Pastiche

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A pastiche is a literary or other artistic genre that is a "hodge-podge" or an imitation. The word is also a linguistic term used to describe an early stage in the development of a pidginlanguage.
Contents
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1 Hodge-podge

1.1 Mass

2 Imitation 3 See also 4 Further reading

[edit]Hodge-podge

In this usage, a work is called pastiche if it is cobbled together in imitation of several original works. As the Oxford English Dictionary puts it, a pastiche in this sense is "a medley of various ingredients; a hotchpotch, farrago, jumble." This meaning accords with etymology: pastiche is the French version of the greco-Roman dish pastitsio or pasticcio, which designated a kind of pie made of many different ingredients. Some works of art are pastiche in both senses of the term; for example, the David Lodge novel and the Star Wars series mentioned below appreciatively imitate work from multiple sources. [edit]Mass A pastiche mass is a mass where the constituent movements are from different Mass settings. Masses are composed by classical composers as a set of movements: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei. (Examples: the Missa Solemnis by Beethoven and the Messe de Nostre Dame by Guillaume de Machaut.) In a pastiche mass, the performers may choose a Kyrie from one composer, and a Gloria from another, or, choose a Kyrie from one setting of an individual composer, and a Gloria from another. Most often this convention is chosen for concert performances, particularly by early music ensembles. [edit]Imitation

In this usage, the term denotes a literary technique employing a generally light-hearted tongue-in-cheek imitation of another's style; although jocular, it is usually respectful. For example, many stories featuring Sherlock Holmes, originally created by Arthur Conan Doyle, have been written as pastiches since the author's time. A similar example of pastiche is the posthumous continuations the Robert E. Howard stories, written by other writers without Howard's authorization. This includes the Conan stories of L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter. David Lodge's novel The British Museum Is Falling Down (1965) is a pastiche of works by Joyce, Kafka, and Virginia Woolf. Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is a pastiche of Shakespeare's Hamlet.

The fantasy writer Terry Pratchett is known for his use of pastiche, particularly in his early works Strata, a pastiche of various science fiction themes, The Light Fantastic, a humorous pastiche of the fantasy genre, and Wyrd Sisters, which was inspired by the plays of William Shakespeare, particularly Macbeth and Hamlet. Pastiche is also found in non-literary works, including art and music. For instance, Charles Rosen has characterized Mozart's various works in imitation of Baroque style as pastiche, and Edvard Grieg's Holberg Suite was written as a conscious homage to the music of an earlier age. Perhaps one of the best examples of pastiche in modern music is the that ofGeorge Rochberg, who used the technique in his String Quartet No. 3 of 1972 and Music for the Magic Theater. Rochberg turned to pastiche from serialism after the death of his son in 1963. Many of "Weird Al" Yankovic's songs are pastiches: for example, "Dare to Be Stupid" is a Devo pastiche, and "Bob" from the album Poodle Hat is a pastiche of Bob Dylan. "Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen is unusual as it is a pastiche in both senses of the word, as there are many distinct styles imitated in the song, all 'hodge-podged' together to create one piece of music. Pastiche is prominent in popular culture. Many genre writings, particularly in fantasy, are essentially pastiches. The Star Wars series of films by George Lucas is often considered to be a pastiche of traditional science fiction television serials (or radio shows). The fact that Lucas's films have been influential (spawning their own pastiches - vis the 1983 3D filmMetalstorm: The Destruction of Jared-Syn) can be regarded as a function of postmodernity. The films of Quentin Tarantino are often described as pastiches, as they often pay tribute to (or imitate) pulp novels, blaxploitation and/or Chinese kung fu films, though some say his films are more of an homage. The same definition is said to apply to the video games of Hideo Kojima as well, since they adopt many conventions of action films. Pastiche can also be a cinematic device wherein the creator of the film pays homage to another filmmaker's style and use of cinematography, including camera angles, lighting, andmise en scne. A film's writer may also offer a pastiche based on the works of other writers (this is especially evident in historical films and documentaries but can be found in non-fiction drama, comedy and horror films as well).

