I3UIRU2332IUJI32IWEQHJHJHJJOP,E9UWEEIOWUWEUHJQWHJWQHH WQJDHJWJKXJASLJXLASSJA SHORT-CIRCUIT DESIGN FORCES IN POWER LINES AND SUBSTATIONS

1.

INTRODUCTION

Short-circuit currents in power lines and substations induce electromagnetic forces acting on the conductors. The forces generated by short-circuit forces are very important for highvoltage bundle conductor lines, medium-voltage distribution lines, and substations, where spacer compression forces and interphase spacings are significantly affected by them. Power Lines and Substations Short-circuit mechanical design loads have been a subject of significant importance for transmission line and substation design for many years, and numerous papers, technical brochures and standards have been published (Manu io 1!"#$ %oshino 1!#&$ %avard et al. 1!'"$ ()*+, 1!!"$ ()*+, -&&-$ ),( 1!!. and 1!!"$ /ilien and 0apailiou -&&&1. 2nder short-circuit forces, there are some similarities and some differences between the behavior of fle3ible bus and power lines. 4or both the power lines and substations, the electromagnetic forces are similar in their origin and shapes because they come from short-circuit current (),( 1!''1. 5evertheless, as listed below, there are some major differences between short-circuit effects on substation bus systems and power lines6 0ower lines are subjected to short-circuit current intensity, which is only a fraction of the level met in substation bus systems. The short-circuit level is dependent on short-circuit location, because longer lengths of lines mean larger impedance and lower short-circuit level. The level also depends on power station location and networ7 configuration. 0ower line circuit configuration may not be a hori ontal or vertical arrangement, thus inducing other spatial components of the forces than in bus systems, and the movement may be 8uite different. 0ower lines have much longer spans and thus much larger sags than fle3ible bus and rigid bus. This induces a very low basic swing fre8uency of the power line span (a fraction of one % 1. Therefore the oscillating components of the force at the networ7 fre8uency (and its double1 have negligible action on power lines. 0ower line phase spacings are much larger than those in substations, and this has a dramatic reduction effect on forces between phases. 9undle conductors in power lines have much larger subspans than in substations, and bundle diameter is often larger, too. Sometimes very large bundle diameter and a large number of subconductors are used compared to bundled substation fle3ible bus. This has significant effects on the phenomenon because long subspans reduce the effect of bundle collapse upon the tension in the subconductors during short circuit conditions. 4ig. 1 demonstrates the distortion of the subconductors of a 8uad bundle around a fle3ible spacer during a short-circuit, 7nown as the pinch effect, which causes the tension increase. :ue to differences in structure height and stiffness, power line towers have significantly lower fundamental natural fre8uencies than substation structures. ;ne result is that the substation structures are more li7ely to respond dynamically to the sudden increase in tension that results from the pinch effect.

0ower line design load includes severe wind action and in some cases heavy ice loads acting on much larger spans than in substations. Therefore design loads due to short circuits may be of the same order as design wind and ice loads in substations, but much less in transmission lines.

Bundle Conductor Lines 4or bundle conductor lines, during a fault, the subconductors of the bundle move closer to each other due to strong attraction forces because of the very short distance between subconductors (4igure11. :etailed discussions of this phenomenon were given by Manu io and %oshino (Manu io 1!"#$ %oshino 1!#&1. 4rom their initial rest position, the subconductors move towards each other, remaining more or less parallel in most of the subspan, e3cept close to the spacer (4igures 1 and -1. <fter first impact, which for power lines is typically around =& to 1&& ms after fault inception, there is a rapid propagation of the wave in the noncontact one near the spacers, se8uence c-d-e of 4igure -. The inward slope of the subconductors at the spacer results in a component of subconductor tension that tends to compress the spacer. This compressive force, or >pinch,? while it is associated primarily with the change in angle, can be further increased by the rise in tension in the subconductors due to bundle collapse. This jump results from the fact that subconductor length in the collapsed condition is greater than in the normal condition. The pinch is ma3imum when the wave propagation stops towards the spacer, position e in 4igure -. The triangle of collapse then performs oscillations through positions d-c-d-e-d-c-ed-c and so on as long as electromagnetic force is still on, but with decreasing amplitude. )f the short circuit is long enough, the pinch oscillations result in a >permanent? oscillating force, sensibly lower than pea7 value, typically @&A. :uring the fault, the spacer is strongly compressed. The compression is related to ma3imum pinch force in the conductor and the angle between the spacer and the subconductor.

