Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

2.2 Cell Organisation 1. Unicellular organism is made up of only a single cell but it can perform all the living processes just like any other multicellular organisms. Living processes in unicellular organisms 1. The survival of a unicellular organism depends largely on its cellular components which include the organelles, as it does not have any organs or systems. Amoeba sp.

1. Most species of Amoeba are free living in freshwater environments, as well as in soil water. !. Amoeba sp. is enclosed by the plasma membrane and is constantly changing shape as it meets obstacles and responds to stimuli. ". Adverse stimuli, such as acidic water or bright light, cause Amoeba sp. to retreat. #. $t moves by e%tending temporary pseudopodia or &false feet& and anchoring the tips on the ground. '. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the projected pseudopodia. (. The cytoplasm of Amoeba sp. is divided into two layers. ). The outer layer is called ectoplasm, while the inner layer is endoplasm. *. The pseudopodia are also used for feeding. +. Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

1,. Amoeba sp. is a holo-oic organism which feeds on microscopic organisms such as bacteria. 11. The presence of food causes Amoeba sp. to advance by e%tending its pseudopodia. 1!. The pseudopodia enclose the food which is then packaged in a food vacuole. 1". The food vacuole fuses with a lysosome and the food is digested by a hydrolytic en-yme called lyso-yme. 1#. The resulting nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm. 1'. The e%change of gases, nutrients and waste substances occur through the plasma membrane by diffusion. 1(. As Amoeba sp. lives in freshwater, water diffuses into the cell by osmosis and fill the contractile vacuole. 1). .ontractile vacuoles are involved in osmoregulation. 1*. /hen the vacuole is filled to a ma%imum si-e, it contracts to e%pel its contents from time to time. 1+. /hen the environment is favourable, Amoeba sp. reproduces binary fission. !,. 0owever, when the environment is not conducive to reproduction, Amoeba sp. forms spores. Cell specialization in multicellular organisms 1. .ells grow, change shape and differentiate to carry out specific functions. !. .ells of a multicellular organism differentiate and undergo specialisation in order to perform their tasks more efficiently. ". 1or e%ample, cells may become specialised in transport, defence, support or feeding. #. 0uman epithelial tissues have been cultured successfully in the laboratory. '. These tissues can be used in grafts for the regeneration of new epithelial tissues in fire victims whose skin is damaged or severely burnt. Cell organisation in multicellular organisms 1. .ell of the same type which carry out a common function are organi-ed into tissues. !. 2ifferent types of tissues group together to form an organ. ". 3everal organs are found within a system. #. All systems work together to make up an organism.

Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

.ell organisation in animals Tissues 1. $n animals, tissues can be classified into four main types4 a5 epithelial tissue b5 muscle tissue c5 connective tissue d5 nerve tissue. 6pithelial Tissue 1. .onsists of one or more layers of cells. !. The cells of an epithelium are tightly interconnected and form a continuous layer over body surfaces 7skin and mouth area5 and inner linings of cavities 7digestive tract and lungs5. ". 3ome epithelial tissues undergo changes to form glands 7e%ocrine and endocrine glands5. #. 6pithelial tissue on the skin forms a protective barrier against infections, mechanical injuries and dehydration. '. 6pithelial cells in the lining of the human intestines form mucus secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into the digestive tract. (. The epithelial tissue that lines the trachea consists of elongated cells with hair like projections called cilia.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

Muscle tissues 1. Most abundant tissue in the body. !. $t is composed of cells called muscle fibres. ". There are three types of muscle tissues4 a5 smooth muscle 7can be found in intestines, blood vessels, urinary and reproductive tracts5, b5 skeletal muscle 7can be found in our arms and legs5 c5 cardiac muscle 7can be found in the walls of the heart5 #. .ontraction and rela%ation of smooth muscles are responsible for involuntary body activities such as the peristaltic movement along the digestive tract. '. 3mooth muscles contract more slowly than skeletal muscles but remain contacted for a longer period of time. (. 3keletal muscles are involved in voluntary movements. ). They contract and rela% to move the bones. *. .ardiac muscles contract to pump blood to all parts of the body. +. The contraction of cardiac muscles is involuntary. 8erve tissues

1. .omposed of neurons or nerve cells. !. 6ach neurone consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called dendrites and a%ons. ". 8eurones are specialised to detect stimuli and transmit electrical signals called nerve impulses to muscles or glands. #. 8erve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body. .onnective tissue

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

1. 6%ample4 a5 9oose connective tissue 9oose connective tissue is the most widespread connective tissue in the body. $t binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place. b5 2ense fibrous connective tissue 2ense fibrous connective tissue contains a large number of collagenous fibres which are packed closely together. This type of connective tissue can be found in tendons, which connect muscles to bones and in ligaments which join bones together at joints.