Well-known academic Fredric Jameson has a somewhat more critical view of pastiche, describing it as "blank parody" (Jameson, 1991), especially with reference to the postmodern parodic practices of self-reflexivity and intertextuality. By this is meant that rather than being a jocular but still respectful imitation of another style, pastiche in the postmodern era has become a "dead language", without any political or historical content, and so has also become unable to satirize in any effective way. Whereas pastiche used to be a humorous literary style, it has, in postmodernism, become "devoid of laughter" (Jameson, 1991).
In urban planning, a pastiche is used to refer to neighborhoods as imitations of building styles as conceived by major planners. Many post-war European neighborhoods can in this way be described as pastiches from planners like Le Corbusier or Ebenezer Howard. Postmodern art, media and literature can be characterized by intertextuality as the narrative mode, and the postmodern period can be characterized by the death of the grand narratives as proclaimed by Jean-Franois Lyotard in The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (1979). The grand narratives such as religions, ideologies and the enlightenment project have been substituted by the small, local

narratives, e.g. love of ones family. Pastiche is intertextual in its very form as it is a recreation of an earlier text. In the postmodern pastiche the older text (the hypotext) may reflect one of the bygone grand narratives, yet its new postmodern version may reflect a local narrative, so that the two enter into a dialogue in the pastiche. This is for instance the case with Francis Gl ebas "Pomp and Circumstance"- the seventh segment in Fantasia 2000 from 1999, in which the grand religious narrative of the Deluge is merged with the local narrative of personal love, personified in Donald Duck and Daisy. Though the grand narratives may be dead as ontological frames, they can here in the pastiche narrative regain some of their ontological strength when the local narratives are confronted by them in this narrative way. [edit]See

also

Archetype Bricolage Doujinshi Fan fiction Homage Parody Pasticcio Simulacrum

[edit]Further

reading

Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press, 1991. Jameson, Fredric. "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Post-Modern Culture, Hal Foster (ed), Seattle: Bay Press, 1989, pp. 111 - 125

Hoesterey, Ingeborg. Pastiche: Cultural Memory in Art, Film, Literature Indiana University Press, 2001. (ISBN 0-253-33880-8) Christensen, Jrgen Riber, "Diplopia, or Ontological Intertextuality in Pastiche" in Culture, Media, Theory, Practice: Perspectives, ed. Ben Dorfman, Aalborg University Press, 2004, pp. 234-246

Parody
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the Colombian politician, see Gina Parody. A parody (pronounced /prdi/; also called send-up or spoof), in contemporary usage, is a work created to mock, comment on, or poke fun at an original work, its subject, author, style, or some other target, by means of humorous, satiric or ironic imitation. As the literary theorist Linda Hutcheon (2000: 7) puts it, "parody is imitation with a critical difference, not

always at the expense of the parodied text." Another critic, Simon Dentith (2000: 9), defines parody as "any cultural practice which provides a relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice." Often, the most satisfying element of a good parody is seeing others mistake it for the genuine article. Parody may be found in art or culture, including literature, music (although "parody" in music has a rather wider meaning than for other art forms), and cinema. Parodies are sometimes colloquially referred to as spoofs or lampoons.
Contents
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1 Origins 2 Music 3 English term 4 Modernist and post-modernist parody 5 Reputation 6 Film parodies 7 Self-parody 8 Copyright issues 9 Social and political uses 10 See also 11 Examples

11.1 Historic examples

12 References

[edit]Origins
According to Aristotle (Poetics, ii. 5), Hegemon of Thasos was the inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the ridiculous. In ancient Greek literature, a parodia was a narrative poem imitating the style and prosody of epics "but treating light, satirical or mock-heroic subjects" (Denith, 10). Indeed, the apparent Greek roots of the word are para- (which can mean beside, counter, or against) and ody (song, as in an ode). Thus, the original Greek word parodia has sometimes been taken to mean counter-song, an imitation that is set against the original. The Oxford English Dictionary, for example, defines parody as imitation "turned as to produce a ridiculous effect" (quoted in

Hutcheon, 32). Because par- also has the non-antagonistic meaning of beside, "there is nothing in parodia to necessitate the inclusion of a concept of ridicule" (Hutcheon, 32). Roman writers explained parody as an imitation of one poet by another for humorous effect. In French Neoclassical literature, parody was also a type of poem where one work imitates the style of another for humorous effect.