4igure 1 ,3ample of 8uad bundle before and during short-circuit test at @& 7<, showing distortion of the subconductors. ;ne fle3ible spacer at mid-span (courtesy 0fistererBSefag1. The subconductor movements occur at very high acceleration. 4or e3ample, a =& 7< fault on a twin bundle of "-& mm - conductor, with a separation of =& cm, may have acceleration up to several tens of g, depending on the instantaneous current value. Spacers are subjected to compression forces$ and these instantaneous compression loads can be very high.

2pward movement of the whole span follows the rapid contraction of the bundle and reduces the conductor tension, but does not reduce the ma3imum forces on the spacers occurring during initial impact.

4igure <ttraction of subconductors of a bundle at a spacer during a short-circuit (Manu io 1!"#1. Interphase Effects and Distribution Lines The video available on my web site (http6BBwww.tdee.ulg.ac.beBdoc-@.html1 contains some short-circuit tests on rigid bus, fle3ible bus and high-voltage overhead lines and distribution lines. 4ault currents produce an impulse tending to ma7e the separate phases of a circuit swing away from each other, independently of whether the phases are bundled. The impulse that causes this lasts only as long as the fault, so it is brief relative to the fundamental period of the span. The momentum from the impulse carries the phases outward for a certain distance before their tension arrests and reverses the motion. They then swing inward. This inward swing may be =

large enough to cause cable contact and even permanent wrap-up at the middle of the span. 4or double-circuit towers, the circuit subjected to the short circuit could force its phases to come in contact with another circuit, thus causing outages on both circuits. There may also be sag increases, up to several times the initial sag in distribution lines, due to heating effects under short circuit, which may significantly affect the amplitude of movements. ,ven though the inward swing could be short of interphase contact, if the phase spacing is less than the critical flashover distance, and the inward swing occurs at the time that voltage is restored by automatic reclosure, there will be a second fault. Cery large movements may be seen on distribution lines. 4igure . shows the motion produced during full-scale testing on an actual line. This is from an actual three-phase short-circuit test on a 1@-7C distribution line near /iDge, 9elgium (/ilien and Cercheval 1!'#1. The photo shows an instantaneous position of the conductors ta7en during the test. The fault current level was . 7<. The reduction in phase spacing may be particularly dramatic on mediumvoltage lines, even if the short-circuit level is much lower.

4igure . )nstantaneous position of the conductors ta7en during three-phase short-circuit test on 1@-7C distribution line near /iDge (/ilien and Cercheval 1!'#1. Substation with rigid busbars The behavior of a rigid bus under short-circuit load is very depending of its first natural eigenmode and eigenfre8uency. )ndeed electromagnetic forces includes pseudo-continuous component combined with a @& % and a 1&& % component. Some e3ample are shown on the ne3t figure. The transient response is thus very depending on the voltage as low voltage (say #& 7C1 would have a short bar length and a reduced si e tubular bar, when high voltage (typically =&& 7C1 would have long bar length and large tubes. Moreover the busbar is installed on supporting insulators which have their own eigenfre8uencies, close to @& % for 1@& 7C level. So that dynamics of such structures is far from obvious and case dependent.

4ig 33 6 rigid busbar response to ta given electromagnetic force similar to a two-phase fault with asymmetrical component in the short-circuit current. The transient response is given for different busbar first eigenfre8uency between 1.# % and 1@& % . (e3tract from ()*+, brochure 5E 1&@, 1!!"1.