.artilage is strong and fle%ible. $t provides support to the nose, ears, covers the ends of bones at joints and the discs between the vertebrae which act as cushions to absorb pressure. :one

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

1. .onsists of cells embedded in a matri% of collagen which are hardened by mineral deposits such as calcium. !. This combination makes the bone harder than cartilage. ". :one provides protection to organs and support the body. :lood cells

1. ;roduced in the bone marrow located at the ends of long bones. !. :lood has regulating, transporting and protective functions. Adipose tissue

1. .onsists of tightly packed cells that stores fat. !. $t can be found in the dermis of the skin and around major organs. ". $t acts as an energy reserve and also provides insulation and protection. Organs 1. An organ is formed by two or more types of tissues working together to perform a particular function. !. 6%amples of organs include the heart, skin, lungs, kidneys, eyes and ears. ". The skin covers the body. #. $t acts as a barrier against infection, physical trauma and water loss. '. The skin is an organ because it consists of various types of tissues joined together to perform specific functions. (. The skin is composed of two main layers4 a5 epidermis <uter layer of the skin, is made up of epithelial tissue. The epithelial cells constantly undergo cell division. b5 dermis.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

.omposed of connective tissue, nerve tissue, epithelial tissue and muscle tissue. ). :lood is supplied to the skin through a network of blood capillaries. *. =arious sensory nerve endings are scattered throughout the dermis and epidermis. +. These nerve endings act as receptors which transmit nerve impulses for pressure, temperature, touch and pain to other parts of the nervous system. +. 3pecialised epithelial cells in the skin form structures such as hair follicles which produce hair, sweat glands which secrete sweat and oil glands which secrete sebum onto the surface of the skin.

3ystems 1. .onsists of several organs that work together to perform a common function. !. 11 major systems which carry out major body functions in humans.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

.ell organisation in plants Tissues 1. There are two main types of tissues in plants4 a5 meristematic tissues b5 permanent tissues Meristematic tissue 1. .onsist of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no vacuoles. !. >oung, actively dividing cells which have not undergone differentiation and are located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

;ermanent tissue 1. Mature tissues that have undergone differentiation or are still undergoing differentiation. !. Three types4 a5 epidermal tissues b5 ground tissues c5 vascular tissues. 6pidermal 1. <utermost layer that covers the stems, leaves and roots of young plants. !. 1lat and have large vacuoles. ". The walls of epidermal cells which are e%posed to air are covered with a wa%y waterproof coating called the cuticle. #. The cuticle minimises water loss through evaporation, protects plants from mechanical injury and prevents invasion of diseases caused by microorganisms.

1,. The root epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs to increase the surface area for water absorption. 11. 3pecialised epidermal cells containing chloroplasts are found among epidermal cells.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

1!. These cells are called guard cells and they control the opening and closing of stomata. ?round tissue 1. .onsists of4 a5 parenchyma tissue b5 collenchyma tissue c5 sclerenchyma tissue.

!. 1orm the bulk of a plant. ;arenchyma cells 1. 9east speciali-ed of the cell types found in all the organs of a plant. !. Thin primary walls and large vacuoles. ". 3tore sugar and starch. #. ;arenchyma tissue which is turgid gives support and shape to herbaceous plants. '. Most fruits are made up of parenchyma cells. .ollenchyma cells 1. Unevenly thickened cell walls, especially at the corners. !. 3upports non woody 7herbaceous5 plants, young stems and petioles. 3clerenchyma cells 1. .ell walls which are uniformly thickened by lignin and may be dead. !. ?ive support and mechanical strength to mature regions of a plant. =ascular tissue 1. .onsists of %ylem and phloem which are continuous throughout the plant.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

@ylem 1. .onsists mainly of %ylem vessels joined together end to end, e%tending from the roots right up to the leaves. !. The absence of cytoplasm in %ylem vessels enables efficient transport of water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant. ". The cell walls are thickened with lignin to provide support and mechanical strength to the plant. ;hloem 1. .onsists mainly of sieve tubes which are arranged end to end to form long continuous tube like structures. !. <rganic compounds such as newly synthesised carbohydrates and amino acids in the leaf are transported by phloem to other parts of the plant.