[edit]Music
Main article: Parody music In classical music, parody means a reworking of one kind of composition into another (e.g., a motet into a keyboard work as Girolamo Cavazzoni, Antonio de Cabezn, and Alonso Mudarra all did to Josquin des Prez motets.) More commonly, a parody mass (missa parodia) or an oratorio used extensive quotation from other vocal works such as motets orcantatas; Victoria, Palestrina, Lassus, and other notable composers of the 16th century used this technique; Bach also used existing cantatas for his Christmas Oratorio. In fact, the musical use of the word parody is wider than its general use - and while much musical parody does have humorous, even satirical intent, some simply recycles musical ideas.

[edit]English term
The first usage of the word parody in English cited in the Oxford English Dictionary is in Ben Jonson, in Every Man in His Humour in 1598: "A Parodie, a parodie! to make it absurder than it was." The next notable citation comes from John Dryden in 1693, who also appended an explanation, suggesting that the word was in common use, it means to make fun of or re-create what you doing.

[edit]Modernist and post-modernist parody

In the broader sense of Greek parodia, parody can occur when whole elements of one work are lifted out of their context and reused, not necessarily to be ridiculed. Hutcheon argues that this sense of parody has again become prevalent in the twentieth century, as artists have sought to connect with the past while registering differences brought by modernity. Major modernist examples of this recontextualizing parody include James Joyce's Ulysses, which incorporates elements of Homer's Odyssey in a twentieth-century Irish context, and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, which incorporates and recontextualizes elements of a vast range of prior texts, including Dante's The Inferno. Blank parody, in which an artist takes the skeletal form of an art work and places it in a new context without ridiculing it, is common. Pastiche is a closely related genre, and parody can also occur when characters or settings belonging to one work are used in a humorous or ironic way in another, such as the transformation of minor characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Shakespeare's drama Hamlet into the principal characters in a comedic

perspective on the same events in the play (and film) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. In Flann O'Brien's novel At Swim-Two-Birds, for example, mad King Sweeney, Finn MacCool, a pookah, and an assortment of cowboys all assemble in an inn in Dublin: the mixture of mythic characters, characters from genre fiction, and a quotidian setting combine for a humor that is not directed at any of the characters or their authors. This combination of established and identifiable characters in a new setting is not the same as the post-modernist habit of using historical characters in fiction out of context to provide a metaphoric element.

[edit]Reputation
Sometimes the reputation of a parody outlasts the reputation of what is being parodied. For example, Don Quixote, which mocks the traditional knight errant tales, is much better known than the novel that inspired it, Amadis de Gaula (although Amadis is mentioned in the book). Another notable case is the novel Shamela by Henry Fielding (1742), which was a parody of the gloomy epistolary novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) by Samuel Richardson. Many of Lewis Carroll's parodies of Victorian didactic verse for children, such as "You Are Old, Father William", are much better known than the (largely forgotten) originals. Stella Gibbons's comic novel Cold Comfort Farm has eclipsed the pastoral novels of Mary Webbwhich largely inspired it. In more recent times, the television sitcom 'Allo 'Allo! is perhaps better known than the drama Secret Army of which it is a parody (although a full appreciation of the humour largely depends on a knowledge of the earlier work). Some artists carve out careers by making parodies. One of the best-known examples is that of "Weird Al" Yankovic. His career of parodying other musical acts and their songs has outlasted many of the artists or bands he has parodied. Although he is not required under law to get permission to parody, as a personal rule, however, he does seek permission to parody a person's song before recording it. In the US legal system the point that in most cases a parody of a work constitutes fair use was upheld in the case of Rick Dees, who decided to use 29 seconds of the music from the song When Sonny Gets Blue to parody Johnny Mathis' singing style even after being refused permission. An appeals court upheld the trial court's decision that this type of parody represents fair use. Fisher v. Dees 794 F.2d 432 (9th Cir. 1986)

