy of the village.

is
The
object of the feast
to strengthen the souls of the
villagers with the iron in the blacksmith's stock. 1
In South Celebes rice is strewn on the head of any one undergoing any important crisis, such as marriage this is to keep his soul from flying away. To prevent
the soul of a
woman
leaving her during childbirth her
body
is
tightly bound.
The
doctor keeps her external

is
soul in the shape of an object of iron until she
out
of danger.
Fish-hooks are fastened to the nose, navel,

it
and
feet
of a sick man, to catch his soul in case
should
try to escape
from the body. 2 The Makassars and Buginese of Celebes distinguish the sumangat and the njawa. The latter signifies soul
life, life,
3
as life-principle, signification of
the former, besides the has that of " understanding " and
breath
" consciousness."
is
Wilken concludes
that the
njawa
rather the anima, the physiological soul, the principle

;
of the animal organism

nature
the sumangat
is
the animus,
the psychological soul, the principle of man's spiritual

;
the former corresponding to the vegetativa,
the latter to the sensitiva}
The
soul can leave the
body and enter another man's body or the body of an

animal.
The
result
is
an intimate
vital
connection
between the
1
two " persons."
The
van
hero of a well-
Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 163, 383, 397.

B. F. Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie
Zuid-Celebes, 33, 54, 59,
2 id. 3
Over de
B.
F.
Bissoes
of heidensche Priesters en Priesteressen der Boeginezen, 24.
Matthes,
Makassaarsch
i.n>.
Woordenboek,
i.v.
sumanga
id.
Boegineetch Woordenboek,
4
i.
sumanga.
bij
G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme
de Volken
van
den Indischen Archipel,
7, 8, 10.
known poem
leaves
called
119
only
has his soul in a gold-fish.
Not
at death, but in sickness, fainting, or fright, the soul
the
body.
When
are
a child
is
sick
the soul
is
back.
There
songs specially used for the

a
child
;
purpose. 1
yet been
The Makassars bury
that has not
named, without any ceremonial it is not " a Inferring from the pulsations of the fontanel person." where the bones of an infant's skull are separated,
that here the soul has
its
entrance and exit, they place
wad of
leaves
ill
on
this spot to
keep the soul
in.
When
man
is
a small
doll
is
used as his substitute.
Fire-flies
are
regarded as the eyes of dead children.
Bluebottles are incarnations of the souls of relatives.
Snakes also are so regarded.

are black in colour.
resides in or at
2
The
is
spirits
of the dead
finger.
There
issues
an idea that the soul

3
least
from the middle
The priest rubs it as a man is dying. The Gorontalese of Celebes credit man with
souls,
four
one in the brain, another in the heart, another

;
" the brightness of the breath," also in the heart

fourth
is
the
" the soul of the body," which
is
housed
in the
When a child whole extension of the organism. mother says, Amo wajo, " Come here, Wajo means literally " image," " reflection," soul "
sneezes, the
!
and
ears,
is
used for " soul " like the Toradja tanoana}

is
In Atjeh the dead body
wrapped up tightly
5
the
mouth,
nostrils,
and eyes are plugged.
The Madurese
soul to the sokma.
1
ascribe all manifestations of
life
and
At death
the body goes to earth,
Matthes, Boegineesche Chrestomathie, hi. 160, 1 6 1 A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 72, 76, 95, 172,
174, 238.
3
4
A. Bastian, Der Mensc/i in der Geschichte, ii. 322. A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 13. A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 253.
120
the
warmth to the sun, the cold to the water, the sokma is merged in the air, and perhaps may later embody itself in another man. Every man has also a
mala
In
ekat,
or " angel."
Mindanao sneezing
is
is
a sign that the soul has
been away and

absence of the
question. 3
2 just returned.
The Mentawei
They
people say that pain
regat
is due to the from the part of the body in
practically identify the soul with the
inner parts of the body. 4

its
Everything
has a soul
;
in creation
has
own
soul.
The house
every boat has

it,
a soul.
If the
soul of the boat leaves

sinks.
the
wood
becomes
rots has
rotten, or the boat
Wood
that soon
no soul, or a bad one. 5 According to the psychology of the natives of Nias,

has a threefold soul, identified with the breath, the
man
and the shadow. The first, called noso, comes from the wind, and returns to it at death. It has no individual existence. There is an exception in the case
heart,
of
chiefs.
Their nosos
exist after death, that is to say,
the heir of a chief receives his noso in his

dies.
mouth
as
he
can only be seen in the sun or though the priests can see it at any time. It leaves the body at death and becomes a spirit, bechu zimate, which then goes to the underworld. The third soul is in the heart, with which it is identified, as nosododo, " the soul of the heart." It is the most important of the three. According to the Niassers there is nothing in a man that does not originate from the heart.
fire-light,
1
The shadow-soul
in
n.
De Indhche
Gids (1890), 2321.

in
3
4
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme Banner Missionsblatt (1903),

Berichte
rheinischer
den Indischen Archipel, 16.
it.
Missions -Gesellschaft,
(1904),
382,
quoted
by
Kruijt, 136.
One
it
;
121
feels
it is
with
it,
thinks with
is
it,
and understands with

After death
spider,
the heart that
glad or angry.
the
the no so -dodo exists in
form of a
with
moko-
moko, and
is,
as such, an object of veneration.
The
;
mouse
also
is
is
sometimes
identified
the
soul
so
1 the snake.
The
soul
is
sometimes identified
with the butterfly, as the soul of a dead friend or

relative.
The
spirits
of the dead in their
human form
are
black, others say they are white.
Before removing the

together, to
to take the survivors
dead body the mourners

prevent the dead
away.
the
tie its toes tightly
man from coming

is
The
nose
plugged to prevent the soul entering

this as
body.
Another account represents
being
done to keep the soul inside the body. For every dead man an image of wood is made to serve as a medium for his soul through which the survivors can communicate with him.
To
identify
it
with the soul, they
search for the soul of his heart, a spider with four legs.
found on the grave it is bottled and brought home. When a man is ill, an image is made of the same height as the man. The priest puts this in front of the patient and then sets it against the window, saying, " Here is the ransom " Another method of cure is to catch a fire-fly and put it on the sick man's
!
When
forehead, shoulder, or breast.
If a
1
The bechu after death is changed into man dies in childhood, he becomes
L. N.
a great
moth. slow-worm.
<voor Indische Taal-,
H. Chatelin, " Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niasers," in Tijdschrift Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. 142 ff., 146 ff. G. A. Wilken, Het Anbnisme bij de Volken <van den Indischen Archipel (1884), i. 5
; ;
Von Rosenberg,
in Verhandeling n)an
;
het Bataviansch
Genootschap
van
Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. 85
des Niasers," in Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift, xiv. 292
H. Sundermann, "Die Psychologie A. C. Kruijt, Het

;
Animistne in den Indischen Archipel, 177, 179.
122

;
In South Nias the soul dies nine times after the death
of the body
the souls of slaves
become slow-worms or
;
earthworms
live
those of priests,
fire-flies
those of chiefs
near
the
moon.
Souls
are
weighed
ever
out
for
persons about to be born, by Baliu, the son of the
god Lowalangi. is ten grammes.

is
The
heaviest
child
portion
in
allotted
Each
his
mother's
a
;
womb
asked by Baliu whether he

is,
prefers
life
heavy or a
also a
light soul, that
a long or short
;
whether
he prefers to be rich or poor

a
to
die
violent or
natural death.
2
His choice once made can never be

natives say that the
altered.
The Halmahera
the
gurumi leaves
body
in fainting-fits
if
and
at death.
When
Kruijt
soul,
asked a
man
dead child had a personal

;
he
replied, " Certainly
when you held it near the lamp you could see the soul." This was the shadow. The shadow is called the " unreal soul." Men boil iron in water, and drink the infusion to make themselves strong. The same medicine is taken by sick people. The Tobelorese of Halmahera, when a man dies away from home, entice his soul into a doll. 3 The Sundanese word lelembutan means " life," literally " refined." This part of the soul is affected when one
is
alarmed
the juni
like
;
is
will, character,
is
sympathy, dis-
position,
and the
sukma
that which thinks
and
knows.
1
Man
consists of the three principles, lelembutan
4.32,
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel, 175, 239, 254, 440 F. Kramer, " Der Gotzendienst der Niaser," in Tijdschrift'van het Bataviamch Genootschap, xxxiii. 483. L. N. H. A. Chatelin, "Godsdienst
;
en Bijgeloof der Niasers,"

;
ibid. xxvi.
139, 144.
E. Modigliani,
Un
Viaggio
a Nias, 283 Von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, 174. 2 H. Sundermann, "Die Psychologie des Niasers,"
Missionszeitschrift, xiv. 291.
3
in
Allgemeine
in den Indischen Archipel, 14, 69, 70, 163,
436-
or
atji,
123
juni,
regarded as
and sukma. The cricket the soul of man.

1
'
is
sometimes
In Java the idea of the soul is explained by the 2 If you bury a man's phrase " fine or refined body."
name written on a piece of paper, the man will die. 3 They have the distinction of two souls, sumangat or
semangat and njawa.
Everything has
sumangat.
Many
ceremonies
are
performed
4
in
connection with
" the soul of the rice." the njawa of a man.

;
The
fire-fly is
regarded as
If one flies in your ear you will and a summons from a dead man's 5 After soul. Bluebottles also are souls of the dead. a solemn declaration has been made by a man, or an oath taken, " a mysterious sound " is heard, which is
die
for
it is
a visit
regarded as " a higher confirmation " of what has been

affirmed or sworn. 6
Among
belief
is
the wild races of the
that
man
has a jiwa, " spirit of
semangat, a " shape."

the latter
is
Malay Peninsula the life," and a The Eastern Semang suppose that
exactly like the
man
himself, but red like
blood,
passed on to the child by

belief in soul-birds.
and no bigger than a grain of maize. It is Others hold the its mother.
and
are
Souls grow on trees in the other brought thence by birds, which are The souls of killed and eaten by expectant mothers. animals and of fish are obtained by the mother-animal
world,
or
1
fish
in a similar way, but
not from birds.
They
K.
F. Holle, in Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-,
Land- en Volkenkunde,
xvii.
-
565, 566. A. C. Kruijt, Het Animistne in den Indischen Archipel, 10.
H. A. Van Hien, De Ja<vaansche

op. cit. 71.
Geesten-ivereld (1896), quoted
by
Kruijt,
4
i-
G. A. Wilken, Het Animistne

173, 174.
bij
de Volken
van
7, 38, 396 Kruijt, op. cit. 6
C. F. Winter, in Tijdschrift -voor Neerland's Indie,
v.
i.
27.
i2 4
THE
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
man
obtain souls for the
fungi.
1
get the souls for their offspring by eating fungi and

grasses.
Creatures hostile to
new generation from
phosphorescent
The
Pataui Malays are said to believe in a nyawa, or " life breath " ; a semangat, which is not the vital principle, and
which is possessed by every object in the universe the ru, which " is confused with " the nyawa and semangat, is peculiar to man, and goes out of the body during sleep and the badi, which is the wickedness or devilry in man. Some speak of a spirit as existing in the
; ;
blood.'
The Malays have been influenced by Hinduism and Islam for many centuries. Their psychology has therefore foreign elements, but
it
retains its individuality.
Beginning
with
cosmogony,
we read
in
Skeat's
account taken from a native informant, that Heaven and Earth were created from chaos or haze, " Earth of the
width of a tray, Heaven of the width of an umbrella."
Analogy suggests that these phrases " may be intended

to
represent
respectively
the
'
souls,'
semangat,
of
heaven and earth, in which case they would bear the same relation to the material heaven and earth as the man-shaped human soul does to the body of a man." 3 Man is made of four elements, air, fire, earth, and water.
"
With
these elements are connected four essences

fire,
4
the
soul or spirit with air, love with

earth,
concupiscence with
first
and wisdom with water."
The
creation of
man
body.
1
failed
because the spirit was too strong for the

resulted are the spirits of
Pagan Races of
the
The fragments which

Skeat and C.
ii.
W. W.
O. Blagden, The
194, 195.
Malay
Peninsula (1906),
2
3
i, 4,
5,
N. Annandale
in
Man
(1903), No. 12.

to
W. W.
Skeat,
Religion of the
4
Malay Magic, an Introduction Malay Peninsula (1900), 2.
the Folklore
and Popular
352.
C. Newbold, British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca,
ii.
'
earth and sea and
into the clay
strain.
1
;
125
air.
The
Creator then wrought iron

spiritual
this
body could withstand the
Sanctity attaches to the body generally, even

2
for
ordinary persons, and especially to the head, the
hair, the teeth, the ears,
and the
nails.
The Malay
conception of the
human
soul {semangat)
is described by Skeat according to the terms of Tylor's definition " in so far as they were applicable." 3 It is
a species of " thumbling," " a thin, unsubstantial
human
image," or mannikin, which

the
is
temporarily absent from
body
in
sleep,
trance,
disease,
and permanently
is
absent after death.
This mannikin, which

supposed to be about
to
is
usually invisible, but
as big as the
thumb, corresponds
i.e.
exactly in shape, proportion, and even in complexion,

its
embodiment or casing
it
{sarong),
the body in
which
it
has
its
residence.
It is
of a " vapoury, shadowy,

but that
or filmy essence, though not so impalpable
may
cause displacement on entering a physical object,

it
and,
as
can
is
'
fly
'
or
flash
'
quickly
from place
to place,
as
if
it
it
often, perhaps metaphorically, addressed
were a bird.
In calling the soul, a clucking
sound, represented in Malay by the word kur or kerry
by which fowls are called, is almost always used in cluck soul !) is such a kur semangat (cluck common expression of astonishment among the Malays that its force is little more than good gracious me The soul sometimes is in the form of a lizard. The
;
fact,
'
'
soul of a lycanthrope has been seen as such issuing from
the man's nose.
The meaning of
life
the word semangat
covers both " soul " and "
"
{i.e.
not the state of
being
alive,
but the cause thereof, or

1
vital principle).
F.
A. Swettenham, Malay
cit.
Sketches, 199.
3
Skeat, op.
43
ff.
Id. 49.
126
"
THE
As
this
its
IDEA OF
is
THE SOUL
is
it
'
mannikin
in
the exact reproduction in every
way of
readily
bodily counterpart, and

the
individual
the cause of
it
life
and thought
be
animates,'
may
and
endowed with quasi-human

possesses
feelings,
independently
the
personal
consciousness
and volition of its corporeal owner." Thus it can " It is an easy stretch be addressed as a separate person. provide with imagination to it a house, which is of the
generally in
practice
identified
with the
body of
its
its
owner, but
may
also be identified with
any one of
Many charms show in a temporary domiciles." complete form " this figurative identification of the soul's with its owner's body, and of the soul's house
'
' '
sheath
'
or casing with both.

*
The
state
of disrepair
into which the
house'
may
fall is
sickness."
The
soul
appears to men "as a phantom separate from the body," " manifests physical power," and walks, sits, and sleeps.
"
From
the above ideas
in the right
way
it
thus be able either
you call a soul will hear and obey you, and you will to recall to its owner's body a soul
it
follows that
if
which
is
escaping {riang semangat)^ or to abduct the soul
of a person
whom you may
wish to get into your power
[mengambil semangat orang), and induce it to take up its residence in a specially prepared receptacle, such as
(a)
a.
lump of
earth which has been sympathetically
connected by direct contact with the body of the soul's owner, or () a wax mannikin so connected by indirect
means, or even
getting
(c)
a cloth
connection whatever.
in
it
And
which has had no such when you have succeeded
into
your power, the abducted and now

its
imprisoned soul will naturally enjoy any latitude allowed

to
(and suffer from any mutilation of)
temporary
domicile or embodiment."
"Every man
is
supposed
(it
would appear from
"
127
all,
Malay charms)
perhaps,
soul
talks
. . .
to
possess
seven
souls
say,
in
or
should
more accurately
present
sevenfold
At
the
day the
ordinary
Malay
still
usually of only a single soul, although he
keeps up the old phraseology in his charms and charm-
books."
With regard
be,
to animal, mineral,
I
and vegetable
souls,
Skeat says, " speaking generally,

within
certain
limits,
believe the soul to
conceived as a diminutive,
its
but exact counterpart of

like a bird
own embodiment,
so that
an animal-soul would be like an animal, a bird-soul

;
however, lower in the scale of creation
it
would appear that the
tree or ore-souls, for instance,
are supposed, occasionally at least, to assume the shape
of some animal or bird."

that
The Malay would consider " illogical and inconsistent were he told us Europeans
we allowed
the possession
it
of souls
1
to
one-half
of the creation and denied

In offerings the deity
to the other."
is
" not supposed to touch

offering,
life,
the solid or material part of the

the essential part, whether
quality,'
it
2
but only
be
'
savour, essence,
or
even
'
soul.'
Apparently dead
soul
and
it
seasoned
wood
living
retains
tree.
the
which animated
or knobs
spirit.
when
trees
The
excrescences
of
are
evidences of the indwelling
Toddy:
collectors, before tapping the coco-nut palm,
go through
an elaborate ceremonial containing this charm
Come Come Come Come

1
hither,
One, come hither, Tiny One, come hither, hither, Bird, come hither, hither, Filmy One, come hither.
hither, Little
W. W.
Skeat,
Malay Magic,
47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53
F.
A. Swettenham,
Malay
2
Sketches, 199.
Skeat, 73.

128
Thus Thus
I

bend your neck, up your hair, here is an ivory Toddy-knife
I roll
And
Here
to help
the washing of your
face
is
....
is is
an ivory Toddy-knife to cut you short, an Ivory
And And
For
here
there
Cup
to hold
under you
an Ivory Bath that waits below for you.

in the Ivory Bath,
Clap your hands and splash

it is
called the " Sovereign
Changing Clothes."
is
The " Soul of

Rice-baby
;
the Rice "
also the
Rice-child or
it
is
taken from the sheaf called the Riceceremonies,

series
mother, with elaborate prayers and

stituting one of the
in existence.
2
con-
most voluminous
of folklore
Mining-wizards take the place of mining-engineers
and assayers. The tin-ore itself is regarded " as endued not only with vitality, but also with the power of growth, ore of indifferent quality being regarded 3 as too young, but as likely to improve with age." It is believed to possess the power of reproduction,
and to have
it
" special likes
or
perhaps
affinities
for certain people and things, and vice versa.

is
advisable to treat tin-ore with a certain

its
Hence amount
is,
of respect, to consult
perhaps,
convenience,
and, what
business
of may, as it were, 4 On rare be obtained without its own knowledge." " announces its presence by a peculiar noise occasions it 5 " Sometimes each heard in the stillness of night."
curious,
more
to
conduct the
mining
in
such a
way
that the tin-ore
Id. 194, 195, 216, 217.
"Changing
Clothes"
refers to the
chemical
change undergone by
2
the coco-nut juice
when turned
into sugar.
W. W.
Id.
Skeat,
Malay Magic, 218-49.

the Straits
3
4
250.
in
A. Hale,
Journal of
Branch of
No.
2,
the Royal Asiatic Society,
16 (1885), 319. 6 Pasqual in Selangor Journal,

cit.
iv.
p.
26, quoted
by Skeat,
op.
263.
grain of ore appears to be considered as
a separate entity or individuality."
*
129
endowed with
spirit,
The Polong
is
bottle-imp
or
familiar
resembling " an exceedingly diminutive female figure It is bred out of the blood of a or mannikin."
murdered man, which

with prayers.
cures,
2
is
placed in a bottle and treated
Malay doctors use

effect
the spirits of various things to
propitiate
14
the
evil
man, or Badi is or expel the spirit of sickness. principle which, according to the view of
or
recall
the soul of the
sick
Malay medicine-men, attends

everything that has
life
(like
an
evil
angel),
" or
is
inanimate. 3
Skeat concludes that the conception of the soul is " the central feature of the whole system of Malay
magic and folklore."

consists in
This possession
is
common
to
Nature and Man, and therefore the control of nature methods " by which this Soul, whether in gods, men, animals, vegetables, minerals, or what not,
captured,
may be influenced, way made subject to

ill-luck
;
subdued,
or
in
some
Side
the will of the magician."
by side with this principle are the ideas of luck and

and, from
Mohammedanism,
the pre-ordained
is
course of events, resignation to which
"Islam."
Some
generalised results of
Dutch research among

here.
the Malayo-Polynesian races of the East Indian Islands
may
be
conveniently
put together
They
are
the summarised conclusions chiefly of Wilken, which
have been developed by Kruijt. 5

1
Skeat, op.
cit.
265, 266.
2
4
Id. 329, 330.

Id.
3 Id. 6
411 ff., 427 ff. G. A. Wilken, Het Animisme

;
bij
579, 580. de Volken <van den Indischen Archipel,
(1884)
in den Indischen Archipel (1906).
3o

that, as a rule,
it is
Wilken remarks
the
more highly
developed peoples, as the Malays, Javanese, Makassars,
and Buginese, who have the dualism of semangat and

njawa.
The lower
strata
of the
island
populations
speak chiefly of the semangat}

Kruijt finds that a permanent distinction
is
drawn
between the soul of a living dead man.
man
soul
at
is
man and the soul of a The former dies, more or less, with the death. As far as the man is concerned, this
During
it
then annihilated.
;
life
it
is
as a rule
quite impersonal
as
the
individual develops out of
the
communal
stage of society
tends
to
become
till
personal.
The
This
is
other soul does not appear
after
death.
personal
it is,
so to speak, a continualife
is,
;
tion of the individual after his earthly

prises all his personal peculiarities,
it
it
comwere,
and
as
an
la
"extract"
Saussaye's
He calls the former by de of him. term, " soul-substance " ; the latter he
here
use
is
calls
" soul."
shall
We
The
various
his
terms without
prejudice.
It
is
soul-substance
seats
in
a fine,
ethereal matter.
its
has
the
body where
action
most
This fact has led to the idea that conspicuous. " souls." has several
man
as
The
soul-substance
is
generally
regarded
miniature replica of the man.
The whole body of

a part
is
the
man and
is felt
all his
discarded pieces of personality are
filled
with soul-substance.
When
;
taken away, pain
or sickness results.
The
eye, not the
man,
sees
the ear, not the man, hears

feels
the belly, not the man,
hunger.
is
The
inner organs
of the head and more important and " stronger " than
soul-substance
that of the arms, the bones, or the relics of a man.

1
Wilken,
op. at.
i.
7.
The
is
131
veneration of skulls and the practice of head-
hunting are thus explained.
The
is
belief that the liver
a special seat of soul-substance
general.
Especially
full
of soul-substance are the parts where the blood
pulsates.
Eating and drinking are methods by which

restores lost soul-substance.
principle,
is
man
this
Of
made
especial value,
on
the flesh of men.
The
soul-substance, later
personal in the form
of the owner, though reduced to a miniature, gives It by its means the man thinks and acts. him life in some cases it is is very loosely joined to the body
;
regarded
as
quite
separate
entity.
It
leaves
the
body
idea,
in sleep, or rather, according

a
to the East Indian
him.
man What
sleeps because his soul-substance has left

it
sees
and experiences while absent are
dreams.
Especially is it apt to leave the body through fright. " Also when a man desires some thing or person, the
soul- substance
leaves
his
body and goes where

if a
his
thoughts have gone."

about
Again,
man
is
discontented
something, the soul-substance
feels
uncomfort-
able and therefore departs.
Poverty and disagreeable

departure.
to
surroundings
are
may
very
be
cause
its
The
a
natives
request,
therefore
in
unwilling
refuse
especially
the case of children, for fear the soul-
substance
may
this
made unhappy and

is
thus be driven
away.
a great
On
idea
based the general practice of

in Kruijt's opinion, is
never punishing children, which,

hindrance
its
to
education.
When
a child has
worried
parents beyond
endurance, and receives a
smacking,
feeling.
it
is
its
screams cause an immediate revulsion of
It is
no longer the child that
is
blameworthy
the
parents.
They
feel
that
its
soul-substance
32

that they can never forgive
may go away, and

selves.
them-
The
soul-substance leaves the
apertures, such as the nose, ears, and
body by the various mouth, also at

fontanel.
is
the joints
at
but especially through the top of the skull,

bones,
the
the suture of the
Any one
a seat
seeing the pulsation of the blood which
so conspicuous
is
here in an infant, would infer that this

exit for the soul-substance.
and
can
use
Men,
abstract
spirits
of the
dead, and
other
spirits,
and detain a man's soul-substance.
The
of small dolls or puppets as substitutes, and the practice

of strewing
rice to entice or detain the soul, are general
in the islands.
Soul-substance
inanimate
interest
is
assigned
to
to
trees,
plants,
and
trees,
things, chiefly
as
those which
iron,
concern or
man, such
rice
and
palm-wine
and bezoar-stones.
The
soul-substance
is
being impersonal, unconscious,
undefined,
often represented as something fluttering,
as a bird, a butterfly, or a fly.
After a man's death

isation of the
as
first
appears the soul proper,
the spiritualisation of the material man, or the material-
soul-substance.
This
is
personal, but
the natives cannot represent the soul

material
all
apart
from
the
body,
it
is
like
him
;
in every respect,
it
with
his
It
qualities
is
and
defects
is
a copy, or
abstract.
generally
black.
It
may,
however,
It
is
appear in the form of some insect or animal.
always material.
Very
dead.
heard.
characteristic
is
the fear of the souls of the
If they
cannot always
be
seen,
they can
be
All kinds of melancholy noises are ascribed to
them.
They
are not worshipped
they desire to share
"
in the life
133
of their survivors, and the
latter desire to
have their knowledge.

media. 1
Hence
the use of images as
In Madagascar the term for god
is
bound up with
other ideas
thus a rich
man
;
has a rich god, a blind
man
Velvet
has a blind god, to " is a " son of god

its
it.
whom
he owes his blindness.

is
taratasy, or book,
called
god, from
wonderful capacity of speaking by merely

"
looking at
The
saina, or mind, vanishes at death,

air,
;
becomes mere ghost, hovers round the tomb "

the aina, or
life,
but the matoatoa, or the last is the " ghost-
is an omen of when a man sees his ambiroa he knows he will soon die. The fanahy, or moral quality, survives in the memory of others as " a mere idea,
man
"
the ambiroa, or " apparition,"

;
approaching death
and so
far as a
man's character
may
survive in
the
the
also
memory of
chief soul.
called
others his fanahy survives."
This
is
The ghost of
the dead, matoatoa,
is
ninth
"the ninth," fahasivy, or fahasivin ny maty, "the This curious term is probably of the dead." derived from the position of the soul in the sikidy, the thus Malagasy system of divination by counters
;
"
enemy
"
occupies
position
eight.
"
The
if
ninth
is
often appears in dreams.
Ambiroa, or ameroy,
also
used of the soul of the living, for instance,

is
and does not thrive well on his food. In ninth," however, is the soul of the dead only. some tribes the term for soul is lolo, butterfly. The
thin
man " The
owl
The Sihanaka tribe say that at is a spirit-bird. death the soul " goes any" any being " an indefinite
is
and imaginary place to which no name

1
attached."
1
A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisms

ff
>
in
ff-
den Indischen Archipel, l66

>
ff.,
6,
16
ff.,
23, 5. 5 6 > 66 > 75
8l ff
HS
35
ff
>
399
ff
>
43 1
134
THE
soul
is
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
is
The
to
given by " god," and

;
therefore, like him,
partly
good and partly evil be blamed for anything

praised
for
accordingly a
evil that
man
is
not
it
he does, nor,
follows,
anything good.
This
is
the
principle of Sakalava ethics.
The Sihanaka
hold that
the
mirage
is
the soul,
angalra, of the water.
The
Hova
belief
tribes
soul turns into a beautiful serpent
some time
after death.
In connection with this

chiefly
is
a remarkable
and custom held of the south.

It
by the Betsileo and other
The
corpse remains unburied, sometimes for

is
two
or three months.
so placed that the liquids of
decomposition drip into several pots.

until a
This goes on This
worm
appears in one of the pots.

;
worm
has been anxiously expected
it
is
the soul of the dead
man, fanany, or fananim-pitoloha, " the fanany with seven heads." The fanany is encouraged to grow, and when it has attained a considerable size the corpse
is
buried.
man
I
asked
if
he has buried his wife
yet,
will reply, "
She has not yet appeared in the earthen

cannot bury her body."
is
pot,
and so
is
The
earthen
pot containing the fanany

in
it
placed in the grave, but
also fixed a
long bamboo rod reaching up to

soil.
the outer air through an opening in the

six or eight
After
months the fanany, now grown

as a lizard or serpent,
larger,
and
sometimes described
the
climbs
up
bamboo out of
the grave and enters the village.
The relatives greet it with much ceremonial, and ask it If it lifts its head solemnly, " Art thou so and so ? "
But to make doubly sure, they get the plate last used by the dead person, and fill it with blood, taken from the ear If of an ox, and rum, which they offer to the fanany. the fanany drinks the libation there is no more doubt
the gesture
is
interpreted in
the affirmative.
about
lie its
135
it
identity.
it
A
is
it
clean cloth
in
is
spread for
to
upon, and
carried
is
procession with great
rejoicings.
Finally,
is
carried
back to the grave,
where
it
supposed
to
remain
and
It
become
is
the
guardian deity of the people near.
sometimes
supposed to grow to an enormous

to develop seven heads.
chiefly to persons
and sometimes The custom and belief apply

size,
1
of noble blood.
The
their
natives of the
Andaman
leaves
is
Islands "
do not regard
shadows, but their reflections (in any mirror) as
their souls."
nostrils,
The
its
soul
the
and
departure
body through the indicated by snoring.

spirit.
There
is
a distinction
between the soul and the

is
We
are not told

is
which
which, but we
may
infer that
is
the " soul "
the duplicate of the living, the spirit
the duplicate of the dead man.

the spirit
is
Thus
the soul
is
red,
Both " partake of the form of the person to whom they belong." Evil comes from the 2 soul, and good from the spirit.
black.
5.
Indian Psychologies.
the body
is
The Laos think
the seat of thirty spirits,
which reside in the hands, the feet, the mouth, the 3 eyes, and so on. In Tonquin it was once the custom to catch the soul of the dying by putting a handkerchief over the
1 W. Ellis, History of Madagascar (1838), i. 392, 393 ; J. Sibree, The Great African Island (1880), 274, 276, 312 ; J. Richardson in Antananarivo Annual, i. 76, 225 ; ii. 99 T. Lord, ibid. ii. 276 ; G. A. Shaw, ibid. i. 411 ; iv. (1878) 3, 10; A. Walen, ibid. vi. (1882) 15, 16; J. Pearse,
;
ibid. vi. 64.

2 3
Man, The Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, 94. A. Bastian, Die Volker des ostlichen Asien, iii. 248, quoted by Frazer,
E. H.
Bough'-,
iii.
The Golden
419.
136
face.

Nowadays
a film of cotton
is
hung
in front
of
the nostrils. 1
The Burmese commonly

leyp-bya.
if
ill
conceive the soul as having

butterfly.
It
is
the shape and appearance of a

In
the
;
some way
is
it is
" the soul of the blood "
the blood
at ease.
" restless," this means that the soul

leyp-bya leaves the
is
The
body during
sleep,
is
and permanently at death. The aperture used for exit 2 The " butterfly " of a baby whose the mouth. mother has just died is thus prevented from following
:
the mother's soul
wise
woman
" places a mirror
over the corpse, and on the mirror a piece of feathery

cotton down.
Holding
a cloth in her
open hands
'
at
the foot of the mirror, she with wild words entreats
the mother not to take with her the

soul of her child, but to send
it
butterfly
'
or
back.
As
the gossamer-
down
it
in
from the face of the mirror she catches the cloth and tenderly places it on the baby's
slips
3
breast."
word
The Karens have an interesting psychology. kelah we are told, means "pure, unmixed,
y
The
clear,
or transparent."
its kelah.
" Every object
is
supposed to have
Axes and
presents
knives, as well as trees and plants,
are supposed to have their separate kelahs.

rice-field
When
it
the
is
an
unpromising
appearance,
supposed that the rice-kelah is detained in some way from the rice, on account of which it languishes.
. .
All the inferior animals are supposed

ke/a/is,
1
to
have their
which are also
liable to
wander from the individual

ix.
Richard, History qflonquin (Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels),
730
J.
G.
2
and Tongking, 96. The Burman, J. G. Scott [Shway Yoe], Scott, Forbes, British Burma, 99 ff.
Scott, France
;
his Life
op.
cit.
and Notions,
ii.
ii.
99, 100.
102
Bastian, Die
VUlker des ostlichen Asien,

1 Bough"
,
ii.
389,
quoted by
J.
G. Frazer, The Golden
i.
264.
the kelah
137
and thus to be interfered with in their absence. When is interfered with by an enemy of any kind, death ensues to the individual animal to which it
belongs.
agent in
The kelah is not regarded human action." A native

the
tha/i,
as the responsible
explained, "
sins."
When
we
sin, it is
or
'
soul,'
which
"
By some
the kelah
is
represented as the inner man, and with
others the inner
man
is
is
is
the thah.
When
the eyes are
shut and in sleep the reflective organs are awake and

active.
This
sometimes attributed
that the kelah
to
the
kelah.
Hence
idea in
the kelah
all
the author of dreams."

is
is
..." The
its
these cases
it is
not the soul,
and
yet that
distinct
is
from the body, and that

death.
It is
absence from the body
considered as the
individuality, or general idea, of an inanimate object.

It is also
the individuality of the animated being.
It
in
It is
fact
personates
the
varied
phenomena of
life."
further supposed to have seven " existences," each
of which seeks the destruction of the person to

they belong.
whom
Yet they are seven in one. They seek to make the person commit mad, or reckless, or shameless, or angry deeds. But on the upper part of the head sits the tso, and while the tso is firmly fixed the kelah can do no harm. The word tso seems to mean " power," and to refer to reason. Wizards catch souls when they leave the body in sleep. Such can be transferred to a dead man, who thus comes to life again. But the friends of the robbed man get another soul from another sleeper, and so on. 1
In
another account
la exists before
the
kelah
appears
as
the
la.
"The
neither
1
man, and lives after him. It is good nor bad, but merely gives life. It someCross,
E.
B.
"On
the Karens," in Journal of the American Oriental
Society (1854), iv. 309-12.
138

himself.
times appears after death, and then cannot be distinguished
from the person

to the la."
in
its
The body and

spirit,
is
the la are
represented as matter and
yet materiality belongs
What
is
seen in dreams
what the
la sees
wanderings. It is also described as a guardianspirit ; " each man has his guardian-spirit walking by
his
side
or
wandering away
If
it is
in
search
it
adventures.
absent too long, " When the la back with offerings."
of dreamy must be called

absent in our
is
waking hours we become weak, or

if the
is a
fearful, or sick,
and
it
absence be protracted death ensues.
Hence
matter of the deepest interest with a Karen to keep

with him.
it,
his la
He
is
ever and anon making offerings
of food to
calling
it
beating a
bamboo
to gain
its
attention,
back, and tying his wrist with a bit of thread,
which
is
supposed to have the power to retain

insects.
it."
It
sometimes takes the form of or inhabits
Thus,
when
are
las
insects fly
round
lamp
at
night the people will
say that those that are singed are evil, those that escape
good
spirits.
Mason
asserts that the
idea of seven
is
trying
to
devise a
man's injury or death

its
not
axe
extensive.
Every
living thing has

If
la,
and every
his
inanimate thing likewise.

while up a tree, he looks
man drops
calls
down and
!
out, "
La
the
of
the
axe,
come,
come
;
"
Every organ
of
body has its la. An evil spirit is supposed to devour the la of the eye the result is that the man The world is more thickly peopled becomes blind. with spirits than with men. The future world is
a counterpart
it
of
this
rises
in
Hades.
:
when the The external

;
sun
soul
sets
is
on earth
known
to
the
is
Karens
is
cut
the knife with which the navel-string " carefully preserved for the child. The life
is
of the child
supposed to be
in
some way connected
with
it,
139
for if lost or destroyed

x
it is
said the child will
not be long-lived."
In Hinduism, ancient and modern,
it is
believed that
is
every
object
in
nature,
animate
and inanimate, "
pervaded by
part
:
a spirit."
spirit
"
The
Metempsychosis here plays its of the man in whom the dark quality,
is liable
tamos, predominates
to pass into inert, motionless
matter, and to occupy a rock, a stone, a post, or any

similar
material
form.
Even
the divine
Spirit
may
infuse itself into images
and objects of stone, metal,

symbols, or into pebbles." " the merchant worships his
the
and wood, into
idols, into
On
particular holy days
books, the writer his
inkstand,
husbandman
his net.
his
plough, the weaver his

chisel,
loom,
the carpenter his axe,
and
tools,
and the fisherman

its
Every
object that benefits
him with
fetish."
a livelihood
But
it is
possessor and helps to provide becomes for the time being his by no means the case that all natural
are
or become though credited with souls. In the days of Sankara there was among the sects of Sauras, or sun-worshippers, one sect which was composed of members who worshipped " an image of the sun
or
artificial
objects
" worshipped "
fetishes,
formed
These spent all their time in They were in the habit of branding circular representations of his disk on their forehead, arms, and breasts." Another sect worshipped the sun "as a material being in the form of a man with a golden beard and golden hair." 2 " Different gods are supposed to reside in different parts of the body, the Supreme Being occupying the
in
the mind.
meditating on the sun.
F.
Mason,
in
Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society
of Bengal, xxxiv.
(1891), 339-42.
195-202.
a
M. Monier- Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism*
4o

Thus, the
tip
top of the head.

to be occupied
of the thumb
is
held
by Govinda, the forefinger by Mahidhara,

little
the middle finger by Hrishikesa, the next finger (called

the nameless finger) by Tri-vikrama, the
finger
by Vishnu, the palm of the hand by Madhava all " The being different forms of the same god Vishnu." act of placing the fingers or hand reverentially on the several organs is supposed to gratify and do honour to the deities whose essences pervade these organs, and to be completely efficacious in removing sin." To balance the Hindu Pantheon of three hundred and thirty million gods, there is an equally vast host of spirits, and the souls of the dead swell the grand
*
total.
When
a
a vicious
man
also
dies,
each of his vices becomes
demon.
Crimes
spirits.
and
sins live after a
man
in the
shape of
"
Hence have
arisen
any number of
adultery-
murder-devils,
theft-devils,
perjury-devils,
are always
devils, blasphemy-devils,
who
on the look-
out
for
weak-minded
ills
victims,
and ever instigating
them
to the commission of similar crimes."

are spirits.
All diseases and
prefer blood as their nutriment.
Most of the They enter
spirits
bodies
in
through the open mouth.
" Thus, if a
man
an
unguarded moment yawns or gapes without holding his hand or snapping his fingers before his face, they may promptly dart in and take up their abode in his
interior."
2
Though
called spirits, their frames
have for their
essential elements gross material particles.
Even
the
gods have forms, composed of material atoms requiring So all beings are subject the support of daily food.
1
M.
2
Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism* (1891), 405. Monier- Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 234, 240-42.
into the one universal and sole eternal Essence.
141
to this kind of limitation until they are finally absorbed
The
gods have bodies very similar to those of men. " They differ only in the power of walking above the surface of the ground, in being shadowless, in being free from perspiration, in having eyes that never wink, and flowery ornaments that never wither " l " Spirits," 2 in general, are dwarfish and shorter than men. In Bengal the soul of man is associated with the
shadow and the

living
reflection.
In
Hinduism proper,
is
the
personal
" spirit," jiva,
ultimately
identical
with
Atman
all
or Brahman, the sole and eternal essence

It is, practically, a
of the universe.
for
point of insertion
ideas.
consciousness,
percepts,
and
merely an internal organ of the body.
Mind is The jiva, plus
the body, attains consciousness through the power of
may a, "
jiva
is
which comes into play when the surrounded by corporeal envelopes. Of these
illusion,"
there are
sarira,
two
(1) the subtle body, linga, or sukshmathree
or ativahika, which encloses a portion of the

spirit
universal
sensorial,
in
and
aerial,
sheaths, kosha,
it
cognitional,
constituting
it
a living, individual,
all
its
personal
spirit,
till,
and carrying
through
corporeal
migrations,
subtle
as
in its reunion with its source,

extinct.
;
even
its
body becomes
This
ling a
is
described
of the size of a thumb

noted
that
(2) the gross or material

It
body, which surrounds the subtle vehicle.

be
the
linga,
should
is
though
ethereal,
still
material.
The
spirit
described as
1
on leaving the dead body is by some Yama draws the of the size of a thumb.
v.
Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 235, quoting Nala, 2 Monier-Williams, op. cit. 236.
3
24.
W.
Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Bengal, 146
42
soul out of the
body in the shape of a mannikin. It " intermediate body " after the burning of needs an
the gross body, and before the assumption, in
metemPurity,
as
is
psychosis, of another gross body.
Again, there are three primordial essences

Passion,
and
in
Darkness
the
(jamas)
which
the
appear
" qualities "
embodied human
is.
soul.
Mind
not eternal, as Spirit
Prakriti, the Creative Force,
or Female principle, unites with
other eternally
existing principle, Purusha, the Self, or Spirit, or

principle, to
Male
form a human person

three
qualities
this
the union being
bound by the
Gunas,
evolved
" in
above mentioned, the

Spirit
order that
as
may
reflect
the
world
clear
river
reflects
dark
trees,
while they darken the river, or as a bright crystal vase

illumines a flower, while the flower colours the crystal."
The
jiva
is
the
human
Self,
the
Atman
of the man. 1
In one of the Upanishads the sage Pragapati says to

his disciples,
is
"
The
This
person that
is
is
seen in the eye, that
the
Self.
Brahman."
The
disciples take
this to
mean the
reflection
of a person in the eye of
another, and go on to inquire

a mirror or in water.
step to the real
who it is that is seen in Thus he leads them step by

is
Ego. 2
read that the soul
3
In
Manu we
of the size of an
It
atom, and enters the seed of animals and plants.

is
rain,
It descends to earth in the form of and thus enters food and the bodies of men, The soul leaves the whence it issues as the germ. 4
purusha, male.
1 Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, A. Holtzmann, Indische Sagen, i. 65.
26-28,
30-35,
291
F.
Max
Mailer,
Theosophy
or
Psychological
Religion
(1895),
252,
quoting the Khandogya Upanishad.