<rgans and systems in plants 1. 6%amples4 a5 leaf b5 stem c5 root d5 flower 9eaf 1. Made up of ground tissues, epidermal tissues and vascular tissues. 3ystems 1. 1lowering part consist of two main systems4 a5 root system b5 shoot system !. Aoot system consists of all the roots of a plant.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

". 3hoot system consists of stems, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits. #. 3tems and branches act as a support system for the plant by holding the leaves upright for ma%imum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis. '. The flowers are involved in pollination.

Regulating the internal environment The internal environment of multicellular organisms 1. Although a multicellular organism lives in an e%ternal environment, the cells of the body live within an internal environment. !. The internal environment of a multicellular organism consists of the interstitial fluid and the blood plasma. ". The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells. #. This fluid e%changes nutrients and waste substances with the blood plasma contained in blood capillaries. The necessity for maintaining an optimal internal environment 1. The physical factors and chemical factors of the internal environment must be maintained regardless of the conditions outside the cells in order for the cells to function optimally. !. The physical factors include temperature, blood pressure and osmotic pressure.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

". The chemical factors include salt and sugar content and p0 value. #. $n mammals and birds, the physical factors and chemical composition of the internal environment are regulated so that cells can function effectively. '. 0omeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment for the cells to function optimally. (. 1or e%ample, the metabolism of the body is affected by the changes in the chemical factors such as glucose and o%ygen levels and physical factors such as temperature and osmotic pressure. ). These changes are regulated by the homeostatic mechanisms which maintain the internal environment so that the metabolic processes can proceed at optimum rates. *. Any increase or decrease in the value of a physical or chemical factor will trigger the homeostatic mechanism to bring it back to normal. +. The mechanism that governs homeostasis is called negative feedback mechanism. The involvement of various systems in maintaining an optimal internal environment 1. 3ystems in the body function and interact with one another to maintain a stable internal environment. :ody temperature 1. Aegulated by4 a5 $ntegumentary system 7skin and sweat glands5 b5 8ervous system c5 .irculatory system d5 Muscular system e5 6ndocrine system. !. /hen the body temperature rises above the normal level, the receptors in the skin detect the changes. ". This information is transmitted to the hypothalamus, the temperature regulatory centre in the brain. #. The hypothalamus activates various effectors such as the blood vessels and the sweat glands. '. The blood vessels dilate and allow more blood to flow near the surface the body. (. This will increase heat loss to the e%ternal environment. ). The sweat glands are activated by the nervous system to produce more sweat that will lower the body temperature through evaporation. *. The overall result is the lowering of the body temperature to its original level. +. /hen body temperature is restored to normal, the regulatory centre will no longer be in a stimulated state. .oncentrations of o%ygen and carbon dio%ide 1. Aegulated by4 a5 Aespiratory system b5 .irculatory system c5 8ervous systems !. The circulatory system transports o%ygen from the lungs to the body cells.

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

". .arbon dio%ide is removed from the body cells into the bloodstream and transported back to the lungs. #. .hanges in the concentrations of o%ygen and carbon dio%ide are detected by the nervous system. '. 1or e%ample, the decrease in the concentration of o%ygen and the increase in the concentration of carbon dio%ide in the blood during vigorous physical activities are detected by the nervous system. (. As a result, the breathing and pulse rates increase so that the normal concentrations of carbon dio%ide and o%ygen ire attained. :lood glucose level 1. Aegulated by4 a5 6ndocrine system b5 .irculatory system c5 2igestive system !. The pancreas secretes insulin when the blood glucose level is high and it secretes glucagon when the blood glucose level is low.

:lood osmotic pressure 7balance of water and dissolved substances in body fluids5 1. Aegulated by4 a5 8ervous system b5 6ndocrine system c5 6%cretory system .hemical contents in the body 7waste products of metabolism5 1. Aegulated by4 a5 6%cretory system b5 .irculatory system c5 8ervous system d5 6ndocrine system. !. To%ic substances such as urea are transported by the circulatory system to the kidneys to be e%creted. p0 level

Biology Form 4: Chapter 2

1. Aegulated by4 a5 Aespiratory system b5 .irculatory system c5 6%cretory system !. The p0 of the blood and interstitial fluid is maintained by controlling the concentrations of hydrogen ions 70B 5, hydro%yl ions 7<0 5 and hydrogen carbonate ions 70.<"5. 2.3 ppreciating the !ni"ueness of the Cell 1. A cell is the basic unit of all living organisms that is capable of functioning on its own. !. The presence of organelles divides the cell into small compartments in which specific functions can take place.