[edit]Film parodies
Some genre theorists, following Bakhtin, see parody as a natural development in the life cycle of any genre; this idea has proven especially fruitful for genre film theorists. Such theorists note that Western movies, for example, after the classic stage defined the conventions of the genre, underwent a parody stage, in which those same conventions were ridiculed and critiqued. Because audiences had seen these classic Westerns, they had expectations for any new Westerns, and when these expectations were inverted, the audience laughed. Perhaps the earliest parody was the 1922 Mud and Sand, a Stan Laurel film that made fun of Rudolph Valentino's movie Blood and Sand. Laurel specialized in parodies in the mid-20s, writing and acting in a number of them. Some were send-ups of popular films, such as Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde (1920)--parodied in the comic Dr. Pyckle and Mr. Pride (1926). Others were spoofs of Broadway plays, such as No, No, Nanette (1925), parodied as Yes, Yes, Nanette (1925). In 1940 Charlie Chaplin created a satirical comedy about Adolf Hitler: The Great Dictator, which followed the first-ever Hollywood parody of the Nazis, the Three Stooges' short subject You Nazty Spy! .

About 20 years later Mel Brooks started his career with a Hitler parody as well. After The Producers (1968) Brooks became one of the most famous film parodists and did spoofs on any kind of movie genre. Blazing Saddles (1974) is one of his most popular parodies, and Spaceballs (1987) is still presumed to be the best science fiction spoof ever. The famous British comedy group Monty Python is also famous for its parodies, e.g. the King Arthur spoof Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1974) or the Jesus satire Life of Brian(1979). In the 1980s there came another team of parodists including David Zucker, Jim Abrahams and Jerry Zucker. Their most popular movies are the Hot Shots! and the Naked Gunmovies. Nowadays parodies have taken on whole movie genres at once. One famous film parody is the Scary Movie franchise. Other notable genre parodies include Not Another Teen Movie,Date Movie, Epic Movie, Meet the Spartans, and Disaster Movie. Furthermore Daffy Duck has a talent for film parody[clarification needed]-appearing as Stupor Duck (Superman); Robin Hood Daffy (Errol Flynn's classic The Adventures of Robin Hood);Duck Dodgers (Buck Rogers); and Sam in Carrotblanca.

[edit]Self-parody
Main article: Self-parody A subset of parody is self-parody in which artists parody their own work (as in Ricky Gervais's Extras) or notable distinctions of their work (such as Antonio Banderas's Puss in Bootsin Shrek 2), or an artist or genre repeats elements of earlier works to the point that originality is lost. Another notable example of this is episode 100 of "Family Guy" in which the writer and producer, Seth MacFarlane, spent the entirety of the episode asking questions to other actors which always received a negative response, such as:
Q) Seth: If Jesus were ever to come back, do you think he would watch Family Guy?

A) Man: No, I don't think he would.

and,
Q) David: Do you think Peter Griffin is a hero?

A) Woman: To be honest, I don't know who that is.

[edit]Copyright issues
Although a parody can be considered a derivative work under United States Copyright Law, it can be protected from claims by the copyright owner of the original work under the fair use doctrine, which is codified in 17 USC 107. The Supreme Court of the United States stated that parody "is the use of some elements of a prior author's composition to create a new one that, at least in part, comments on that author's works." That commentary function provides some justification for use of the older work. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. In 2001, the United States Court of Appeals, 11th Circuit, in Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin, upheld the right of Alice Randall to publish a parody of Gone with the Wind called The Wind Done Gone, which told the same story from the point of view of Scarlett O'Hara's slaves, who were glad to be rid of her.