3
4
La-uvs of Mann (G. Bilhler), 6, 211.
Max
Mtiller, T/ieosophy or Psychological Religion,
154..
body
at
143
1
death through the suture of the skull.

is
Its
departure
marked by the bursting of the
skull in the
flames of the funeral pyre.

is
The
chief mourner, Karta,
then
shaved,
and
their
bathes.
Unorthodox
Hindu
"
I
castes
who bury
dead are said to break the skull
with a coco-nut, so as to allow the soul to escape. am assured, however," says Padfield, " by those
bury, that this
is
who
of
not the case,
it
being only a
bit
slander on the part of their adversaries.
In the case
is
of Sanyasis (ascetics)
actually done,
it
seems, however, that this
make
out."
collecting
Lahore made a business of unbroken skulls which contained the souls

at
why in A man
this case
only
it
is
not easy to
of the dead.
is
After the funeral the Nitya karma

in
rite
celebrated
the
dark.
The Karta
receives
from
the Purohita, the family priest, " a small

called preta shi/a, which,
round stone upon the consecration ceremony

reference
to
it,
being
performed with
pratishta,
is
supposed to become the personification of the preta, or disembodied spirit of the deceased. This stone the
Karta
the
ties
up
for
in a strip
of cloth previously torn from
winding sheet."
ten
The Nitya karma

during which
as
ceremonies
stone
is
continue
days,
the
honoured and " treated

spirit
though
is
it
were really the

it.
of the dead."
in the
Food
offered to
Mantras
spirit to
are
repeated, as appeals to the disembodied
come
shape of the different kinds of birds and

Kites and crows dispose of the
partake of the food.
food thus offered.
On
as
the last day the preta shila
is
thrown into water,
done with. " The object of the Nitya karma ceremonies

spirit
is
to
provide the departed

1
with an intermediate body.

and
'Thought in India, 291, 297,
M. Monier- Williams,
Religious Life
299.
44

spirit at
The
death leaves
its
former dwelling-place
in
an amorphous, invisible form, about the size of one's This is called a preta." thumb, angushtha matra.
Were
it not for the ceremonies it would wander about " impure ghost or goblin." On the twelfth day as an the Sapindi Karanam, " mixing of the lumps," takes
place.
The
Karta
;
rolls
is
some
rice,
boiled
rice
into
cylindrical shape
is
this
divided into three, and each

representing the three
representing
pita, that
mixed with
lump of
the
immediate
preta.
ancestors,
cylinder
the
is,
By
this act the preta
becomes a
invested with an ethereal body and admitted to the
company of
the ancestors.
The
activity
Zoroastrian
religion
divided
" the spiritual

force,
last
of
man
"
into conscience,
vital
moral
is
character, intelligence,
and fravashi.
;
The
divine
the
personality after
death
exists before birth.
which Vital force perishes with the body

it
is
the
part
but intelligence and character unite with the fravashi at

death.
The
fravashi
2
is
also
the tutelary spirit
that
watches over the man.
6. Asiatic Psychologies.
The Chukchi
larger than
a
of Eastern Asia credit
or six or even more souls.

gnat.
man with five They are very small, not man may lose one or two
without sustaining very serious injury, but if he loses Evil too many, illness and perhaps death is the result.
spirits, kelat, issue
from the ground to devour human

is
souls.
1
The shaman
the healer of the souls of

Home
men
J.
E. Padfield, The Hindu at
(1896), 235, 236, 238, 24.9, 253
2552
W.
Geiger, The Eastern Iranians (1885),
i.
113, 124.
in his
145
he can replace any one or more from the store of kelat

employ. 1
" do not separate the
spirit
The Samoyedes
any idea of the
to
from
the matter, but worship the object as such," without

spirit
being connected with or attached
is composed of a soul and of But the shaman can take an outer shape over 2 According to the Kamchadales even the his soul. smallest flies have souls, which survive the death of the The Buryats tell a story showing that the soul body. 3 can be corked up in a bottle like the Djinn of the " The first shaman had unlimited Arabian Nights power, and God, desiring to prove him, took the soul of a certain rich maiden, and she fell ill. The shaman flew through the sky on his tambourine, seeking the soul, and saw it in a bottle on God's table. To keep the soul from flying out, God corked up the bottle with one of the fingers of his right hand. The cunning shaman changed himself into a yellow spider, and bit God on the right cheek, so that, irritated by the pain, he clapped his right hand to his face, and let the soul Enraged at this God limited the out of the bottle. shaman's power, and thenceforth shamans have been 4 According to the Altaians getting worse and worse."
the
object,
which
matter.
the soul
incision
is
in
the back. 5
The Kalmucks make an
in the
skin immediately after death, in order

6
to allow the soul to escape.
W. Bogoras in The American Anthropologist (1901), iii. 98. A. Castren, Vorlesungen uber die finnische Mythologie (1853),
G. Klemm, Die
Culturgeschichte,
ii.
iii.
162,
189, 192.
3
4
315.
Shashkov, quoted by V.
M.
Mikhailovskii, " Shamanstvo," in Journal
of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv. 63, 64. 6 W. Radloff, Aus Sibirien, ii. 36. c A. Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte,
ii.
342, 343.
IO
146

believe
The Buryats
" that a
man's soul may be

flee
frightened out of his body and
away.
The
soul
wanders round the spot where

children
are
especially liable
it
left
the body.
Small
souls
to
have
this
their
frightened
away,
and the signs of
misfortune
are believed to be at once evident.

ill,
The
If
child
becomes
are
raves in
its
sleep, cries out,
remains in bed, weeps,
and
becomes pale
alien to the
and
sleepy.
many days
allowed to pass after the soul's
flight, it
far.
becomes wild
fact at first,
and
body, and
flees
Grown-up people
who have
lost their souls
do not notice the
and gradually become sick. shaman and learn that the

body.
soul.
The
kinsfolk apply to the
patient has
no soul
i.e.
in his
Then they themselves try to The patient makes a khurulkha,

If
bring back the

he
summons
his soul.
no remedies suffice, the shaman is called After sprinkling and prayers he organises a in. In a pail he places an arrow and khunkhe-khurulkha. something the patient is fond of, e.g. beef or salamat. After this he sets out for the place where the soul separated from the body, and asks the soul to come and eat its favourite food and return to the body. When the soul enters the body, the man who had lost it feels a shiver down his back and is sure to weep ; Sometimes his soul weeps for joy at finding its body. the soul is so stubborn that the ceremony has to be
repeated
three times." Buryats, " the shaman,
*
In another
section
of the
when
;
called
in to heal a sick
person,
makes
illness,
a diagnosis
he inquires into the cause
of the
patient's soul,
and decides what has happened to the whether it has lost itself, or has been
is
stolen away,
1
and
languishing in the prison of the
V.
M.
Mikhailovskii, "Shamanstvo," in Journal of the Anthropological

128.
Institute, xxiv.
gloomy
is
147
Erlik,
ruler
of the underground world.
A
him
deep
preliminary kamlanie decides this question.

near at hand, the shaman, by methods
it
If the soul to
known
is
alone, replaces
in the
body
if
the soul
far
he seeks
it
in every part
of the world
away,
in the
woods, on the steppes, at the bottom of the sea, and,
when he has found

place
it,
restores
its
it
to the body.
it
The
soul frequently escapes from
pursuer
runs to a
where sheep have walked, so that the shaman cannot discover its traces, which are mixed with the
footprints of the sheep, or
spirits,
it
flees to
the south-western
where
it is
is
safe
from the wiles of the shaman.
If the soul
not to be found anywhere within the
limits of our world, the
shaman must seek

world,
it
in the
realm of Erlik, and perform the toilsome and expensive
journey
sacrifices
to
the
underground
where
heavy
have to be made at the cost of the patient. Sometimes the shaman informs the patient that Erlik demands another soul in exchange for his, and asks
who
is
his nearest friend.
If the sick Buryat
is
not
of a magnanimous disposition, the shaman, with his consent, ensnares the soul of his friend when the latter
is asleep.
The
soul turns into a lark
the
shaman
in
his kamlanie takes the form of a hawk, catches the soul,
and hands it over to Erlik, who frees the soul of the The friend of the Buryat, who recovers, sick man. falls ill and dies. But Erlik has only given a certain
respite
;
the patient's
l
life
is
prolonged for three, seven,
or nine years."
The Altaian kam summons spirits for his operations. As each comes, he takes it into his tambourine, speaking for it to show arrival, " Here am I also, kam " When a
!
horse
is
to be sacrificed to the celestial deity, Bai-Yulgen,

1
V.
M.
Mikhailovskii, S/iamanst-vo, 69, 70.
148

He
the kam extracts the soul of the horse previous to the
by waving a birch-twig over the animal's imitates the neighing and struggles of the horse, while himself on the back of a goose runs its soul, pura, to the penfold where a birch-stick with a
sacrifice
back.
and makes a 1 noise as if the noose were catching him by the throat. The tambourine is the chief instrument of the shaman
noose awaits
it.
The kam
neighs, kicks,
throughout
spirits,
it
Siberia.
Besides
its
use
for
gathering
has the miraculous

it,
power of carrying the

broomstick, in
shaman, who rides

his
as
a witch her
journeys to and from the spirit-world. 2
Among
and
white,
spirits.
the Buryats shamans are divided into black
according as they deal with evil or good

are divided into three classes
Yakut shamans
according to the power of their emekhets.

is
a guardian-spirit
;
emekhet " the shaman has also a bestial
The
image," ie-kyla
this incarnation
form of a beast
can find
is
carefully concealed
it
of the shaman in the from all. " Nobody
my
ie-kyla,
lies
hidden far away in the stony

said the
a year,
mountains of Edzhigansk,"
Tyusypyut.
melt and
the
Only once
earth
famous shaman when the last snows
becomes black, do the ie-kylas appear among the dwellings of men. The incarnate souls of shamans in animal form are visible only to
the
eyes
of shamans,
all
but
they wander everywhere,

strong sweep along with
unseen by
noise
others.
The
and roaring, the weak steal about quietly and Often do they fight, and then the shaman, furtively. whose ie-kyla is beaten, falls ill or dies. Sometimes they shamans of the first class engage in a struggle
;
1
V.
M.
Mikhailovskii, Shamanstvo, 74, quoting- Radloff, Aus Sibirien,

18.
ii.
20-50.
2
W.
Radloff,
op. cit.
ii.
lie
149
locked
in
deadly embrace for months, and even
overcome each other. The weakest and most cowardly shamans are those of the canine
years, powerless to
variety
they are wretched

a
in
comparison with those

;
who have
gives his
wolf or bear as their animal form
the
dog
and
tears
human double no peace, but gnaws his heart his body. The most powerful wizards are
is
those whose ie-kyla

eagle, or the
a stallion, an elk, a black bear, an

last
huge bull boar. The " devil champions and warriors," honour upon their possessors."
"
two
are called
and
confer
great
The
emekhet, or
special
spirit,
generally
dead
helps
shaman, occasionally a secondary deity, always stays

near the
man
it
protects.
It
comes
his
at his
call,
him, defends him, and gives him advice.

sees
"
shaman
and hears only by means of
emekhet" declared
see
the
Yakut ayun Tyusypyut
"
can see and hear over
three settlements, but there are
some who can
and
hear
much
farther," he added.
The wizard
has a host
the Yurats
of secondary
spirits in his service.
Among
and Ostyaks the medicine-men treat their spirits without ceremony, and even buy and sell them. When the
seller has received
the price agreed upon, he plaits a
few small braids of hair on his head, and appoints a

time
when
the spirits are to go to the purchaser.

is
The
proof of the fulfilment of the contract

begin to torment their
it
that the spirits
new
possessor
if
they do not,
shaman who has purchased them In the same region, that of Turukhinsk, the Samoyedes believe that every shaman This has his assistant spirit in the form of a boar. boar is somewhat like a reindeer, and its lord leads it by a magic belt, and gives it various orders. Besides their spirits the Samoyede shamans also possess
is
a sign that the
does
not
suit
them.
150
a distance.
magic weapons with which they slay their enemies from It is by the blow of such an arrow, shot by another shaman, that a sudden fit of illness is ex1
plained."
The Samoyedes are

are frequently
" of opinion that internal diseases
produced by the presence of a
worm
in
the belly.
In order to find the spot where the cause
of
illness lies
hidden, they poke about the body with a

applies his lips and pretends to call
out, and, taking
it from his mouth, Lepekhin says that the tadibeis
sharp pointed knife until they find the diseased place.
Then
the
the
shaman
it
worm, sucks
it
shows
to the patient.
take out an external disease with their teeth, while an

internal disease,
'
like
worm
having movement,'
is
taken out with the hands, after cutting the body with
a knife."
its
2
The Chuwashes
think that the soul makes
through the back of the head. 3 The shamans are " the most intelligent and cunning A typical shaman is described by of the whole race." " Gifted with a sensitive nature, he Tretyakov thus
exit at death
:
had an ardent imagination, a strong belief
in the spirits
and
in
his
mysterious
intercourse
with
them
.
his
philosophy was of an exclusive

strange impression."
4
character.
Pale,
a
languid, with sharp, piercing eyes, the
man produced
soul,
the Slavs the shadow is a metaphor for the and the butterfly is constantly its emblem. A moth fluttering round a candle is fancied to be a soul. Butterfly is dushichka, a caressing diminutive of dusha,
Amongst
soul.
In Bulgarian folklore the soul
is
supposed to
sit,
in the
form of
1
a butterfly,
Mikhailovskii,
2
on the nearest
op. at.
tree until the
129, 133, 134.

143.
ii.
Mikhailovskii,
op. at.
A. Bastian, Der Mensch

4
in der Geschichte,
op. cit.
322.
Mikhailovskii,
139.
funeral
is
151
over
it
then goes to heaven.

the
The Old
regions.
Slavs believed that the soul had to climb out of the
grave
in
order
to
get
to
celestial
Accordingly miniature ladders were placed

In old traditions
peasants
still
in the grave.
;
we hear of
the soul as a spark
and
see ghostly flames appearing over graves.
Other Slavonic variations are that the soul appears as a fly or gnat, that a star is born at the birth of every person, and that dead children return to earth as
swallows.
1
7.
American Psychologies.
believe
The Eskimo
that the
soul
" exhibits
the
same shape as the body it belongs to, but is of a more subtle and ethereal nature." 2 Nelson says they speak of three " shades " one, invisible, has the shape of the body it sentient and lives after death the is second is "like the body," and is identical with the " life-warmth " the third is evil, and ends with the
:
body.
The Greenlanders
regard the soul as being

It
soft, possessing neither
bones nor sinews. 4
can be
taken out of the body and replaced, divided into

parts,
many
astray
and
lose a part of itself.
It
may even go
It lives after
out of the body for a long time.
death.
A widow can persuade any parent that the soul of her dead
husband animates
treatment.
his child
;
this
may
secure her kind
As soon
as a person dies his soul
animates
a new-born infant, which receives his name and is adopted by the surviving relatives. This is regarded as a reanimation of the defunct. Children are mostly named
1
W.
2 3
Ralston, The Songs of the Russian People 2 no, 115, 1 16-18. H. Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, 36. E. W. Nelson, in Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington)
,
for
1896-7.
4
H. Egede,
Description of Greenland (18 18), 183.
152
after their

deceased
grandparents or
near
relatives.
The
departed souls loiter near the grave for five days,
and then pursue the same course of life in another world which they pursued here. There is a doubt as to whether the body does not rise and go to the other world. Souls which take their departure in cold or stormy weather may easily perish. This is called the
1
second death.
The
survivors, therefore, for five days
after the death abstain
from
certain meats
and from
all
severe work, in order that the soul
or lost on
its
may not be disturbed dangerous journey. The angekoks, or

soft, yielding,
shamans, describe souls as being

intangible to those
and even
who attempt
to seize them, having
neither flesh, blood, nor sinews.
This knowledge they

It
is
gain from their visits to the spirit-world.

business to repair
their
damaged souls, bring back strayed souls, and even change them when diseased past cure, for the sound and healthy souls of hares, reindeer, Others say that man has two birds, or young children. Their term for " god " is souls, shadow and breath. when a new spring of water is found an torngarsuk old man is forced to drink first, " to take away its
;
torngarsuk, or the malignant quality of the water,
which
their
might make " those who drink

death.
2
sick, or
cause
The Nootkas
flesh
believe that the soul in dead-land has
and
skin, but
no bones.
it
The
its
soul has the shape
of a tiny man.
head.
It
dwells in or on the crown of the

is
So long
it
as
upright
owner
is
well
but
when
1
loses
this position
he loses his senses. 3
The
Descrip-
D. Crantz, The History of Greenland, i. 184, 185, 189. Crantz, The History of Greenland, i. 185, 186, 193 ; Egede,
of Greenland, 185. Contributions, xvi. 84 J. G. Swan in Smithsonian
tion
3
F. Boas, Sixth Report
on the No7-th-Western Tribes of Canada, 44.
Indians of the
souls.
153
Lower
Fraser hold that

1
man
a
has four
;
The
or
chief of these has the

it.
form of
mannikin
the other three are shadows of
Among
the Dene,
Navajo Indians, when disease or death man, friends stuffed the patient's moccasins threatened a If the down was warm with down and hung them up. next morning the lost soul had returned, and was united with its body when the convalescent put the moccasins
Tinneh,
on
his feet.
The
natural
warmth of
the body, nezosl^
was the soul. It therefore died with the body. They also had " another self, or shade, netsin, which was invisible as long as a man enjoyed good health," but wandered about when he was sick or dying. Morice calls this soul a " double," and there seems to be a
confusion between the nezcel and the netsinr
Other
but, as
it
spirits
are
numerous
they have a sort of
" aerial body, not of the same matter as our
own
bodies,
were, something intermediate between body
and
soul.
These
can
spirits
are
essentially
malignant."
The shaman
He
dies in the
3
make people die by eating their souls. " a spirit is eating up his same way
;
soul."
The Chinooks hold

made by man,
leaves
that
all
things,
even
objects
a
possess souls.
Each person has two,
large and a small soul.
In sickness the smaller soul
the body.
if a
With some confusion of thought

man's soul becomes too small for his
they say that
body he
will die.
the sick man's soul
The doctor goes out to fetch back when he catches it, it is large, but
;
too often
1
it
grows small
as he approaches the patient.
F. Boas, Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 461.
A. G. Morice,
(Toronto),
"The Western
vii.
Denes," in Proceedings of the Canadian
Institute
3
(1888-9), *5 8 #
J.
Jette in 'Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. 161, 176.
154

belongings of the dead
The
man
are supposed to decay-
after his death.
The
doctors or " conjurers " employ a
mannikin image, by shaking which they are able to see " the country of the ghosts." 1 The Haidas firmly believe in a soul separable from
the body.
After death the soul

child.
may
return in the body

five times, after
of a new-born
This may recur
which the soul
suffers annihilation.
Before death the
soul "loosens itself
from the body." The medicinemen, ska-ga, profess to be able to catch and restore the They use hollow bones to enclose souls of dying men. A the soul, plugging the ends with shred cedar-bark. soul of had seen the told family he ska-ga a Tshimsian
their daughter while he
was taking
a walk.
He
it,
caught
and offered, for 2 she would die.

it,
a consideration, to restore
otherwise
The
parted
;
Salish
of British Columbia employ three terms

:
for the souls of the dead
the spirit-people
the de-
and a word which means both corpse and ghost,
or apparition of the dead ; in the last " they firmly The sulia or " supernatural helper " is posbelieve."
sessed by
most men.
being."
It is in
the material
form of an
a " spirit,"
is
object generally edible.
or
" mystery
The real sulia is The object itself
not the
sulia,
its
only the form under which it manifests itself to protege, " though the two are apparently always
intimately and mysteriously connected in the

the Indian."
3
mind of
The Ahts of Vancouver consider the soul to be " a being of human shape and of human mode of Its acting." It leaves the body in sleep and illness.
1
F.
Boas
2
in
Journal of American
G.
in
M. Dawson, Haida
Folklore, vi. 39, 40, 43. Indians, 121, 122.

Institute, xxxiv. 26, 321.
C. Hill
Tout
"
abode
is
155
the heart and the head.

it
The medicine-man
it
restores
to the patient,
by throwing
1
in the
form
of a piece of stick into
his head.
The Ungava
shape
explain
Indians carry a guardian-spirit in the
of a doll. 2
The Chahtas
when
the
are of opinion
that
3 the soul resides in the bones.
The Hidatsa
extremities
Indians
gradual
death
appear
by the theory that man has four souls, and death that they leave the body one after the other being complete when all have gone. Idahi means a
dead
first,
shade, shadow, or ghost
idahihi, a reflection.
"
all
Not
the
man
many
alone, but the sun, the

all
moon, the
stars,
lower animals,
boulders
trees
in
and
plants, rivers
and
not
lakes,
...
short,
everything
made
more
the
;
by human hands, which has an independent being,

or can be individualised, possesses a
properly,
a
'
spirit,
or,
shade.'
The Hurons
conceived
soul as possessing a head and

it
was a
it
body and arms and legs complete miniature model of the man. At
walked
in front
funerals
of the body. 5
is
thus described " by Hewitt, himself an Iroquois. It is an exceedingly subtle and refined image," yet material, " possessing
the form of the body, with a head, teeth, arms, legs,
The Iroquoian
idea of the soul
The term for flesh means " the substance of the soul." The soul of a healthy man is healthy, that of a decrepit person is decrepit. The "spectre" is
etc."
by the departs, robed in

animated
soul.
After
the
" dead-feast "
it
beautiful
its
mantle, for the
west.
To
1
survivors
G.
it
makes
wishes
known
in
dreams.
M.
3
4
Sproat, Scenes
2
and Studies of Savage Life, 173, 175, 213, 214. EleventA Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 194.
238.
50.
A. S. Gatschet, in Journal of American Folklore, i. Washington Matthews, The Hidatsa Indians, 48,
Relations des J/suites, (1634) 17, (1636) 104, (1639) 43-
156

oiaron,
Each man has an

selected
tutelar
spirit
or fetish,
species
from
the
animal
in
world.
the
Every
of
animal
and plant has
spirit-world a type or
model for that species, larger and more perfect than any single member. This is sometimes called " the " This ancient " or " the old one " of the race. l prototype was the oiaron of the species." The Delawares or Lenape, a part of the Algonquin group, used for soul a word indicating repetition, and equivalent to a double or counterpart. 2 According
to Tanner, in his account of his captivity
among
the
Algonquin Sauks and Ojebways, the soul is the " shadow." When a man is very ill, it is supposed he recovers if it returns. A to be dead or gone
;
man
speaking
its
is
thought
as
to
touch a
spirit
when
mentioning
body, which
possessed
name. 3
left
The Ojebways
an
essence
death.
or Chippewas
spoke of the soul

it
separable
from the
regarded
at
The Sauks
death.
the soul, according to Long, as " vitality."

souls.
It
Animals
existed
spirit,
after
Each man
which was revealed to him 4 in a dream. The Sioux held that the father gave 5 The the soul to his child, the mother the body.
had
also a tutelar
Dacotahs, one of the Sioux group, suppose that " there

is
no
object,
however
trivial,
which has not
its spirit,"
which, by the way,

has
1
may
be potent for mischief.

;
Man
another
four
J.
souls
one dies with the body
N. B. Hewitt,
"The
Iroquoian Concept of the Soul," in Journal of
American
2
Folklore, viii. 107.
D. G. Brinton, The Lenape" and their Legends, 69. A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of "John Tanner (1830), 286, 291. 4 W. H. Keating, Narrative of Expedition to the Source of St. Peters ii. 154. River, by Major Long, i. 229, 232 6 through the Interior Parts of North America in the J. Carver, Travels
3
E. James,
years 1766, 1767, 1768,3 (1781), 378.
always
at
157
the body ; a third goes away and renders an account of the deeds of the body the fourth stays with the dead man's bundle of hair, which is kept by the relatives. 1
remains with
death
The Muskogees,
thing
living,
2
or Creeks, " have gone so far as
to assert that a pattern or spiritual likeness of everyas
well as
tribes
inanimate, exists in another
world."
The
of Oregon regarded the soul

of the man, 3 and ascribed
as a miniature resemblance a soul to every
member of the body. 4
the underworld
In the psychology of the Zuni the soul exists in before birth. It is a " haze-being,"
in its evolution
it
and
fixed
passes
from " the raw or
soft
state," through " the formative and variable," to " the
and done," and then to " the finished or dead."
The growth of corn from green to ripe serves as an illustration. The so-called Sun god and Moon
goddess are never personified. 5
An
.
.
Honduras describes them The Indian repaired

.
old account of the naguals of the Indians of as " keepers or guardians

to
the
river,
or most obscure place, where he called
wood, hill, upon the devils

that he
by such names
as
he thought
fit,
talked to the rivers,
rocks, or woods, said he
went to weep
might
he
fell
have the same his predecessors had, carrying a cock

or a dog to
asleep,
sacrifice.
In that melancholy
fit
and either in a dream or waking saw some one of the aforesaid birds or other creatures, whom
1
J.
2
O. Dorsey, in Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 434, 484. Bartram, quoted by Bastian, Die Seele und ihre Erscheinungs^weisen in
der Ethnographie (1868), 227. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvdlker,

:i
iii.
305.
H. H. Bancroft, The Nati-ve Races of the Pacific States, iii. 515. 5 F. H. Cushing, in Journal of American Folklore, v. 50 Stevenson in American Anthropologist, xi.
;
M.
C.
158

salt,
he entreated to grant him profit in
cacao, or
any
other commodity, drawing blood from his

ears,
own
tongue,
and other parts of his body, making his contract at the same time with the said creature, the which Such a day either in a dream or waking told him, you shall go abroad a-sporting, and I will be the first bird or other animal you shall meet, and will be your
'
nagual and companion at all times.' " * " The Mexican language has no
'
other word for
soul
'
than that which primarily denotes the heart be illustrated from a document well
the invaluable
this
may
known
to
ethnologists,
examination
of some
conducted
view of
die
Indians
of Nicaragua, Toltecs by origin,

friar
by the
Bobadilla
in
1528,
with the
ascertaining their habits and

in battle,
it
beliefs.
Those who
go above, and dwell with the be, it was objected, when they are burnt or buried? Only the heart (yollo), it was explained, went above this led to the further explanation that the term was used in a secondary sense. What was meant by the heart, according to
was
stated,
gods.
How
could
that
these
Indians,
was not exactly the heart
itself,
but
something within them which made them

quitted
live,
which
them when they died, which caused death when it quitted them at the moment of death it flew out of the mouth in human shape. In ecclesiastical Mexican soul is always expressed by the borrowed word By Heart of Earth the Mexicans understood anima.
;
* ' '
'
an analogous
soul."
self.
2
spirit
dwelling within and animating the

the soul as a second
The Zapotecs regarded

tona
This refers to the
or
" tutelary genius,"
iv. 138 ff. Payne, History of the New World called America, i.468, quoting Oviedo, History of Nicaragua, 27 ff.
Herrera, General History of America (Stevens),

J.
E.
which was thus selected
to be
:
159
about
when
woman was
confined,
her friends assembled, and
occupied
themselves in drawing on the floor figures of various

animals, rubbing
figure
them out
at
as
soon as completed.
The
was
that
remained
the
moment of
"
birth
selected as the tona of the child.
When
the child
grew old enough, he procured the animal that represented him, and took care of it, as it was believed that health and existence were bound up with that
of the animal, in
occur
fact,
that the death of both

*
would
in
simultaneously." Oajaca " every feature

virtue, vice,
According
of
the
to
Burgoa,
every
scenery,
want,
had one or more patron
deities."
There
2
are indications that these deities correspond to " souls."
An
the
soul
original
Mexican codex or
is
lienzo,
preserved
in
Vatican,
is
sort
of Book of the Dead.
The
emerging from the mouth of the corpse in human form, and is then conducted, naked and bound with a wooden collar, by a warrior garbed as an ocelot, and carrying a sheaf of darts and the standard of Tezcatlipoca, to the presence of that dread
illustrated
deity.
3
Of the Macusis of British Guiana, im Thurn writes " Every Indian believes that he himself, and consequently
:
every other man, consists of two parts, a body and a spirit." They " point out that at death the small
human
call
it,
figure
disappears from
the pupil of a man's
eye," and say that "the spirit, the emmawarri, as they
has gone out of him.
This alone
is
sufficient
2
3
H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, Quoted by Bancroft, op. cit. iii. 449. E. J. Payne, History of the Ne<w World called America,
i.
66 1
ii.
277.
ii.
407, quoting
Vatican Codex, No. 3773.
160

belief
in the distinctness
reason to the Indian for
of
body and
death."
1
spirit,
as
the two parts which separate at
When
asked what he thought would become
of us when we died, a Macusi replied, " he thought our bodies would remain in the earth and decay, but that
the
man
in
our eyes would not
die,
but wander about."
The Macusi
and
his
considers dreams " as real as any of the

life.
events of his waking
He
regards his dream acts
one respect, done only by the spirit, the latter that the former are The peaiman, or are done by the spirit in its body." medicine-man, priest, doctor, sorcerer, and prophet of Indian society, " prepares himself by a long course of fasting and solitude, of stimulants and narcotics, in order to acquire both power to raise himself into an ecstatic condition in which he is able to send his spirit where he wills, and power to separate the spirits of He has other men and other beings from their bodies."
acts as differing only in
waking
hallucinations, self-induced.
connected with the body.

injury,
is
The soul is very loosely The Kenaima or avenger of

y
supposed to be able to put

a tiger, or
his soul into the
body of
even into a stick or stone, which

the
may
then
pass
into
this.
body of
his
victim.
The
peaiman extracts
"To the Indian all objects, animate and inanimate, seem of exactly the same nature, except that they differ Every object in the in the accident of bodily form. whole world is a being consisting of a body and a spirit." But " no idea of that which we call the supernatural is known to him." His whole world swarms with beings, " It is, therefore, not most of them possibly hurtful.
1
E. F. im Thurn, "
On
the
Animism of
xi.
the Indians of British Guiana,'" 363.
in Journal of the Anthropological Institute,

2
J.
H. Bernau,
British
Guiana
(184.7), 134.
fears
161
wonderful that the Indian fears to be without his fellow,
even to move beyond the light from
his camp-fire,
and,
when
obliged to do
so, carries a firebrand with
him
may have a chance of " The among whom he moves."

that he
seeing the beings

spirit
world
is
exactly parallel to the material world."
After death
it
the spirit remains on earth.
Sometimes
returns in a
new-born
child or an animal.
The
the
Indian
does
hierarchy of
spirits.
not worship, nor is " All the good that

either
there any
befalls
him
its
Indian
accepts
without
inquiry
;
as
to
cause or as the result of his

evil that
spirits.
and all the malignant as inflicted by befalls him he regards Accordingly the Indian performs no acts to
exertions
;
own
attract the good-will of spirits
but he does constantly
so act, and so avoid actions, as to avert the ill-will of Thus, " before attempting to shoot a other spirits."
cataract for the
place,
first
time,
a
on
first
sight of any
new
ill-
every
time
sculptured
rock,
or
striking
mountain, or stone
will
is
seen, the Indians avert the
of the
spirits
each into his or her eyes."
of such places by rubbing red pepper " For just as, according to
its
the old story, the ostrich which has covered
own
the
eyes
thinks
itself
hidden
from
its
pursuers,
so
Indian, having prevented himself

being, thinks that the latter
from seeing a harmful This does not see him.

the only
!
habit of avoidance of dreaded beings forms
ceremonial observance practised by the Indians."
The Bakairi of Brazil use terms equivalent to " shade " and " breath " for the soul, but they have
no
precise account to give of
its
nature.
It
is
rather,
says
1
von den Steinen, "the whole actual personality."

im Thurn,
>
E. F.
in
Institute,
xi.
363,
364, 365.
3 66
368,
3 6 9> 372. 374, 37$, 379. 3^0.
II
62

fancy that the soul leaves the body during
a bird.
1
The Bororos
sleep in the
form of
of
The
idea
the
soul
among
the
Callagaes
or
Paraguay was rendered by the words Dobrizhoffer gives their term "echo" and "image." for soul as loakal, and it seems to express echo, image, Abipones of
shadow, and
soul.
2
The
It
Caribs regarded the head as the seat of the soul.

as
was described
;
"a
purified
body."
Accounts
where an
caused by
differ
we read
is felt
that one soul was in the head, another

at all the places
in the heart,
and other souls

pulsating.
artery
is
Again we read
that the heart

is
the chief soul, " spiritual beings."
and that the pulse

3
8.
It
Chinese Psychology.
has been stated that " the value of the soul as
compared with the body is almost wholly ignored But the whole religion of this by the Chinese." 4 based on the attention and worship paid people is Another has said that " China to the human soul. is full of ghosts," which are often confused with real Nowhere are the worship of ancestors and people. 5 filial piety and respect so important and engrossing
a part
of human
life.
" That which

a
moth or grub
1
when it would be small becomes when it would be large fills

;
like
the
K. von den
Steinen, Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Brasiliens, 364,
511.
2
Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus,

J.
ii.
194.
G. Mueller,
Geschic/ite der amerikanischen Urreligionen, 207,

;
208
De
4
6
la
Borde, in Recueil de divers voyages, 15
Rochefort,
lies Antilles,
429,
516.
Social Life of the Chinese (1867), N. B. Dennys, Folklore of China (1871), 71.
J. Doolittle,
ii.
401.
world
air
;
;
163
when it would ascend mounts the cloudy whose when it would descend enters the deep
;
transformations
are
not
shen
limited
is
by
soul.
days,
is
called
spirits,
ShenT
The term
fairies,
applied
to gods,
demons,
and the human
According to
Chinese philosophy the universe consists of two great

principles, yang and yin. The yang principle is composed of infinite atoms of shen? Shen, or " spirit,"
is
used of
3
all
invisible, evanescent, spiritual,

is
operating
power.
Tang
the origin of
life,
light,
warmth, and
and roughly belongs to " heaven." The yin principle is composed of infinite atoms of kwei. Kwei, which means literally " returns," is of the earth, as is yin, the idea being that the body " returns " to the dust. Tin is the origin of evil, darkness, and death. Thus the universe is filled in all its parts with shen and kwei, the bases of yang and
happiness,
yin.
The
latter
are
is
the
a
" souls " of the universe.
The
microcosm is very pronounced in Chinese thought. Thus a man's soul must follow the tao or " course " of the universe ; that is the reason why the liver, lungs, and kidneys are respectively
idea that
man
autumn, and winter. As the yin, so is man. The soul of man is partly yang and partly yin, partly shen and partly kwei, being made of three parts of yang to seven parts of yin. The latter, the kwei soul, returns to earth at death, and remains with the dead body. The shen soul lives on as a " refulgent spirit," ming. Vital energy is tsing, of which ling is the " effective
identified with
spring,
universe
is
made of yang and
Ktvan-tzu
J.J.
14,
quoted by Dennys,
op. cit. 81.

iv.
M. De
Groot, The Religious System of China,
(Book
ii.)
(1901)
133
J.
Legge, The Notions of the Chinese concerning God and
Spirits (1852),
*55-
64

;
operation "
accordingly
ling,
as " spirituousness,"
is
The operation of shen in the often used of the soul. " breath," or hwun ; that of kwei living body is as khi}
is
known as poh. The shen soul is

Shen
is
man
sacrifices to either khi or poh.