4ig 33 6 a tested rigid bus (all details in ()*+, brochure 1&@, 1!!"1, Measurement points are located as S-, )-,(. (constrains1. Short-circuit of 1" 7< during 1.@ ms with automatic reclosure after ==@ ms and a second fault of .&@ ms with same amplitude as the first one.

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4ig 33 test results. The first eigenfre8uency of the whole structure is about ... % . There is 8uasi no effect of the @& % nor of the 1&& % component of the force. <s damping was negligeable, as time to reclosure was particularly dramatic compared to structure oscillation, the second fault induced about twice as much constrains compared to the first fault.

2.

FAULT CURRENTS AND INTERPHASE FORCES

< short-circuit current wave shape consists of an <( component and a decaying :( component due to the offset of the current at the instant of the fault. The <( component generally is of constant amplitude for the duration of the fault, and although the system through which the fault passes is multimesh, it can usually be assigned a single >global? time constant for the decay of the :( component. )n high-voltage lines, and even more in lowvoltage lines, because the ratio FB+, reactance to resistance, is much less at low-voltage level, the global time constant of the system > ? is rather low, typically -& to '& ms, compared to substations where it is typically #& to -&& ms. i1 (t 1 = - I rms (sin(t + 1 e sin( 11
t - - i- (t 1 = - I rms (sin(t + 1 e sin( 11 . . t - - i. (t 1 = - I rms (sin(t + + 1 e sin( + 11 . . t

(<mperes1

Ghere )rms is the root-mean-s8uare value of the short-circuit current (<1. H -f is the networ7 pulsation (radBs1 e8ual to .1= radBs in ,urope and .## radBs in the 2nited States. is the networ7 time constant (H /B+1 at the location of the fault (s1. is an angle depending on the time of fault occurrence in the voltage oscillation (rad1. <symmetry is very dependent on . )n the case of a two-phase fault, it is possible to have no asymmetry if H & rad.

<ccording to the basic physics of electromagnetism for a three- or a two-phase arrangement, there is always a repulsion force between phases from each other. 4or a single-phase fault, only one current is involved. )n the case of bundle conductors, it is generally considered that the short-circuit current is e8ually divided among all subconductors. The force acting between subconductors of the same phase is an attractive force, as discussed in Section .. )n the general case of parallel conductors, the force, Fn(t) in 5Bm, applied on each of the phases can be e3pressed by6

& i1 (t 1.i- (t 1 i1 (t 1.i. (t 1 x - a -a i (t 1.i- (t 1 i- (t 1.i. (t 1 F- (t 1 = & x 1 - a a i (t 1.i. (t 1 i- (t 1.i. (t 1 F. (t 1 = & x 1 + - -a a

F1 (t 1 = Ghere

(5Bm1

'

0 is the vacuum magnetic permeability H =1&-# %Bm.

a is the interphase distance (m1. The force, being due to current flow, very much depends on phase shift between currents. )t generally includes6