Under Canadian law, although there is protection for Fair Dealing, there is no explicit protection for parody and satire. In Canwest v. Horizon, the publisher of Vancouver Sun launched a lawsuit against a group which had published a pro-Palestinian parody of the paper. Alan Donaldson, the judge in the case, ruled that parody is not a defense to a copyright claim.[1]

[edit]Social and political uses

Satirical political cartoon that appeared in Puck magazine, October 9, 1915. Caption "I did not raise my girl to be a voter" parodies the anti-World War I song "I Didn't Raise My Boy To Be A Soldier". A chorus of disreputable men support a lone anti-suffrage woman.

Parody is a frequent ingredient in satire and is often used to make social and political points. Examples include Swift's A Modest Proposal, which satirizes English neglect of Ireland by parodying emotionally disengaged political tracts, and, in contemporary culture, The Daily Show and The Colbert Report, which parody a news broadcast and a talk show, respectively, to satirize political and social trends and events. Some events, such as a national tragedy, can be difficult to handle. A 9/11 update of George Orwell's novella Animal FarmSnowball's Chance by U.S. author John Reedraised the ire of the George Orwell estate, and critics such as Christopher Hitchens. Chet Clem, Editorial Manager of the news parody publication The Onion, told Wikinews in an interview the questions that are raised when addressing difficult topics:

I know the September 11 issue was an obviously very large challenge to approach. Do we even put out an issue? What is funny at this time in American history? Where are the jokes? Do people want jokes right now? Is the nation ready to laugh again? Who knows. There will always be some level of division in the back room. Its also what keeps us on our toes.[2]

Parody is by no means necessarily satirical, and may sometimes be done with respect and appreciation of the subject involved, while not being a heedless sarcastic attack. Parody has also been used to facilitate dialogue between cultures or subcultures. Sociolinguist Mary Louise Pratt identifies parody as one of the "arts of the contact zone," through which marginalized or oppressed groups "selectively appropriate," or imitate and take over, aspects of more empowered cultures. [1]

Shakespeare often uses a series of parodies to convey his meaning. In the social context of his era, an example can be seen in King Lear where the fool is introduced with his coxcomb to be a parody of the king.

[edit]See also

Intertextuality Literary technique Stealth parody Parody advertisement Parody music Parody religion Parody science Subvertising Joke

[edit]Examples
[edit]Historic examples

Sir Thopas in Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes Beware the Cat by William Baldwin The Knight of the Burning Pestle by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher Dragon of Wantley, an anonymous 17th century ballad Hudibras by Samuel Butler "MacFlecknoe", by John Dryden A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope Namby Pamby by Henry Carey Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift The Dunciad by Alexander Pope Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus by John Gay, Alexander Pope, John Arbuthnot, et al. Kat Kongby Dav Pilkey The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia [sic] by Samuel Johnson Mozart's A Musical Joke (Ein musikalischer Spa), K.522 (1787) - parody of incompetent contemporaries of Mozart, as assumed by some theorists

Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlysle Ways and Means, or The aged, aged man, by Lewis Carroll. Much of Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass is parodic of Victorian schooling.

Batrachomyomachia (battle between frogs and mice), an Iliad parody by an unknown ancient Greek author Britannia Sitting On An Egg a machine-printed illustrated envelope published by the stationer W.R. Hume of Leith, Scotland, parodying the machine-printed illustrated envelope (commissioned by Rowland Hill (postal reformer) and designed by the artist William Mulready) used to launch the British postal service reforms of 1840.

[edit]References
1. 2. ^ http://thetyee.ca/Mediacheck/2008/12/11/CanwestSuit/ Canwest Suit May Test Limits of Free Speech, 11 December 2008. ^ An interview with The Onion, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 25, 2007.

Bakhtin, Mikhail; Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7.

Hutcheon, Linda (1985). A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-252-06938-2. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. (1988). The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-503463-5.

Mary Louise Pratt (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone" (pdf). Profession (New York: MLA) 91: 33-40. "archived at University of Idaho, English 506, Rhetoric and Composition: History, Theory, and Research".