;
male, animus
the kwei
is
female,
anima.
the source of intellect.
Nutrition
is
animistic.
Food
sustains the blood
and
the breath, the

soul.
two matters
is
chiefly identified with the
The
principle
that the soul-substance of the
food enters the body and strengthens the soul, by virtue of

its
immaterial essence,
its
its
shen, tsing, or khi.
Each
;
of the viscera has

psychologists
soul, in
some
is
fanciful shape
for
example, the soul of the heart

assign
at
like a red bird.
Some
tsing-
least
hundred shen to the

seat
human organism.
ming, in the brain. " The Chinese,"
The head is the The pulse forms says De Groot, "
of the
the tsing-khi.
scarcely believe in
the existence of any inanimate object."
Plant-souls are
not conceived as plant-shaped, nor supposed to have

plant-characters.
They
are represented as a
man
or a
woman,
plant.
or a child or an animal, dwelling in or near the
deformity of a root, a lump of resin, an excrescence of wood or bark, are " concentrations of
the
soul
of the
tree."
Not
all
inanimate matter
is
Jade, gold, and pearls animated in an equal degree. " they are the tsing of heaven and have most soul
earth," runs the proverb, and they are used as valuable
medicines.
The
shen of metals
is
in
human
is
form.
"
conspicuous feature of the belief in changes of

things into living beings, and conversely,
lifeless
that they are
suggested especially under the impression of some out-
ward
likeness
between those things and those beings.
When
a Chinese sees a plant, for example, reminding

its
him by
shape of a
man
or animal, he
is
influenced
immediately by the resemblance.
to
165
This being becomes
him the soul of the
plant,
anthropomorphous or
animal-shaped.
actually
Thus, association of images with things becomes identification, both materially and
psychically.
An
image,
especially
if
pictorial
or
sculptured, and thus approaching close to the reality,

is
an alter ego of the living reality, an abode of

it
its soul,
nay,
is
is
that reality
itself.
This kind of association
the backbone of Chinese religion."
At
the funeral a polychrome full-length picture of

is
the dead parent

ego for the body.
possible.
hung up near
the coffin as an alter
The
tai-sin
likeness
is
must be
to
his
as perfect as
This
to
" intended
enable
the
deceased
live
on
among
is
descendants."
A
is
miniature portrait, siao ing,
also
produced, but this
not an
artificial
body
for the soul,

is
and only
memory
;
of the parent.
Food
presented to the dead

it,
it
is
clear that the soul
must enjoy
because no one ever
Life remains after the soul has saw the body touch it. there is always a lingering hope that the left the body soul may re-enter and cause resurrection. The ceremony of " calling back the soul " is very important. It is summoned into a temporary " soul;
tablet "
and " soul-banner " of seven ribbons.

is
it
The
principle
remarkable, namely, that the soul needs a
body to prevent
fore the " soul-tablet "
from suffering dissolution. Thereand " soul-banner " containing

" If
the soul are placed with the corpse in the grave.

a
body is properly circumvested by objects and wood imbued with yang matter, or in other words, with the same shen afflatus of which the soul is composed, it will be a seat for the manes, a support to which they can cling, and prevent them from suffering annihilation."
man
can
live
when
part of his soul
is
gone.
66

speak
as
if
Doctors
the
soul
was breakable
into
souls
molecules.
Dry bones
at
retain animation.
The
of the dead
times change into birds.

;
Fire, heat,
and
read
light are
emanations of yang
ignes fatui are the

steel,
" blood-souls " of
men
killed
by
and we
according
eaten by
also
of
" soul- flames."
The
body,
it
to
some, decays
animal.
in the grave, because
is
some
The planting of the when the parents are

clay-images
soul takes place at the
moment
of
united.
There
are
stories
and painted portraits acting for their originals, and even producing children. The soul is weakened by separation from the body.
Of a man
the body.
in a fainting-fit
one remarks, " His soul
is
not united with his body."
The
soul
may
exist outside
it
Imagination consists in sending

his soul out
out.
man took
of his body with the ingenious
idea of rendering his body unaffected by chastisement When the soul is and even by capital punishment. " as a duplicate having the form outside the body it is
of the body as well as

says
its
consistency."
;
After death
this
the soul retains the shape of the body
amounts,
De
Groot, to a " conviction which

their eyes,
calls
up the
body immediately before

think of the soul."
is
whenever they " The world of souls and their life

l
precisely like those of the living."

in
In the
life
after
death wicked souls,
one account, have their bones

This
is
beaten and their bodies scorched.

stage.
the
first
In the second their muscles are drawn out and

his
1 This account is compiled from the facts given in various parts of uncompleted work by De Groot, and here put in some order ; J. J.
M.
De
Groot, The Religious System of China, vol.
i.
22, 71, 94, 114, 241, 243,
246, 247, 349, 355, 360 ; vol. iv. (1901), 5, 6, 12, 13, 62, 72, 74, 77, 80, 81, 99, 105, 106, 108, 120, 207, 227, 273, 326, 327, 328, 332, 339, 340 ;
vol. v. (1907),
802
ff.
their
167
bones rapped
in
the third and last purgatory
their hearts
and
livers are eaten
by ducks.
9.
African Psychologies.
break
the backbone
The Ovaherero
after death.
immediately
In the spinal cord there lives a
worm
or
maggot which becomes

dead
live
the ghost of the deceased.
The
after death,
and have much influence over
the lives of the living.
"ancestral
spirits."
Only important men become Soul and personality are closely

dead
identified in the notion that the ghost of a
man
is
is
able to,
live
and frequently does marry

man. 2
a living
woman, and
not
Africa,
with her, without her being aware that he
a real
Speaking generally
that " the soul
of South
is
Macdonald observes
in miniature
his
invisible,
but
It
is
an exact reproduction of the man.

reflection,
is
what speaks in him." 3 The Bantu usually says when asked about
shadow,
his
soul,
"
am Of
one
my
soul
is
also myself."
the Zulus he writes, " All
human
beings have
and these are not supposed to be entirely confined A man's soul may be spoken of as to his body. occupying the roof of his hut, and if he changes his This is, residence his soul does so at the same time.
souls,
however, but a loose and indefinite way of expressing

the belief that a man's spirit
distance
time.
may have
influence at a
any from the place where he is There is a medicine in use among magicians
himself at
a
which when taken enables

1
man
to influence another at
J.
2
Legge, The Religions of China (1880), 193.

i.
South African Folklore Journal,
54, 63, 66.
3 4
Macdonald, Religion and Myth (1893), 32. J. A. Hetherwick, in Journal of the Anthropological
Institute,
xxxii.
89
ff.
"
1
68

by simply
'
a distance
is
willing.'
The whole
spirit
world
in
one of haze and uncertainty.

it
No
definite description
of
can be got from any one.

express
their ideas
is
A common
spirits
word
use to
of human
izitunzela,
and the
unseen
'
world generally
is
from izitunzi,
shadows,' and this
the nearest description that can

is
be obtained.
*
A man
a
constantly attended by the

his
shadows
'
or spirits of
ancestors
as
well as his
to
his
own, but should

children
visits his
man
die without speaking

his
shortly
before
death,
his
spirit
evil.
never
.
descendants except for purposes of

leaves
a
The
can
spirit
man's body by the mouth and
nostrils
with
his breath,
and can never return

again.'
It
is
'
He
never look
upon the sun
Illness is a
temporary departure of the
soul.
interesting
as dead.
to note that Africans never speak of a
man
The
phrase
is
He
is
not here,' or,

If in a
'
He
will
never
sees
'
look upon the sun again.'

a departed relative the
is
dream
man
magician says oracularly,

is
He
is
hungry.'
beast
then killed.
The blood
in a vessel which is placed in the hut." During the night the spirit is regaled and refreshed by the food thus provided, and eats or " withdraws the " essence " that goes to feed and sustain spirits. After a specified time all may be eaten by the family
collected
except the portions the magician orders to be burned

generally bones and
fat.
departed spirit ascends to heaven, and by so doing " goes home." Though there are superstitions
The
about
spirits
inhabiting caverns, the roofs of houses,

objects,
and other places or

is,
the idea underlying
it
all
that the spirit at death goes
upward
their
to
the spirit-
land.
This
is
clearly
is,
shown by
usual form of
prayer, which
"
Ye who
are above,
who have gone
before, etc."
169
world,
These departed and are interested in all the

bring prosperity
are revered
spirits
revisit the
affairs
of men.
as
They
they
is
or
the
reverse, according
;
and obeyed or not
and when
is
there
any departure from custom their displeasure

as
dreaded
"
men
dread the plague.
...
If a
man
he
has a narrow
says,
escape
from
accident
and
death,
My
father's soul saved
me."
in
Spirits
reside
inanimate
objects,
though these
"have no
have a
soul in
"Animals have no souls, but they language." A Hlubi chief had an external Zulu chiefs sometimes a pair of ox-horns.
souls."
spirit
have a guardian
dwelling in a favourite ox. 1 According to Callaway a man has two " shadows."
The long shadow goes away at death, but the short shadow is buried with the body. The long shadow becomes the itongo, the ancestral soul. Yet we are told 2 that a man's shadow shortens as he approaches his end. Speaking of the remembrance of the departed as
concerned with the development of ancestor-worship,
Kidd remarks that " the memory of an old man's personality would pervade all associations of the kraal in which he lived. It was only yesterday that they buried the old man, and to-day at every turn they half expect to find this old familiar face fronting them the power of association would bring him to their thoughts a thousand times a day, and the spot close to the cattle kraal where they buried him would seem to be the focus of their memories. The natives draw omens from every trifling incident of life, and would
;
1 " Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of J. Macdonald, South African Tribes," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx. 120,
121, 122
2
id.
Religion
and Myth,
190.
R. Callaway, The Religious System of the Amazulu, 126, 236.
iyo

memory of
.
connect the
fortunes.
the old
man with
all
their
He
.
would seem to them
dim way.
along
white.
Then
and
wants
some European comes everything defined in black and

to be alive in
the troublesome
In what sense does the
man
survive death
The
this
do not naturally trouble their heads about they feel dimly he is present, even as problem
natives
;
we
feel
the dead often to be near us

insists
but
if
the
European
on knowing where the man
lives,
the
natives naturally say that he lives
below the ground

they hear that
near the cattle kraal, at the distance from the surface

that
he was
buried.
After
this
missionaries talk of heaven being above.
They then
add to their stock ideas, and say that heaven is just above the tree tops. Use has been made of the phrase spirits of ancestors because it was inevitable. But how does a Kafir conceive of a spirit ? " In connection with the dead and buried elder, Kidd notes that " the body and the spirit seem to them to be
. .
'
'
closely connected, if not identical."

;
"They have many
ways of viewing the subject but all are delightfully vague and ill-defined. The nearest English word would possibly be personality, though that would be but an approximation. This word has a very vague connotation to those who have not studied psychology, and its vagueness makes it suitable in this connection. The Kafir idea of spirit is not at all the same as our
religious conception of a soul or spirit.
Some
;
natives
you can hardly keep a theological soul there. It would be nearer the mark to connect it with the body, though So vague is the word, that that would be incorrect.
say a man's soul lives in the roof of his hut
' '
it
(personality)
is
confused with a man's shadow, which

as
is
supposed to dwindle
he grows old.
man's
shadow
death
;
171
is
supposed to vanish or grow very slight at

so, for the
is
most naturally
shadow,
then,
dead body
with
lies
prone.
This
connected
the
man's
personality and forms a basis for the ancestral spirit.
You may
call it a
ghost
if
you
like,
but must be careful
to strain off most
of our European ideas connected

natives think that this
with this word.

or
spirit
The
shadow
it
can leave the body during sleep, and that

visits
actually
the
places
dreamt of
dreams that another person visited him it may be a dead man who visits his dreams he thinks that the man's shadow or spirit (or some emanation of his personality) has actually come to him during sleep and
and
if
man
told
him things
.... A
man's personality haunts his
possessions, and even in Europe we feel that there is some dim and lingering presence at a grave. A wife weeps at the tomb of her husband, feeling that his
presence
times
is
there.
The
Kafirs feel this sentiment ten
boy was asked about a future life. He pointed to his body and said, Me stop here,' and then pointing to his shadow said, Dat man go dere,' pointing to the sky. In burial the body does not seem to be destroyed and so a Bushman,
strongly.
' '
more
...
who was
killed
troubled with a quarrelsome wife, not only
her, but
smashed up her head into
a jelly to
prevent her troubling him after her death.

that there
He
felt
was some connection between the body and the woman's unpleasant personality, and wished to make an end of it." "The life after death is vaguely dependent on the memory of the living. When people
forget an ancestor he practically ceases to exist.
The
man
can exist and not exist at the same time.
You
can no more take hold of a Kafir by logic than by

the coat tails he has not got.
The one
thing that can
172
be
said

of these
native
spirits
is
that
they
are
intensely
human."
"
cannot always
distinguish
between a
often
photograph of a
asked
man and
the
man
their
himself; the image
seems to them a part of the man.
They have
like
it,
me why
want to get
image on to a piece
for
I
of paper, and they say they do not

easily bewitch
selves.
could
Why
They
them through this emanation from themdo I want to have their image ? they
that
after
ask.
fear
their
death
could
still
have a hold on them through

or
likeness."
1
this
shadow, reflection,
personal
is
born with each
The man
individual
is
and
it
spirit
the idhlozi,
wrapped up
with the man's personality
never loses his " It idhlozi any more than he loses his individuality.
a
is
...
man
thought
that
a sick
man's shadow dwindles

.
in
intensity,
but not in length.
The
Kafir considers
his
likeness,' as
2
he
calls
a photograph, a part of his
personality."
"
The Congo
natives,"
says
Ward, "
;
are
entirely
ignorant of the
laws
of Nature
a
all
. .
sensations
.
are
ascribed to the influence of spirits.

a
There
;
exists
is
universal
in
belief
in
future
existence
death
regarded
the
light
of a
moyo,
migration.
'
Health
in cases
is
identified with the
word
spirit,'
and
of
is supposed to have wandered away from the sufferer. In these cases a search-party is sometimes led by a charm-doctor, and branches, land-
wasting sickness the moyo
shells,
or stones are collected.
The charm-doctor
This ceremony
of
the
is
will
then perform a series of passes between the sick
man
called
and the collected

vutulanga
1
articles.
'
moyo,
the
returning
spirit.'
Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir, 79, 2 Id. Savage Childhood (1906),
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 88, 111.

14, 15, 68, 69, 71.
common
can
for
belief
is
173
to
the
his
effect
that
man's moyo
be
.
stolen
. .
enemy.
women.
body and consumed by an They entertain no hope of a future life Natives will frequently relate what they
from
'
saw
in 'sleep-land
when recounting
a
a dream.
In the
event, however, of a sick

particular individual
man dreaming
is
twice of a
suspicion
aroused, and the

l
individual
is
who
has figured in the ailing man's dreams

moyo.'''
liable to
be accused of consuming his
Everything that the West African knows of " by means of his senses he regards as a twofold entity,
part spirit,
part not spirit,
namely,
into
matter."
his
He
is
continually
rubbing
medicine
hands
to
strengthen their " spirit," and

to them.
may
be heard talking
A
its
tree
spirit
which has been struck by lightning

killed.
has had
loses
its
When
a pot
is
broken
is
it
soul.
negro
2
demonstrated
the principle
the soul
with a broken stalk of maize, "like that
of a bewitched of four souls

the shadow
;
:
man."
The
Calabar negroes speak

;
one which survives death

;
secondly,
thirdly, the dream-soul
and, fourthly,
in the forest,
the bush-soul.
This
last
is
an animal
body.
It
and
lives
outside
the man's
is
may
be any
animal, but never
a plant or domestic
animal.
man
cannot see
it
unless
he
possesses
is,
second-sight,
but a diviner will

never to
kill
tell him what it any animal of that
and warn him
species.
A man
and
for
his
sons generally have the same sort of animal

bush-souls,
their
her daughters.
1
and so with a mother and Sometimes all the children take the
in
H. Ward, " The Congo Tribes,"

286, 287.

the
Institute, xxiv.
2
M. H.
141-5.
Kingsley,
"The
Fetish
View of
Human
Soul," in Folklore,
viii.
74

all
bush-soul of their father

leopard,
his children
take after their
have leopards mother we

thus,
thus, if his external soul

;
is
sometimes
all
find all the children
possessing tortoises for their bush-souls, the mother's
being a tortoise.
The
that
life
of the
man
is
so intimately
bound up with
of the animal which he regards

that the death
as his external soul,
or injury of the
animal necessarily entails the death or injury of the
man.
owner. 1
Conversely,
it
does not survive the death of
its
consume the essence or soul of food. The natives of Lower Guinea mark a pattern round their pots "to keep their souls in," that is, to prevent them from breaking. Fainting is the absence of the The best remedy for witchcraft is to take an soul.
Spirits
emetic.
Men
;
are reincarnations of the souls of dead

possible
a disease from a Wizards set traps as they wander in sleep from their caught they tie them over the fire,
people
it
is
to
inherit
2 previous incarnation of the soul.
to
catch
souls
bodies.
When
and as they shrivel the owners sicken and die. This is done not out of spite, but merely in the ordinary
course of business
;
the wizard
is
always catching souls
them Some sorcerers keep homes for for his usual fee. lost or strayed souls, and restore them for a fee to A Kruman was once very anxious about the owners. his soul, because for several nights he had smelt in
he does not care whose they
are,
and
will restore
his
dreams
the
savoury
smell
of
smoked
crayfish
seasoned with red pepper.
Some
ill-wisher,
he thought,
had
1
set a trap baited
with
this dainty for his
dreamin
M. H.
Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, 459-60

2
,
also
Frazer,
Golden Bough
2
iii.
410. 454, 461, 462.
Kingsley,
op. cit. 66,
soul.
175
He
took great precautions for several nights.

night
In the
sweltering heat of the tropical
he
lay
sweating and snorting under a blanket, his nose and
mouth
tied
up with
a handkerchief to
prevent
the
1 escape of his soul.
On the Gold Coast more important natives

own
sex and age.
it
to
was the custom with the purchase a slave of one's

called a Crabba/i,
This
slave,
"
is
to be looked
upon
as the soul or spirit,

2
or alter ego
of the master or mistress."
On
theory
the
is
Gold and Slave

all
coast
of West Africa the

have
that "
two
individualities
latter
is
one
things living and inanimate
tangible, the other intangible."
The
shape.
in
two parts which
are
carefully dis-
tinguished, an indwelling soul and an outward visible
Everything among the Tshi peoples has

It
its
kra, or indwelling soul.
protects a
spirit,
sisa,
man and
gives
him life. It acts body at death. It

in children, a fact
as a
is
guardian
but leaves the
then called
is
which
and can reappear proved whenever a child
resembles a dead relative.

in
dreams
visible
The kra leaves the body man sacrifices to it on his birthday. The shape, "shadowy-man" or "ghost-man," is
;
srahman.
is
When
at
seen
lingering
is,
near
the
corpse,
it
clothed, as
the corpse
in
a white
cloth.
This
;
srahman goes
or rather
it is
death to the next world, not the kra
the
man
himself in a shadowy or ghostly

his
form that continues

spirit-world
is
existence
after
death.
The
counterpart of this world.

is
Among
and the
In
the
Ewe
is
peoples the shadowy-man
edsieto,
kra
1
luwo.
This
is
born again
in children.
2
,
some
Kingsley,
op. cit.
461, and Frazer, The Golden Bough

Transactions
i.
279.
2
i.
T.
J.
Hutchinson,
of the Ethnological Society (1861),
333.
176
tribes

the
word
the
for
the
it
visible
shape
means
always
" the
thinking-part," in others
means the shadow.

are
is
The
kept
kra
and
srahman,
however,
there
there.
absolutely
distinct,
between
them
though here and
some confusion
"
We
too,"
Ellis
remarks, " have a very similar notion to this of the

kra, and which
is
probably a survival of such a
belief.
living
man
is
believed to be tenanted by another

is
termed a soul, and which reasons When with man through what is called conscience. the man dies, however, we make the soul go to the but a good next world, instead of the shadowy-man deal of confusion exists in our ideas on this point, and the belief in ghosts, the shadowy outlines of former living men, seems to point to a time when each of the two original individualities was believed
individuality which
;
to pursue a separate existence after the death of the
man."
Among
the
Ewe
peoples sexual desire
is
possession
Spirits innumerable surround by the god Legba. mankind, mostly malignant. The Yoruba peoples
think that when a child
is
ill
spirit
is
eating the
food
each
in the child's
body.
The Ewe
peoples also regard
blood
as the
vital principle.
Among
man
has three indwelling spirits
one
the
Ga
peoples
in the head,
another in the stomach, and a third in the great toe.
To
the
last
he sacrifices
when about
in
to take a walk.
The
than
natives of Kavirondo
;
think ghosts are larger
life-size
this
is
connection
with
survivors
who
are worried
by dreaming of them. 2
Among
;
the
1 A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples (1887), 15, 149, 153-7 id. The Eave -speaking Peoples (1890), 101, 106, 107 id. The Yoruba-speaking
;
Peoples (1894), 126, 127, 130.

2
R. H. Nassau, Fetishism
in
West Africa.
Yaos seem
the soul "
is
177
allied
with the shadow, and would

relation
to bear to the
body the
has to the reality.
The word
for a
which a picture shadow is chiwili/i>

is
which means picture."

goes out and
visits
In dreams the lisoka, or soul,

visited
persons and things, or
by them.
This word
After death the lisoka becomes a mulungu.

is
used to express
the
aggregate
of
all
the spirits of the dead.
But they do not conceive
of one personal god. 1
The
Bavili,
:
four souls
Dennett reports, credit each man with the " shadow," which enters and departs
by the mouth,
the
ximbindi,
telligence,
and then
or
dies
is
likened
to
the
breath
revenant,
ghost
a
the
;
xilunzi,
in-
which
or
soul
with
man
the
voice
of the
dead.
and nku/u, These bakulu are
" the guiding

voices of dead
2
voices
of the dead."
They
are
the
people, living after them, and they " prefer to dwell in the heads of some of their near
relations."
Asaba people, Ibos, of the Niger the " Every one is considered to theory of the soul is this be created in duplicate, and the representative or, as it were, the reflection in the spirit-world of the body and of its possessions is the chi and its possessions. A man's chi marries the chi of the woman the man marries, and so on. In addition the Chi acts as a guardian spirit, or mediator between the man and Chuku, or the spirit acting in the place of Chuku. By representing the man's needs and judiciously pleading his cause his earthly possessions and his happiness are greatly increased. Chi i me jum, My Chi has done badly,' is a not
the
:
Among
'
C.
W.
Hobley, in Journal of the Anthropological

xvi. 371, 372,
Institute, xxxiii.
id.
339.
R. E. Dennett, in Folklore,
373
At the Back of the

12
Black Man's
Mind
(1906), 80, 81, 82.
'
78

expression."
a contraction
uncommon
the
Chuku
from
I
is
a creator-in-chief;
name
spirit.
is
chi uku, the great
Chi
is
or
"
The work of
its
superintending the world

understand, takes
done, not by Chuku, who,

little
but
part in
is
affairs,
but by a second Chi."
Each
man
is
provided with two guardian-spirits, a Chi, "

say to
'
the chief, and a subordinate spirit, Aka.

will
who Thus a
man
an
enemy running away whom he
cannot catch,
My
Chi and
my Aka
will kill you.'

it
Parkinson notes "
in regard to this
Chi
is
difficult
clearly to grasp the native idea."
inhabiting himself, and

his
Besides the Chi and the Aka, each man has a spirit " hence entirely distinct from
Chi."
This
;
is
called
Mon.
Mon
is
generic
name
for spirits
for
instance, speaking of a certain
would say, mon di ima, " a spirit lives in it." To be more specific, the spirit that lives in a man is termed unkpuru obi, literally, seed heart. In addition to his chi and his aka each individual possesses an ikenya, or personal god of good luck," a wooden representation of which is kept in the house and sacrifices They believe in the re-embodiment are offered to it.
object, they
"
through re-birth of a
now
child
spirit once inhabiting an individual " also apparently of the chi of an deceased, and
individual.
The
prefix
'
chi so
is
and so
'
is
given to a
when
l
this incarnation
supposed to have taken
place."
Certain tribes of the Niger believe that a man possesses " an alter ego in the form of some animal,
such as a crocodile or hippopotamus.

that such a person's
life
is
It
is
believed
bound up with
that of the
animal to such an extent, that whatever

1
affects the
one
J.
Parkinson,
"On
the
Asaba People of
the Niger," in Journal of the
Anthropological Institute, xxxvi. 312, 313, 314.
and that
if
179
produces a corresponding impression upon the other,
one dies the other must speedily do so It happened not very long ago that an Englishtoo. man shot a hippopotamus close to a native village
;
the
in
five
friends
of a
woman who
demanded
and
died
the
same night
obtained
the
village
as
eventually
pounds
a
compensation for the murder of the

" the thinking part " of
woman." The Madis
call
man
is a
it
perishes with the body.
Bodies are thought to turn
into white ants, or to grow up as grass or mushrooms. " Sometimes people imagine they hear their departed
see the familiar forms, nothing
and that when they look to 2 is visible but smoke." Among the Fors " the power of the liver" corresponds This is kilma. to our " soul." Liver, accordingly, is
friends speaking to them,
is
a favourite food, which, however,
tabu to women,
who
possess no kilma.
The
ghosts of the dead appear
most frequently during the
first
few nights after decease.
clothed in the white shroud in which the bodies are buried, and " appear much taller than when
are
in life."
3
They
The Akikuyu of British East Africa " do not believe in the soul of a man as distinct from his visible body." They make small images of clay which represent men and women. " They are not idols, but seem more in
These images seem to be part of a kind of game concerning which the Akikuyu are unwilling to say much." They say that they sometimes
the nature of dolls.
. .
see spirits at night.

1
"
The man
ff.
to
whom
the apparition
C.
H. Robinson, HausalanJ, 36
R.
R.
W.
Felkin in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1883-4),

Felkin in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
3333
W.
(1 884.-5),
218, 219, 220.
180

l
appears gets a piece of fat with which he rubs his eyelids."
10. 'Egyptian Psychology.
In
the
psychology
is
of the
ancient
Egyptians the
human
personality
is
divided into several entities.
The
khat or kha
the material body, the vehicle of the ka,
The khu is figured as a and inhabited by the khu. hoopoe, and seems to correspond to the intelligence or " spirit." The ba is the soul apart from the body, and
is
figured as a
human-headed
bird.
"
The
concept,"
from the white owls, with round heads and very human expressions, which The frequent the tombs, flying noiselessly to and fro. ba required food and drink which were provided for it
by the goddess of the cemetery."
" ruling power "
Petrie suggests, " probably arose
of man.
The The ab is
heart.
sekhem
the
is
the
will
and
intentions, symbolised
by the
also used metaphorically.
The
rau
is
This, the hati, is the name, " which
was
essential to
man,
as also to inanimate things.
Withof
out a name nothing really existed.
The knowledge
;
a great myth the name gave power over its owner turns on Isis obtaining the name of Ra by stratagem, and thus getting the two eyes of Ra the sun and moon for her son Horus. ... It was usual for Egyptians to have a great name and a little name ; the great name is often compounded with that of a god or a king, and was very probably reserved for religious
'
'
'
'
purposes."
The
khaib
or
khaibet,
is
the
shadow,
The sahu is the mummy, figured as a fan or sunshade. " The idea of thus preserving the body mere hull.
later revival
Institute,
seems to look forward to some

1
of
it
on
H. R. Tate,
in
xxxiv. 261, 262.

earth, rather than to a personal life
181
immediately after
death."
resting
The
da, or bird-soul,
is
often represented as
;
on the sahu, or seeking to re-enter it it was supposed to make its exit from the body at death. The ka has been described by Lastly, the ka.
various writers as the
spirit, soul,
emblem, type, genius,
person, personality, essence, character, material substance,

material individuality, shade, image, effigy, counterpart,
genius, manes, double, and ghost.
is,
The
last
ghost
as
in
particular,
condemned
by Wiedemann
an
" altogether misleading translation."
The
ka
is
figured
less
by two outstretched arms, conventionalised more or
with a depression in the centre of the horizontal bar
which joins them, representing the place where the After a man's death his ka became head had been.
his
personality
;
proper
it
incorporated itself in the

life
it
mummy
but both after death and during
was
a representation or counterpart of his total and complete

it could live without was immortal body could not live without it. Yet In the tomb, " the everlasting the ka was material. It house," it dwelt as long as the mummy was there.
personality.
It
the body, but the
and out of the tomb and refresh itself with meat and drink, but it never failed to go back to the mummy, " with the name of which it seems to have
might go
in
been closely connected."
Wiedemann
relation to
thus describes the
ka.
It
was " the
divine counterpart of the deceased, holding the same
him
as a
word
to the conception
expresses, or
a statue to the living
man.
It
which it was his
individuality as
embodied in the man's name, the picture of him which was or might have been called up in the minds of those who knew him, at the mention of that They endowed it with a material form name.
.
82

his
completely corresponding to that of the man, exactly resembling him,
second
self, his
double, his Doppel-
ganger."
The
Maspero's phrase. ka, says Petrie, " is more frequently named

last is
all
The
than any other part, as
funeral-offerings were
made
for the ka." It includes " the activities of sense and perception," or rather, " all that we might call consciousness.
Perhaps we
may
grasp
it
best as the
'
self,'
with
word.
same variety of meaning that we have in our own The ka was represented as a human being following after the man. ... It could act and visit
the
it
other kas after death, but
could not resist the least
touch of physical force.
It
was always represented by
two upraised arms, the acting parts of the person. Beside the ka of man, all objects likewise had their kas, which were comparable to the human kas, and among these the ka lived. This view leads closely to the
world of ideas permeating the material world
in later
philosophy." " must not," he adds, " suppose by any means
We
that
all
of these parts of the person were equally im-
portant, or were believed in simultaneously."
They form
based on
has a soul,
separate groups and probably arose at different times.
Frazer gives the
following
:
Maspero and Wiedemann

ka,
"Every man
description,
which is his exact counterpart or double, with the same features, the same gait, and even the same dress,
as the
man
himself.
Many
of the monuments dating
from the eighteenth century onwards represent various kings appearing before divinities, while behind the king
stands his soul or double portrayed as a
the king's features.
at
little
man
with
Some of
the reliefs in the temple
Luxor illustrate the birth of King Amenophis III. While the queen -mother is being tended by two
183
goddesses acting as midwives, two other goddesses are

bringing away two figures of new-born children, only
one of which
while the
is
supposed to be a child of
flesh
and blood
the inscriptions engraved above their heads

first is
show
that,
Amenophis, the second is his soul or And as with kings and queens, so it was with double. common men and women. Whenever a child was born, there was born with him a double which followed him through the various stages of life young while he was maturity and declined it grew to along with him. young, And not only human beings, but gods and animals, stones and trees, natural and artificial objects, everybody and everything had its own soul or double. The doubles of oxen and sheep were the duplicates of the original oxen or sheep the doubles of linen or beds, of chairs or knives, had the same form as the real linen, So thin and subtle was the beds, chairs, and knives. stuff, so fine and delicate the texture of these doubles, Only that they made no impression on ordinary eyes. certain classes of priests or seers were enabled by natural
;
gifts or
special training to perceive the doubles
of the
gods, and to win from
and the future.
knowledge of the past The doubles of men and things were

a
in the
them
hidden from sight

colour and voice,
ordinary course of
life
still
they sometimes flew
out of the body endowed with
left it in a
kind of trance, and departed
to manifest themselves at a distance."
The ka
size of the
is
frequently pictured as of about half the

;
man
sometimes, as at Soleb, of the original
E. A.
W.
Budge, The
Mummy
(1893), 328
i.
G. Maspero, Etudes de
ff.
;
mvthologie
et arche'ologie
e'gyptienne (1893),
388
A. Wiedemann, The
ff.
Ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul (1895), 10

17, 19, 20, 42, 44, 46,
13,
5,
;
47
W.
F.
M.
Flinders Petric,
G. Frazer, The Golden Bough 2 i. 249, 250 The Religion of Ancient Egypt (1906), 8 ff. 17
J.
,
84

11.
Semitic Psychology.
The
of the
old Arabs spoke of the breath and the blood
as the soul.
soul.
Also they regarded the head as the At death it left the head as a bird. 1
seat
The Hebrews
identified the soul with the breath
In a great part of the Bible the soul and the blood. It is stands for " life embodied in living creatures."
the
seat
of emotions, appetites, and

as flame.
passions.
It
is
sometimes seen
as the sensual
In the Pauline psychology
the soul or psychic part was set against the "pneumatic,"
opposed to the
spiritual.
life,
Thus
the soul,
psyche, remained as the individual
clustering
round
the ego;
the spirit, pneuma, was "life" as God, and standing for the highest 2 Generally men had doubles, as aspect of the "self." in the case of Peter, and guardian angels, as in all
while
connected with
Semitic
thought.
In
modern
Upper Egypt every

it.
child born has a djinnee

is
companion born with

its
It
It is
a guardian angel, but often hurts
protege.
an exact counterpart of the person himself, except that It is for males it is female, and for females male.
called
karma? With Hebrews and Arabs alike body at death by the nostrils. The
a vapour,
the soul left the

soul
is
sometimes
blue
in
colour.
The Rabbis
describe the
is
body
as a scabbard, out of
which the soul
drawn
at
For plates Lanzone, Dizionario di mitologia egizia (1886), v. 1197 ff. of the complete form of the ka see Lanzone, plates 387 ff., and Lepsius,
Denkmaler,
iii.
21
for the outstretched

ff.
arms
ff.
in transition to hieroglyph,
Lanzone, plates 390
1 Ma^oudi, Les Prairies d'or, ii. 309 Studium der arabischen Sprache, 191, 369.
Freytag, Einleitung in das
2
ri
J.
Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, s.<v. Soul. Klunzinger, Upper Egypt (1878), 383.
in der Geschichte,
ii.
A. Bastian, Der Mensch
322.
death.
1
185
The soul comes from heaven, the body from earth. The soul is in the embryo. As the world is filled with God, so is the body filled with the soul. The soul, The father gives all they say, is the salt of the body.
that
is
white
bones,
that
is
veins, brain,
the mother
all
red
skin,
flesh,
and white of eyes ; hair, and the

gives
dark
part
of
the
sight
its
eyes
God
;
breath
In
sleep
and
the
physiognomy,
soul ascends to
and
intelligence.
heavenly abode
this is
proved by
dreams.
In the Cabala
we
find that " at the
moment
is
when
the union of the
soul and the
body
being
effected,
the
Holy One sends on

seal.
;
earth
an
image
engraved with the divine

see
This image presides

a clear-sighted eye
It
over the union of man and wife

it
may
standing at their heads.
bears a
and
this face will
be borne by the
human face, man who is about
to appear.
It is this
ing the world, and which grows as

quits the earth
image which receives us on enterwe grow, and which

quit
it."
2
when we
The Hebrews
Heaven,
believed that one heard at times a voice from
the Bath Ko/, and the early Christians repeated the idea.
12.
European Psychology.
European popular thought
modern
ancient, medieval,
is
a congeries of debris
and from many broken or

will
suffice
degenerate cultures.
few examples
to
show the continuity of its

of the
rest
ideas of the soul with those
of mankind.
In Greek popular thought the soul was an eidolon^

the breath, or a butterfly. In Homer the heroes when " " themselves to be the prey of dogs and slain remain
vultures, but their eidola
1
go
to the underworld,
s.<v.
where
T^he
s.<v.
;
Jewish
P.
I.
Cyclopaedia,
Jewish
Cyclopaedia,
Hershon, Talmudic Miscellany, 66, 67.
86
life
They can become vitalised is shadowy and dim. by drinking the blood of sacrifices. Hence tubes for the conveyance of nourishment were placed in graves. The soul makes its exit through the mouth, or through The eidolon is not a shadow, the gaping wound.
though
it
is
" shade "
it
reproduces the external
aspect of the
owner more or
less
reduced
in
size.
On
Greek vase-paintings it is represented as issuing from The the mouth in the form of a miniature person. that Charos, the Death-god, believe Greeks modern draws the soul out of the mouth. The " ideas " of Plato are like the species-deities of
the American Indians.
facsimile applies to the
The description of the miniature Roman and Teutonic beliefs.
The Romans held that the soul issued from the mouth. The heir of the dying man took his soul into his mouth. Every man had a body, a manes, a shadow, and a spirit They made a division between life and or breath.
intelligence,
anima and animus, which the Schoolmen

into
a
worked up
psychical
combination
of anima
vegetativa, sensitiva
and ration a/is. European heathen imagined that each old Christian had a young Christian inside him, and that when he died angels extracted a baby from his mouth. In medieval Christian Art the soul leaves the mouth as Sometimes it is a miniature replica of the dying man. A sweet odour is perceived as the soul leaves sexless.
The
the body.
In language the Teutonic " soul " is, according to Grimm, a " delicate feminine essence, a fluid force " (sea, Seele), as distinguished from the masculine
breath,
or
spiritus.
The
dies
departing soul sometimes

In
breaks into a flower, or spreads wings as a bird.
Lithuania some one

candle.
when
moth
flutters
round a
The
soul leaves the
body through the mouth
at death or
187
during sleep
sometimes
weasel,
in
the form of
a bird, or butterfly, a
bee, or
beetle,
mouse,
a blue
lizard,
humble
some creature of
even as down or
that size, a snake, a spider, or

mist.
It is
seen as a
small flame.
eye
It is also the image in the pupil of the 1 the disappearance of this " baby " portends death.
European folklore has its external and elsewhere ; 2 its guardian angels by demons its fairies and its ghosts.
'
souls,
its
in
trees
possession
still
to be seen
one
who
sees the ghost
The last are of a man says
he has seen the man.

small and beautiful.
Caedmon thought angels were The Schoolmen speculated on the

on
the
gills
question
how many
millions of angels could dance
the point of a needle. savage " doctor " in
Paracelsus merely followed the

the
material
creation
of
homunculus.
Kepler
thought that the lungs or

Earth-spirit
through which the

day be discovered
said
at
breathed
might one
Descartes
the bottom of the sea.
"
What
the soul
if I did, I
was
either
did not stay to

it
consider, or
imagined that
like
was something
or
3
extremely
rare
and
subtle,
wind,
flame,
or
ether spread through
my
grosser parts."
is
Swedenborg
held that " the spirit of

that
man
form."
He
believed
he had had the

all
privilege
of conversing
" with
almost
the dead
4
whom
he had
known
in the life
photograph souls, and estimate their average weight at from three to four ounces. 5 A present-day race that is by no means
of the body."
Spiritualists to-day
1
A. Bastian, Allerlei
aits
Mensch- und Volkerkunde,
ii.
plates
Homer, Iliad,
ix.
409, xiv. 518, xvi. 505 ; B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen, 228 ; J. Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, 826 ff., 1546 ff.
-
J.
G. Frazer, The Golden Bough'1

ii.
i.
258
ff.,
iii.
393
ff.
3
4
r
'
R. Descartes, Meditationes,
Encyclopedia Britannica,
10.
ix. s.-u.
E. Clodd, Animism (1905), 40.
88
degenerate, and that, besides possessing Greek blood,
environment than most Europeans, the peasants of Sicily, believe that " every material thing has an impalpable image or double, which can
is
in a less artificial
be detached and can penetrate other bodies."
In this
way they
explain dreams. In folklore and " psychical experience " the spiritual
is
double, Doppelganger,
familiar.
To
meet
this is
an
omen of
his
death. 2
that
Shelley declared, a few days before
death,
he
had seen
his
double.
case
is
attested of a
young Devon carpenter who was so

St.
firmly
convinced that he had seen his double on
Mark's Eve,
and died of
,
the usual date for such appearances, that he shortly after
took to
his bed,
without being really
ill,
sheer fright. 3
In a long interview with Mrs.
she
declared that her rooms, situated in the Speaker's Court,
" are haunted by a spiritual double of

she has never seen
herself,
herself,
which has
4
been seen by many people when she was elsewhere, though

it
but has heard
it."
This belief has prompted many legends and many works of art for instance, Calderon based his drama, The Purgatory of St. Patrick, on the medieval story of Oenus. There are de la Motte Fouque's Sintram, Andersen's The Shadow, Gautier's Le Chevalier double, Poe's William Wilson, and Elizabeth Browning's The Romaunt of Margaret. Further developments of European psychology, in
;
connection with Plato's Ideas, the Rabbinical, Arabian,
and Christian psychologies, lead directly to modern thought and science.