0seudo-continuous :( component, with a time-constant decay, (ontinuous dc component, sometimes, and Two oscillating <( components, one at networ7 fre8uency, with a time-constant decay,
and one at the double of the networ7 fre8uency, which is not damped. )n the case of a two-phase fault, the force is proportional to the s8uare of the current. Thus it always has the same directionIthat is, a repulsion between the two faulted phases. )n the case of a three-phase fault, it is much more comple3. )n flat-phase configuration, illustrated by the top view of 4igure =, the middle phase has a ero mean value, and at least one of the outer phases has forces similar to those generated by a two-phase fault (4igure @ left1. The same location in a networ7 gives two different values of current for three- or two-phase faults with a ratio &.'"" between them. 4or e3ample, a .=.' 7< three-phase fault would give a .&.1 7< two-phase fault at the same location. Therefore, a three-phase fault has to be considered for estimation of design forces. 4igures = (top1 and @ give e3amples of currents and forces on hori ontal, or purely vertical, arrangements. )n the case of an e8uilateral triangular arrangement, 4igure = ( bottom1, the forces are similar on all three phases, similar to the force on phase 1 for the hori ontal arrangement. 4igure @ shows the currents and forces applied to each phase during a three-phase fault with an asymmetry chosen to create the ma3imum peak force on one outer phase as calculated using ,8uation -. This is for a hori ontal or vertical arrangement of the circuit. The fault current is .=.' 7< rms with pea7 currents of !&.=, #!.-, and "1.- 7<. The time constant is #& ms, and the short-circuit duration is &.-=@ seconds. The current fre8uency is @& % . The loads shown are per unit length for a H " m clearance between phases. The repulsion pea7 load on phase 1 is --' 5Bm. ( H 1..! rad1. The signs convention is positive in the directions shown in the upper diagram in 4igure =. 9ut the time dependence of the forces is very different on the outer phases compared to middle phase. ;n the outer phases, the force is unidirectional and has a significant continuous component. ;n phase -, the continuous component is ero (e3cept during the asymmetrical part of the wave1.

4igure = Two different geometric arrangements for a three-phase circuit and the electromagnetic force reference directions on each phase corresponding to ,8uation -. The numbers 1, -, and . are phase numbers. )t must be noted that the level of the pea7 force, about -&& 5Bm in 4igure @, is far greater than the conductor weight and is proportional to the s8uare of the current. 9ut the continuous component is much lower, about .& 5Bm in this case, as shown later. 2nder actual shortcircuit levels and clearances, it is closer to the conductor weight, but acts, in most cases, in the other direction. See upper right panel in 4igure @.

4igure @ ,3ample of calculated three-phase short-circuit current wave shape and corresponding loads on a hori ontal or vertical circuit arrangement.

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4igure ! Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault, for the "&-m span length configuration (1@ 75 initial1. )rms .@ 7< (pea7 !& 7<1, &.1' s courtesy 0fistererBSefag1.

)n these tests, limited to one-phase fault, there is no interphase effect but, due to the increment in tension caused by the pinch, the whole phase jumps up after short-circuit inception and falls down afterwards. This behavior induces some tension changes in the conductors, as can be seen in 4igures ! and 1&. )t is notable that the pinch effect (the first pea7 during the fault in the first &.1' s1 in the conductor has a smaller tension rise than that which occurs, at &.! seconds, as the phase falls. )n both cases, the latter is limited to 1.' times the initial static sagging tension.

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4igure 1& Typical tension oscillogram in one subconductor during and after the fault for the 3 .&-m span length configuration (1@ 75 initial1. )rms .@ 7< (pea7 !& 7<1, &.1' s. (courtesy 0fistererBSefag1.

Subspan Length Effect 9undle pinch is very much related to subspan length. There e3ists a critical subspan length under which no contact is possible and over which contact occurs on a significant part of the subspan. ;f course, that length depends on short-circuit level and some other parameters. That critical value corresponds to e3treme loading (for pinch effect in substations J,l <dnani 1!'#$ /ilien and ,l <dnani 1!'"K1. 4or the power lines with typical subspan lengths, subconductors e3perience contact in all cases e3cept in jumpers. Subconductor Separation Effect < closer bundle spacing results in a smaller increment in subconductor tension. )n fact, initial electromagnetic force are stronger, but the tension increment is generated by conductor deformation into the triangles of 4igure - after contact, and most of deformation is located in those triangles. Smaller conductor separation thus leads to less deformation in that area. <t the limit, if conductors are in contact all along the span, there is no increment in tension.

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3.