Petrosky, Anthony; ed. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petroksky (1999). Ways of Reading (5th ed.). New York: Bedford/St. Martins. ISBN 978-0312454135. "An anthology including Arts of the Contact Zone"

Rose, Margaret (1993). Parody: Ancient, Modern and Post-Modern. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41860-7. Caponi, Gena Dagel (1999). Signifyin(g), Sanctifyin', & Slam Dunking: A Reader in African American Expressive Culture . University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-183-X.

Harries, Dan (2000). Film Parody. London: BFI. ISBN 0-851-70802-1. Dentith, Simon (2000). Parody (The New Critical Idiom). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18221-2. Pueo, Juan Carlos (2002). Los reflejos en juego (Una teora de la parodia). Valencia (Spain): Tirant lo Blanch. ISBN 84-8442-559-2. Gray, Jonathan (2006). Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-4153-6202-4.

FREDRIC JAMESON's concept of "pastiche" is usefully contrasted to Linda Hutcheon's

understanding of postmodern parody. (See the Hutcheon module on parody.) Whereas Hutcheon sees much to value in postmodern literature's stance of parodic self-reflexivity, seeing an implicit political critique and historical awareness in such parodic works, Jameson characterizes postmodern parody as "blank parody" without any political bite. According to Jameson, parody has, in the postmodern age, been replaced by pastiche: "Pastiche is, like parody,

the imitation of a peculiar or unique, idiosyncratic style, the wearing of a linguistic mask, speech in a dead language. But it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, without any of parody's ulterior motives, amputated of the satiric impulse, devoid of laughter" (Postmodernism 17). Jameson sees this turn to "blank parody" as a falling off from modernism, where individual authors were particularly characterized by their individual, "inimitable" styles: "the Faulknerian long sentence, for example, with its breathless gerundives; Lawrentian nature imagery punctuated by testy colloquialism; Wallace Stevens's inveterate hypostasis of nonsubstantive parts of speech ('the intricate evasions of as')"; etc. (Postmodernism 16). In postmodern pastiche, by contrast, "Modernist styles... become postmodernist codes" (Postmodernism 17), leaving us with nothing but "a field of stylistic and discursive heterogeneity without a norm" (Postmodernism 17). Postmodern cultural productions therefore amount to "the cannibalization of all the styles of the past, the play of random stylistic allusion, and in general what Henri Lefebvre has called the increasing primacy of the 'neo'" (Postmodernism 18). In such a world of pastiche, we lose our connection to history, which gets turned into a series of styles and superceded genres, or simulacra: "The new spatial logic of the simulacrum can now be expected to have a momentous effect on what used to be historical time" (Postmodernism 18). In such a situation, "the past as 'referent' finds itself gradually bracketed, and then effaced altogether, leaving us with nothing but texts" ( Postmodernism 18). We can no longer understand the past except as a repository of genres, styles, and codes ready for commodification. Jameson points to a number of examples: 1) the way that "randomly and without principle but with gusto cannibalizes all the architectural styles of the past and combines them in overstimulating ensembles" (Postmodernism 19); 2) the way or la mode rtro represents the past for us in hyperstylized ways (the 50s in George Lucas's American Griffitti; the Italian 1930s in Roman Polanski's Chinatown); in such works we approach "the 'past' through stylistic connotation, conveying 'pastness' by the glossy qualities of the image, and '1930s-ness' or '1950s-ness' by the attributes of fashion" (Postmodernism 19). The "history of aesthetic styles" thus "displaces 'real' history" (Postmodernism 20). Jameson sees this situation as a "symptom of the waning of our historicity, of our lived possibility of experiencing history in some active way" (Postmodernism 21). 3) the way that (those works Hutcheon characterizes as "historiographic metafiction") represent the past through pop images of the past. Jameson gives E. L. Doctorow's Ragtime is a perfect example: "This historical novel can no longer set out to represent the historical past; it can only 'represent' our ideas and stereotypes about that past (which thereby at once becomes 'pop history')" (Postmodernism 25). In such works, according to Jameson, "we are condemned to seek History by way of our own pop images and simulacra of that history, which itself remains forever out of reach" ( Postmodernism 25).

postmodern architecture

nostalgia film

postmodern historical novels