1
Morrino
in
Macmillans Magazine (1897), 374.

2
Folklore (1890), 23.
S.
Baring-Gould, in The Sunday Magazine (1895), 744.

4
T//e
Evening News, 30th June 1899.
CHAPTER V
THE NATURE OF THE SOUL
i.
Conditions of its Development.

early ideas of the soul
These examples of
allowed
to
might be
a
speak for themselves, were
there not
danger of reading into them our own notions, derived
from
a long process
of theological, metaphysical, and

In order to catch the original
it is
psychological evolution.
meaning of these ideas
necessary to strip from
them
all
extraneous
matter,
such
as
the
terms of
in which they are presented to our view, and to regard them as being merely psychical facts or mental reactions. Even if we allow them to remain in close connection with modern or early terms for
language
"soul," "spirit," and the
like,
they are
still
nothing
but psychical phenomena, the results of environment
upon the
brain.
In other words, primitive or early
theories of the soul are merely early
modes of describing
the ordinary operations of the mind. Each curious notion about " soul " and " spirit " is an early attempt
to realise
in
some normal mental modern culture concerning
process.
Popular views
the
than popular views concerning

survivals, recurring
soul " are, no less the " ghost," merely
tc
under the influence of the original

primitive
conditions,
of the
way of looking
at
what
happens
in the brain
of man.
190
This may be illustrated by some modifications of the idea of the soul which have been supplied by the
examples given.
his questions in
When,
for instance, the inquirer puts
reference to the soul of a
man
just
dead, the answers

the dead body.
show the influence of the percept of The memory-image is thus modified,
and we have the origin of the conception of the " ghost." If, on the other hand, the man has been
dead some time, the answers tend towards a generalised image of the man as he is remembered on a broad view of his life, the accidental circumstance of death If the having no longer any particular influence.
questions
instance,
refer
to
his
living
man
force,"
in
connection,
the
for are
with
" vital
answers
influenced by the physiological aspects of personality,
and such parts of the whole

or the " soul."
is
as the blood, the heart,
breath
are
temporarily
identified
with
the
If the questions refer to a living
man who
to
absent,
the
answers
again
tend
to
revert
the
memory-image.
In such cases the the
mind seems
as
is
it
to be trying to realise
in
whole personality
is
exists
consciousness
where
selective attention
possible, as in the percept,
from the general image to a part The modifications of the idea which result or a tag. of attention or change of aspect show varieties from several stages and involve certain laws. Dismissing altogether the idea of the soul, and also of any dualism between soul and body, we assume
the idea
shifted
that the subject has, to begin with, merely the object

as given.
He
has then no other
means of obtaining
ception.
knowledge or any idea of the object except by perHis first acquisition is a percept. This automatic result becomes in thought a mental or

memory
it is
191
It
is
;
image, which practically

all
is
the object.
not merely the basis of
thought about the object
thought.
next
stage
is
The
it
analytical.
the image of the whole, the
through the
whole
is
influence
lately seen
or perceived.
When calling up mind of the subject modifies of some particular aspect At other times some part
for
instance,
a
of the
voice
accentuated,
man's
may
at
times predominate to the exclusion of

Association facilitates
free
other aspects of his personality.

this
it.
process,
and mental economy makes

is
use of
part or a symbol
readily
accepted by the
mind instead of the totality. When language provides names the process is still easier, and the memory-image is more or less obscured. But any part, symbol, or name is capable of calling up an image of the whole. Language has further results. The parts of the whole when supplied with names serve as subjects for predication about the object. The mind is then apt to regard these or their names as real agents or We thus get a number of artificial personentities.
alities
which usurp the place of the original whole. There is another form of analysis which works upon the percept rather than upon the memory-image.
It
is
the
It
first
stage of the scientific analysis
of the
works by comparison and inference, and object. is the result of selective attention. By its means the observer isolates the character and function of the parts
and the various activities of the whole. Thus the South Sea islanders speak of fire as being in wood Pythagoras regarded the sound of a gong as its
;
" spirit."
doctrine
is,
considerable portion of early spiritualistic
therefore, not
only a
psychology, but
In
the
physiology,
physics,
and
metaphysics.
early
"
92

is
stages of this analysis there
no separation of
life
separated
notion and concrete form ; from " living-body,"

In
the
last
for instance, "
abstract " is not
nor
" sight "
from
effects
" seeing-eye."
this abstraction.
stages
language
is
The mind, however,

;
never
able
to realise
such notions
is
it
merely
realises their
names.
Lastly, there
the relation of the subject to his

Self-feeling,
own
self
consciousness.
the
recognition
of
and of
to,
self-identity, the
notion
of self as cause,
set
as
subject or
object,
create
another
of " souls
parallel
but originally distinct from, the souls of
objects.
This process has yet to be considered. 1
Apart from some such sequence it is difficult to draw any absolute distinction of stages of development.
The
early psychologies are in a state of flux, yet the
original
idea of the
soul
as
mental reflex of the
of psychology,
in
whole object continuously recurs. The evidence both linguistics, and ethnology warrants us
concluding that
latest
this is the
primal form of the idea,

the
abstract
and that the

It
is
form
is
notion,
the
artificial creation
of language.
to observe the correspondence of
interesting
the earliest stages with the attitude of critical empirical
Both stages of thought have, of course, the but, whereas for many ages man has same material dogmatised in various directions of monism and dualism,
science.
;
the earliest
do
so.
men agree with the latest in refusing to They simply take the object as given. Except
under the influence of language the mind cannot in Early language follows the any stage act otherwise. mental law, and keeps every thing, function, or notion that is connected with a totality in a permanent union
with
it.
1
See below, Chap.
vi.
193
2.
Analysis of the Idea of the Soul.
The
primal form of the idea of the soul

it
may now
mainly
be considered as
psychologies.
appears in the examples of early

later forms,
As compared with
partial attempts at the reproduction
of the whole, the

is
idea of the soul as the mental duplicate of reality
found in every race of men at a very early stage, and emerges again after being obscured by substitutes.
As
mental
duplicate
it
comprises
every
aspect, function,
and attribute of the whole

intelligence,
part,
life,
its
;
motion, action, emotion,

it
remains a
concrete
entity
an
and
will
but
incomplete, faded,
and small facsimile of the object. These are the characteristics of the memory-image as contrasted with the percept, of which it is a repetition. Yet, though a duplicate, the soul is by no means
a " double "
latter
is
in the sense
of the Doppelganger.
The
a percept of hallucination,
which
is
psycho-
logically identical with the object itself.
The
inconsistency of early thought, which apparently

at
can hold conflicting opinions

already been plained
illustrated
in
the same
It
is
time,
easily
has exis
passing.
when we remember
that the spiritual world
the mental world under

exigencies
another name, and that the
of language give
precedence
now
to one
and now
to another part
of the whole subject.
That the
the object
is
soul represents the whole personality of
Polynesians.
shown by the semangat of the Malay oIt is in the form of the owner the
;
after-death soul
is
a " continuation " of the individual,

13
"
194
comprising
THE
all
IDEA OF
his
THE SOUL
characteristics.
1
personal
These
Bakairi
2
two
is
souls
are
psychologically identical,
though each
influenced by different circumstances.
The
soul represents
" the whole actual personality."
In
has
Chinese psychology the Universe has a soul,

a soul, each part
man
human
with
soul
it is
soul
is
The has a soul, and so on. " identified an alter ego, and may be
of
man
the
family portrait of the owner. 3

the
4
The
Kafir
;
" wrapped up " with
man's personality
it.
can hardly be distinguished from

souls
The Dacotah
interest.
theory of four
has
analytical
That
always
which dies with the

of the organism
body,
and
that
which
remains with the body, are the results of perception

;
the soul which goes
away
at .death,
and that which stays with the bundle of hair kept by the relatives, are respectively the " memory " and the memento (calling up the memory-image) of the man. 5 The kelah of the Karens is " the individuality, the general idea," whether of an animate or of an
inanimate
object.
6
The Egyptian ka
death
" became
is
noticeable
example of
a reproduction
of the complete personality.

his
man's
ka
after
personality
Both after death and during life it was a representation and counterpart of his total and complete
proper."
personality. 7
As compared with
tion, the cases
the real double due to hallucinais
where the soul
the mental duplicate,
that
memory-image of the object, show an overwhelming proportion. Every people supplies an example more or less clear. Wherever the soul, as
is,
the
a
1
duplicate,
possesses
2 6
7
such
attributes
3 G
as
those
of
See above, p. 130.

See above, p. 172.
See above, p. 161.

See above, p. 156.
See above, p. 165.

See above, p. 137.
See above,
p. 181.

ness,
195
ethereality, intangibility, thinness, faintness, incomplete-
evanescence, or
it
rapidity
of movement,
after
smallness,
separability,
existence
death,
we can
only
account for
Explicit
be seen in
by the memory-image. of the memory-image are to cases like the Egyptian ka. It has been
indications
described as " the picture of a
have been called up

him."
spirit
1
The
world."
this
chi
2
man which was or might minds of those who knew of the Asaba is " a reflection in the
in the
The Hervey
world
islanders
speak of the
things of
as a " gross
in spirit-land,"
and of the soul as 3 Similar is the Tongan theory. copy of the man." The Melanesian atai is an "invisible second self" The nunuai is a memoryor " reflection of a man."
copy of what exists " an airy but visible
image of any sensation or feeling in particular it The atai may therefore is an auditory memory-image.
;
be identified with the visual image. 4

there
is
In Hinduism " found the worship of an image of the sun
formed
in
the mind."
is
person that
Pragapati's saying that " the seen in the eye " is the real Self refers
personality realised
visually in
without doubt to the

the memory-image. the jiva,
is
The
linga, or
" subtle body " of
" cognitional,
sensorial,
and
aerial,"
and
of the size of a thumb. 5
The
petara
of the Sea
Dayaks is " the spiritual aspect " of an object. 6 emmawarri of the Macusis is the small human
seen in the
repeated. 8
is
The
figure
pupil. 7
The Sundanese and Caribbean

is
conception of the soul as a " refined " body
frequently
9
The
chief soul, fanahy, of the Malagasy,
said " to survive as an idea in

1
memory."
3
f.
good
See p. 181.
2 5 8
See p. 177. See pp. 139, 141 See pp. 122, 162.
4
7
See p. 100.
See p. 159.
6
9
See pp. 93, 95. See p. 105. See p. 133.
196
example of the auditory image is the Bakulu of the These are " the voices of the dead," living Bavili. after them, and dwelling in the heads of near relatives.
1
recognition of the auditory image,

is
more frequently
exteriorised than the visual,
found among the Madis,

is
who imagine
In a large
2 they hear the voices of departed friends.
number of
cases the soul

;
regarded as a
is
duplicate of the body, but invisible
this
naive
way of expressing
is
the fact
that
the
it
memory-image
is
not
the
percept,
and,
as
such,
placed
in
contrast.
In these examples, with the exception of illustrations,
Macusi theory of who have Their not grasped the fact of the memory-image. evidence has thus the value of undesigned coinsuch
as
the retinal image
in
the
the soul,
we have
descriptions by observers
cidence.
3.
Visual Analogies.
image is mostly visual. The predominance of the sense of sight in the formation of ideas may be illustrated by several interesting facts, which indirectly enforce the view that the original
As we have
seen, the mental
idea of the soul
is
the visual image.
Many
students
of
the
man have
idea
seriously entertained the hypothesis that
of the soul originated

is
Such a view
view that
it
from the shadow. no longer tenable, any more than the originated from reflections in water or
reproductions.
from
pictorial
The
general
inability
is
to realise the existence of the
memory-image
one
reason for such identifications of the soul with the

1
See above, p. 17 7-
See above, p. 179.

shadow or
language.
reflection.
197
Another reason
is
economy of
In
many
cases the
word
;
means rather " shade." The heroes are not " shadows " they are unsubstantial duplicates possessing colour and volume. The analogy between reflection, shadow, and memory-image is close enough to explain the fact that one word serves so often to cover them all. In a similar way the savage will call copper " red stone " and iron " black stone." Sometimes the shadow proper is called the dark " shade," the reflection of the body in water is called the light " shade." Even in cases where the shadow
l
translated "shadow" " shades " of Homer's
proper
that
it
is
actually regarded
as the
soul
it
is
probable
employed merely as a convenient tag. The savage may at one time inform the observer that the shadow is the soul, at another time that the breath is the soul, and so on, according to his point of view.
is
The
as is
analogical value of the
shadow
is
considerable,
that of the reflection
variations in
interesting
and of the portrait. Its length and intensity have suggested many
notions.
or death
noon-tide,
a time of danger.
means illness when the shadow is shortest, is Man's life waxes towards evening,
Loss of intensity
It
is
and wanes towards noon.

cases cited
as
2
probable that
many
may change
their
was seen
in the Fijian
meaning when analysed, example where the evidence
of language proved that there was an analogy, but

not an identity, between the shadow and the soul. 3
The
sort of
1
reaction of the naive consciousness to the
first
is
sight of a reflection in a mirror or of a portrait,
epoch
in its evolution.
This
will be considered
See above, p. 96.
have been collected by Tylor, Primitive Culture 3, i. 430 3 See above, and Frazer, The Golden Bough 2 i. 285. p. 97.
*
Cases
ff.
198
below. 1
2
THE
The
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
" do
Andamanese
peoples
not
regard
their
shadows, but their reflections (in any mirror) as their

notion, together " with the inference that the mirror draws out " the
souls."
this
Many
have
from the body. Sick persons, accordingly, are warned against looking into mirrors lest the soul
soul
should
mirror,
stay
outside.
to
The
old
Hindu
at
recipe
face
for
in
longevity, namely,
gaze daily
one's
may
be regarded as a
way of
laying hold of
idea
in
is
the soul by external realisation.

to
The
parallel
the
practice
of embodying the soul
a doll, an
image, or a portrait.
is
On
the other hand, the belief

souls,
sometimes found that disembodied

nor shadow.
and
spirits
that are incorporeal, witches,

reflection
it is
and vampires,
cast neither
Being already " reflections,"
natural that they should not.
stories
of savage
the
recalcitrancy
There are many under the camera or

fiend
carries
before
canvas.
The
photographic
the soul
literally
away
in his " black

it
box
in
"
;
the painter-fellow
" draws "
out on the canvas. 3
The
story
of Narcissus,
folk-tale
which recurs
Melanesia, whether a
is
or a prose-poem, or both,
developed on
psychological lines. 4 as " a sort of repeater
The mirror
;
has been described

5
it
repeats the visual sensations
which the object produces on us directly."
The
notion that mirage

6
is
the soul of the water
has been cited.
Similar
is
the belief
common
through
in the
rain,
East Indies that when

1
the sun
shines
See below, ch.
vi.
2
3
E. H.
J.
the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, 94. Chalmers, Pioneering in Neva Guinea, 170 ; A. Simson, in Journal
;
Man, On
of the Anthropological Institute, ix. 392 J. Thomson, Through Masai Land, 86 ; Frazer, The Golden Bough 2, i. 293 ff. 4 Codrington, The Melanesians, 186
6
Binet,
The Psychology of Reasoning,
67.
See above, p. 134.

spirits
199
are present.
still
more remarkable proof

the notion of the
belief of the
of the connection of sight with

spiritual
is
to be found in the
Hervey
islanders
that
the souls of dead warriors can be seen
as specks in
the sky.
The
is
visual
illusion
by which
are seen
moving black
against
specks, or scintillating points
the
blue
sky
familiar
experience.
that
The
same
islanders
is
show,
belief
in
their
notion
spiritual
existence
visibile?
a point,
an appreciation of the minimum
The
of the Fijians who saw
at
the
bottom of a stream the souls of men and women, beasts and plants, stocks and stones, canoes and houses, and of all the broken utensils of this world, tumbling
one
tion.
3
over
the
is
other
pell-mell
into
the
regions
of
immortality,
an interesting case of visualised imaginaof broken

crockery
The
sight
and
utensils
moving under water would impress the imagination, and association would do the rest. There is an example of the objective recognition of
the self which few persons are without, in the sight of
one's self in the
eye
of another.
The
Macusis, for
It
is
instance, regard this reflection as the soul.

clearly stated in these cases
not
whether the
retinal
the soul of the person reflected or of the

retina.
image is owner of the

it
Careful examination would prove
to be that
of the former.
they consider
The
Macusis, however, show, by the

death to
its
fact that they ascribe

it
disappearance, that
owner of the eye. 4 When recognised as the soul of the man whose reflection it is, its position in another's eye might be compared
to be the soul of the
with the position of the memory-image of a

brain,
where
1
it
can be
op. cit. 82.
felt,
of the subject
2
4
man in the who recalls it.
Kruijt,
See above, p. 96.
See above, p. 93 f. See above, p. 159.
200

portrait
is
The
a close repetition of the visual percept.

its
striking case of
psychological influence
is
the
Chinese belief which

size
identifies
the soul with the life-
polychrome portrait of the dead man. 1 The analogy, as is shown by language, is very close and for instance, when we think of the soul of convenient a man, we call up a " mental picture " of the man himself, just as we do when we think of him or hear his name. We have quoted many cases where medicine-men,
;
seers,
and
priests
profess to be able
it is
to see the soul,
whereas to ordinary persons

pass through
life
invisible.
Many men
In
without realising the existence of the

all
memory -images which form
their
thought.
ordinary language, of course, the term invisible more

often than not refers to the fact that the
is
not seen externally,
is
it
not the
memory-image percept. As opposed

prove that in
to the visible percept
may
well be termed invisible.
But the
priests,
cases referred
to incontestably
early culture the seers or shamans, the " doctors " or
who were
the real thinkers of old time, practised
mental visualisation, and also the projection of mental

images.
to
We
read of them shutting their eyes in order
behold
the
world of
spirits.
In
relatively
high
culture the projection of images in crystals or in mirrorlike surfaces
was practised by
seers.
We may, therefore,
its
conclude that in the earlier stages of theology

fessors
pro-
had no small acquaintance with the experimental science of the soul.
4.
First
The Soul as a Miniature.

the attributes of the soul in
its size.
1
among
its
primary
form may be placed
See above, p. 165.

It
is
201
frequently regarded as life-size, very rarely as

life,
larger than
occasionally as infinitesimal or atomic.

it
But
in
the great majority of cases
is
a miniature
replica of the person, described often as a mannikin, or
homunculus, of
few inches
in height.
There
are various reasons, which will be discussed in
their place, for the various sizes ascribed.
Three may
colossal
be dismissed at once
proportions.
under the influence of a very

it
strong impression, such as terror,
may assume
issues
This we have seen in one case of ghosts.

it
The
for
soul
when
is
an
eject
and
apertures of the body, must necessarily

the
from the be small enough

applies to
its
purpose.
The same
necessity
manipulation by medicine-men and shamans.
Again,
where there
image.
is
an identification of the soul with the image

its
seen in the eye of another,
size
is
that of this retinal
But
if
the soul
in
is,
as a general rule, a miniature
of a few inches
there
is
height, the question arises whether
anything about the

account for
this.
memory -image
So
far as
1
generally
which
will
is
know
the
question
new.
is, of the object itself, But even here there are com-
That the memory-image of the object should be of

the same size as the percept, that
seems obvious
plications
at first.
produced by distance.
alters in
The
its
apparent size of
an object
eye.
its
proportion to
distance
The
fact
is
interesting for early
from the psychology, and
principles
may therefore
is
be noted here. " The apparent
size of an object
determined by the magnitude of the

.
image formed on the retina. The apparent size in any diameter of any given object is inversely propor.
tional to the distance.
the retina of an object
one foot
is
equal to
the size of the image on two inches long at a distance of the image of an object four inches
Thus
202
long
if

at a distance
of two
feet.
An
it is
object can be seen
the visual angle subtended by
not
less
than sixty
seconds.
centralis
This
is
equivalent to an image on the fovea

/x
of the retina about four
across.
Estima-
on muscular sensations from the degree of accommodation and of convergence of the optic axes, partly on comparisons of the apparent
tion of distance depends partly
size
of the object with that of a neighbouring object,

is
the real size or which
known, and partly on the

1
amount of blurring of
the outlines of the object due to
the haziness of the atmosphere."
Thus "the
;
larger
the visual angle, the larger the retinal image

visual
since the
angle depends upon the distance of an object,
the correct perception of size depends largely

correct perception of distance
;
upon
having formed a judgretinal region affected.
ment, conscious or unconscious, as to that, we conclude

as to size
from the extent of the

surprised
Most people have been

that
now and
then to find
what appeared
a large bird in the clouds
was only
a small insect close to the eye, the large apparent size
being due to the previous incorrect judgment as to the

distance of the object."
2
Thus, apparent size depends

is
very
much on
distance-judgment, and this
a result
of
tactile
and muscular sensations.

?
How,
then,
do we get
"
the absolute sizes of objects
They
sense
is
are early impressed
on the
brain.
With no
and the
the invocation from
memory of
a thing
consequent perception of the latter so immediate as with

sight.
The
'
thing
'
which we perceive always resembles

in
another optical figure which

a standard bit of reality."
]
our mind has come to be

is
This
the absolute size.

578, 579.
E. H. Starling, Elements of
2 3
Martin, The
Human Physiology (1907), Human Body, 530.
W.

In the case of a
203
man
leaving our presence, and walking

large as
as large.
away, we
may
conceive
he was at 10. " might, of course, at
him at 200 yards as But we do not perceive him

first
We
suppose that the object
waxed and waned as it glided from one place to another," x and it is not impossible that at an early stage But " the of inference this was believed to be the case. principle of simplifying our world would soon drive us
itself
out of that assumption into the easier one that objects as

a rule keep their sizes."
2
We
have next the relative size of each thing as

It
is
it is
:
for perception.
obtained in the following

the
way
It is easy to calculate
maximal and minimal

practically the
sizes
of the retinal image, the

field,
first filling
whole
and the second barely emerging from the centre. But the retinal image is not what we see. We always see an enlargement, the size of which, in perception, varies as the distance of the object perceived. The apparent sizes of objects are practically the same for all
and ages of man, and they are estimated by tactile and muscular judgments. In perception, in the open air, we see practically half the horizon, half the hemisphere of the sky.
varieties
It
is
in contrast
to this that
we
estimate the sizes of
objects.
But even
vision.
in
perception
see
there
is
limitation
of
We
as
cannot
the
whole of the
;
horizon
comfortably, or clearly, of course
we
to
are conscious
of
it
surrounding the particular object we focus.

it
In this connection
is
interesting
note that the

as
Malays regard the semangat of heaven

of an umbrella, and that of earth
a tray.
as
of the size
of the size of
We
1
cannot see the whole even of a

Id. 243.
2
human
Id., loc. cit.

2o 4
figure in
one view when he is very near. We have to move our eyes round his outline ; even at a distance of ten yards much of him is still in the field. It is stated of persons born blind, that on recovering their sight any object fills the whole field of vision. They
have not been able to co-ordinate vision with muscular judgment, and they literally "see men as trees walking."
The
totality
eye prefers a size which enables
it
to see the
as
little
of
the
object
in
one
view
with
muscular effort and accommodation
as possible.
What
view
?
is
the most
convenient size for a complete
Let us turn for a moment to material images. Of what size does a person ignorant of drawing
usually
draw a human
figure
embrace it what distance is this ? At the distance his pencil is from the eye. This is the distance the distance of the hand from the eye at which we view illustrations and photographs. Now the size of an object at this distance between hand and eye is, I suppose, roughly from three to eight inches. This is about the most convenient size for seeing the whole of a thing held in the hand. " Out of all the visual magnitudes of each known object we have selected one as the " real " one to
size that his eyes can
Obviously of such a easily in one view
but
at
think
signs.
of,
and degraded
all
the others to serve as
its
This
is
...
the
is
that
which we
get
when
the
object
at
distance
visual discrimination of
at
its details.
most propitious for exact This is the distance

Farther
which we hold anything we are examining.

this
than
we
see
it
too small, nearer too large.
And
the larger and the smaller feelings vanish in the act of
205
l
suggesting this one, their more important meaning."
In this connection the dolls or puppets so often used
by medicine-men to represent the soul are significant. Their average size is that of a child's doll of the it is obviously due to the necessity smallest variety of holding it in the hand, and of being able not only
;
to examine
it
easily,
but also to conceal
it
from the
2 eyes of the audience.
We
cannot hold a full-grown person in the hand,
and if we could, we should not be able to see the whole of him in one view. The brain, therefore, using its experience of size and distance, prefers to
see a
man
at
such a distance that his size
is
equal to
in
the size of an object that can be fully seen
the
hand.
size
of the
This we may then suppose to be the standard memory-image of a man, though the
of course,
requires
question,
It is
adequate
investigation.
worth remark that the result, if substantiated, shows a wonderful co-operation between hand and eye
in the evolution
of the
human
organism.
assist
Some
general considerations
the
suggestion.
Galton found that the visualising faculty, " if free in its action, has no difficulty in reducing images to the same scale, owing to constant practice in watching objects as they approach or recede, and consequently
grow or diminish in some of his

seemed quite
while
the
in
in
apparent size."
He
states that
cases,
filling
exteriorised
as
it
memory-images
" farther
close,
were the whole head,

4
ordinary
memory-image seemed
of the mind."
away
some
1
far off recess
An
after-
W.
James, Textbook oj Psychology, 344. 2 See above, pp. 107, 154.

into
Id.
Galton, Inquiries
4
Human
119.
1 Faculty" , 76.

206
image projected on a screen at the same distance as the object, is the same size, but it grows larger as the
screen
is
moved away and
smaller as
it is
moved
nearer.
This
is
the converse of what happens
in real perception.
Binet has proved a correspondence in the behaviour
of the after-image and the memory-image to the effect that their size is constant, as the image on the retina
is
constant.
We
have ourselves arrived by experiment
at the result, that dream-images
remembered on waking
where
are very small, a
human
;
figure being about the size of
a miniature photograph
that memory-images,
the attention
is
not concentrated, are very small, but
do not lose detail and colour, and that the memoryimage of a man at a distance of thirty yards is about
the size of an object three inches high at a distance
of eighteen inches, that

at
is
to say, the usual distance
which one holds an object for examination. Roughly speaking, this is the size of a carte-de-visite of the smaller sort, small enough to be grasped in The the hand, as the medicine-man grasps the soul. ancient Hindus and the modern Malays estimate the This size of the soul as about the size of the thumb.
member
averages about three inches.
The thumb
is
frequently employed in early culture as a unit of measure, and actually supplies a name for mannikins The thumb thumbling, Tom Thumb, Hop o' my Thumb. and fingers are personalised in nursery lore. Swift
represents the Lilliputian as of a convenient size for
Gulliver
to
examine
the
in
his
hand.
The
soul
then,
is
according to
standard of the memory-image,
about three inches high.
This
applies
principle
of economy
attributes.
and
accommodation
ff.
to
other
1
Our memory-image of
Binet, Psychology of Reasoning, 49

a
is
207
person,
without reference to special circumstances,

in
of him standing,
an ordinary easy position, exactly
as
he would stand before that other maker of images,
the photographic artist.
We
may compare
the
Nootka
notion
its
man, stands upright in owner's head, and only falls from its position when
that the soul, a little
the
man
dies.
Such cases point to the involved in mental imagery.
possibility
of generalisation
We
about ten
found that in Nias the heaviest soul weighs grammes. 1 Modern spiritualists estimate
regard
to
It
the average weight of the soul at three or four ounces.
With
still
voice
is
the
miniature
standard
is
employed.
spirits
well-attested fact that ghosts
and
have a
thin, twittering,
is
and small voice.

of examples, but
Savage and
civilised folklore
full
mostly in connection with " ghostliness," the absence

of life from the body. As Tylor puts it, ghosts have " the ghost of a voice." Homer, I think, suggests
indirectly that the faintness of voice
is
of a piece with
the
the general faintness

soul.
of the
life
of the disembodied
with
But we are dealing
here
ordinary
conception of the soul.

is
In this the voice of the soul

In the Solomon Islands the
a whisper.
is
2
normal, though small.

is
voice of the soul
compared to
South Sea Islands, as elsewhere, it " thin." 3 Conscience is generally a
In the " small " and

small voice.
still,
To
soul
put
it
shortly, just
as
we have
the size
of the
its
standardised
is
to
miniature photograph, so
voice
that of
its
master's voice
when heard through
the telephone.
1
See above, p. 122.

x.
Codrington, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 3 See above, p. 95 ; Tylor, op. cit. i.452.
300.
2o8

5.
Other Attributes of the Soul.

visible or invisible, generally the latter.
it
is
The soul As we have

is
is
seen,
invisible
precisely
because
it
seen with the brain,
not with the eye.

in
In some
the day-
cases
we
at
find that spirits are not feared
time
feared
because
they
are
then
is
invisible,
but
they
are
night.
Night
light,
the
time when souls are
seen
they are not the " ghosts " of fancy, produced
by the absence of
dreams.
thinking
the
nor are they the images of

generally
the
The uncultured mind when day is over. As

going
to
does
sits
its
savage
the
by
that
camp-fire before
sleep,
images of
;
his experiences
is
move
visual
quickly through his brain
to
say,
he sees a panorama of souls of

illusions
men and
to
;
things.
The
of
arising
from the conrise
templation
fire-light
doubtless
give
the
representation of
the soul as a
spark or a flame
at times
and
the shapes seen in fire-light
may
is
be identified
with souls. 1
The
substance of the soul
attenuated reality.
The
visual image,
ally takes
which
is
a replica
of the percept, continubelieve
on the
characteristics of the object as they
vary with circumstances.

that souls bleed
The Indians of Canada when stabbed with a knife. 2
In the
earth, but souls
Middle Ages not only were bodies burned alive on The Kafir gives were burned in hell. of the Christianity his child an emetic to purge him
he has learned
Brazil,
at
the
Mission
School. 3
In
China,
and Australia, mutilation of the body has a

2
See above, p. 103.

3
Tylor, Primitive Culture*,

Essential Kafir,
5.
i.
451.
Dudley Kidd, The

corresponding effect on the soul. 1
209
If therefore a dead
man
soul
is
hamstrung
be
or
has
his
thumbs cut
off,
his
will
harmless.
In savage
thought acquired
soul.
2
characteristics are
inherited
by the disembodied
of
the
Souls, as in the Fiji story, are subject to decomposition.
Throughout history more or less, even

abstraction,
the
after
idea
soul
has kept
it
language
has
made
an
to
a
material
substantiality.
The mind
immaterial
cannot think
substance.
pure
abstraction
or
an
The
result
materiality of the
soul,
therefore,
is
not the
is
of
any
the
materialistic
doctrine,
neither
its
ethereality
result
of idealism.
Early
men have
no metaphysical dogmas about matter and energy, To them all substance is the same, matter and spirit. neither material nor immaterial, but neutral. Their
attitude
is
unconsciously
scientific.
The
course
attenuated
substantiality
fact
of the soul
is
is
of
due to the
that
it
memory-image.
degree than the
This possesses volume, yet

percept.
is
in a less
The
filmy or vaporous quality of the soul

to
its
therefore due, not
being the breath or the

is
life,
but to the fact that the memory-image

this
in
fainter
and less solid than the object. To added the chief characteristic of sight
touch, since the
should
contrast
be
to
memory-image
is
mainly visual.
The
eye to a great extent lacks the experience of resistance,
"there being nothing to constitute a resisting obstacle

to the rotation of the ball, except
inertia.
its
its
own
very small
Hence
the eye with
all
wide range and
close-searching capabilities cannot be said to contribute

to the fundamental consciousness of the object universe,
1
Tylor, Primitive Culture3 ,
i.
451.
See above, p. 97.

14
210
the
feeling

of resistance."
1
The same
characteristic
belongs to hearing.
Which has the " higher " reality, the body or the soul ? Here again the savage does not dogmatise all experience is real, though it may differ in degree.
;
Death proves that the soul is more real, since it still exists in the memory of others when the body has
passed away.
to
It
is
also
more
real,
because
it
tends
real
be
more
is
;
constant
than
the
percept.
The
movements and unreliable but the memory-image of the person is in his acts Along always more or less generalised by repetition.
person
uncertain in his
this line are
developed at a
later stage the ideas
of the
formal cause of a thing and of the essence, or the

thing in
itself.
It is
of interest to note with reference
to the repeating function of the brain, that repetition

intensifies
and confirms
reality.
On
the other hand,
the sense of touch turns the scale in favour of the
body.
For common sense the great

;
test
of reality of the
is
resistance
touch
"
is
the
final
criterion
;
real
presence.
Handle me and
as ye see
see
for
2
spirit
hath
not
flesh
and bones,
me
have."
We
early
may here refer to the current doctrine that man confused subjective and objective reality.
Sensations are referred to an external object.

the object
stimulated,
is
When
is
absent,
and the same nervous centre
does the mind refer
the stimulus to the
object
In the abnormal experiences of hallucination
and the projection of after-images this is temporarily the case. The projection of memory-images is equally abnormal. Such experiences might produce the idea
of the bilocation of objects, but not the idea of the
1
Bain, Mental
and Moral
Philosophy, 63.
Luke
xxiv. 39.

soul.
211
In any case, however,

Is
we must
then
confine ourselves
to
normal experience.
the
the
memory-image
be mistaken
so intense in the primitive

for
mind
as to
percept
This
for
is
extremely improbable, as
his
early
very existence on the power of discriminating mental and objective reality. Moreover, we continually find cases where, though he ascribes reality to mental experience and to dream
images, yet the reality
Kafir
their
man depended
boys and
girls
is particularly noted as different. " distinguish their dreams from
waking experiences, though they think the dreams were real in a certain sense." This distinction is
1
psychologically sound.
Other from the
characteristics
of the soul which are derived
characteristics
rapidity, evanescence,
of the memory - image are permanence leading to immortality,
changelessness, and separability.
The soul is a light, fluttering, or gliding thing, quick to come and quick to go, hard to catch and hard to detain. Hence it is symbolised by means of birds,
butterflies,
moths,
flies,
lizards,
and snakes,
light
or
fluttering or rapidly
istics
moving
image
creatures.
as
it
These characterattention
are those of the
glides along the stream
of consciousness.
Only concentrated
can
check
its
movement.
The
soul of a
man
exists
in
mental world, the
brains of other men, until and even after he dies.
As
opposed to the changing movements of the owner, it is more or less stationary and changeless. It is a standard
of reference.
As
has been suggested,
it is
automatically
generalised by repetition.
The germ of
in the
1
its
immortality
is
the fact that

dies,
p. 105.
it
exists
brains of others.
man
but his image
Kidd, Salvage Childhood,
212
remains.

The
;
fact
of death does not necessarily
alter
memory-image, though such alterathe permanence of the soul depends on tion is found the length of the memory of the survivors, on the affecthe character of the
tion the dead
ality.
man
inspired, or the strength of his person-
Remarkable characters develop into "ancestors" and " heroes." Their souls, regarded as connected with their remains, and then with their resting-places, receive artificial support in the way of food and drink, the soul of which they absorb, visible replicas and fetish-like symbols. In these methods of embodying a memory there is the beginning of a cult, of idols, shrines, and
temples.
The savage has no idea of absolute immortality. The soul itself dies its existence, that is, depends on But neither has he any idea of the memory of others.
;
absolute death of the organism.
He
avoids reflection
on so disagreeable
of his
disease
a subject,
own
annihilation.
;
and never realises the fact Death for him is rarely due
as
to natural causes
if it
were not for magic,
producing
an indefinite time.
about this view.
and death, and for violence, man would live for There is a flavour of scientific truth
soul
The
is,
by the very
Its
fact
of
its
origin, separable
is
from the
personality.
connection with the latter
likely to be mysterious for the naive consciousness.
In
the presence of the person

disappears
;
it
coalesces
with him or
it
reappears
in
his
absence.
Or when
present, if the subject closes his eyes he sees the soul, if
he opens them he sees the man.
There are many
results
of
this
separability.
The
phenomena of sleep and dream, disease and death, This has often been constitute an Odyssey of the soul. Some less hackneyed described in its main features.

details of adventure
213
may
here be noted in connection
with the psychology of the ideas of separation and

connection.
These ideas are mainly derived from the

of the memory-image to the percept.
it
relation
In the early stages

separate from
requires
the reality
some effort to keep the image when the percept is available.

soul."
*
Accordingly
peoples like the Australians cannot " distinguish between
body and
Ck
With
the Kafirs
closely connected, " if not identical."

;
body and soul are 2 The Bantu says

3
my body and soul are one my soul is myself." Two further points of view will be discussed below
the result of analysis of the percept alone, and the con-
ception of the soul as self-consciousness, the soul as in
the subject not the object.
Early thought, again,

separate.
is
more
apt to connect than to
In reference to the primitive fear of thought,
the probability
may
be noted that the fact of the object

is
living in the brain of the subject
itself
an uncanny
experience.
existence.
The mind
Conversely,
object, the
real, lest
is
uneasy about such duality of
fearing the
when there is especial reason for mind is afraid lest the image
it
should become
sight, or
it
should bring the object into

lest
be visualised into reality, in other words,
should be exchanged for the percept.
The
theory of omens
is
connected with
this principle.
When
man
has in his
mind
a picture of
what he
is
about to do, any appearance that bears an analogy to

his intended action
tion.
is
regarded as a possibility of realisathe intention,

;
If
it is
in
harmony with
it is
good
omen,
a help to satisfactory realisation
if
it is
antagon-
istic, it is evil
and may frustrate the contemplated issue. The tendency to connect is shown in language, in
See above, p. 82.
2
See above, p. 170.
See above, p. 167.
2i 4

Thus
thought, and in a multitude of early habits.
fragments of a man's personality, such as hair or nailclippings,
or
clothes,
retain
close
as
connection, due
originally not to
any physical theory
might be inferred
" a " force
from sympathetic magic, nor to any notion of
or " influence " pervading such parts of the whole, but
simply to the comprehensiveness of the percept and the

image.
The mind
it is
is
loath to divide either.
Apparently,
analysis
however,
deal with
fact
is
also
prone to divide them.

it
When
of
of the percept once begins,
goes
far,
and we have to
souls.
what amounts to
is
a plurality
The
that the original comprehensive totality,
desired by the mind,
more
of
in
easily
though referred to by parts

in
or symbols or tags.
An
Chinese.
instructive
is
case
misconception
such
questions
to be found
this
what
is
reported of the
With
people,
so profoundly religious,
is
the value of the soul as compared with the body

said to be " almost entirely ignored."
The
explanation
soul
a
of
this
is
that the Chinese
mind
identifies
and
very
personality,
practical
memory- image and
percept,
in
and scientific way. To the Chinese the man The conviction is the soul, and the soul is the man. that the soul has the shape of the body is one which
calls
up the body immediately before

they
think
their eyes
will
ever
of the
soul.
They
whenhave no
more dualism than the

is
facts
of nature demand.
necessary to bear
it
In discussing the circumstances in which the soul

inferred to leave the body,
it
is
in
mind the
fact that
it
cannot be separated until

that
is itself
in existence.
The
observer cannot infer from

the soul has departed
the
phenomena of death
he
1
unless
is
already
aware of the existence

i.
of the
De
355.

soul.
it
215
realised
Again,
when
the
memory-image
is
is
includes the living quality of the object.

idea, therefore,
In the
original
a
fusion
of a visible
no need to suppose the shape and a vital force

there
two have never been

In this
contrasted
views.
separated.
connection early psychology presents
two
case
The
first
is
that,
as
in
the
of the ka, the body cannot live without the soul, though the soul can live without the body the second is that the soul cannot live without the body.
;
Each
view has a psychological
basis.
The second
shows the dependence of the memory-image on the percept, which is its permanent reference, and in
which,
In the
as
when available, it always tends to be merged. first we see a recognition of the memory-image
apart
it
existing
from the
informs
percept,
inference that
live.
the percept
is
and the later and makes it

not so
To
begin with, this inference
much
the
an ascription of vitalising power as a vague connection
of idea and object, which developed

opinion that the idea
as
is
later
into
the formal cause, the visual

essence
opposed
is
to
it
the
is
material
of the
thing.
In both views
the idea
just
as
noteworthy that the behaviour of
all
and applied to the percept, our notions of objects are modified by

exteriorised
our thought of them.
The
soul separates itself from the
body
in the
ways
which have been

in a faint
it is
illustrated in the examples.
Of a man
remarked that his soul is " loosely united to his body." So in death and other circumstances That is to say, it "loosens itself from the body." 1 it leaves the material frame as a film or emanation.
1
See above, p. 154.
2i

is
The image
sort
of " proof-sheet," leaving the
" type " like the printed page.