INTERPHASE EFFECTS UNDER SHORT CIRCUITS

Maximum Tensile Loads during Mo ement of the Phases 4igure 11 shows a typical response of a bundle conductor two-phase fault in a hori ontal arrangement (()*+, 1!!"1. 9oth cable tension versus time (4igure11 left1 and phase movement in a vertical plane at mid-span (4igure 11 right1 are shown. ;n the cable tension curve, three ma3ima (and their corresponding time on the abscissa1 have been indicated, which is discussed below. ;n the phase movement curve at mid-span, the curve has been mar7ed by dots every &.1 s to get an idea of the cable speed, and in particular to show that the short circuit ends before there is significant movement of the phase. Typical ma3imum loads (4igures 11 and 1-1 that could influence design appear when total energy (including a large input during short circuit1 has to be mainly transformed to deformation energy. 0ea7 design load could occur under the following three conditions6 1. Ma3imum swing-out 4t (at time tt in 4igure 11left and s8uare 1 in 4igure 11 right16 very little 7inetic energy (cable speed close to ero1 and potential energy with reference to gravity, so that a large part is converted in deformation energyIthat is, increase of tension. )n power lines, tt occurs always after the end of the short circuit (the cable position at the end of the short circuit (&.1 s1 is indicated in 4igure 11 right1. -. Ma3imum 4f at the e3treme of downward motion (at time tf in 4igure 11 left and s8uare in 4igure 11 right16 generally more critical because of a loss of potential energy of gravity due to the cable position at that moment. tf always occurs after the end of the short circuit. .. The pinch effect 4pi (at a very short time after short-circuit inception at tpi1. The pinch effect only occurs with bundle conductors, when subconductors come close to each other6 tpi always occurs during short circuit.

4igure 11 /eft 4igure6 Tensile force (left1 time evolution of a typical twin-bundle span during two-phase short circuit between hori ontal phases. Three ma3ima6 4 pi at time Tpi (so-called pinch effect, due to bundle collapse1, 4t at time Tt (the ma3imum of the force due to ma3imum swing of the span represented by circle point 1 on the right figure1, and 4f at time Tf (the ma3imum of the force due to cable drop represented by circle - in the right figure. Typically, Tpi -=& ms, Tt L1.- s and Tf H = s

1.

+ight figure6 Movement of one phase ( right1 in a vertical plane at mid-span (F and M are the two orthogonal a3es ta7en in the vertical plane at mid-span, perpendicular to the cable. M is vertical, -1& m is the initial point showing sag, and F is hori ontal and transverse to the cable1. Such movement has been calculated for a two-phase fault of ". 7< (duration &.1 s end of short circuit being noted on the figure1 on a - F @#& mm- <ST,+ on a =&&-m span length (sag 1& m1 (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&1. )t is interesting to compare the level of these loads with typical overhead line design loads related to wind or ice problem (,lectra 1!!11. 4igure 11 shows results of such a case calculated by simulation on a typical =&&-7C overhead line configuration. 4igure 1- shows cable tension versus time in different dynamic loading conditions, as e3plained in the legend. )t can be seen that cable tensions due to short-circuit currents are significantly smaller than other causes such as ice shedding.

4igure 1- Simulated longitudinal loads applied on attachment point on a cross arm on a >9eaubourg? tower (the circuit configuration is shown by points T, +, and S in 4igure 1.1 for loading conditions (/ilien and :al Maso 1!!&16 1. three-phase fault of #-.. 7< -. two-phase fault of ". 7< .. initial wind of "& 7mBh followed by a gust at 1&& 7mBh for @ seconds on a 8uarter of the span =. shedding of ice sleeve of " 7gBm !eduction in Phase Spacing <fter the initial outward swing, the phases move towards each other. 4or the case illustrated in 4igure 11, this inward movement e3ceeds = m per phase. That means a phase-spacing reduction of more than ' m. ;ther cases are shown in 4igures 1. and 1= (only the rectangular envelope of the movement is given1 for different configurations and short-circuit level. The timing of this inward swing may be such that the phase spacing is less than the critical flashover distance at the time that voltage is restored by automatic reclosure. That would induce a second fault with the dramatic conse8uence of a loc7-out circuit brea7er operation, with all its conse8uences (power outage1.

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