Analysis of the percept tends to ignore the totality
of
the
the
memory-image
alone
it
applies
the
method
the
of
natural science, instead of that of psychology, regarding

object
without
reference
to
knowing
subject.
Thus
to
the soul readily becomes an eject, and,
as such, issues
from the apertures of the body.

deal with
Here
we have
the question of
its
residence
within the body as a connected yet separable entity.
As
converse
of
this
aspect
is
Gnostic fancy that the soul
a " robe."
we may compare the The opposite

1
view
is is
illustrated
body
body.
the
by the Malayan notion that the garment (sarong) of the soul. Bruno
is
held that the body
in the soul,
not the soul in the

to leave the
The
in
soul
is
commonly supposed
departure
is
sleep.
Its
body sometimes signalised by

is
snoring. 2
The
retiring
notion doubtless
is
that a snore,
last
followed by soundless sleep,
the
when sound made

its
by
the
soul.
We
have here to do with a

its
plurality.
The body The
remains, with
breath and
warmth
motion, sight, and hearing, however, have

observer, already having
disappeared.
knowledge
of these functions, expresses the

in
fact of their absence
the usual early style,
by saying
It
is,
that one or
more
" souls " has departed.

structive
left
probably, a late recon-
effort
that
describes the totality as having

it is
the body, though
seen in the
memory of
its
the
observer, and
may
be compared by him, in
living
and active
like totality
quality, with the inert, passive,
and image-
of the percept.
Indian theory of sleep
2
The East
1
is
significant.
The
See above, p. 125.
See above, p. 135.

usual savage opinion
his
is
217
leave
that a man's soul
may
body during
sleep
is
and
visit
distant
scenes.
But
a
the latter half of this
not so frequent as the opinion
that distant scenes, persons,
and things come to

Indians,
left
man
hold
while
that a
sleeping.
The
East
however,
his
man
is
1
sleeps
because his soul has
body,
that sleep
an automatic result of the departure of

If
the
us,
soul.
we
interpret
this,
as
analogy permits
to
mean
is
that one aspect, or part of the soul, or,
as the natives
might put
it,
one soul, has departed, the

is
opinion
just
scientifically accurate, as also
the opinion
mentioned, that objects present
themselves to a
man asleep in dreams. As to the relation between

of death, the naive
that a
finds
it
the soul and the fact

it
mind
finds
difficult
to believe
man
In the " life " had
Even the modern biologist difficult to say precisely when death is absolute. early stages, when the abstract conception of
is
really dead.
not
been
produced
by language,
there
was equally no abstract conception of " death."
Even
for the
for
It
is
when they have been produced it is impossible mind to realise them as such, and difficult mind to realise that a living person can die.
therefore, not surprising to find that the soul
the
is,
not
at
always
death,
supposed
for
to
leave
the the
body immediately
heart
ceases
instance,
when
to
beat
or the lungs to breathe.
The
savage
may
;
say here
that a soul, such as breath, has departed
he knows
locate the
anatomy too
has departed.
soul
well to say that the heart, also a soul,
At
a certain stage he
may
its
or a soul in the heart, and infer

the heart
departure
when
1
no longer
beats.
A
2
soul of
some
sort frequently stays until decomposition

See above, p. 131.
has begun. 2
See above, p. 82.
218

still
Frequently, however, the very fact of decomposition

is
regarded as a proof that the soul
remains
all
its
complete departure does not take place until

is
fetor
at
an end. 1
Even then
it
may
reside in the bones,
and in any fragments of the personality. Such analysis of the percept throws into
image
relief the
important fact that, apart from the soul as the memory-
which
is
automatically
is
abstracted
from
the
personality, there
no real division of personality and
soul in the earliest thought.
man
is
not soul and

In the
body
body
is
as
much
an abstraction as soul.
concrete thought and language of early culture, man is a " soulful-personality " ; the adjective is not a derivative of the noun " soul," this has not yet been abstracted or
from the " living-man." The same principle applies, as we have seen, in the case of " life." It would involve much repetition and serve no purpose to go through in detail the facts concerning the loss of the soul in sickness, fainting, fright, and its abstraction
isolated
and detention by magic. The theory of sleep applies The to fainting and similar forms of unconsciousness. it savage would at once comprehend our explanation
;
is
in fact the
same
as his, but in different words.

;
We
speak of a loss of consciousness

soul.
he speaks of a loss of
stage there
Both terms are pure abstractions. At an earlier is merely a recognition that the normal aspect or condition is altered, that there is "something wrong." Mid-way between these views comes in the and the explanation is that one or plurality of souls more souls has departed. Cases have been cited where
;
man may
lose
two or three without much

is
injury, while
the loss of
many
as fatal as the loss
of
all.
The
relation
between the memory-image and the

1
See above, p. 117.

percept
is
219
one of constant separation and conjunction.

idea of the object, in which
interact,
This relation and the modification of the percept and of

the general
percept and
memory-image
by different circumstances, are

as the following
:
brought out by such cases
The
Australians have a notion that after a

is
man
is
dead, not only
there a ghost, but the
continues his existence in the body. 1
man himself Thus we have the

;
memory-image modified by the

this is the
sight of the corpse
ghost
and
also a
continued recognition of
it
the percept of the living man, or,

as last seen,
may
be,
of the
man
is
of course dead.
The
confusion here
as
significant as the
concomitant division.
This psychical
attitude towards the dead

early
if
may
be regarded as typical of
man,
if
we add
to
it
the fact that, sooner or later,
the dead
man
be memorable, the true memory-image,
generalised from living percepts, tends to emerge again.
A
there
as
it
similar attitude
is
shown by the
practice of
maim-
ing or binding the dead body.

is
In psychological language,
a fear that the

in life, be at
was
imaged memory of the person may, any time realised in perception.
The East
Indian islanders draw a rigid distinction
between the soul of a living and of a dead man, and the two are never fused. 2 There is here a refutation of the theory that life and " phantom " are combined into one
soul.
The distinction means that the mental image of a living man is different from the mental image of his The latter becomes the " black ghost " of the corpse.
Dutch possessions, but memory-image proper.
is
sooner or later ousted by the
The English term
" ghost," like
all
terms which
originally denoted mental as opposed to physical reality,
has the vaguest meaning.

1
It
often refers to the halluci2
See above, p. 85.
See above, p.
7.
220
national double, often to the " wraith," or illusion pro-
duced by a resemblance, as when a man mistakes a garment for a person. In Middle English it was used For of the breath of life, and vaguely of the " soul." practical purposes we may best employ it as connoting the mental image of a person as modified by the fact
of death.
In the
It is
thus one aspect only of the soul proper,

in the
of the complete totality generalised
memory.
see
examples we have quoted we can
how
the
changed appearance of the personality in death impresses The disitself on the brain as a change in the image.
appearance of the dead
man
leads to a constant expecta-
tion of his reappearance.
This
fact,
together with the

the sight of the
strength of the impression

corpse, explains
made by
the occasional circumstance of ghosts

life,
being larger than
and has much to do with the

It is also a
general fear of ghosts.
predisposing cause
of the illusions popularly

" phantom."
known
as the
" wraith " or the
The production of
berth
in
the latter
:
personal experience of James

a
to
may
"
I
be illustrated by a
was lying
sailors
at
in
my
steamer
listening
the
;
their
devotions with the holy-stones outside
when, on turning
my eyes
to the
window,
perceived with perfect distinct-
ness that the chief engineer of the vessel had entered
my
state-room, and was standing looking through the window Surprised at his at the men at work upon the guards. intrusion, and also at his intentness and immobility,
remained watching him and wondering how long he would stand thus. At last I spoke ; but getting no reply, sat up in my berth, and then saw that what I had taken for the engineer was my own cap and coat hanging
I
on a peg beside the window. The illusion was complete the engineer was a peculiar-looking man, and I saw him
;

unmistakably, but after the illusion had vanished
it
221
I
found
hard voluntarily to
at all."
l
make
the cap and coat look like
him
In this experience there was no preper-
ceptive excitement.
Where
there
this
is,
as
in the naive
still
mind, after a death, illusions of

natural.
kind are
them.
more
it
Similar deceptions occur with the other senses,

is
but the sense of sight
most
liable to
Yet
is
erroneous to ascribe the origin of the idea of the soul to
what
is
really
abnormal and accidental experience.

is
The
rare
ordinary " phantom "
far less concrete than

still
that just described.
Hallucinational figures are
more
they are, as we saw, projected memory-images. ; Returning to the ghost, we find that in our examples
variously described as red, white, or black.
It
is
it
is
white because in some cases, as

the
among
skin,
the Australians,
is
charred
2
;
body, without
white shroud.
pale.
its
of a whitish
the corpse was
colour
in others, as
among Europeans,
last seen in a
Generally also the colour
of the dead
ness
is
The ghost may

is
be black for various reasons.
Black-
There is an analogy, always recurring, between death and night, as between life and day. Cremation when it results in black charred relics may have some influence upon the colour of the
a general result of decay.
ghost.
The
sunset
;
redness of the ghost

it
is
an interesting
fact.
In
Australia
seems to be connected with the redness of
the soul, the natives say,
may
be seen departing
in the spectral red of sunset,
when
the sun itself departs.
There is a frequent parallelism between the death of man and the daily death of the sun.
The
influence of firelight
1
is
doubtless to be reckoned
W.
James, Textbook of Psychology, 325. 2 See above, p. 89.
222
with.

The contemplation of
to,
the
in
camp-fire has been

faces
referred
fire.
1
with
its
results
and forms of
its
In Melanesia the world of spirits has this colour
vegetation
is
red.
It
The
fact
may
be explained by sunset
fanciful to suggest a
or firelight.
would perhaps be
is
reason connected with mental vision, but the influence
of optical processes
say where
it
so far-reaching that
It
it is
difficult to
may, therefore, be mentioned, merely as a coincidence, that the spirit-world of the brain may have a red background for this reason, that when
ends.
;
the eyes are closed in sunlight the brain has the sensation
of red.
When, as in late culture, the soul is conceived as a flame, we may ascribe this to physical notions about fire as an element, or may trace it back to cremation, in which process the soul may ascend to heaven in fire. But the soul of the living is in some cases, as among
3 the Malays, regarded as red.
This, however,
is
the
though late, result of redness of blood, and is association between the living soul and the blood which In Malay folklore we read of imps manuis the life.
a natural,
factured from blood. 4
Other
cited
cases
of the influence exerted by the circum-
stances of death
upon the character of the
soul
might be
note
from the evidence.
Among
these
we may
the recognition of the characteristic odour of the corpse. This has resulted in the idea of " the odour of sanctity."
Passing to the consideration of the real presence, the

percept of a living man,
we
find the idea of personality
influenced by various circumstances.
The
1
souls
of chiefs and great

2
4
men
are
naturally
See above, p. 103. See above, p. 123.

larger than those of ordinary persons.
1
223
In some cases
unimportant persons and objects, not being worth serious The thought, are not supposed to have souls at all. principle may extend all round the circle of experience,
but
is
is
liable to
be negated whenever the memory-image
involuntarily realised.
The
soul of a living
man
is
frequently regarded as
being soft and moist, like fleshy substance.
The
differ-
ence between the solidity of the percept and the slighter
volume of the image
is
sometimes expressed by the

2
opinion that the soul has flesh and blood, but no bones.
A Fijian speaks of the soul as drying up.

soul,
Heraclitus
has several epigrams about the wetness or dryness of the
and
its
inherent desire to be wet.
These are
repeated, with a different application, by
Huysmans,
who bases his results on emotional experience. The soul is sometimes identified with the warmth of the body, as the ghost may perhaps be identified with
the coldness of the corpse.
identification
late
It
is
possible
that
the
notion of the soul as
may have had something to do with fire. The connection of

is
the
life
with warmth and of both with the sun

found.
not seldom
putting
The Tinneh Indian when ill regains his soul by on warm shoes. 3 The soul of the dead Maori
as heat in the stones
remained
cooked. 4
that
is
Blood, again,
is
on which his body was warm, and any part or organ
especially suffused with blood
may
be regarded
as a seat
of the soul.
the soul as being to the
5
The Tongans speak of

in
body
the relation of the perfume to the flower.
The
olfactory sense,
1
strong in early man, would connect

ii.
South African Folklore Journal,
ioo, 101.
Institute, xiv. 22.
4
Fison in Journal of t lie Anthropological

See above, p. 153.
See above, p. 94.
3 5
See above, p. 91.
224

impregnated by the bodily
personality with anything
odours.
Observers frequently express native ideas of the soul " by vitality." As has already been emphasised, " life," " vitality," and similar abstractions are not early. The
soul as a mental duplicate of the " living
''
person
is
very different thing.
The
soul
is
commonly connected with

is
healthy
organism. " health."

stage,
This, however,
not an identification with
Abstract notions only appear in the third

originally expressing concrete things,
when names,
der
are, so to say, defecated into abstractions.
Van
and
has
connection.
vitality
Toorn The
to
a
gives a
soul
good
illustration
of
this
" gives
strength,
;
splendour,
man's appearance
it
is
expressed
in his look
and carriage."
any
a fact which negates a feeble or sickly soul, early identification of the soul with " health " or
*
feeble
or sickly
man
"vitality."
Spirits that
have become gods, as among the Hindus,
are distinguished
from changing and decaying mortals by being permanently in a state of perfection. Their bodies do not sweat, their eyes do not wink, their
ornaments do not decay. Contrast this with the Irish superstition that a dead man's clothes wear out more quickly than those of a living man. 2
The
Yet
it
soul dies, being a replica of the living person.

lasts longer,
because his
memory
survives him.
The
death of this memory is the death of the soul. have seen striking examples of a second death, and even further deaths of the soul.
We
See above, p. 113.

Folklore, viii.
Journal of American
no.

6.
225
The Theory of Embodiment.
The
the
questions which next concern us are connected
with the union and reunion of the soul and the person,
embodiment and re-embodiment,

soul.
the incarnation
and re-incarnation of the
Psychologically the
process resolves itself into the meeting of
memory-image
and percept. At a later stage it is an explanation of certain phenomena by which the complete totality,
or the perfection of a thing,
a varied play of
is
reached, both for the
general idea and for the analysed percept.

these there
is
In and out of
thought and of action.
In illustration of the latter
we may
it,
cite the
savage
doctor
who
replaces
the recovered soul by applying
a doll, into which he
has lured
to the sick man's
body, or head.
revivification
Folklore
supplies
examples of the
a
of a dead person when
living
man
the the
stretches
himself
upon
the
corpse.
Similarly
Chinese place the soul-tablet on the dead
man
in
hope of reviving him. This is the method of superimposition, a translation into action of what occurs when the memory-image
is
merged
in or placed
as
upon the
which
percept.
is
The
idea
of the soul
percept
an
eject,
replaced through
the apertures of the body, comes from analysis of the

;
in this
form
it is
not fused with the

is
memory-
image
the latter, in fact,
temporarily ignored.
is
The whole
theory of embodiment
in
one aspect
be used,
is,
expressive of the distrust, if the phrase
may
with which early
man
regards the soul, that
the
thought of a thing.
This
is
apparently inconsistent
is
with the opposite feeling, which
later,
namely, the
permanent quality and
invariability
of the memory15
226
image
as

opposed to the uncertainty of action and exhibited by the person himself. The
behaviour
is only apparent, being due to complementary points of view. The naive mind is, therefore, relieved by the appearance of the percept in which the
inconsistency
image may be
not.
safely housed.
It
is
less
afraid
of a
soul which has an
embodiment than of one which has
Considering the disembodied soul, for instance
after death, as a personal entity, the

it
mind may conceive
to be then in a position of greater freedom and less
responsibility.
Accordingly the
soul of the dead
explicitly
New
Britain islanders imprison the
man
in a chalk figure.
is
that
the
intention
to
keep
They state him from
wandering about and doing harm. 1 It is a common belief that the soul is restless, and wanders aimlessly This is the behaviour about until the body is buried. of the memory-image until it is safely embodied in the
some symbol which takes its place. The principle is of the same nature as, though less crude than, that shown in the practice of crippling the corpse. Another reason for embodiment is that, as the man needed food and substance, so does his continuation. Even the Hindu gods need food to keep them alive. The soul, say the Chinese, is weakened by being separated from the body, just as elsewhere it is said that the body is weakened by being separated from the 2 soul. The liau of the Dayaks cannot live again until
percept, or
it
united with the hambaruan. of fusion of " life " and " form "
2.
is
This
;
is
not a case
is
the hambaruan
the
image identified with the percept of the living man, and the process is simply embodiment.
1
W.
Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, 249.

3
See above, p. 166.
See above, p. 110.

being anxious to live again.
227
Naturally enough the dead are often represented as
They can only do
so by
re-embodiment. In a remarkable set of beliefs, those " of the external soul," a man may embody his soul
in
another object, animal, or person.
Duplication of
personality brings safety.
Of
this the crabbah

1
of
West
Africa
is
a striking
example.
Similar
is
the custom
of the kings of Abyssinia, who had four
officers called
These men dressed exactly like the king lika mankua. and were his " doubles." The post was once held by an Englishman, a Mr. Bell. 2 Still another reason for embodiment is to be found
attitude which is loath to separate from a concrete form, or the image from a principle The memory-image, of course, in contrast the percept. to late abstractions, like " life " and " consciousness," is itself concrete and intrinsically separable, yet it is none the less permanently capable of reunion with the The memory-image is, so to say, always about percept. it is a permanent possibility of percepto be embodied
in
the
scientific
tion.
Even
all
abstract principles,
when
at last
produced,
tend to return to the material with which they are connected,
the
more
rapidly because, unlike the
memoryconnected
image, they cannot be mentally realised except in words.
remarkable aspect of embodiment
is
with the size of the soul.

miniature,
life-size
;
The
size
soul
is
generally a
it
few inches
in
height.
Sometimes
child,
is
sometimes of the
size
of a
roughly
;
speaking, half the size of a full-grown person

also
it
is
found of the
of a point, a germ, a grain of
sand, or a seed.
Behind these estimates we can discern some early views on development, both physical and mechanical.
1
See above, p. 175.
J.
L. Krapf, Eastern Africa, 454.
228

the
soul
Cases have been instanced where

to possess an expansive
its
seems
if
and
contractile
power, as
is
substance were protoplasmic.

;
As
is
a rule this
only
apparent
what
is
really expressed
the development
life-
of image into percept, of the miniature into the

size reality.
But there is actually a doctrine of the soul based on visual development of the percept. Thus, in the half-light of morning, when the window slowly grows a glimmering square, or, to those who sleep in the open, the trees and other natural objects gradually pass from shapeless, hazy greyness to distinct colour and form, we have a perpetually recurring process, a universal visual experience, which has reacted on As the ideas of development, growth, and creation.
shades
of evening
revert
to
latter
fall
the
converse
occurs,
visual
colour
chaos.
and form
indistinctness
is
The
process
and illustrated by
is
the
Maori
for
experience.
The walrua
it
often
mistaken
air.
1
the
man
himself, until
melts into thin

soul
is
In
Samoa
the
called
the
daughter
of
Taufanuu,
" the
vapour
of
lands."
cloudy covering of night comes on, because his soul wishes to go and
As the dark man feels sleepy,

its
visit
mother. 2
The Tracey
spirit
islanders
3
also
say
formed out of vapour.

in
In
man was first New Guinea we find a

that
the
mist
surrounding
the
tree-tops.
In
Sarawak, the soul, after leaving the dead body, dies seven deaths, and then is absorbed into air and fog.
It
5 descends on the rice as dew.
In Minahassa the
is
soul
1
at
the
in
death of the
body
merged
1 1
in
8.
dew. 6
Tregear

p. 94.
3
Institute, xix.
4
See above,
See above, p. 108.
See above,
p.
104.

1
229
Arabs and Europeans speak of the soul as a blue Ghosts often vanish in smoke. mist. There is in such cases no influence of the idea of
the
idea
soul
as
it
breath.
as
Incidentally
they
comprise
the
of
being moist
and wet.
But the main
hold that the soul exists birth. It is there " a hazeunder-world before in the In its evolution it passes " from the raw or being."
principle
is
visual.
The Zuni
soft
fixed
state
through the formative or variable to the

finally, to
and done, and,

in illustration.
2
the finished or dead."

is
The growth of
them
in
corn from green to ripe
quoted by
The Zuni
a
theory has passed from optics to biology
Very natural also is the confusion between the soul and the object, or in this connection between the formal idea and the object. These not being separated, the result is a progressive
very
natural
way.
notion that the soul

a thing,
may
a
be either the beginning of or shapeless matter, or any
minimum
visibile*
incomplete stage of
perfection.
thing,
a
no
less
than
its
formal
There
is
natural
tendency,
based
on
experience of growth, to connect form with hardness,

shapelessness with softness, and the second pair with
inception, the
is
first
with completion.
simple example
the contrast between the infant and the In such ideas as
grown man. the above, the point-soul, embryo-
soul,
state
it
is
and haze-soul, the soul is the individual in the of becoming, just as in the case of the ghost-soul, the individual in the state of disruption or
analogy
of
mechanical
creation
is
disintegration.
The
often
employed, as
in the familiar idea that
man was
created
out of clay by the hand of the Potter.

1
Across the
See above, pp. 184, 187.
See above, p. 157.
230
idea

comes,
with
the usual
inconsistency
and
the
usual abstraction of a part instead of the formal or
other idea, the notion that the soul was subsequently

placed in the clay figure.
it
was
the
at
first
too strong for
According to the Malays its receptacle, and burst

the
the
in
frail
tenement.
Then
Creator
1
placed
iron
able
substance of the
body, which was thus
to resist the expansive energy of the soul.
A
the
good instance of the

African potter.
it,
2 it.
implicit connection of the

is
idea of the soul with the formal cause
supplied by
West
In order to keep the soul

that
is,
of the pot from leaving

he draws a line round
sick person
3
from being broken,
On
a similar principle the
East Indian doctor binds a cord round the pulse of

a in
order to prevent the escape of the

tends
to
is
soul.
This case
mere physical
tied in.
restraint
the soul being in the pulse
once
Returning to the soul as a miniature we may notice more the result of reunion of memory-image
exchanged for the man himself, the soul automatically becomes life-size. Later inference, assisted by the phenomena of growth, would express this by speaking of the soul as expanding
and percept.
in or
When
merged
to
its
complete development.
the
earlier
In
stages
of psychology
analysed there
the
soul
is
reunited with the

aura.
person as an
is
emanation or visible
is
When
the percept
a tendency
to reject superimposition as a
mode of
reunion,
It
is,
to regard the soul as an inner object.
formal principle, an inner shape or outline as

to the outer shape of the object.
and on the opposed
In sleep, for instance,
the latter remains, but there

that the former has departed.
1
may be a vague notion Thus the Choctaws hold

3
See above, p. 124.
See above, p. 174.
See above, p. 113.

that
231
;
man
has two " shades," an inner and an outer
1 the former leaves the body at death.
say two shadows, a long and a short. 2 that when a man's soul becomes too small for his body he dies. They also, with natural inconsistency, the latter speak of two souls, a large and a small 3 This would also be departs when a man is sick. the inference about death and sleep.
;
The Kafir The Chinooks
has
The
parallel
a
idea of the soul as the perfection of a thing,
to the logical
is
notion
is
that the perfection

It is
of
thing
its
definition,
also found.
natural
that the inference should be
made of
in the
the
soul
sup-
porting and vivifying the person.
The
netsin
of the
Denes
as a
is
invisible, that
is
4
is,
merged
body, as long
man
or
dying.
giving to
its
wanders away when he is sick The Minangkabauers regard the soul as 5 possessor a look of strength and vitality.
well.
It
General analysis of the percept results in various

identifications
of the
soul
soul
is
with
interior
function
as
or
substance.
The
often
regarded
existing
It
is it
throughout the whole extension of the body.

especially located
where the blood

is
pulsates.
This,
must be noted,
at
first
neither identification with
The the blood, nor yet an abstraction such as " life." " remarkable notion, there," soul at first is simply
found among both Malays and Chinese, illustrates the This expansive and informing power of the soul. notion is to the effect that knobs and excrescences
on
tree
trunks are due to the soul bulging out the

tree.
surface of the
They
are,
so
to
say,
spiritual
protuberances.
1
Clodd, Myths and Dreams, 1S4.

4
See above, p. 169.

Institute,
See above, p. 153.

1
Morice
in Proceedings of the
Canadian
1888-9,
S^-
See above, p. 113.
232
THE
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
For these and other reasons it is hardly legitimate to assume a general idea that the soul, as a miniature of the person, working inside the body, produces the phenomena of life and action, that, in Frazer's words, a man lives and moves, " because he has a little man
or animal inside
the animal, the
who moves man inside

is
him.
The animal
is
inside
the man,
the soul."
The
early
view
it
too fluid for such a

too
scientific
mechanical
impartially
inference,
is
also
when
considered.
As
has been suggested, from the point of view of

is
growth, the larger soul

stage,
the
is
complete development
of the person, the smaller

for
instance, in
the person at an earlier
childhood.
The
child
is
thus
not the father, but the soul of the man.

the strength of
its
Biology, on
is
conclusion that the child
a higher
type than the adult,
may
here assume a metaphysical
dogma, to the
of a
species,
is
effect that the soul, or the essential
type
2
to be
found
in its children alone.

is
The soul of the The Egyptian and
Fijian chief
" only a
little
child."
the Australian souls are sometimes
represented as of the size of a child. 3
The European
It is
heathen believed that an old Christian had a young

Christian inside him, leaving his body at death. 4
significant that in Christian belief death
is
new
birth,
and that
enter the
in the logia
of Christ
it
is
said,
" Except ye
be converted and become as
little
children, ye shall not
kingdom of heaven."
is
An Eskimo when
5
sick
has his soul replaced by the soul of a child.
A
1
biological immortality
involved in the idea that
the child of a
Frazer,
man
is
his soul.
247.
The
3
f '
early doctrine of
The Golden Bough'1
i.
2 4
See above, p. 98.
See above, pp. 86, 183. See above, p. 152.
See above, p. 186.

conception
233
ideas.
and
reproduction
is
full
of such
According to Manu, in reproduction the father is conceived in the body of the mother by means of the
germ-plasm, and
child.
1
is
thus reincarnated, reborn, in
his
An
interesting aspect of the
memory-image
is
seen
in parental experience.
The mother
generally retains
an indelible mental impression, memory-image, of her
new-born babe. This persists through the series of images formed as the child grows to and passes maturity.
It
forms
a sort
is
of mental standard of reference.

psychical
The
principle
analogue of
the
biological
history of the germ-plasm.
The dead may

in children.
left
is
return to
life
by being reincarnated
In the accounts given the
method
is
often
it
unexplained.
Where no
analysis has been

is
made
to be
assumed that the soul

Frequently, however,
small enough for a

find a scientific doc-
child.
we
trine of reproduction.
When
many
man
is
reincarnated in his
own
children
the doctrine involves the divisibility of the soul.

cases,
In
however,
this
conception
is
not applied, or
being that reis
has not yet been reached, the
result
incarnation cannot take place until a

his soul separated
his
man
dead and
from
his personality.
Accordingly,
soul
first
reappears in his grandchildren.
Hence
the practice of
naming
a child, not after his father, but
after his grandfather.
The
pressed
analysis
resemblance of children to their parents im-
upon the mind the theory of reincarnation of the percept, as instanced in the growth of
;
plants, led to an inductive
proof of
it.
The
soul shows
reversion to type.
1
Lanus of Manu, 329.
234

together in early philosophy are three
Bound up
cognate ideas, the foundation of physical, biological,
and optical theory.

the
In the last case

is
we have
seen that
minimum of
visibile.
existence
regarded as a point, the
minimum
For the
first
is
we may compare
the
1
Chinese view that the soul
divisible into molecules,
and the Malay that each atom of metal has
a soul.
Here
thing
is
the origin of the theory that each

a miniature duplicate of
it,
atom of
a
is
is
just as the soul
a miniature duplicate.
This theory, known to the early

is
Greek thinkers
as
homceomeria,
the
foundation
of
molecular physics.
It is employed in biology, both by primitive thought and by modern theory on the germ-plasm. Science has merely proved a fact inferred by early man from the phenomena of growth, and expressed in his theory
of the
soul.
Some
general examples
may
illustrate various aspects
of the theory of reproduction.
The
central Australians
fission or
apply the process of reproduction by
budding to their mythical ancestors. They have also the idea of the evolution of man from lower forms. Their usual view of procreation is based on the entrance of the soul into the body of the mother. The process is only imagined in " play," it has not been proved by analysis of the percept. In fact there is considerable doubt whether they connect the male parent with the process at all. The soul, small as a grain of sand, is indestructible like the germ-plasm. At death it leaves the body and enters the ground from thence it enters the body of the first woman who approaches the spot. 3 The wild Malays Its point of entrance is the navel.
;
1
See above, p. 166.

3
See above, p. 129.
See above, p. 87.
235
explain conception by supposing the mother to swallow
the soul of the child, brought from the spirit-world by a

bird.
In the Upanishads the doctrine
is
that the soul
descends to the earth in the form of rain, and thus

enters food, and the bodies of men,
as the
whence
it
issues
The Thlinkits believe that the soul 2 The Dayaks suppose enters the body of the mother. 3 The Bataks the soul to be placed in the embryo.
germ-plasm. 1
regard
the
spermatozoon
of a man.
are
4
as
being
one of the two

the
guardian
soul
is
spirits
In
Hindu physiology
male, purus/ia. 5
is
This view, and the corollary that

frequent.
matter
female,
Swedenborg simply
says
repeats the savage
opinion
when he
" the soul,
which
and is the real man, is from the father, while the body, which is natural, and as it were the " Pattern," clothing of the soul, is from the mother." 6 the " idea " of Plato, the formal cause, is from the father ;
is
spiritual
" matter," the ky/e, the
material
cause,
is
from the
mother.
The Sioux
held that the father gives the soul,
the mother the body. 7
7.
The Plurality of Souls.
The
causes
of souls have already been referred
which produce the so-called plurality Their applito.

In this unconscious
cation characterises a long epoch, comprising the second
and
1
later stages
F.
of mental evolution.
Max
Muller, Psychological Religion, 154.
H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 517. Ris, in Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch
Westenberg,
ibid. xli.
Indie, V. iv. 529.

4
229.
Laws
of Mann
(ed. Bilhler), 6,
211.
Religion, 103.
Swedenborg, The True Christian

7
Carver, Travels, 378.
236

mind
sorts out the parts of the
It
is
;
analysis of percepts the
whole.
blindly
it
searching
for
reality,
for
its
the
thing-in-itself
defects,
is
started
on
this search
by
own
by the
difficulty
of generalisation, the absence
of analytical terms, the influence of special circumstances
and of
selective attention.
Thus
is
first
one and then
another element or association

substitution continues even
a general
that,
substituted,
and
this
when language
has developed
name
it
for the soul.
though
may
The interesting thing is, be an infirmity of mind that " recolnumber of

refer
lection
may
be satisfied with one of a great
marks or
totalities,
tags yet
by which consciousness may

it
"
to
is
in this
way
that progress has been
made.
brain,
The
search for the soul has exercised man's

reality along the
and led him towards
road of
experiment.
Besides the genuine analysis of the object or percept,
the defects of observation have assisted in the creation
of a plurality of
souls.
The
observer
may
use in his
inquiries a term, the generalised
and abstract "soul," which conveys no concrete meaning to the savage, who depends on parts, symbols, and associations whether he
has realised the totality or not.
are misleading,
Accordingly the answers

In one account of
in the head,
and accounts
differ.
is
the Caribs
2
we
find that there
one soul
another in the heart, and other souls wherever an artery

pulsates.
In another the heart
is
the chief soul, and

3
the pulses are the
work of "
is is
spiritual beings."
Another modification
the point of view, that
produced by difference
in
to say, by the predominance
of one particular sense, or by selective attention directed

1
I.
M.
2
Bentley
la
3
in
American Journal of Psychology,

lies Antilles,
xi. 7.
De
Borde, in Recueil de divers Voyages, 15.
Rochefort,
429, 516.
237
Yet, though as compared to primitive to the percept. " thinker," the savage may be described whole the man,
as
the "part-thinker" or " part-perceiver," he often
shows through the confusion a glimpse of the realised whole. If he could by a miracle be made to see the one and the many in his own mind (which is " a polypus of images," x as his body is a polypus of cells), he would
say, like a
parts and properties, this
good psychologist, not that a person has these body and mind, this life and breath and shadow and reflection, but this movement, that these and the other attributes together are the person, and that the mental idea of their sum is the
idea of the soul.
In the analysis of personality the soul
is
described
as
sometimes as being a part of

of or secretion of a part,
function of a part.
it,
sometimes
being
in a part, at other times as being the result

at other
of the action
times again as the

is
The confusion
partly natural,
and partly produced by defects of inquiry. The one safe guide is the principle that early thought did not separate functions from the organism nor isolate abstract
forces
from living substance.
This
may
be illustrated
in the case of blood.
living
The first man as
stage shows us the

his soul.
memory-image of
idea,
This includes the
by the percept, of blood.
When
produced the percept comes to be
analysed, the attention at times will be concentrated
on
blood, and this part of the living whole will predominate

in the general view.
This predominance, then, becomes

to,
an aspect of the whole, parallel

the
but not identical with
memory-image of
linguistic
the personality.
it
Yet
it
is
not
separated in thought, though

the same
may
the
be brought under
heading
1
as
whole or other
Taine.
238
parts.

When
this
is
effected, the
first,
" soul "
is
neither
the blood nor in the blood at

its
is
but language exercises

until a separate entity
isolating
and abstracting power

exist.
thought to
Then
it
may
be described
now
as
the blood
itself,
now
as in the blood,
or emanation of the blood, just as in

a soul of the blood.
now again as a result Burmah there is
of "
life
1 Further, when the abstract notion " has been isolated, it is naturally applied to
blood, as to other manifestations of organic equilibrium.
The
analysis of the percept,
finally,
tends
in
its
later stages to
employ "
life
as
life,"
a reference,
and to
search for causes, not only
of"
but also of substance
and
attributes,
origin and growth,
any of which may
be subsumed under a linguistic heading identified by observers with the " soul."
Many
illustrations
of plurality have appeared

Cases
will
in the
examples of early
psychology.
here
be
arranged so as to bring out the analysis of the object,

in effect a physiology of
man and
a physics of nature,
which are both metaphysical, psychological, and empirical, and also the application of association, the whole process showing an experimental interaction of subject and object.
China a hundred shen are assigned to man. 2 The Laos are said to credit the human body with the
In
possession of thirty
feet,
"
spirits,"
residing in the hands,
and so on. 3 The Ga peoples of West Africa suppose one soul to reside in the head, a second in the stomach, and a third in the great toe. The influence of attention is shown here by the fact
mouth,
eyes,
See above,
p.
136.
Groot, The Religious System of China, ii. 74. Bastian, Die V'olker des ostlichen Asien, iii. 248.
De

that sacrifice
is
239
is
offered to the last
when
man
about
to take a walk. 1
exist
The Tongans
consider the soul to
throughout the whole extension of the body, but

particularly in the heart.
more
Caribs
a
They
also identify
it
with the mental image of the whole personality. 2
The
thought of
body."
4
it,
3
according
Similarly
to one account, as
certain
East Indian views of the soul are described by the phrase an " extract
"purified
of the body."
The Iroquoian word for " substance of the soul." 5

whose business
restored.
6
one that means The Greenlander angekok,

flesh
is
it
it
is
to repair the soul, takes

it.
out of
the body, operates, and replaces
Lost parts can be
Flesh
is
regarded generally as instinct with
the properties of the person.

fat.
The
7
kidney-fat
is
So are the blood and the supposed by the Australians to

life
have an especial connection with

aspect.
in
its
psychic
Thus, a man whose kidney-fat has been abstracted by magic does not immediately die, but is, so to say, in the position of the medieval victim of
witchcraft,
as
at
who has been robbed of

is
his soul.
Sometimes,
s
;
among
others,
the Maoris, the head
the seat of the soul
the soul
is
in
the
brain.
The
psychical
importance of the head would be an early result of

observation of the
phenomena and source of the

and smell, and of such
senses
of
sight, hearing, taste,
facts as
the pulsation of the fontanel in infants and the fatal

effect
of wounds
The
1
latter fact
complex centre of the organism. applies to the heart and the lungs and
in this
4
1
A.
B. Ellis, Yoruba-speaking Peoples, 126.
2
6
3 See above, p. 95. See above, p. 162. Hewitt, in Journal of American Folklore, viii.
See above,
p.
130.
16.
6
7
Crantz, History of Greenland, i. 184 Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 101 ff.
f.
R. Taylor, Te ika a Maui, 165.
2 4o

generally. The soul is The Karens tell of a demon eye. The material substance
the internal parts of the
body
often located in the eye.
which
devours
soul
the
remains, but the sight of the eye
is lost.
The
first
is
also
found in
all
the great organs, in
the abdomen, the arteries, and veins.
The
soul of the
named
is
is
regarded by the East Indian islanders as

than
that,
" stronger "
for
instance,
of the
bones. 2
There
skin,
hardly a part of the body which has not been

its
regarded as the soul or as

nails,
place of location.
Hair,
all
bones, semen, saliva, and blood, are
so
regarded in various races of men.

part
Frequently, each
is
which can be individualised,

of
3
credited with a
soul
soul.
Thus in China the heart has a Here we come back to the memory-image.
its
own.
The
presence of the soul also extends to a man's dress
and intimate belongings, everything which forms part of his " material self," and which is more or less impregnated with his personality.
The
for
process of
is
economy by which
by the
a part
is
used
the whole
illustrated
facts
of psychic
like,
fetishism.
lock of hair, a ribbon, a shoe, or the
suffices to call
up the whole
personality in the brain of

is
the lover.
Such a tag represents, but

that
not actually
identified with, the whole.
principle
has
is
had far-reaching
results
in
science and metaphysics,
connected, in the analysis of
the percept, with the linguistic origin of abstractions

like force, energy, activity, function,
and
life.
Of the
Sea Dayaks we read that everything which suggests an " invisible operation " is ascribed to spiritual action. 4
When
an object moves for no accountable reason,

1
it
is
2
4

a natural inference that
if
241
some
invisible external
agency
Or, has moved it. assuming an internal motive agency, the remaining problem is to locate and realise it. The principle of
experience shows any reason for
motion, for so long an unsolved problem for science,
was
at a
very early stage a subject for vague speculation.

its
From
the earlier view, every object in nature has

that
is,
spiritual,
its
mental
credited,
duplicate
this,
being
evanescent, rapidly moving, and, as compared with the

reality,
mysterious,
is
to search for causes, with the
when the mind begins power of causation. At
the same time language, as a result of repetition, invents

a generalised term
for
the
substance and force, and the

is
itself
an abstraction.
isolation
combinations of Such a generalisation Language goes further, and

concrete
like.
by constant
living-man,"
artificial existence.
of such terms gives them an " That-living-man " becomes " any"life,"
"living-man,"
residual process.
Thus
there are
by a sort of two ways of reaching
the concept of an invisible principle of vitality, motion,
and the linguistic. These are combined the latter supersedes the former, and practically becomes an illusion of the mind. What is really only a linguistic symbol or tag for the concrete whole is, by isolation, regarded as a separate
or force
rarely,
the mental
if ever,
entity
the
mind
forgets that
it
is
unrealisable,
that
the image of the

artificial entity
word
is
the only aspect which the
can present to consciousness.
similar process has
essence, of " the thing in itself," of the formal
produced the conceptions of and the
material cause.
Primitive
man may
be described as " the whole-
thinker " ; his successors are rather "part-thinkers" and " part-perceivers," until the rise of critical empirical
16
242
science,

when once more
of
results
the
mind
realises
the im-
possibility
artificial division.
Special
are
due to the influence of
the
separate senses.
its
in
According to some early peoples the soul of food is " It is this which is absorbed by the " gods taste. the flesh and other accidents remain for sacrifice
;
1 the service of man.
The
is
soul of
man
also
may
absorb
the soul of food, whether he be alive or in the
spirit.
The
smell of a
is
man
in early culture a
very personal
It is natural
quality, as
seen by salutation-customs.
that olfactory experience should have led
men
to isolate
the results of this stimulus.
Thus
the
Tongans and
the Wetarese compare the soul to the perfume of a flower, the former regarding this as the " essence " in
contrast
to
the solid
vegetable
fibre.
The modern
manufacture of " essences " still preserves the old idea " All the legends of the saints in commercial solution.
have insisted on the odour of sanctity that exhales from
the bodies of holy persons, especially at the moment of death." 2 Personal power and " virtue " are trans-
In by touch, by the laying-on of hands. Melanesia a kind-hearted man will give a boy of his mana by touching him. 3 Chalmers describes how the Dyaks took " our hands in theirs, and tried to squeeze
missible
out the essence, which they rubbed over their bodies.
Others brought their them."

1
little
children for us to touch
Personal power, again, resides to a great extent

;
Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 79, 80
Tylor, Primitive Culture 3
ii.
381, 388.
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1889, 391 ; W. Mariner, The Tonga Islands, ii. 127 ; J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, 453 ; Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex,
2
iv. 553 4
Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 120. H. Ling Roth, The Natives ofSarawak,
i.
8.

in the eye,
243
recognised by the victim. 1
and can be transmitted by vision. This is Voice with its emotional

Pythagoras spoke
of a
as the voice
changes gives quality to personality.
of the sound of a gong
demon inside. A savage has similar ideas, and among them may well With the be that the sound of a bell is its soul. development of language the human voice exercised
still
more
influence,
and
in
the
is
highest
culture the
fullest
expression of personality
the spoken or the
written word.
In barbarism the mystical potency of
a man's uttered blessing or curse or prayer
impressiveness
of the
voice
as
an
embodiment
shows the of
thought.
In early belief there
is
a close connection between

is
name and
personality.
it
The name
is
a vital part of a
man
to take
in vain
to injure
him
to
know
it
gives power over him. 2
Passing on to examples of analogical association, we

find the soul symbolised as an animal, bird, insect, or
worm.
It
is
chiefly in sickness
and
at
death that we hear
of
it
flying away.
In Celebes, Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
and Malaysia generally, there is a custom of strewing on a man's head, when it is feared the soul may fly away " as if it were a bird." 3 In Transylvania the soul of a child may slip from its mouth in the form of a mouse. The Santals have a
rice, especially
1
Schwaner, Borneo,
See
ii.
167
Dudley Kidd, Savage

bij
Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 114 ff. Childhood, 72 ; Frazer, Golden Bough'1 ,
de volken
i.
433
Wilken, Het Animisme

tot
van van
den Indischen Arckipel,
i.
20
B. F. Matthes, Ethnologie
van
Zuid-Selebes,
Bijdragen
de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
33 ; J. K. Niemann, Nederlandsch Indie, xxxviii.
281
Skeat,
Malay Magic,
47.
244

Among
the
body in the form of Burmese and the Shans the soul is frequently imaged as a butterfly, and several pretty A similar idea was stories are based on this notion.
story of a man's soul leaving his
a lizard.
familiar
to
the
ancient Greeks,
who gave
the
name
Psyche to a genus of Lepidoptera. 1
We
have also found
among
various peoples the symbolisation or identifica-
tion of the soul with the owl, swallow, snake, weasel,
moth, spider,
seen
fly,
gnat, bluebottle,
firefly,
bee, ant, as
;
and stars we have growing up as grass, mushrooms, or flowers. As we have fully recognised, the soul is a quickly moving, small, light, and fluttering thing. There is accordingly hardly a natural object possessing one or
well as with sparks, flames, specks,
it
more of
identified
these attributes that has not been analogically
with
;
the
soul.
is
;
Vision
light
readily
notes
;
re-
semblances
bird
is
the butterfly
and
fluttering
the
fluttering
:
and quick
all
the
mouse and
lizard are
quick and slim
these creatures are hard to catch
and hard to keep. A remarkable example, influenced by the circumstances of death,

a
is
the identification of the soul with

2
worm
or maggot.
Curiously enough, the Chinese
body in the grave by supposing 3 some animal. As a matter of by that it is devoured Fancy would naturally fix upon fact, this is the case. the worms which attend decomposition as a proof of,
explain the decay of the
or emanation from, the living personality

In Christian eschatology there
is
now
departed.
that dieth
the
worm
not in
hell.
From
another point of view the

as the first
worm
is
commonly regarded
1
form of organised
life,
H. von Wlislocki,
;
Volksglaube
vii.
Sac/isen, 167
Indian Antiquary,
und Volksgebrauch der Siebenbiirger Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 273
;
102
Aristotle, Historia
Animalium,
v. xix. 550.
3
See above, p. 166.
"

the type of the lowest organisms.
245
Accordingly the
connected.
Hervey Islanders connect with a worm, as elsewhere

1
the beginnings of existence
the end also
is
Observation of the development of the caterpillar

into the winged insect has played an interesting part.
The
soul
is
released
and
flies
out of the dead body,

Personality has
life,
as the perfect insect leaves the cocoon.
thus four stages
the embryonic, the earthly
death,
and the
free existence
of the soul.
is
similar association
brought into play by the
sight of vegetation above a grave.
The
soul
is
not
seldom supposed to blossom as a flower after death. The custom of placing flowers on graves is an embodiment of the never abandoned hope of a second life.
It is
to be observed that most of these "souls" are
neither permanent nor universal.
They
is
are occasional
tags for thought.
To
2
assert that
the savage believes
" in sober earnest

bird
is
that his soul

facts.
an animal or a
such
to
misread the
Psychologically,
symbols
play
;
as the
animal and the bird are examples

is
of
their realisation
a case
of embodiment due to
association.
Lastly, these selected parts of the totality

associational
not,
and these
symbols are not fused.
Early
man
did
combine his idea of the soul as shadow with his idea of the soul as breath into one manifestation, any more than he combined the idea of the living man with the ghost, the idea of the dead man, or the soul as a spider with the soul as blood.
for
instance,
Thus
the
Zulu
idhlozi, the personal soul,

1
and the
itongo,
See above, p. 93.
As Frazer
asserts,
The Golden Bough 2
i.
253.
246

When
to
a man's share in the soul of the clan, were never fused,
nor was either fused with the shadow.

itongo appeared as a snake, there
the
was no fusion of two

chose
or
more
souls.
The dead man
appear
Zulu describes conscience at one time by saying that he has two hearts one speaks in a gentle voice and restrains him from
temporarily in that form.
Similarly the
doing certain things
the other
is
a hard heart, which
speaks in a rough imperious voice.
At another time
inner and outer
2
he says that the qualms of conscience are spiritual

agencies
coming from without. 1
The
souls of the
West African
are not fused into one.
In
not
East Indian belief the soul of a
man during
;
life is
combined with
tinct entities.
3
his soul after death

It is
all
the two are dis-
unnecessary to multiply examples

a psychological
necessity.
of what
is
after
The
in
occasional modification of the idea by a modification
of the percept, and the fusion of percept and image

perception, are a different thing altogether.
possible combination
is
The
only
mental image, and

It
this
what can be obtained in one is always guided by the percept.

life,
was
left for
language to make an
essence
bination of image and
comand substance, and

artificial
the like, by subsuming various attributes under one
But the mind can only realise such combinations artificially, that is, by the image of the word which symbolises them and even then, though often led to ascribe reality to abstractions, which it
general term.
;
cannot
realise, it
always tends to revert to the
memory-
image
as
the only representation of the whole, either
in its essence or its actuality.
In connection with the search for the " thing in

1
Dudley Kidd, The
Essential Kafir, 284, 285.

3
See above, p. 176.
See above, p. 130.

itself,"
247
is
the
interaction
in
of thought
and
language
significant
analogies, associations,
selves.
which various parts, attributes, and symbols may assert themThe varying ascription of reality has been
illusion
of the way
called
the
of perception.
thing
is
" Every
concrete
sensible
at
particular
qualities
material
conflux
of
with which
we have become
or
acquainted
various times.
Some of
these qualities, since they are

practically
more
constant,
interesting,
important,
In
we regard
a general
etc.
as essential constituents
of the thing.
fluctuating,
inessential.
way such
are the tangible shape, size, mass,
Other properties being more regard as more or less accidental or

call
we
We
its
is
the
former qualities
the
reality,
the
latter
'
appearances.
car
'
Thus,
hear a sound and say

is
a horse-
but the sound

least
not the horse-car
it
one
of the horse-car's
visible thing,
important manifestations.
The
and
calls
real horse-car is a feelable or at
most
a feelable
which
in
my
imagination the sound

always
comes back to the memory-image this fact clinches the identification of reality with the soul as idea. This identification, again,
up."
imagination
;
The
is
always being reinforced in perception. get away from the " sight " of a thing.
the the
We
The
cannot
facts
of
;
pathology of fear and remorse

visual
bear
this
out
image of the enemy or the sin " possesses " the brain, where it is seated
literally
like
the
eagle on Prometheus' vitals.
James adds
this
involves
" There is no reason for supposing that " fusion " of separate sensations and
in
ideas.
...
In this coalescence
is
thing,
one of the
accidental
coalescing sensations
sensations are
1
held to be the thing, the other

its
taken for
more or
less
W.
James, Textbook of Psychology, 312, 313.
"
'
248

of the
properties or
" parts "
modes of appearance." * soul, and some of

This
is
Now
its
the various
" tags," are

but
automatically brought together in the " thing " during

perception.
what
primitive
man
his
after
felt,
could not express.
If
we have read
mind
as
aright,
he
is
more
scientific
than we
are, for,
all,
right have
we
to select
any one sensation
what more
should " sight " give more of the essence than the " touch," or " touch than " sight," or why should " reason " give more reality than " perception " ? When we classify we are
" real "
than
the
rest
Why
simply expressing the ratio of sensations. " do but obey that law of economy or simplifica-
We
tion which
dominates our whole
psychic
life,
when
'
we think exclusively of the reality, and ignore as much as our consciousness will let us, the sign by which we came to apprehend it. The signs of
each
thing
relief
probable
itself
real
thing
fixed,
being
multiple,
and
the
one and
we gain
the same mental

latter
by abandoning the former for the

fluctuating
characters,
that
all
we do when we abandon mental

their
images,
with
for the definite
and unselection
changeable names which they suggest.
The
of the several
sights of
'
normal
'
appearances from out of the
jungle of our optical experiences to serve as the real
which we
shall think, has thus
to
the habit of thinking in words, in

substitute terms few
2
some analogy that by both
and fixed for terms manifold But the mind can never think these abstractions by themselves, apart from the whole in which they inhere. Thus there is never any necessity for fusion ; form and essence, substance and life, were and vague."
1
we
W.

2
Id. 346.

never separated except by names.
249
separate
Names both
and
fuse.
It
may
be that the best minds think in images

1
it
may
be that the best think in words.
Galton found that
philosophers and scientists were poor visualisers.
This
does not prove that they were originally poor.

fixed with
The
savage, however, does not possess the terms few and
which we
facilitate
our thought,
and so
evolve
our hypotheses, whether of the idea of the
soul or of other cosmic problems. to fix reality.
He
is
therefore fails
The
curious thing
that his
method
of substitution and confusion is. the essence of reasonReasoning (which is fusion) and confusion are ing.
the
same.
His
method
;
is
not
wrong
is
it
is,
like
Nature's methods, lavish
but
it
roughly applied.
all
Unconsciously, however, he has got
the reality
we
have
reached
ourselves,
in
the
memory-image, the
duplicate of sensation.
1
Galton, Inquiries2, 76.
understand any thing or notion unless he could draw of

it.
Kelvin used to say that he was unable to it and make a model
CHAPTER
VI
THE SOUL IN BEING
i
.
The Soul and the

chiefly
Self.
Hitherto we have been

principles
concerned with the

Feeling and will
and
results of cognition.
remain to be discussed.
object
The
relations of subject
and
the
now assume
practical
a wider aspect.
For
object
purposes
self
cognition
subject
leads
deals
with
alone
the
or
cited
may
to
be
ignored.
The
that
evidence
we have
realised
the conclusion
man
first
the soul in the object, in his
neighbour, not in himself.
By way of introducing
of
a
its
self-consciousness and
the
recognition of the soul in the subject,
some
aspects
development
in children will be
brought forward.
We
one's
is
may
first
inquire to what extent a

his
man
has
memory-image of
own
person.
Perception of
own person
is,
of course, incomplete, and what

little
observed, as a rule receives
attention.
The
memory-image of such
ingly to be ignored.
partial percepts tends accord-
In thought the subject sees and
hears himself as unconsciously as he does
when waking
consciousness
is
chiefly centred
is
and the
nition.
feeling of self
on the ideas presented, bound up with their recog-
250
THE SOUL
For convenience between the inner
consciousness
IN BEING
drawing
the
feeling
a
251
distinction
we
are
feeling,
of
self,
the
of
self-identity,
on the one hand, and

objects, including
the consciousness of external
one's
own body, on
It
is
the other.
in
more
accordance
one's
with
early
as
modes
an
all
of
thought to
regard
own
person
object
parts
than to recognise the
close
union between
in
of the organism generally, and
particular between
self.
the organism and the feeling of
Thus
flesh,
a Kafir
in convalescence remarks, as he puts on
"
am
beginning to lay hold of

to which the self
is,
my
body."
say,
The organism
is
so to
attached,
simply
one among many noticed or remembered.

as
objects of perception, though rarely
Thought and imagination,

;
we have seen
the soul of
it,
to be the rule in early culture, are
regarded as equally objective

is
the thought of a thing
a real concrete entity.
Yet
prevails.
in the case of the object the opposite
of this
The
parts of the personality are so closely
bound together that a his arm and say, " That
Kafir can point to a

is
wound on
is
so and so."
The
reason of this apparent inconsistency
clearly
shown when we remember that in the idea of a man, the memory-image of him possessed by another man,
there
cannot
be
included
the
inner
feeling
of
self.
This can only be inferred, and it is it has any connection with the idea of the
a long time before

soul.
Yet the
the
feeling
subject, while maintaining a dualism
between
is is
of self and
will
his
organism
as
object,
conscious from his earliest years that his organism

his.
is,
At times he
with his
1
identify
it
with the
"
self,
that
child
.
own
personality
generally.
The
73.
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood, 66.
2 Id.
252

familiar
gradually discovers his

first
part
own body. The hands are of his own organism they

;
the
are
examined
especially
by
means of the
lips
and the
tongue, the child sometimes putting his finger in his
mouth and sucking it even on the first day. Afterwards he learns to fix his gaze on the hands, and then
a firm association of ideas
is speedily formed between accompanying their movement and the appearance which this movement presents.
the muscular sensation
Later,
again,
the
feet
are
discovered
this
can
be
done only when the child can sit up and see them, or when, lying on his back, he can stretch out his legs so as to look at and catch hold of them. The great interest which a child takes in his limbs and movements may be due to the wonderful circumstance that here is something which can be seen and grasped, and offers resistance, and yet shares in active movement. It is an object, which nevertheless pertains
to the subject.
The
that
experience of the child
is
here
the same as that

tail.
of the dog running after

a
child,
its
own
The
he
1
fact
even
as
towards the end
of his second year,

that
still
will offer his foot a biscuit,
shows
looks
upon
it
an
independent
mirror
is
being."
The
recognition of one's
own person
can
in
or reflecting surface, a picture or a photograph,

nearest approach
the
the
subject
make
is
to complete
perception of himself.
These
in
reflections, as
It
we found,
are frequently called " souls."
possible that the
sight of one's
own person
the eye of another

as
may
have led the subject to
realise that
he sees another
see him, for the
man
in
memory,
is
1
so the other
man may
image
there, in the
man's eye.
There seems, however,

5, 6.
HOffding, Outlines of Psychology,
THE SOUL
to
IN BEING
253
in early
be
no direct proof of the identification

curious parallel
psychologies.
A
of the
self in a mirror
is
The
latter
may be noted between the sight and the memory-image generally. incomplete, generalised, and faint, as com-
pared with the percept.
When
;
man
sees himself in a
mirror he sees himself static
he does not see the real
dynamic
of his
self.
Still less
can a
man
hear the character
though to others it is the most Only by the phonograph, and emotional of sensations.
voice,
own
cinematographic photography, can a

as he
is,
man
realise
himself
in
motion and action.
At any rate, the recognition of self in a mirror would form an epoch in the life of the primitive, as of " A savage who had been made to the modern child.
look into a mirror exclaimed, of
spirits
!
'
gaze into the world
'
One of Darwin's
children, at nine
months
old, turned to the looking-glass
on hearing
not
his
name
called."
Yet self-consciousness
experience.
does
depend on such
is
"
The
recognition of the body
a process
that regularly precedes that of the recognition of the
image
in the mirror,
but one
is
as little a criterion
of
the beginning of self-consciousness as the other.
They
self-
both presuppose the existence of some degree of

consciousness beforehand.
to which the continuity
Especially, strong feelings,
such as pain, often mark in

back.
memory
the
first
moment
of self-consciousness reaches This moment generally comes in the fifth or

2
sixth year, but self-consciousness exists before."
The
recognition of self and the realisation of self-
identity are also developed

1
by the
facts
of
7-
memory and
Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology,
Wundt,
Outlines of Psychology, 288.
254
of action.
THE IDEA OF THE SOUL A child learns to know himself by

his
altering
the position of objects, by experimenting with, defacing,
and
breaking
material
chiefly
environment.
feeling.
But
the
realisation
depends
on
The
contrast
to which reference has been made, between the body
and the
feeling of self, is fundamental. The body " can be perceived by the senses, and can offer resistance.
it
Thus
presents a contrast to the feelings of pleasure
and pain, and to the inner stream of memories and ideas. That through which we feel pleasure and pain we may perhaps perceive by means of the This contrast senses, but not the feeling itself. is so decisive that the idea of the body may be transferred to the objective pole, to the not-self, and then there remains to us only the idea of self as the subject of The contrast between the thought, feeling, and will. inner and the outer now becomes more acute, or rather,
.
. .
we
retain
the
expression
'
inner
'
as
figurative
designation of the mental province in contrast with the 1 material as ' outer.' "
But even here we have to deal with numerous aspects The vaguest vegetal feeling, the of one phenomenon. reactions to physiological processes, the sense of effort and of activity, the feelings of comfort and discomfort,
pleasure and pain, the sensations of touch, taste, smell,
hearing,
and
sight,
the feeling of effort in the brain the
(often connected with

tion,
memory-image), imaginaand thought, the emotions and the will all these
results
of neuro- muscular processes are attached to

self.
the consciousness of
It
;
is,
so
to say, a point
is
it
of insertion for
life
all
experience
its
permanence
the
as
of the soul.
self.
1
We
may
conveniently describe
the ultimate
HOffding, Outlines of Psychology,
6.
THE SOUL
last
IN
BEING
it
255
is
In the evolution of the idea of the soul type preceding that of the
science.
critical
it
the
empiricism of
modern
We
the
meet with
the third stage of mental evolution
here and there in

for instance, in the
Hindu jivatman,
khu}
West African
last
it
mon, the Egyptian
That
is
it
should be the
the soul
natural enough, as
is
form assumed by the minimum of

subject
consciousness.
self
Psychology has recently shown that

distinct.
all
2
and personality are

self.
may
take
over a personality, to
yet be conscious of
appearance absolutely, and
In the
first
and second stages of mental development

brought into connection with the
the various inner experiences of the subject cannot be

said
to have been
idea of the soul, which was then a concrete totality, or
a part of such.
institute a series
series
But in the third stage they begin to of connections, and in some cases a of separate entities, which form a new order of
is
souls,
whose type
mental activity.
is
Their development, being from the subject alone, quite distinct from, though parallel to, the souls
derived from the memory-image and from the analysis
of the percept.
They shade
of heroes
in
off into another, of course, but are never
fused, except in language.
Homer
speaks of the souls

;
words which suggest the memory-image
the heroes themselves are a prey for vultures. Aristotle applied the term " soul " to the principle of
life.
Abstraction has here begun.

in the Ph<edo speaks
Plato went further,

self as
and
of the soul and the

ultimate
self
identical, the principle
of mind, pure reason.
Christian
psychology
introduced
1
an
of
divine
See above, pp. 141, 178, 180.
Binet,
The Psychology of Reasoning, 181.
256
substance

and of
ethical
quality.
Descartes
finally
expelled animism from science.

for
He
retained the soul
man
animals
he regarded as
mere machines.
This " indicates a reform in the conception of nature. Instead of appealing to forces that work mysteriously, we can now, since soul has been severed from the
'
'
material world, introduce a purely mechanical explana-
In psychology he rejected the terms anima and animus, and substituted mens, " consciousness."
tion of nature."
*
In psychology alone of the sciences

self
is
the ultimate
of consciousness taken together with the object. This science, therefore, is the only one which deals with immediate experience ; from the rest the subjective
factor has been abstracted.
It
was natural, therefore,
that a conflict should take place between
two
sections
of those who wished to regard it as a science of mediate experience, between those, that is, who denied the absolute existence of " mind " or " consciousness " and
those
who
asserted
it.
The
It
spiritualists at first
materialistic
view of mind,
as a substance as
took a phenomenal
as matter or energy.
self-existent,
was regarded
as an independent,
latest
individual being.
The
advocate of
spiritualistic psychology, Lotze, attributes substantiality to the mind, but only as " an independent element in
the world, as a centre of action and endurance, without

asserting anything as to
critical
its
absolute
nature."
The
school,
whose
the
results are based
on experiment,
has removed
all
abstractions of metaphysics, en-
shrined in language, from the science of the soul.
"
We
directly
it
know mental
life
only in ourselves,
and discover This process

1
outside of us by
way of analogy."
Id. 13.
3
is
frequently ascribed to primitive man,

2
Hoffding, Outlines of Psychology, 10.
Id. 9.
THE SOUL
that in the earliest ages
that
all
IN BEING
to
257
and the ascription has much

the
do with the theory nature was personified, or

were
the
operations
of
nature
work
of
anthropomorphic beings possessing personal life and will. Such a view is opposed to fact and probability
alike.
Primitive man, without doubt, applied simple

occurrences, the earliest form of
inference to natural the
theory of cause
is
and
effect,
but
even
causal
in
this
process there
It
is
no need of analogy from the subject.

other
rather
the
is
way.
;
The
he
activity
of the subject
sequence
in
unconscious
;
only
notes
the
external agents
he
needed
no
analogy
other
than his own.
and for results in nature from human action even Perception is itself a form of
inference.
With
regard to the explanation of nature by the
analogy of his
own
life
and
will,
the subject
is
not
conscious of either in the
first
stage of development,
and hardly so in the second. He was quick to perceive and quicker to act, but his mind was not yet reflected upon itself enough to realise, as an objective fact or
causal
principle,
the
existence
of
its
own
activity.
The
work in the opposite way, and to explain itself by analogy from the external world. For instance, the phenomena of growth are first learnt there, and from thence may be applied to the soul, as we have seen. Other reasons against the
early mind, in fact, tends to
view have been noted previously.
The dualism between

of experience, that
is,
the
inner and outer worlds
between objects, or rather percepts,
and
as
their images in the
mind,
is
now and
in
then resolved,
percept.
when the mind
the
is
image
rarely
is
merged
the
conscious of this resolution,
But and
for practical purposes the
two worlds remain comple17
258

is,
mentary, though the inner

possibility
so to say, a permanent
of objectification.
self- consciousness,
The dualism between

ultimate
outer,
persists
is
or
the
self,
and
all
experience,
whether inner
transcended.
or
It
never,
even
apparently,
states,
even in abnormal
;
such as hypnosis and

original concrete
later
dreams
it is
permanent
possibility of experience.
Thus
there
is
no fusion between the
forms of the soul, nor between these and the

abstractions, whether
from the idea or the percept or
self-conscious
terms like
When, however, general " soul " are isolated, any current notions
experience.
may
stage
be
artificially
placed
under them
it
is
a
at
con-
venient method
of mental economy.
Thus,
one
"soul"
will include
memory-image and
life
;
another the abstraction "
ghost, at " and parts of the whole
such as breath and blood
at
another, one or
more
as
of these
will
be
dropped, and abstractions
such
is
pure reason will take their place.

typed, but
Souls
its
The term
subjected
stereo-
content
is
fluid.
when
discarded
are
to
closer
perceptual analysis,
reality, or,
and are either relegated to noninterpreted as objects of mediate experience,

conceptions.
become
vitalism,
scientific
Such was the

annihilated
fate
of of
the " vital

it
principle."
Surviving in the doctrine

length
was
third
at
by
in
organic
chemistry.
Yet the
list
of souls was hardly shortened of evolution

;
during the
perhaps,
period
spite
It
of
the development of science,
longest
at
the
many survived. moment when the
was,
earlier
conceptions were reinforced by those derived from selffeeling.
Such
it
moment
to
is,
of course, an abstraction, but

the
serves
emphasise
extraordinary
number of
THE SOUL
spiritual
entities
IN BEING
has
259
his
that
man
during
history
evolved.
Two
list.
series,
hitherto not particularised,
may
now
be referred to, by
way of giving some completeis
ness to the
The one
is
attached chiefly to self-
consciousness,
the other
a duplicate
of the object-
world.
2.
The Soul as Guardian.
Frequent examples have been instanced of the idea These are either a special aspect of guardian-spirits.
of the ordinary memory-image soul, or, more commonly,
a development of the feeling of
these forms
is
self.
Midway between
images.
a
For
the objectification of auditory memoryinstance, the " daemon " of Socrates was
;
generalised auditory image
in
his brain
he heard
visualised
a voice restraining
him from
action.
This he chose
to speak of as a sort of guardian-spirit.
The
at
its
memory-image of another person may

called a guardian, a natural extension
times
be
of
attributes,
just as at other times
it
may
be called a god.
Thus
(in
among
the
Sea
St.
Dayaks
"the general
assertion that
belief"
" they have a John's clear idea of one Omnipotent Being") " is that there
opposition to
are
many
petaras,
in
fact
as
Each man, they say, has his own tutelary deity. One man has one
many petaras as men. own peculiar petara, his

petara, another
'
man
is
another.
'
wretched
man
a wretched petara
is poor and miserable. and The poor are credited with rich and poor petaras, hence the state of Dayak gods may be inferred from the varying outward circumstances of men below." 1
reason
common expression, which why any particular Dayak

rich
professes to give the
Perham
;
in
St.
Journal of
(1881), 144
the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, i. 59.
26o

is
The -petard
the primal form of the soul
undoubtedly the ordinary mental duplicate, but under the influence

;
of language and of analogy from another culture, one observer speaks of it as a god, or a tutelary deity,
guardian-spirit
;
another generalises the idea into
theism, either taking the petara spoken of by one

as implying the
monoman
one and only Deity, or regarding the
aggregate of petaras as a unity.

views
times.
is
Now
is
each of these
at
also
held
by various early races
various
The
Sea
Dayak theology
thus an instructive
example of the working of principles which we have discussed. Another form of guardian is the " inner man," such as is found in West African belief. That
which thinks and
wills
is
naturally regarded as a guide,
philosopher, and friend.
3.
Inanimate Objects.
spiritual
Another extension of the

in the souls
world
the
is
seen
of inanimate objects.
On
memory-
image theory, every object of consciousness capable of producing an image in the brain of the subject is by the very fact in the possession of a soul. And in
practice
we
find this to be the case.
The
majority of
early
peoples would regard
modern popular thought
illogical for
denying a soul to one half the creation,

it
and allowing
cases
to
the other.
to.
may
be referred
One or two typical The Asaba consider that

;
everything in nature has a
chi
in
and through the

mental sphere.
world of
of the
a soul.
reality there is a chi world, a
The Egyptian
kela/i,
theory of the ka
are
the
same.
the Karen theory Every natural object,

t
every manufactured object, tool, or utensil, has thus
The
Alfurs of Celebes ascribe a soul to iron,
THE SOUL
the
IN BEING
when
the smith
261
Malays to
tin.
If the soul of the iron were not

is
forcibly kept near the anvil
at
work,
the iron would flow
away and be useless, because of
the absence of its soul. In Tonga, Fiji, America, and the East Indies, there occur salient cases of the
ascription of souls to inanimate objects.
earth,
1
Heaven and
;
the sun, the moon, and the stars

;
all
;
animals
and plants
boats,
and lakes, rocks and stones houses, weapons and garments, crockery and chairs,
rivers
soul.
have each a
derived
The examples show
that these are
the Fijian crockery, and the
from the memory-image, as in the case of Malay semangat of heaven

Accordingly, when observers speak of a
and
earth.
"patron deity," or "guardian spirit," or "god," or ''spirit" working behind such objects, we have a right to explain such descriptions on the principles
we have
and
applied elsewhere.
analysis
In the
case
of animals
results
plants,
of the percept
may have
influencing the idea, as in the case of men.

also seen this applied to substances
We
have
such as wood and
stone.
One
souls
is
interesting
result
of the theory of inanimate

soul.
that
it
supplies a refutation of the view that

life "
the abstraction "
was an early form of the

life,
The
totality
of a living creature differs from that of
an inanimate object in the possession of
and even primitive man drew a clear distinction between living and dead substance, animate and inanimate existence. But the early mind was incapable of realising an for abstraction, just as all mind is it had no word
;
it
either.
Yet inanimate things possessed

,
souls.
Tylor, Primitive Culture3
i.
477-9
i.
de Volken
van
7,
31
G. A. Wilken, Het Animwne bij A. C. Kruijt, Het Animisme ff.

;
in den Indischen Archipel,
156
ff.
262

invents
Even when language

eliminating
it
an
abstraction
by
all
concrete content from the term which
has reached by generalisation, for instance
"soul"
or "life," leaving a skeleton which serves to
embody
or
any floating inference of function or observation of difference, still the term is merely a label, and when
fix
applied to an object is not actually fused with it. " Life " and image are not combined in thought, any
more than
and
a
are
an inscription and a picture, a card

this label
man.
Moreover,
only connotes one

1
attribute of the whole.
We may Animatism has already been discussed. The here consider two contrasted forms of the theory. older theory of the personification and animation of
all
nature goes too far in one direction
the theory
is
of Kruijt that the soul of a living

share in the
in
man
simply a
too far
pantheistic
It
life
of nature goes
the
another.
does not explain

is
memory-image
Indies.
of inanimate things, which

In particular,
find the
it
found in the East
we memory-image side by side with the soul as " life." Wilken has shown reason for supposing that the semangat, which is the memory-image soul, is
fails
to account for the fact that
earlier
than
the
njawa.
seen,
The
life
latter
is
vague
in
its
connotation,
varying from
to
consciousness.
As
the
we
have
already
the
semangat
includes
attributes
life and movement. The only real what can occur in one percept or one Late beliefs like that of mental representation. Buddhism that everything has life are due to language. Ideas of " persons " working behind the veil are the
of
synthesis
is
results of the artistic imagination.

1
See above, pp. 20, 21,
4.3,
44.
THE SOUL
4.
IN BEING
263
The World of Spirits.

that
is,
early
The spiritual world, man is therefore

part
the mental world, of
very
populous.
Besides
the
souls of every person
and
thing, there are the souls of
every
of each
object,
and the souls of dead
statement such as that persons and worn-out things. " every feature of the scenery, every want, of Burgoa,
virtue, vice,
had one or more patron deities," applies to a developed mythology like that of the Central Americans or Hindus, but not to the first two stages
l
of culture. Ellis, speaking of the Tahitians, rhetorically " They were accustomed to consider themselves asserts
:
surrounded by
stars,
invisible intelligences,
the rising sun, the mild and silver the meteor's

2
and recognised in moon, the shooting
transient flame, the ocean's roar,
the tempest's blast or the evening breeze, the
movements
mental
re-
of mighty
spirits."
Here
the
observer has turned
personalisation
into
personification,
and
presentation into perception.

are
The
in
" mighty spirits "

auditory,
merely the memory-images, visual and
of natural phenomena.
More
accordance with early
what Matthews says of the Hidatsa Indians, GrifHs of the Coreans, and im Thurn of the Guiana
thought
is
Indians.
The
the sun, the

trees
" Not man alone, but first named says moon, the stars, all the lower animals, all
:
and plants, rivers and
in short, everything not
lakes, many boulders, made by human hands, which

.
.
has
an independent being
are
or
can
be
individualised,
3
possesses a spirit, or
more properly
he
that
a shade."
of these
important,
adds,
or
receive
Not all much

the
consideration.
1
Griffis reports
" to a Corean
Pacific States,
i.
Quoted by Bancroft, Native Races of the

2
3
iii.
449.
W.
Ellis,
Polynesian Researches,
331.
W.
Matthews, Ethnography of the Hidatsa Indians, 48.
264
air
is

far
1
from empty. It is thickly inhabited with and invisible creatures." "To the Indian," " says im Thurn, all objects, animate and inanimate, seem
spirits
of exactly the same nature, except that they differ

the accident of bodily form.
in
Every object in the whole world is a being consisting of a body and a spirit." Again Cl It might be thought that this bodily motionlessness " (in rocks and stones) " would prevent any conception of the possession of spirits by such
:
.
objects.
The
activity
of the rock
falling
is
proved to
his
is
satisfaction in various
practical ways.
The
Indian
occasionally hurt either the rock falling
by
on a rock or by
he attributes
on him, and
.
in either case
.
the blame to the rock.

the supernatural
is
No
to If
idea of what
we
call
known
beings.
him.
Thus
his
whole
world
effort
swarms with
by a mighty mental
we could for a moment revert to a similar position, we should find ourselves everywhere surrounded by a host of beings, possibly hurtful, so many in number that to describe them as absolutely innumerable
would
fall
ridiculously short of the truth."
West African
means of
world
land."
part not-spirit.
itself is
4
regards everything " he
knows
So the of by
his senses
3
"as
the
a twofold entity, part spirit,
To
Hervey
islanders " the visible
The
are
but a gross copy of what exists in spiritUngava Indians say that " all the affairs
of
life
believe that there
has not
1
its
under the control of spirits." The Dacotas is " no object, however trivial, which 5 spirit, which may do harm."
in
Griffis, Corea, 327.
E. F.
*
im Thurn,
Gill,

3
Institute, xi.
viii.
1
369,
37> 37
4
Kingsley, in Folklore,
Pacific,
141.
W. W.
Myths and Songs from the South
54.
Dorsey, in Eleventh Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington),
>93> 434-
THE SOUL
IN BEING
265
Allowing for the phraseology of the observers, and

applying the explanation of the idea of the soul which
we may arrive some understanding of the meaning and origin of that remarkable world, commonly known as the spiritual
has been advanced in the previous pages,
at
or supernatural, which permeates the
life
of the savage,
his existence
and
until
in
which and through which he passes he is absorbed into it himself.

is
This world
artificial
what we know
as the
mental world,
the world of thought.
Without education, without

exercise, the natural
means of mental
little
man
in
and no little distrust of the images which are the basis of his mind. He is at their mercy he does not understand what they are. To reach this knowledge he has to pass through the
the lower culture has
control,
;
valley of supernatural anxiety
and
terror.
The may
origins of worship, of the conception of gods,
are thus
bound up with
is
the origins of science.
We
:
preface a discussion of
world which
the
some aspects of this old new by considering two questions

?
Why
is
the spiritual world so feared
and,
W hat
T
is
the
meaning of the control of the material world by the spiritual ? Each of these questions has arisen again and again in our examples of early psychologies.
Some
reference has already been
made
naive
to the fear of
thought which characterises the
consciousness.
We
found that the
soul, potent for influence, if not for
evil, at all
times, attains,
when
released
from the body,
freedom and less responsibility. The subject knows that the soul of the dead still lives, He remembers the for he can see it in his brain. power of the living man. When under the influence
a position of greater
of that
power,
the image of the
man
was
vividly
266
present to

his
is
mind.
this
Much more
in
?
impressive
it
is
it
when
there
no material form
is
which
may
it
be
em-
bodied.
Why
We
of
may
explain
by citing
never leaves the " that he may have camp-fire at night without a torch,
the Indian
fear
spirits
who from
a chance of seeing the beings
among whom he moves."
The
is
soul
is
always about to be exteriorised, and the
savage feels as does the Zulu in a thunderstorm,

afraid because he does not
who know when and where
the deadly energy will

as the
is
image
in the brain
possibly at
hand
become visible and strike. So, comes and goes, the percept it may emerge here or there, the
next
say
:
moment
it
or the next.
As
the Bismarck islanders
is invisible,
but present. 2
The souls of the dead that are most feared are those of men who were feared in their lifetime. There is also the fact that a dead man is resentful, because he has Of no little influence also is been ejected from life.
the principle of luck.
accepts
result
Like most men, the savage

matter of course or as the
evil
good fortune
as a
;
of his
own
it
merit
fortune he attributes to
one thing or another, but

connected with
tion
is
in particular to
some thing
Thus,
if
if
by mental association.
The connecan
evil
already spiritual, as being mental.
Indian
3
happens to see a curious object, and

as
happens to him, he connects the two

effect.
cause
and
is
Generally, however, as the cause of the evil

invisible,
unknown and
he takes the easy way, being

it
familiar with the spiritual world, of ascribing
thereto.
Returning to the souls of the dead, we saw no need

to bring in the emotion of fear of the corpse.
1
What
Im Thurn,
Im Thurn,
in

2
Institute, xi. 371.
See above, p. 103.

Institute, xi.
in
370.
THE SOUL
may
fear of death, that
is,
IN BEING
is
267
the
be introduced into the early consciousness
of being ejected from
life,
and
rendered helpless and motionless and decaying, as the
dead man has been.

in
There
is
a very
common
belief
what
l ;
may
and
be
described
as
the
infectiousness
of
death
this fear is attached to that
image of the
it is
dead man which we know
as the ghost.
As
for the naive distrust
and
fear of thought,
shown to be a characteristic of the unsophisticated mind in all stages by a thousand trivialities. In view of the fact that the most powerful of all influences is that of ideas, as shown in the psychology of imitation, For the way of ideas is this attitude is a safeguard. the way of temptation. In the naive consciousness the tendency to realise an idea in action or embodi-
ment
is
irresistible,
except for the hesitancy of distrust,
the inhibition of fear.
Thus both temptation and
its
conquest proceed from the mental, the spiritual world. Surrounded by a cloud of witnesses, his own thoughts,
early
his
man does not at first locate them Concentrated attention own brain.
it,
absolutely in
enables
him
to feel the image, as he sees
in the
eye, or, as he
hears
it,
in
it
the ear, but this
is
not the same thing as
referring
to an external object.
As we found
its
reason
to conclude, the consciousness in
normal
;
state
does
not objectify or exteriorise
its
thoughts
it
leaves their
location undecided, while distinguishing

(else
them sharply
objects
in
they would not be souls)
from
real
space.
This
characteristic involves the
common
attribute
of souls,
invisibility.
They
are here, there,
and everywhere, or anywhere.

as uncertain as their appear-
Their place of location

ance and disappearance.
1
is
Yet again and again we come

ff.
See A. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, 95
268

it is
across the belief that in order to see their world,
merely necessary to close the eyes, or to send out one's
Apart from the recurrence of this scientific tendency, we can distinguish some places of location for disembodied and
soul, that
is,
to fix the imagination on the idea.
incorporeal souls.
Naturally, in view of the connection of percept and

idea, a frequent location
is
the neighbourhood of the
object.
Closing the eyes after viewing an object, the

is
memory-image
inference,
at first in the
all
same
direction.
Analysis
of the percept, and
analogy, tend
in the
it,
to
enforce this
which meets us often the soul of an object hovers near

it,
statement that
is
or
on or about
or within
it,
just as the ghost of a dead
man haunts
his grave.
At
place
;
other times
the idea
is
we
find little distinction of time or
ubiquitous, omnipresent, and unfettered
by time.
applies
;
Linguistic and mental generalisation here
thus the
Malagasy phrase descriptive of the
sphere to which the soul of the dead makes its way is any ; " it goes," they say, " any." The word is a form
of "there," developed by generalisation into "everywhere,"

" anywhere."
The
spiritual
world
in
is
thus a
sort of fourth
dimension
of space,
as the
and through
phenomenal space, somewhat Wells in The Planner Story.
world described by
The
facts
of
burial,
place the souls of the dead in an
and of decay generally, tend to underground sphere

;
inference
from cremation
assists the soul to find a

air,
way
to heaven.
The
atmosphere, the upper
the sky are
the favourite abode of spirits.
The
;
relative emptiness
It
is
of the
air is
one main reason for

in
this.
it
the great
unallotted area of the world
freedom of moveits
ment
is
unhampered
the sensations produced by
THE SOUL
movements,
it
IN BEING
269
of some invisible substance, tend to give " Breezes," say the Coreans, a spiritual quality.
as
l
" are the breath of spirits."

teaches
to
Analysis of the percept

is
man
air.
that the soul as breath
of and
is
returned
the
The
aina
2
or
"
life
"
of the
Malagasy
held that
becomes
as a
air
at death.'
The Acagchemems
it.
man became
decrepit his soul was absorbed in the
element which had originated
In
their words,
it
was
air
according to the Ainu, is " peopled with good and evil spirits. 4 The " buxom
lost in the air.
air,
The
thus coincides with the yielding unsubstantial nature

in
it.
of the soul which dwells
contributory factor
may
perhaps be found in the

is
erect posture of man.
His
vision
directed above the

facts
ground, more or
assist in
less regularly,
and the
of ideation
the inference that an idea

its
may
be located on
the plane of
origin.
from the early notion, due to unaided perception, that the earth is of the form of a tray (as
peoples,
its its
Many
semangat
is
in Malaysia) or a flat disk, infer that at
edges
is
another world.
example,
locate
sometimes take
edge.
their departure
For
6
the
souls of the dead by dropping over the Alsea Indians 5 and the
The
Australians
here.
the
entrance
to
their
Hades
The
Fijians have elaborated the notion into a
terrible pilgrimage
of the soul. 7
of the
other
It
The geography
world,
however,
is
not part of our inquiry.

1
has been described with
Griffis, Corea, 327.
3
4
of Madagascar, i. 393. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States.

Ellis, History
vii.
Batchelor, in Journal of American Folklore,
24.
Farraud, in The American Anthropologist,

6
7
iii.
241.
See above, p. 83.

Fijians (1908), 122
ff.
B.
Thomson, The
270

elaboration
some
by
Tylor.
We
are
here
only
concerned with new details or with such as are bound
up with the
idea of the soul.
With
nature
regard to the belief in the control of man and by spirits, we are only concerned with such
facts as illustrate or are illustrated
by our main inquiry. The evolution of worship or of monotheism is no part

of our search.
In the
replica
earlier
stages the spirit-world
is
merely a
occasional
of the
material.
Except
for
the
prominence of some strong character who becomes a powerful ancestral spirit, or of some peculiarly impressive
natural
phenomenon
that
is
influences
the
life
of
particular
people, there
nothing which corresponds
to
the conception of a god,
supreme Being.
familiar
in
much less is there one theological concepts, do other Nor

occur
as
yet.
the
third stage,
What
is
stated of the Indian of
Guiana applies generally. " He has no idea of beings with the attributes of gods.
The
beings
his
universe
is
filled
with
work only
as are
according to natural laws, or rather according to what
seem to the Indian natural

not worship.
strives
laws,
and are not,
gods, capable of supernatural action.
The
Indian does
beings,
He
avoids certain dreaded
or
to
drive
them away."
body
after
it
He
has no idea of a
resurrection, but merely an occasional fancy that the
soul returns to the
has left
eternal
it.
He
has
no idea of a
bodily forms. 1
creation,
only
the
change of
From
its
remarks of the term worship in

1
another point of view Matthews " If we use the Hidatsa Indians

:
most extended
sense,
it
may
362.
be
Im Thurn,
in
Institute, xi.
THE SOUL
said that
IN BEING
1
271
they worship everything in nature."
The
statement
nature
in the
is,
simply implies that

in so far as
it
every individuality in
possesses a soul (a duplicate
mind of
the subject), in a spiritual relation to

is
the
subject.
This
particularly
evident
in
the
principles connected with luck.
concerned
to
it
know what
necessary
to
is
to
The savage is much Thus the happen.

the petaras of
life
Dayak
finds
" invoke "
everything
and sustenance. 2 In other words, his thoughts of such matters are of both in theory and practice supreme importance
connected with his
;
they
influence
results.
An
act
;
of worship
it
embodiment of such
thought
is
an is " a mere opus
operatum" performed in order to obtain communion it has no connection with the object thought of morality, and it effects or propitiation, with veneration,
;
its
purpose " irrespective of the condition of mind or The Dayak, always habits of life of the worshipper."
the
anxious about the future, has recourse to his knowledge

that the
soil,
hills,
and the
trees
have each their
3 petaras, through which they produce their fruits. Another case which shows the relation of the thought to the object in such connections is that of the la of
the Karens.
man who
its
not to the axe, but to " 4
has dropped his axe calls " la of the axe, come, la

:
come
Having
to
think
of the
object
before
speaking or acting, the savage introduces the thought,

the idea, the soul of the object, into his speech and
acts.
Several cases have been cited where the aggregate

1
Matthews, Ethnography of the Hidatsa Indians, 48. Perham, in Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal
145.
Id. x.
Asiatic Society,
viii.
3
4
227, 241, 242

in
viii.
138.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, xxxiv. 202.
Mason,
Journal of the Royal
272
of
all

souls
is
recognised in language and thought, for
instance the
spirits, so
Yao mulungu}
The aggregate of ancestral

is
potent in their influence over the living,
Such a god another way of reaching a tribal god. may develop, like the tribal Tahweh of the Hebrews,
into a monotheistic unity.
The
sense of solidarity
is
The Pawnees speak of a number strong in tribal life. 2 of persons " thinking and uniting as one spirit." The
generalised type of the species, the oiaron of the
in
American Indians, 3 shows one way

mental
another
deities
which departwolf,
may
arise
is
the idea
of the
or
the tree, generalised,

shape.
Another
merely the memory-image in way is selection of one
prominent individual
as the type
of the
species.
generalisation
of man,
line
worked upon by
it
the
artistic imagination, embodying
in a glorified form,
seems to be the main

a supreme Deity
is
along which the idea of

It
and
modified
by
would be influenced other associations and modes of

evolved.
thought.
It
is
clear
enough how man came

of
in their lifetime
all
to believe that
his life
and
acts are in the control
spirits.
The
souls
of dead men who
men, and the souls of
things with which
had influence over men have

have attempted
to do, are their thoughts of these.
We
some
description of the primitive attitude to this strange
function of thought, this internal experience of images.
The
ancient view that the image of a thing or an act

little
controls it has no image precedes and

1
psychological
truth,
for
the
institutes all action
and
all
relation
Hetherwick, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. 94. Alice Fletcher, Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (1900-1), 290.
:!
Hewitt, in Journal of American Folklore,
viii.
15.
THE SOUL
to objects.
It is stated
all
IN BEING
273
of the Kafir that
his superstition
" influences
to
his
his acts,
1
character."
Human
received
and gives a tone of seriousness character and human

in
thought
their
have
a
thus
the
ages
preceding
civilisation
long training,
the automatic result

all
of
own
activity,
which
is
the basis of
culture and
science.
5.
The Ideal Theory

and
its
in Practice. to
Before
considered,
action,
volition
a
relation
in
the
soul
is
subject
aspects
best taken
connection
attitude
with
some
of the
early
towards
later
self,
psychic facts, as modified
by the presence, and
by the recognition of the presence, of the ultimate

call for description.
The mental
be remembered,
life
of the present-day savage, of survivals, but

in a less
it
must
is full
degree
While the early aspect of visualised thought emerges in modern folklore above the more or less scientific knowledge of mental life which has overlaid it, in the form of ghostly and other spiritual lore, the mind of the
than
is
the popular thought of civilisation.
savage
is
just beginning to cover the spiritual aspect of
thought with a layer of psychological explanation.
As we have
taken
in
seen, the analysis of the object
when
conjunction with the phenomena of mental
imagery makes of the early doctrine of the soul a sort

of physiological psychology.
We
subject
:
now
take primarily the point of view

self, as
of the
the feeling of
1
a point of insertion for

20.
G. M'C. Theal, Kaffir Folklore (1882),
18
274

scientific
psychic experience, becomes the standard of reference.
The analogy with
psychology
is
remarkable.
When
the savage speaks of himself as contemplating
the souls or images of objects, or of images as causing
emotions or
reaction.
acts,
he
is
anticipating the
modern view
of the connection of the idea with neuro- muscular
The main
principle of sympathetic magic
is
that the
idea by being rehearsed separately or in an
embodiment
produces the result which
it
imitates.
In other words,
when
a soul
is
projected from the
into an action or an object,
mind of the agent and when this is brought

or thing to be acted
into connection with the person
upon, the desired result
is
effected
by the
soul.
also.
The theory of nutrition and of medicine is animistic The soul of food is absorbed by the organism. This is, in metaphysical language, its essence. The
Chinese hold that the " soul-substance " of things eaten Only the " immaterial enters and strengthens the body.
essence " of food,
its
shen> tsing^ or khi,
remains
in the
organism.
If a
The stomach
a
spirit
has a soul for the purpose.

it
West African
is
child does not thrive,
is
because
there
taking
the
food
from
is
its
body. 1
Similarly, the theory of reproduction
based on the
transmission of a
individual.
soul
which
is
to animate the
new
When
food
is
it
offered to the souls of the dead the

is
very fact that
not consumed proves that
its
soul
has been absorbed.
The conception
is
that the souls of
men may
is
be devoured
frequent.
The Maori
is
able to swallow an atua.
In Melanesia a bird's voice

as a medicine.
swallowed by a sick
man
The
savage takes an emetic to rid himself of un1
Ellis,
Yoruba-speaking Peoples, 113, 126.
THE SOUL
desirable
Illness
IN BEING
ways.
275
thoughts or to free
himself from sorcery. 1

in
and pain are explained
three
They
body
which
are due either to the absence of the soul or of a part
of
it
from the body, or from the
part of the
soul,
affected, or to the presence of a
malignant
may have been projected by evil magic, or of some worm-like or gnawing creature. The second of these
coincides with the general theory that physiological
and
in
psychological facts are due to the presence of images.
The
third
first is
a later inference
from the same theory
connection with the soul as animating the body.

is
The
is
the result of analogy and association, and

to
parallel
the
conception of the soul as a
bird or
animal.
All the functions
of the organism,
are
physiological,
neuro-muscular,
less
and mental,
Bodily
explained,
more or
vaguely and unconsciously, by the principles we
have adduced.
emotion,
movement, the
and
circulation of
feeling,
the blood, the nutritive processes,
sensation,
thought,
imagination,
reasoning
are
brought under one or other aspect of the doctrine of

the soul.
The
subject expresses his earliest realisation
of organic experience by a naive recognition of images

or souls, as seen or
felt in
memory.
In the next stage
he
is
conscious
In
the
of the self as seeing or feeling the

latest
development of all, the self becomes sophisticated by language and abstraction, and may be identified with any of the numerous forms of
images.
the soul of the
object.
Instinctive
logic,
;
however,
tends to bring attention back to the self
for instance,
the self-soul as the feeling or thinking part, like the

isa
of the Madis,
is
a
is
more constant expression of

the self-soul as an image.
the
phenomena than
1
As
M. H.
Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, 462.
276

its
savagery reaches
highest developments, the soul as
the intelligence becomes

seen, the latter phase
object.
is
more
frequent. 1
As we have
The
self-soul as
is
almost entirely confined to the pure reason, pure " spirit,"
" life," and so on,
an abstraction equally liable to be

given,
superseded by the older view, which simply takes the

fact
of self-consciousness
it
as
and
no
more
by
attempts to explain
than does modern psychology.

is
Side by side with this sequence

analysis of the object.
the explanation
This leads to the view that the
functional parts of the organism are self-subsisting and,

so to say, conscious agents.
The
eye or the soul of
the eye, originally not
separated, sees, the ear hears,
the breath and blood "live,"
the belly feels, just as
the hands
move and the feet walk. Again, the function becomes the soul of the organ sight is the soul of the
:
eye, hearing of the ear.
In this analysis
we sometimes
a
centralising
detect
the
mind
Later
blindly
groping for
principle.
we
in
find the self seeing in or
through
in
the eye, hearing
or through the
the
seat
ear,
occasionally
is
with
the
recognition that
parts.
of sensation
however,
with
the
central
We
are
;
do
not,
find that
brain.
motion
and
is
feeling
clear
connected
the
The
reason
sight,
hearing, taste, and smell,
would soon be recognised by the experience of memory-images as Other sensations being connected with the brain. and feelings do not possess this obvious connection. The connection of will and muscular reaction seems obvious, but it does not seem to have led to any
having their organs
in
head,
inference until a late stage in the scientific period.

It is chiefly in the object that the
notion of the soul
giving sight to the eye, or causing

1
life
and motion
in
Dennett, in Folklore, xvi. 372 (the xilunzi of the Bavili).
THE SOUL
the
IN BEING
277
organism
generally,
attained great influence and
The notion was applied. vogue as soon as the soul,

into an abstraction, coin-
developed through
force or operation.
its
name
cided with the inference from the object of an invisible

It
survived and
still
survives in the
spiritualism.
pseudo-scientific doctrines of vitalism and
Perception stands in a category of
its
own.
From
percept
beginning to end perception

or the object
is
is
of
reality.
;
The
taken as given
its
it
is
the thing and
requires no theory for
explanation.
The very
fact
of this immediacy, when contrasted with thought and feeling, is responsible for the dualism between soul and
thing.
That the percept, the object, is a psychological phenomenon was not dreamt of till a late stage of
critical
thought.
typical
forms of the application of these The principles may be adduced from the examples. Karens and Bataks ascribe emotions such as anger, the Andamanese ascribe pain, to the operation of " spirits."
In
Some
Malaysia we
is
find
" spirit "
of stomach-ache.
rapport
Hunger
body.
the
gnawing of a Dacota mother

is,
spiritual creature inside the

is
in
sympathetic
is
with her absent children when she

feeling, that
conscious of a
memory-image,
;
in her breasts.
1
They,
she says, are touching her
she touches them.

is
Similarly,
in popular Western thought, a man's ear
red
when an
absent person
is
talking or thinking of him.
by the early Greek from ideation. It was to the effect that objects throw off films of themselves, skeleton outlines, that enter the eye and The Hindu the brain by the " pores of sensation."
The
theory
of vision
held
thinkers illustrates the primitive inferences
Riggs,
Grammar
of the Dacota/2 Language, 211.
278

reflects the external
view was that the soul

eye.
world
of
in the
In order to see the spiritual world, the savage

sight,
either anoints his eyes to acquire an intension
or "sends out his soul" to see

as
it.
The
latter occurs
is
theory of imagination. 1
The
ordinary view
that the images of things are in
some
sort of contact
with the soul
they enter the head of the thinker.
The
savage seer or medicine-man, by the control which
spirits, shows that he was the thinker par excellence of the childhood of the world. He was the first to reach a position of confidence with regard to thought, and mental evolution owes much to his combination of imposture and knowledge. The image not being distinctly located,
he professes over the realm of
room for the various views mentioned. The soul or self may deal with the souls of objects freely, both when they are felt to be in the eye or brain, in
there
is
which case
it
has control over
them
is
just because they
are internal,
and
it is
also
when
it
projected outwards to
reach them.
exteriorised
;
In the latter case they are not necessarily
merely that their location
is
undefined.
Thus
the soul of the subject can act at a distance, and

is
the fact
extremely significant for the development

Inference, deduction,
rise here.
of knowledge.
induction,
and
is
imagination take their
An
early
theory
of
thought and imagination

the
curiously identical
with
modern
it
is
that
in
the
images of things arrange and sort themselves

ing part," his ultimate
the
brain of the thinker, or are so arranged by his " thinkself.
When
same
names
are used
instead of complete images, the
principle holds.
When
man mentions
1
the
touch the thing which the

De
name he is supposed to name symbolises. This is an

iv.
105.
THE SOUL
extension of the
earlier
IN BEING
that
all
279
thought
is
view,
of
the
images, and
is
spiritual contact.
la
Again, the Karens speak of the
of the eye
Maoris of the atua which dwells in the eye. The former becomes the function of vision. A soul may
enter the ear of the subject as a voice.
The
leads
connection of the self with the various images

its
to
being
regarded
as
possessing
sight,
line
or
intelligence, or consciousness generally.
This
of
all
development
is
the opposite of that along which
imagination and even all sensations are ascribed to " spirits." There the images are regarded as self-acting
entities.
When
it.
once the idea of the soul
is
arrived
at,
the
phenomena of dreams
are brought into connection with
The
soul or self sees images during sleep, which

It
enter the head of the sleeper.
may
also leave the
body and make nocturnal journeys in the spirit-land, just as it may do so, when awake, in the act of imagination.
The
soul of a
to a sleeper, 1 just as
awake by entering
man may make its desires known may influence the soul of a man his head. The Mohave Indians of
it
2 California have a well-developed doctrine of dreams.
They hold
luck
is
that they cause " good dreaming."
all
that happens.
Good
is is
obtained
by dreaming
Power over a thing Here the dream of it.

in
equivalent to the image
preperception
and foreas
thought.
The view taken of forethought

we
saw, by the theory of
is
illustrated,
omens and
is
the premonitions
of dreams.
Preperception
a process depending
on
the presence of the image of the thing or act expected.

1
Hewitt, in Journal of American Folklore, viii. 112. 2 Kroeber, in American Anthropologist, iv. 297 f.
280
Forethought depends on the presence of the image of the act to be performed. We now arrive at
the connection between
ideas.
volition
and
this
system ot
The
is
savage holds that
when
man
desires a thing
his soul leaves his
body and goes to

In
is
it.
The
process
identical
with imagination
all
and with magic.

such phenomena
it
will acts at a distance.
The may
be said that the thought

as
father to the wish, inasmuch
image produces the desire or the volition. Unwittingly the savage has hit upon a psychological
the
truth.
The need of embodiment, which

above,
points
is felt
has been illustrated
throughout these processes.

is
From some
test
of view, indeed, the soul of an

object.
the promise or
expectation
Soul
and thing
and
corroborate each other.

Kelvin,
The
savage would agree with

a drawing
who
used to say that he could not understand
a thing unless he could
make
or a model
of
it.
Association
is
freely used.
The
his
savage
ties
knot in order to retain a " soul " he has acquired by

purchase
;
the
modern man knots
handkerchief
developed the
to retain an idea.
When
analytical language
has been
processes of thought and science are simplified.
The
name is easier The name as

of
his soul,
to
work with than

it,
the complete image.
a soul, a man's words as a projection

exercise
an expression of
much
influence
in the later stages
of savage culture. To vitalise an image the Hindu utters a mantra, or speaks its name. The Hopi Indians consecrate objects by prayer. This
gives
a
1 imparts to them " the magic or wish " of the operator.
The Maori
1
soul
to
an image by repeating
iv.
Fewkes, in American Anthropologist,
503.
THE SOUL
a
IN BEING
a
281
has
karakia.
Without
name,
action.
thing
no
real
existence.
It
is
the
same with
in
Not only does

it
the
rehearsal
of an act
thought give
it
contingent
words assures its embodiment. The interaction between the soul and its embodied result is curiously illustrated by many languages in such words as " example," " idea," and " copy," which mean now the original, and now its
realisation,
but the expression of
in
repetition.
name of a thing, whether uttered up the complete idea of it. The effort by which one names an absent thing is similar to that by which one calls up the idea. Its successful achievement is one of the great services of language. From the self as will come such ideas as those of mana and orenda. The magician sends out his will,
In thought, the
felt,
or
calls
as to
he sends out his thinking faculty, to influence and
embody
itself in
an act or an object.
6.
TLthical Applications.
The
principle
of
the
image
brings
action
into
act,
connection
with
ethics.
By
hypothesis,
every
like everything seen, has a soul, its
both before and after
its
image in the brain, Beforehand the execution.

concepts such
soul
are
interis
image
as
is
at
a late
stage explained by
will.
Further, as a
man and
his
changeable for thought, or rather are identical, so

it
with a
man and
;
his acts.
He
is
his acts.
From
one point of view they are his souls, or expressions of his personality from another they are self-subsisting
souls.
ethics,
Thus every crime and

becomes
a
sin,
according to
after
Hindu
demon,
living
man, and
282

men
is
causing other
to
sin
likewise.
In
the subject,
according to circumstances, the image of his act after

its
commission
expressed as satisfaction or remorse.

are
Its
appearances
the
voice
or
is
the
presence
of
conscience.
The
It
criminal's brain
his
literally
obsessed
by the image of
his victim.
crime.
man's curse obsesses
acts,
as all ideas, like a spirit, flitting
and from consciousness, irresponsible and terrible. The Kafir view of conscience clearly shows the The qualms unconscious action of memory-images. " usually seem to him to come as unof conscience
to
reasoned checks almost ab extra.
It is as if
he suffered
if
from some
faculties
alternation
his
of personality, or as of
his
some
and
such
all
all
of
soul had suddenly arisen out of the
strange
hidden
depths
felt."
own
personality
made themselves
Social
1 Frequently he hears a voice.
solidarity
has
been
influenced
all,
by
phenomena.
An
anti-social act affects

it.
because
are conscious of
With
logical appropriateness
may
be punished, therefore, for the sin of one member.
We
find in savage political philosophy such ideas as " the soul of a city." Here is social responsibility.
Again, as in sickness there

so
sin
is
a departure
left its
normal, or the norm or image has

is
from the embodiment,

an ethical
or crime a moral
abnormality,
sickness.
The
normal, as a generalised idea, or soul

has
in
of moral action,
history
always
tended
to
regulate the conduct of the majority of men.
It is,
of course,
is
itself the
conduct of the majority.
Imitation
the result of the consciousness of ideas.
In the earliest language and thought ideas such as " sin " are not material. They are, as always, of
the neutral character
1
we have
described,
and
are
still
Dudley Kidd, The
Essential Kafir, 284.
"
THE SOUL
IN BEING
as
is
283
"
life
combined with the act or the agent, just and object are combined. When the idea
isolated,
it
;
at last
is
it
still
is
neutral
its
reality
is
that of ideas
generally
real
with a difference.
distinction
Latest of
all
comes the
abstract concept.
is
An
interesting
frequently
drawn
in
between the image-soul and the intelligent

the moral
self, as
theory
of
the
Karens.
is
The
ke/ah,
the
;
memory-image of the man,

is
inclined
to evil
it
not, however, regarded as
morally responsible for

the thah,
the acts of the man.

is
The
is
intelligent soul,
the
moral consciousness,
head,
and
the
is
responsible.
In
connection with the thah

in
tso,
reason enthroned
the
which checks and defeats the earthly

Later,
tendencies of the kelah.
such doctrine
was
emphasised in the dualism between body and soul, as

in the
Chinese theory of the earthly and the heavenly

the kwei and
soul,
the shen.
In moral conduct the
dualism develops into the contrast between the ascetic and the sensual life. The Javanese hold that penance and bodily mortification make a man spiritual, 1 and the doctrine forms a considerable feature of the great
religions.
7.
Ideas in relation
to
the Will.
its
The
human
further consideration of volition in
relation
to the system of ideas

activity.
involves the whole circle of

is
The
subject
best illustrated
by the
employment of the category of " play."

introduce this aspect of activity,
In order to
we must make some

and
80.
preliminary observations.
The
1
stages of relation between the subject

<voor Neerland's Indie',
his
Winter, in Tijdsckrift
V.
i.
2,
2,
284

These
the child.
are based on a study of the " First, persons are simply objects,
world are four.
mind of
parts of the material going
on to be presented, mainly
Second, persons
sensations which stand out strong, etc.
are very peculiar objects, very interesting, very active,
very arbitrary, very portentous of pleasure or pain.
If
we
consider these objects as fully presented,
i.e.
as in
due relationship to one another in space, projected out, and thought of as external, and call such objects again
projects,
projects.
then persons at this stage
may
be called personal,
afterwards
They have
certain
peculiarities
found by the child to be the
attributes of personality.
own imitation, as we
Third, his
actions issuing
from himself, largely by

requirements
his
shall see, in response to the

'
of
this
'
projective
as
environment,
having
own
;
organism
their centre
and
his
own
consciousness as
him light on himself as subject and fourth, this light upon himself is reflected upon other persons to illuminate them as also subjects, and they to him then become ejects or social fellows." *
their theatre, give
We
all
quote this account for

stages are
its
applicability to the
process of perception, in which at
its
highest development
four
combined, and also to the con-
templation
image.
of the result of perception, the memorysubject
Our
now
enters a wider field, that of
the whole activity of the organism.

said
What
has been
and repeated previously will enable us to take a way through it. This wider field illustrates the supreme importance of the principle of the soul. Repetition is essential for the development of the
short
organism
in
every aspect of
its
growth.
The mechanics
of activity, with
to
deal.
of development are the same
as those
which and
1
its
results
we have now
The
J.
M. Baldwin, Mental Development in the Child and the Race
(189 5), 18.
THE SOUL
process, simply stated,
is
IN BEING
Though
is
285
the fact
circular.
it
of consciousness
is
unexplainable,
doubtless
is
bound
neuro-
up with
this circularity.
A
is
stimulus
;
applied, which
develops an image in the brain
this releases
muscular energy, which

to which the
central
expressed in motor-activity,
again reacts, and so on
result
is
organ
round the
circle.
The main
the explosion
of energy, produced by the " trigger-release " of the central organ, but the essential condition is the image}
No
image, no action.
calls
In every case there

out.
is
an idea
which
the
action
Repetition
habit.
produces
physiological
and
psychological
It
is
Habit
is
readiness for function. 2
influenced by variation.
The breaking-up of habits to meet new conditions is known as accommodation. The habitual form of mental
accommodation
claims attention
is is
attention,
and the stimulus which a memory-image. 3 The supreme
form of attention
volition
is
is volition, but the original end of simply the image or picture which starts the
4
imitative
attention.
5
reaction.
The image
;
in
the
mind
is
the
;
The
feeling of will supervenes at the
end
6
just as
all
emotions are results

in
this
they follow, instead

idea.
of preceding or accompanying expression of the
Our
in
object
section
in general
is
to
illustrate
the
importance of the idea

the circular process
central system.
motor-expression and
imagination without motor external activity, where

is
confined
more or
less
to the
have to speak further, therefore, of habit and imitation in connection with the image.
Imitation has been described as the bridge between
1
We
Baldwin, Mental Development

Id. 292.
'
in
the Child
and
the Race, 275.
The
phrases Auslosung, d/tente, are used for this release.

2 8 6
Id. 234.
Id.
237.
W.
James, Textbook of Psychology, 235. Baldwin, op. cit. 229.
286

]
the self and the external world
the description
imitating,
would
self
is
apply
better
to
the idea
in
the
is
walking over the bridge.
The memory-image
this.
the
mechanical imitative product of the sensory system, and

the whole organic activity imitates
The image
is
the copy set for reproduction both in perception and in

action.
as
There
is
always a slight change in repetition
we
never experience the same sensation twice, so

act the
we never has made

tion
same
twice.
Repetition, or imitation,
the brain a repeating organ. the

3
This centralisa-
relieves
organism of the dependence upon

an extension of the principle,
in
direct sense-stimulation.
Imitation of others
is
and explains social psychology of crowds

All consciousness
impulsive,"
4
solidarity
general
and
the
in particular.
;
motor it is " in its very nature and always has motor results. The idea is
is
the cue, but one idea
may
inhibit another.
Play
the
is
a loose but descriptively
useful term,
to
symbolise free activity, mental and physical, of which

characteristics
are
unconsciousness of everything
its
except the activity and
immediate ends
result
imitation
discharge of superabundant vigour, otherwise the law
of excess.
In early stages
its
is
educational, in
later relaxative.
Its conditions are
preperception and
Its result
is
the innervation of already exercised organs.

is
motor or mental action

In
its
its
sign of approval
the
supervening feeling of pleasure.

crudest form, examples are the
movements of
muscles in handling a walking-stick, smoking a pipe,
and so on.
In
its
creative activity of the artist's brain.

1
most imaginative form it is the Between these we

2
Baldwin,
op. at.
281.
4
Id.
226.
Id. 301.
W.
James,
op. at.
427.
'
THE SOUL
IN
BEING
287
have the play of children and of savages, and the play
of organised sports and games.
Man,
plays,
it
has been said,

is
is
man
chiefly because he
plays.
and he
most completely man when he
Young
insects,
like.
.
animals of a purely instinctive species, most " Their lives are entirely businessnever play.
.
are full
The young of the higher animals, however, of play. The higher the animal, the more capable
.
of making physical and mental acquirements, the more

sportive
it
is.
Man, unlike most

l
animals, loves sport

is
even
child
in
extreme old age, because even in old age he

"
somewhat capable of learning."

is
The very young

'
content with play that involves mere
physical
activity.
is
When
the baby
moves
his limbs aimlessly,
he
learning to
move them
purposefully.
totters
When he
he
is
crawls
on hands and knees, or
on uncertain
feet,
he
is
learning to co-ordinate his muscles
...
for
supplying
them with the stimulus necessary

little
growth.
The
dandle
girl
.
dandles her doll

. .
as
later
she will
her baby.
The games of
older children, especially
those of boys, almost always involve a contest.
Not
only do they tend to increase strength and

the
intellectual faculties
2
are
but brought into play and

activity,
developed."
cal
This account emphasises the teleologiits
importance of the impulse, but
other aspects
are
of equal psychological
possibilities.
Man
has
infinitely
more "
is
habit "-potentiality than any animal.

all
Some have
art.
seen in the play-impulse the origin of

little
There
the
doubt that
man owes
The
a great deal
to
thousands of years passed in freedom before

of the ancient type began.
ages,
civilisation
whose
of the
results are for

1
some
a collection of curiosities
G. Archdall Reid, The Principles of Heredity*, 241. 2 G. A. Reid, op. at. 242.
288
savage mind, were the -play-time of the world, in which man was educated for maturity.
Adults, apart
from physical
is
play,
carry
on
the
mental play of children, with a difference.

it
has been well said,
the child plus
The man, mind, though we

mind
is
do not admit
even to
the
that the quality of the

infant's,
It
is
it
superior
is
merely
developed
and
experienced.
certainly
not superior, except in
experience, to the
mind of
the child just before puberty.
However
that
may
be, the adult plays
with his mind.
We
are to speak of his free use of the contents of his
inner world, where at times

these contents are images.
we
all
have freedom, and

of
the
child's
is
Mental
chief
exaltation
play
is
really
the
form
in
activity.
;
Its
characteristic
is
the
latter
its
mode
identification
of self with object,
by shifting personality,
perception.
a result of the early stage of
"
The world of
ideas has been strikingly

is
to the blood.
In the blood, which
compared formed out of
from the external world, the organism has an internal world, milieu interieur which makes it to some extent independent of the external
nutritive matter derived
y
world.
internal
Similarly consciousness has in
its
free ideas
an
medium, which is formed out of previous sensations, and which makes it capable of leading its own life, even when the supply of fresh sensations a The lonely child and the solitary thinker have fails." thus not invisible but mentally visible playmates and
objects of play in their world of images.
In dreaming we have an automatic form of play,
from which volition where and as it will.

1
is
absent.
The
play leads
us
It is interesting to
note that the
HOffding, Outlines of Psychology, 127.
THE SOUL
moral judgment
is
IN BEING
1
289
acquire
absent in dreams.
Dreams
a mythological character.
In language, the use and development of metaphors
mythology and artistic creation, it is the motive principle, and makes full use of analogy and association. In the waking consciousness the world of souls or ideas supplies to the self all forms of aesthetic and emotional The sentimentalist calls up the images of his activity. the religious mind witnesses a drama of past emotions good and evil, or the relations of himself and God.
is
an
example of play.
In
The
average imagination plays with the souls of
its
ordinary experiences, and even here tends to become

mythological.
and the man of science differ in that the former has as his aim not the agreement with certain definite percepts, but " the creation of a concrete and individual form, quite apart from the question whether
The
artist
or no an absolutely similar form exists in reality."
The
desire for play
of sensory images
is
at the
back of
artificial
most of our free thought. No means of enhancing the exaltation produced The by such play in its more distinctive forms.
people has ever lacked
trance-like condition produced, for instance, in hearing
music
is
not an absence of volition, any more than
is
the exaltation of the child
when
playing a part
3
it is
Thus we form of it, namely, concentrated attention. have in the exaltation produced by various stimulants and drugs a curious problem as to where volition ceases. In the exercises of " pure reason " the same
man plays with the " fetishes of the " intellect as a child with her dolls.
principles hold
: 1
Mitchell, Dreams, 45.

3
Hoffding,
op. cit.
180.
K. Groos, The Play of Man (E.T.)
(1901), 26.
19
29o

is
Passing on to motor-activity, the law of dynamogenesis

that, as biologically
we have
contractility, so
psychologically every sensation

action
child
:
tends to bring about

In the
the idea tends to be realised externally.
and the savage this tendency is extremely powerful. This explains why in religion ritual preceded belief. It is a form of the remarkable spontaneity shown by the unsophisticated mind. As we have seen,
all
consciousness
is
motor. 1
it
Action-play
is
the perfect
;
type of the principle, but
involves thought-play
interact.
the
two
are
complementary and
Now,
instead of philosophic brooding and introspec-
and the child play, partly in imagination The savage, when alone, but mostly in motor-action. not disabled by hunger, fatigue, or danger, plays not
tion, the savage
only at warfare, but at anything that occurs to him.
As
it
this generalisation leads to
important conclusions
precisely the character
will be well to define

It
is
more
of play.
based
a psychic make-believe or self-illusion,
on imitation of observed reality, that is, of things and memory-images. The illusion is unconsciously willed reality forms a background for
;
the drama.
object
object.
artists.
The
is
child takes the personality of every
that interests
him
shifts
he
is,
more or
to
less,
the
This
the case with most visuals and with

his
The
child
personality
various
still
objects,
and often
self.
is
carries
on a living dialogue,
importance.
conscious of
This distinction between personality

the
highest
2
and
the
self
of
not
We
may
that
therefore
repeat.
are
Hypnotic experiments prove

the
two
same.
"
When we
transform
the subject into a soldier, a dancer, a child, a bishop,

1
See above, p. 286.
See
J.
M. Baldwin,
Thoughts and Things,
i.
no.
THE SOUL
of these different roles
'
IN BEING
291
or a goat, he adopts the language and the gestures

;
but he does not cease to say

sensations
and of his acts, to have a self that is to say, a kind of point of insertion for all the sensitive and motor impressions 1 The whole process, which take place within him." and the co-ordination or identity of will, feeling, and Speaking of idea, are as well exemplified in children.
I
'
in
speaking
of
his
the motor-force of an
tionalities,
idea,
in
which "
all
convenare
its
proprieties,
alternatives,
hesitations,
swept
away,
and
the
developed
mind
reveals
reactive elements," Baldwin
from remarks that " the patient observation of the movements of a child " would have " put it among the safest generalisations of the science
skeleton
structure, so to speak, its composition
of mind."
it
The
shifting of personality
is
automatic
follows the same steps as
we have
seen in language.
Thus, besides the posing as a mother or an enginedriver by the girl or boy in alternation with the
roles of the baby and the engine, either may deal with the doll or toy-locomotive as the mother or driver ; that is, the girl does not always trouble to
make
are
the doll answer
her
own remarks and treatment

child's
it
enough.
has
Again, though the

reality.
it
is
desires a sensible support for its idea,
imagination " prefers a " tag

individuality
a
which
little
"
The
less
doll has, the
more
.
appreciated by the child,
who
can the better

characters.
.
utilise it as a lay-figure in
.
many
different
The
doll serves as a kind of skeleton

3
for the child to clothe with fantastic attributes."
It
1 Richet, " La Personnalite et la memoire dans Revue p/iilosophique, March 1883. 2 Mental Development, 5. J. M. Baldwin,
le
somnambulisme,"
in
Galton, Inquiries 1 75.

,
19 a
292
is

concerned with
scientific
not
concepts,
but
with
images.
animal
even
Again,
it is
easy for the child to pose as an

;
as inanimate objects
have known a
way.
child play at being a cake in the
most
realistic
The
is
points to be observed are that the child does
not do this by way of

a need
mummery
or amusement.
its
It
of
its
life,
and a condition of
absolutely serious
mental
development.
ness, the
As
such, and in the child's consciousis

;
proceeding
but the child

it
does not believe in the reality of the illusion

addresses as a person
creates.
it
It does not either believe that the inanimate thing

is
any mother when Thus self-illusion, and the law of imitadfcg her. development by imitation, meet in play, and the bridge between them is the image in the mind. The earliest men got through life on mental habit,
a person, or even alive,
its
more than
it
believes itself to be
automatically imitating ideas in action.
The
principle
of embodiment
action.
is
another way of looking at the motor-
force of the idea,
which
insists
on being
realised
in
Thus, for each idea a child needs a

artist
;
doll.
So does the man.

It
so did Kelvin
and so did primitive
will
be
seen that this normal characteristic of
the
host
early
stages
so-called
of
mental development explains

of the
savage.
of
peculiarities
His
nor
magical practices need
not be thought
unique,
need
it
be said that they are altogether sober earnest.
Fetishism, shamanism, mimetic and sympathetic magic,
and the
ritual
of totemism, are early motor-expressions
its associations. The notions of exchange and transference of souls, of the acquisition of new souls, the ideas of incarnation and possession,
of the idea and
the
embodiment of
the
soul
in animals
and
objects,
THE SOUL
the whole
IN BEING
293
doctrine of the external soul, are no less

ritual,
examples of play than are
and the mummeries

at
of the
the
shaman.
The
of the
or
first
attempt
realising
an
to
abstraction
may
be seen in the play of the child and
imposture
the
shaman when
the
soul.
pretending
further
abstract
essence
detail
may be illustrated by the Egyptian belief in the ka. As the ka is immortal and eternal, it is necessary that its monument and the ritual connected with it should be eternal also. This is a curious tribute to " common
1
sense reality,"
a sort of hedging against the chances
of the
soul.
round the whole of savage culture. When the Algonkins failed to fin4: game, they had a " medicine-hunt." Little images (why little ?) of the desired animal were made, set up, stalked, and shot. The same process was followed by a man who wished to injure an enemy, according to 2 Sympathetic the world-wide magic use of " images." magic is itself " play," automatic, more than half believed in, for here the end is revenge or the making a profit out of nature. But in cases like the following, which might be multiplied indefinitely, we have pure
principle
The
goes
play.
When
chief,"
It
3
Fijian of
Yasawu
asks permission of
the tree before taking a coco-nut, "
May
eat you,
my
he
is
seriously playing, but not in sober
earnest.
has frequently been noted that even the

half disbelieves his
savage sorcerer half believes and
magical power.
When
the
Toradja,
before he taps
it,
a tree for palm-wine, behaves as a wooer, talks to

1
W. M.
J.
Flinders Petrie, in Transactions of the Third International

i.
Congress for the History of Religions (Oxford, 1908),

2 3
187.
Tanner, Narrati-ve,
J.
etc.
74.
,
Fison to
G. Frazer, The Golden Bough 2
i.
170.
294
and asks

its
1
hand
it
is
in
marriage, finally
say that this
:
embracing
it
with ardour,
we cannot
is
sober earnest,
nor yet that

does
;
mummery
The
it is
exactly what a child
it is
real play.
observer
may misunderstand
argue that
the savage, just as an adult misunderstands a child.
Again, in the custom of marrying

it
trees, to
is
not merely a figurative or poetical sense of the

case,
word understates the

because
is
or rather ignores the true
principle, while to assert that the

trees
all
ceremony
be
fallacy.
it
is
performed
2
are
believed to
actually animated
from
it
points
of view a
A
is
tree,
like
everything in nature, has a soul, but

that
does not follow
has
life.
Of
course the savage

plant-life,
aware of
the obvious
phenomena of
but he does not
raise this to a
human
vitality.
The
savage, moreover,
speaks
to
these
objects as he speaks to
everything,
and
as a child speaks, personally, according to the laws
of primitive language. 3
The remarkable
religious ceremonies
of the Central
Australians have provided material for various inferences.
To
confine our attention to those which have no economic end, we read " it is astonishing how large a part of a native's life is occupied with the performance
of these ceremonies,
the
enacting of which
extends
sometimes over the whole of two or three months, during which time one or more will be performed 4 daily." The dramatic character of the performances
1
J.
Kreemer,
xli.
in Mededeelingen 'van
nvege het Nederlandsch Zendeling
Genootschap,
2
123.
asserts,
As
Frazer
The Golden Bough*,
i.
169.
3
4
See above, pp. 41-45. Spencer and Gillen, The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (1904),
ff.
177
THE SOUL
is
IN BEING
295
very elaborate
the dresses are fantastic in material,

;
being birds'
patterns
are
down gummed with human blood

of the usual
early
the
savage
style.
organisation and stage
management
full to
are perfect.
The The
like
accounts must be read in
get an adequate picture.
Solemn movement, and
stately dances, very
much
those of a Greek tragic chorus, combined with song and
some dialogue the whole performance being imitative the result of some natural process or social function,
example of motor-activity in its highest form, that is, in which all the powers of the organism are employed together, much as in the opera. But this is on the face of it religious. Here
is
a marvellous concrete
we must
to use the
distinguish.
The
observers carefully refuse
word
" religious," but the performances are
merely complete examples of " religious " ceremonies
found elsewhere.
right in
There
is
little
;
doubt that they are

but
if so,
it
must be withheld from a good deal of savage ceremonial and

withholding the term
belief.
Of
course religion has not yet been defined,
and the further we go back into savage culture the more homogeneous it is. However that may be, we find that the Australian boy is free till the age of
fourteen.
into
After initiation his

:
life
is
sharply divided
two parts the ordinary business of the foodand, secondly, search and social duties and relaxations " what gradually becomes of greater and greater importance to him, and that is the portion of his life
;
devoted to matters of a sacred or secret nature.

he grows older he takes an increasing share
until
finally
in
As
these,
this side
of his
life
occupies by far the

sacred ceremonies
greater part of his thoughts.
The
which appear very

are
trivial
matters to
the white
man
most serious matters to him."
They
are connected
296
THE
IDEA OF
THE SOUL
spirit-
with the great ancestors, and he believes that his

part will after death be in
If this
is
is
communion with them. 1

it
not religion
is
play
and even
if
it
religion
It
it is
play none the
less.
does not seem to have ever been observed that
in the natural state
and when untouched by religious
education, children have no religious ideas or impulses.
Religion
is
an adult growth.
;
Where
the child plays,
the adult prays
both actions are forms of one and
the same psychical necessity, which
we know
of
as play.
And what
mind
is
is
the world with which
concerned?
the
religious
the
world
spirits,
that
is,
the world of souls, of
memory-images of
reality,
the
duplicate of the outer universe, the world of thought.
In
see
all
imagination, free play with images,
we can
mind of
; ;
the same process, varying according to the con-
ditions.
The
external object produces in the

;
the subject a soul

in art
this the subject gives

it
out as an eject
and mechanical creation

it
;
is
new thing
it is
in
general
is
an act
for early religion

it is
a fetish
;
or a
in
rite
in
metaphysical religion
it
is,
the Absolute
psychology
after
all,
but
form of Maya,
Illusion.
8.
Conclusion.
in
We
have attempted
our sketch
of primitive of
psychology to trace the origin of the idea of the soul,
and have found the

ness of
result
to bear out our claim
the importance of this idea.
In the religious consciousanalysis
man,
in
his scientific
of the world,
In the former
its
the idea has played a supreme part.

it
has tended to survive

1
one or other of
op. cit. 33,
early
Spencer and Gillen,
34.
THE SOUL
aspects retains
after
IN BEING
reality. critical
297
In the latter,
a
as
metaphysical
a
serving
guide
for
it
thought,
its
it
is
gradually abandoned
when
its
has served
purpose.
its
In popular thought and in artistic creation

is
action
always illustrative of
nature,
though
in
these
two spheres the question of its ultimate truth is rarely a subject of serious consideration. It remains here, uncriticised, as a working principle of activity, a permanent possibility of reality.
last
INDEX
Native names and terms are printed
in italics.
Ab,
80
f.,
Analysis, 17, 31,61, 191
f.,
236
ff.
ff.,
258,
Abipone8, 162 Abnormality, 6
276
9
f.,
f.,
12
f.,
18,
282
Abstraction, 9, 11, 16 248, 293 Abyssinia, 227
26, 28
f.,
Ancestors, 8, 102, 167, 169 Andamanese, 135, 198, 277
53
f.,
Andiau, 109 Anganga, 94 Angels, 187
Acagchemems, 269
Act, 281 f. Action, 9, 20, 32, 254, 264, 284, 290 Adelaide, 86
f.
^"gga
"7
Angushtha-matra, 144
Africans, 49, 167-80 West, 81, 172-9, 227, 230, 238, 246,
Anima, 186, 256 Animals, 10, 20, 29 Animatism, 4, 6, 10

257, 262
f.,
19
ff.,
41,
44
f.,
255, 260, 264, 272, 274 South, 81, 167-72

East, 179
f.,
Animism, 256
ff.,
7,
10,
12,
41,
44,
275
After-image, 72 Agent, 257, 264, 276
Animus, 186, 256 Anthropology, 2 f., 11
f.,
36
Aggregate of souls, 272 Agi, 1 1 Ahts, 154 Aina, 133, 269 Ainu, 269 Aka, 178 Akikuyu, 179 f. Alcheringa, 87 Algonquins, 156, 293 Alimentation, 48 ff. Allah, 105
Alsea, 269 Altaians, 145
Anthropomorphism, Any, 133, 268

Apaches, 38 Arabs, 184, 229
Articulation, 31
19, 41,
257
Arumburinga, 87 Arunta, 87 f. Asaba, 177, 195, 260, 272

Asceticism, 283
Asiatics, 144-51
Association, 53, 64, 165, 243
ff.
Ata, 90
Atai, 94 ff, 195 Ati-vahika, 141 Atjeh, 119
Atji, 123
Ambiroa, 133 Ambon, 1 14 Amenophis, 182 f, Americans, 151-62, 261, 269, 279 f. North, 1 5 1-7, 263 f., 270 f., 272, 277, 293 Central, 157-9, 263 South, 159-62, 263 f., 266, 270 Ameroy, 133 A'nirua, 109 Analogy, 10, 20, 243 ff., 256 f.
Atman, 141 Atmosphere, 264, 268 f. Atoms, 234 Attention, 236, 238 f., 285 Attributes, 35, 247 Atua, 90 f., 95, 274, 279 Auditory phenomena, 70, 92, 100
Aurora, 100
ff., 108, 123, 128, 162, 177, 185, 259, 282
299

Character, 273
Australians, 8, io, 14, 19, 39, 42, 50, 60, 82-9, 208, 213, 219, 221, 269 Central, 87 f., 294 ff.
Char os, 186

Cherokees, 48 Chi, 177 f., 195, 260 Children, 13 f., 16, 24, 29, 43, 48, 107, 183, 227, 232, 252, 287, 289-92,
South, 82-7, 232, 234, 239 Awe, 6, 9, 17
Ba, 180 f. Babar, 114 Baby, 187

Badi, 124, 129 Bahau-Dayaks, 106 Bakairi, 162 f., 194 Bakulu, 177, 196 Banks' Islands, 101 Bantu, 167, 213
Basis of religion,
I
f.
294
Chinese,
ff.
1,
162-7, !94i 2 2 8, 214,
f.
Basutos, 42 Bataks, 110-3, 235, 277
Bath
kol,
185
Bavili, 177,
196
ff.
225 f., 234, 238, 240, 244, 274, 283 Chinooks, 153, 231 Chippewas, 156 Chiivilili, 177 Choctaw, 45, 230 f. Christians, 185 ff, 216, 232, 242, 244, 255 f. Chukchi, 144 f. Chuku, 177 f. Churinga, 87 Chuwashes, 150
Clan, 36
Classification,
20 Begu, 112
Bechu,
1
40
Bengal, 141
Bilocation, 8, 13 Biology, 7 f., 48, 232, Birds, 243 f.
Clay, 229
234
Cognition, 23, 250 Colour, 101 f., 117, 121, 135, 221 f. Combination, 7, 17, 21, 214, 219, 226,
Bismarck Archipelago, 103, 226, 266 f., 237 ff. Body, 14, 180, 212 ff., 218, 235, 251 Bolaang Mongondu, 116 Borneo, 106 ff., 243 Bororo, 162 Brahman, 141 f. Brain, 239 Brazil, 60, 208 Bruiva, 106 Buddhists, 262 Budding, 234
Blood, 18
Bugis, 1 18 f. Bulabong, 83 Bulgarians, 150
245 f., 258 Companion, 115

f.
Conception, 233 ff. Concepts, 7, 17, 21 Concrete, 9, 16
f.
Congo, 172
Conscience, 246, 282 Consciousness, 12, 58, 256 Control by spirits, 266-72
Copy,
281
Coreans, 263 f., 269 Crabbah, 175, 227 Creation, 229 f. Cry, 31, 50
Cryptomonotheism, 8
Burma, 136
Buru, 114
Buryats, 145
ff.,
244
Daemon, 259
f.
Dayaks,
104-10,
f.,
195, 226,
235, 240,
Bushmans, 72 Butterfly, 244

Calabar, 173
f.
242, 259
271
f.
Dead
bodies, 4, 17
of, 7,
Dead, souls
California, 41 Callagaes, 162
11, 14, 190, 212,
217
ff.
Death, 217 Death, 4, 16
f.,
212, 217
ff.,
224, 267
Cannibalism, 18
Caribs, 162, 195, 236, 239 Carnivores, 18
Decay, 224, 244 Definition, 231

Deities, 1, 4, 8, 19, 177, 265, 270,
272
Causation, 8
f.,
241, 257
Ceba, 97 f. Celebes, 115-9, 2 43> 2 *>
Delawares, 156 Delirium, 13 Denes, 153, 223, 231
Ceram, 114 Ceylon, 42 f.

Chahtas, 155
280 Development, 227 Disease, 4, 275

Desire,
ff.,
232, 234
Dispersonalisation,
40
INDEX
Divisibility,
301
f.
233
Ewe-speakers, 175
Exaltation, 288
f.
Djinnee, 184
Dogs, 10
Dolls, 104, 109,
Dooiuee,
in
f.,
ft".,
114, 116, 15;,
179, 287, 290
293
Example, 281 Excrescence, 231 Expansion, 228 ft"., 231

Extension, 15
Exteriorisation, 30 External soul, 7, 178
f.,
86
Doppelg'dnger, 182, 188, 193 Double, J J, 193
227
Doubles, 188, 193
f.,
227
Drama, 295 Drawing, 72, 249, 280 Dreams, 4 f., 13 ft'., 16, 21, 85, 211, 279, 288 f. Dream-theory, 13 ft"., 77, 102 Dualism, 251 f., 257, 277, 283
Dubbelganger, ill Duplication, 7 f., 13, 15, 177 188, 193 Dusha, 150 Dushichka, 150
f.,
Extract, 239 Eye, 91, 159
f.,
187, 199, 240, 279
Fainting, 215
Family, 36 Fanahy, 133, 195 Fanany, 1 34 f. Fancy, 5

Fat,
181
ft".,
239
Dynamogenesis, 290
Earth-spirit,
Father, 235 Fear, 18 of thought, 213, 225 f., 265 Feeling, 17, 29, 33, 36, 253 f. Fetishism, 240, 292
Fiji,
ft*.
187
7,
95-9, 197, 199, 209, 223, 232, 261,
East Indies,
104-33,
f.,
9%i 2I<> > 2I 9i

f.,
269, 293
224, 230
239
f.,
243, 245, 261
283
Echo, 90, 162
Economy,
linguistic,
190
f.,
197
mental, 80, 240, 258 Edge of world, 269

Edsieto, 175
222 man, 8 Fission, 234 Flesh, 239 Fontanel, 239

Fire,
First
Efate, 103 Egypt, ancient, 180-3, "94
f->
2 55> 2 o,
Food, 48 f. Food-group, 30, 36 Force, 6 Forethought, 279 f.
293 modern, 184

Eidolon, 185
Eject, 216,
f.
Form,
9, 16, 215,
230
f.,
235, 241
284
Fors, 179 Fotomana'va, 95 Fravashi, 144
Elohim, 105
Emanation, 230
Embodiment, 225-35, Embryo-soul, 229

Emekhet, 148
ft".
2 ^ 2 9 2
Fuegians, 34, 37 Function, 231, 237, 240, 275 Funeral, 7 Fusion, 226, 245 ft"., 258
f.
Emmatvarri, 159 f., 195, 199 Emotion, 9, 94, no, 277 Energy, 240 f.
English, 40, 219 f. Epilepsy, 13 Erect posture, 269
Games, 287
Gana,
no
Ga-speakers, 176, 238 Geelvinks Bay, 104
Gender, 12, 45 General terms,
28
f.,
34
f.,
40
f.,
Eskimo, 72, 151, 232, 239 Esmangen, 1 14 Essence, 242 Essence, 168, 174, 241 f., 274
Ethereality, 15 Ethics, 134, 140, 256, 281 Ethnology, 23, 28, 81 Euahlayi, 10, 86
53 Generalisation, 34, 40, 53, 211, 246
Germ-plasm, 233 Germans, 45 Gesture, 32, 46 Ghost, 189 f., 219
ft".
f.
Europeans, 72,
2 35 2 43
Evil, 49,
185-8, 208,
221,
229,
*77
266
f.
Ghosts, 5, 10, 18, 21, 83, 190, 219 ft. colour of, 89, 221 f. God, 261 Gods, 1, 4, 8, 19, 177, 265, 270, 272 Gold Coast, 175
302
Good, 49
Gorilla, 32

Idea, the term, 67 Idea of soul, 1, 75
Ideal, 8
ff.,
193-6, 296
f.
Gorontalese, 119 Grand-parents, 233
Greeks, 19, 185
f.,
188,
197,
234
f.,
Ideas, 57 Ideation,
ff.
69
ff.
255, 277 Greenlanders, 151, 223, 239

f.,
243
IdMozi, 172, 245

Ie-kyla,
148
ff.
Growth, 228
184, 259
f.,
234
Ikenya, 178
Illusions,
Guardians, 112, 120, 144, 155, 169, 178,

f.
220
f.,
290
Guiana, 159-61, 263 Guinea, 174
f.,
266, 270
New, 104 Gwumi, 122

Gutturals, 32
Images, 13 ff, 64, 75 ff., 119, 139, 200, 249, 257 f., 266, 293 Imagination, 21, 278, 289, 296 Imitation, 46, 282, 285 f. Immortality, 211 f.
Impersonality, 9, 11 Inanimation, 20 f., 109, 114, 120, 128,
Habit, 17, 285
Hades, 94
ff.,
101
f.,
138, 269
16, 194,
f.
Haidas, 38, 154 Hallucination, 5, 7
137, 160, 164, 260 ff. Incarnation, 13, 225, 292 Incompleteness, 229
India,
19, 51, 135-44, 195, 198, 206, 224, 226, 233, 235, 263, 277 f.,
f.,
221
Halmahera, 122 Hambaruan, 109 f., 226 Hardness, 229 Harulcu, 114 Hati, 180 Hawaii, 42 Haze-soul, 228 f. Head, 239 Health, 224 Hearing, 66 Heaven, 84 Hebrews, 44, 184 f., 272
Heroes, 8
280
ff.
Individualisation, 7, 35,
240
Indo-Europeans, 46 Inference, 14, 16 f., 257, 278

Innervation, 33 Insanity, 13 Inspiration, 13
Institutions,
1,
Intellect, 2, 23,
179
f.,
276
Intensity, 14 Interjection, 31 f., 36 Invisible agents, 5
Hervey Islands, 93 264
f.,
195,
199, 245,
Hidatsas, 155, 263, 270 f. Hill Toradjas, 1 17 Hindus, 51, 139-44, 195, 198, 206, 224, 226, 233, 235, 263, 277 f., 280 ff. Hlubis, 169
Inward parts, 92 Irish, 10 Iron, 230 Iroquois, 40, 155 ha, 179, 275
Italy, 19 Itongo, 169,
f.,
240
f.,
239
Holophrase, 30 ff., 47 f. Holopsychosis, 62, 241 Homoeomeria, 234 Homunculus, 1 17, 187, 201
Izitunze/a,
Izitunzi,
245 68
f.
168
Honduras, 157
Hopis, 280
Horde, 36 Horses, 10 Horus, 180 Hurons, 9, 155 Hivun, 164 Hyle, 235 Hyle, 235
Hypnosis, 258 Hysteria, 13
Ibos, 177, 195 Idaki, 155
Idea, 186, 188, 235,
Japanese, 45 Java, 123, 243, 283 Jiya, 141 f., 195, 255 J'ltva, 123 ff.
"Jun'i,
122
Ka, 180-3, '94 *> 2 6o, 293 Kafirs, 8, 14, 20 f., 59, 72
f.,
167-72,
194, 208, 211, 213, 231, 251, 266, 273, 282
245
f.,
281
Kahukahu, 90 Kajans, 108 Kaka, 112 Kakeduang, 115 Kalmucks, 145 Kam, 147
INDEX
Kamchadales, 145 Kamlanie, 147 Karahang, 109 Karakia, 281
Karens, 136-9, 194, 240, 260, 271, 277, 279, 283 Karina, 184 Karo Bataks, no, 112
Katotouan,
1 1
303
ff.
Location of souls, 267 Logic, 38 Lolo, 133 Lower Fraser, 153 Luck, 271
Luivo, 175
Kavirondo, 176 Kei, 114 Kelak, 136-9, 194-260, 283 Kelat, 144 f. Kha, 180 Khaib, 180 Khaibet, 180 Khat, 180 Khi, 164, 274 Khu, 180, 255
Khunke-kkurulkha, 146 Khurulkha, 146 Kilma, 179
Macusis, 159-61, 195 f., 199 Madagascar, 133-5, x 95> 2 ^8 Madis, 179, 196, 275
f.
Madura, 119
Mae wo, 100

Magic, 274, 292 Mai-urli, 87 Majority, 282
f.
Makassar, 1 18 f. Mala-ekat, 120 Malagasy, 133-5, IO <5> 2 ^8 f. Malayo - Polynesians, 104-33, J 93 ^1 230 f., 239, 261 f., 277 f. Malays, 123-9, 2 3> 2o(>5 2 *6 222 , 230 f., 235, 243, 261, 269, 277,
Kindjin Dayaks,
Kisar,
1
no
14
Knots, 280 Knowledge, 29, 33, 37 Korivar, 104 Kot, 103 f. Kra, 175 f. Krumen, 174 Kukanna-ivurraivina, 90 Kurds, 41 Kurnai, 83 ff. Kivei, 163 ff., 283
283 Malekula, 103 Man, 287
Mana, 9, 51, Manchus, 44
90, 102, 242, 281
Manes, 186 Manes, 18 Mantra, 280 Maoris, 90 f., 223, 279 f. Marianne Islands, 92 Marquesas, 99
Marriage, 42 Maryland, 10 Mata-kanan, 108 Mata-kiba, 109 Material, 235, 241
228,
239,
274,
La, 136-9, 271, 279 Lamoa, 116 Land Dayaks, 107 Language, 17, 20 ff., 28
246, 280 origin of, 28-55 Laos, 135, 238 Lehmbutam, 122 Lenape, 156
Leti,
ff, 45,
191,
Materialism, 256
Materiality, 19
Matoatoa, 133 Matter, 235
114
Maya, 141, 296 Medicine, 274

Medicine-men,
Melanesia,
f.,
Leyp-bya, 136 Liau, 109 f., 226

Life, 21, 192, 217, 238, 261 f. Life, 5 ff, 16 f., 20 f., 45, 261
9,
278
96-104,
195,
198,
9,
15,
222, 242, 274 276,
Memory,
294
Lika mankua, 227 Ling, 163 f. Linga, 141, 195 Linguistics, n, 32 Lisoka, 177 Lithuania, 186 Living bodies, 4, 7, 17
Living, souls Loakal, 162
of, 7, II,
212, 217
ff.
70 ff, 193 ff, 220 ff., 249, 260 ff., 266, 285 f. Mens, 256 Mental evolution, 2, 25 f., 50, 59, 80 f. Mentawei, 120 Method, 2, 12, 22 ff. Mexicans, 40, 48 Minahassa, 115 f., 228 Minangkabau, 113 f., 231 Mind, 256
Memory -
47, 176 image, 64,
1 1
304

Nkulu, 177 Nootkas, 152, 207 Normality, 5, 7, 22 Noso, 120 Noso-dodo, 120 f. Nouns, 31, 37
Mind, 23, 255, 288 Mindanao, 120 Ming, 163 f. Miniature, 7, 201 ff., 230, 232
Mirage, 134, 198
Mirrors,
5,
198, 252
f.
Mohave, 279
Moko-tnoko, 121
Molecules, 234 Moluccas, 114 f.
Nunu, 10 Nunuai, 100 f., 195 Nusalaut, 114 Nutrition, 274

Oajaca, 159 Object, 8, 10, 20, 36, 41, Observation, 24, 28, 236
Oiaron, 156,
Mon, 178, 255 Monotheism, 8

Mother, 235 Motion, 241
Motor-activity, 30
284
272
ff.
Motor-phenomena, 70 Mourning, 7, 17 Moyo, 172 f.
Ojebways, 156
Olfactory phenomena, 186, 222
Mrart,
83
Mullooivil, 86
Olo-Dusun, 109 Olo-Ngadju, 109 Omens, 213

Optics,
f.
Mulungu, 177, 272
234
Mummy,
8i
Murup, 83
Muscular sense, 65 Music, 70 Muskogees, 157
Mystery, 6, 9, 17 Mythology, 7 ff., 45, 289
Oregon, 157 Or en da, 9, 281 Organs of speech, 48

Oromatua, 92
Otomi, 40
Ovaherero, 167
Pain, 275, 277 Panoi, 10
Naga,
43
Nagual, 157 Nakelo, 98 Names, 28-55, 31, 55, 180, 191, 233, 243, 248, 278 ff., 281 Nanja, 87
Narbrooi, 104 Narcissus, 198
Pantheism, 7 Papuans, 104 Paraguay, 51

Parsis,
f.,
228
144
f.,
Parts, 191
237
f.
Pathology, 12
Pattern,
235
Nature, 257 Navajo, 153, 223, 231 Net sin, 153, 231
Pattern, 235
New New New New New
Britain, 103,
226
Caledonia, 37 Guinea, 104, 228 Hebrides, 10 1 ff.
Zealand, 90
f.,
223,
228,
239,
274, 279 f. Nezcel, 153 Ngamat, 81 Ngarego, 83 f. Ngunungunut, 88 Nias, 120 ff, 207 Nicaragua, 158 Nicobars, 66 Niger, 177 ff.
Pawnees, 272 Penance, 283 Pentecost Island, 100 Percept, 21, 31, 64, 219, 228, 262 Perception, 26, 30, 32, 46, 61 ff, 257, 277, 284 Perfection, 229, 231 Perfume, 94, 242 Personalisation, 20, 35 ff, 40 ff., 45 ff., Personality, 9, 37, 43 f., 193 f., 255,
290
ff. f.,
grammatical, 38
shifted, 37
f.
41, 43
f.,
294
f.,
Personification, 4, 9
f.,
19
ff.,
41, 43
Nimukur, 115 Nitu, 114

Nitya-karma, 143 Njao, 113 Njaiva, 118, 123
f.
257, 262 Petara, 105 f., 195, 259 f., 271 Phantom, 21 f., JJ, 220 f. Phantom, 5, 14 f., 21, 220 f.
Phonograph, 253
Physics,
234
f.,
ff, 130,
262
Pictures, 177, 181, 197
200, 252
f.
INDEX
Pigs, 10
Pita,
305
144
f.,
Sacred meals, 51 Sahu, 180 f.
Play, 25, 37, 44, 48
234, 245, 28 3,
Saina, 133
286-294
Plurality of souls, 177, Plurals, 38 f.
Sakalava, 134
235-249
Sa!i3h,
154
Salutations, 66
Po, 92
Poh, 164
Point-soul, 93, 199,
Polong,
229
191,
129
51,
Polynesia,
90-5,
207,
245,
263
f.
Polysyllabicism, 47
Port Darwin, 14, 82 Portrait, 107, 165 f., 172, 197

Posture, 207
f.,
200
Samoa, 94, 228 Samoyedes, 145 ff, 149 Sangir, 115 Santals, 243 Saparua, 1 14 Sarawak, 104 ff., 228 Sarong, 125, 216 Sasik, 103 Sauks, 156
Saura,
1
f.
39
Powers, 9 Prakriti, 142 Preanimism, 6, 8

Preperception, 279
Preta-shi/a, 143
f.
Savages,
Primitivism, 11
f.,
15, 19,
24
f.,
29
f.,
79 Project, 284 Psyche, 244

43
Psychology, 2
Pulotu,
f.,
f-,
7, 9, 11
f.,
22
f.,
273
94
ff.
Puppets,
104,
109, ill
ff.,
114, 116,
155, 179, 287
Pura, 148
Purusha, 142, 235
11, 15 f., 22 f., 25, 29, 37, 43 f., 292 ff. Schoolmen, 186 f. Science, 256 Sea Dayaks, 104 ff, 240, 259 f., 271 Seele, 186 Seers, 9, 183, 200, 278 Sekhem, 180 Self, 184, 192, 253 f. Self, 37, 142, 192, 250-259, 273 ff. Self-consciousness, 250-259 Semangat, 107 f., 123 ff, 130, 193, 203, 261 f., 269 Semites, 44, 184 f.
Semungi, 107 Sensation, 9, 30, 63
ff.,
65
f.,
76, 242,
Quichua, 51
276
Sensuality,
283
Ra, 1 80 Rain, 199, 235 Rau, 180

Reaction, 274, 284 Realisation, 213, 246
Reality, 2, 8, 14 ff,
ff.
Sentence, 30
Separability,
212
ff.
Sex of soul, 186, 235 Sex-totem, 88 f.

f.,
210 Reason, 249, 255, 276 Re-embodiment, 227

Reflection, 90, 96, 99
f.,
236, 248
f.
Shade, 197 Shade, 151, 155, 186, 197, 231 Shadow, 86, 96 f., 122, 168 ff, 180, 196 f., 231
177,
119, 135, 142,
155, 197 Regat, 120
f-
Shamanism, 292 Shans, 244 Shapelessness, 229

Shen, 163
Siao-ing,
ff.,
Reincarnation, 88,
101,
no,
161, 178,
238, 274, 283
233
ff.
Relation, 33 f., 36 Relaxation, 47 Religion, 1, 7, 289, 295
165 Sibuyaus, 107 Sicily, 188

Sickness, 4,
f.
275
66
f.
Rengarengan, 115
51 {., 284 Reproduction, 87, 123, 185, 233
Repetition, 39,
Restlessness,
ff.,
46
f.
Sight, 10, 64, Signs, 248
ff,
201
ff.,
243
f.
ff.,
274
226
ff.
Sikidy,
Sin,
Sihanaka, 133 133

Sin,
Retinal image, 201

Revivification,
225
290, 292
ff.,
282 282
Rhetoric, 263
Ritual, 7, 50
f.,
Sinhalese,
42
f.
295
f.
Sioux, 156, 235

Sisa,
Romans, 186
175
306

ff.
f.
f.,
Size of image, 14, 202 Slave Coast, 175 f.

Slavs, 150
Sleep, 4, 15
216
f.,
230
Smell, 66 Sociology, 36, 282 Softness, 223, 229 Sokma, 119

Solidarity, 282,
Solidity, 15, Solomon Islands, 102,
Soul, 5, 22, 29,
Tags, 236, 240, 245 Tahiti, 91 f., 263 Tai-sin. 165 Tamaniu, 100 Tamas, 1 39, 1 42 Tamate, 10
Tanoana, 117
Tao, 163
286 209 ff.

53
ff.,
Tartars, 145
207
f.,
f.,
192, 236
81, 184, 186, 189 255, 268, 262

ff.
Tarunga, 100 f. Tasmanians, 89 f. Taste, 66 Taufanuu, 94, 228

Tendi,
1 1 1
Soul, 4 f., 14, 18, 21, 54, 260 descriptions of, 56 f., 77 f.
ff
Terms, 248, 258

Teutons, 186
f.
nature
of,
130-133, 189-249
108, 114, 117, 186, 200 ff.,
idea of, 58, 75 ff. size of, 86 f., 93, 98,
Thah, 137, 283
125,
141,
ff.,
152,
183,
f.,
203
223, 227
231
Thing, 8, 26, 34, 41, 68, 231, 236, 247 Thlinkits, 38, 235 Thought, 24, 29, 179, 213
terms for, 55, 81 external, 7, 28 f. unreal, 122

Soul-banner, 165 f. Soul-tablet, 165 f.
Thumb, 206
Thumbling, 206
Sound, 243
Species,
Spell,
92 Tiki, 92 Timor, 115 Tinneh, 153, 223, 231

Tit,
272
Toana, 117
Speck-soul, 94, 199
Toba Bataks,
1 1
280
Spirit, 5, 189,
Spirit, 13,
Sperm-soul, 235 261
Tobelorese, 122 Toltecs, 158

Tona, 157
Tondi,
f.
263 ff., 276 Spiritualism, 256 Spirituality, 10, 78, 283 Spirit us, 186 Srahman, 175 f.
Standardisation, 202
f.
in
ff.
ff.,
Tonga, 94
195, 223, 239, 242, 261

f.
Ton-luiva, 107
Tonquin, 135
Tontemboan, 115
Toradjas, 117, 293 Torngarsuk, 1 52 Torres Straits, 8
Totality, 237
f.
Stimulants, 289 Stones, 20 Subconsciousness, 59

Subject, 10, 20, 32, 36, 251-259, Subjectivity, 16, 210 f., 256 f.
Substantiality, 46,
284
Toumbulu, 115
Tracey Island, 94, 228
Trance, 4, 12 f. Transylvania, 243 Tribe, 36 Tshimsians, 154 Tshi-speakers, 175 Tsing, 163 f., 274
Tsing-khi,
208
f.,
256
Sukma, 122
Sukskma-sarira, 14
Sulia,
154 Sumangan, 1 1 Sumangat, 1 18 f., 123 ff. Sumange, 113 Sumatra, 113 f., 231, 243 Sunda, 122, 195
Supernatural,
3, 6, 1-,
f.
164 283
Tiing-ming, 164
Tso, 137,
ff.
78, 264
Tulugal, 83
Supreme
beings, 6, 8
Tupis, 46, 48
Survivals, 189, 273 Suivanggi, 115
Type, 232
f.,
272
Sympathy, 277
Synthesis, 246, 262
Uliase, 114 Ungava, 155, 264
Unkpuru-obi, 178
Tactile phenomena, 50, 65
f.,
70, 100
Unu, 92
INDEX
Uqa, 102
Urip-ok,
1
1
307
273-276, 280
f.,
Wetness, 223, 229 Will, 6, 9, 20, 180,
283-289
Vapour, 94, 104, 108, 115, 228 Variation, 39, 46 ff., 51 f.
Vatulele, 97
f.
Wizards, 86, 106
f.,
114, 154, 160, 174,
293
Woiworung, 83
Wolgal, 83 f. Word-ideas, 22 f., 29 Words, 20 ff., 23, 28 f. Worm-soul, 93 f., 134 f., 167, 244 Worship, 271 Worship, 265, 270 f. Wotjobaluk, 88 Wraith, 220 f. Wraith, 21, 220
Xilun%i, 177 Ximbindi, 177
f.,
Veddahs, 42 Visibility, 208

Vision, 10, 15, 64, 66
,
ft".,
201
ff.,
243,
277
f-
f.
Visions, 4, 13
Visual phenomena,
162,
166,
ft'.,
9, 70, 104, 139, 142,
177,
f.
181
f.,
f.,
195
f.,
198
228
Visualisation, 33, 70 183, 200, 249
73, 86,
179
f.,
Vitalism, 258, 276

Vitality, 224, 231
f.
Vivification, 231,
276
280
Yahiueh, 272 Yakuts, 149 f. Talo, 97 Yalo-ngu, 97 Yalo-yalo, 97 Yambo, 82 Tang, 163-6 Yaos, 177, 272 Yartatgurk, 88
Vocalisation, 48
Voice, 243 Voice of soul, 207

Volition, 6, 9, 20, 180, 273-276, 280
f.,
283-289 Vui, 102

Vutulanga-moyo, 172
Wahi-tapu, 91 Waicuri, 41 Wairua, 90, 228 Wa)o, 119
Yasawu, 293
Yin, 163
Yollo,
ff.
Wakan, 9 Waking, 14
Warmth, 223 Warramunga, 87

Warraiuah, 89 Watubela, 1 14
158 Yoruba-speakers, 176 Yoiuee, 86 Yunbeai, 86

Zapotecs, 158
Zeus, 19
f.
Weight of
soul, 122,
207
Wetar, 242
Zulus, 31, 167 Zuni, 157, 229
ff.,
245
f.,
266
THE END
Printed by R.
&
R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.

The Idea of The Soul - Crawley

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The Macmillan Company

The Oxford University Press 205 Flinders Lane, Melbourne

The Macmillan Company

of Canada, Ltd. Richmond Street West, Toronto

IDEA OF THE SOUL [^

LONDON ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK

Animula, vagula, blandula,

quae nunc abibis

nee, ut soles, dabis iocos.

Psychology and Primitive Culture

The Holophrase Personalisation tion The Name.

Connection of Language with the General Subject Repetition and Varia-

Ideation Origin of the Idea of the

IV. Pre-scientific Psychologies

THE IDEA OF THE SOUL

The The World of Ethical Applications the Will Conclusion.

Soul and the Self

THE IDEA OF THE SOUL

PSYCHOLOGY AND PRIMITIVE CULTURE

show the universality and creative power and morphological

influence which have characterised throughout history

the Idea of the Soul.

the conception of an order of spiritual

world existing now and

beings of a higher order.

compendium of customs and

the prevailing ideas concerning the

system of philosophy, alchemy, and

to the religious sphere.

Just as the soul itself

concerned with every

environment, so the idea of

Groot, The Religious System of China (1891),

THE IDEA OF THE SOUL

also are identical

with the earliest steps in mental evolution.

shall find it to be the

purely intellectual result

explanation of things, our

of culture the idea provides a form for

the search for reality.

triumph of experimental science to-day, the

idea has been the inspiration of

both himself and

are merely those

The fact is of unaided common

psychology has yet

PSYCHOLOGY & PRIMITIVE CULTURE

statement which to-day passes for

more advanced than

origin not only of the

idea of the soul

but of the idea of a spiritual or

illustrated the influence

of the idea in the evolution of culture.

more concerned with

influence than with

In his explanation of the latter there

no psychological explanation was

August 1866 Mankind," Journal of

1891, fourth 1903.