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3.1.2 Advent of Ad-hoc Wireless NetworksAn Ad-hoc network is a local area network or some other small network, especially one with wireless, in which some network devices are the element of network only for the duration of a communications session. The theory behind ad-hoc networking is multi-hop relay in which data is sent from the source to the destination through the intermediate nodes. In multi-hop wireless network the communication between two end nodes is achieved through a number of intermediate nodes whose function is to relay information from one point to another point. Examples - Classroom, Large IT campus, Shopping mall, etc [22].

3.1.3 Types of Ad-Hoc Networks [20]

a) MANET

b) WSN c) WMN

d) VANETs

3.1.4 Features of Ad-hoc Network

There are some features that determines the efficiency and effectiveness of wireless ad hoc network [20]. Network settling time. Network join time Network depart time Network recovery time Frequency of updates (overhead) Memory byte requirement Network scalability
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A) MANET

A Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is a collection of autonomous nodes or terminals which communicate with each other by forming a multi-hop radio network and maintaining connectivity in a decentralized manner over relatively bandwidth constrained wireless links. Each device in mobile ad-hoc network is free to move in any direction, and thus changes its links to other devices repeatedly. The topology is extremely dynamic and changes in the topology may be hard to predict. To connect to a network, a node must be within the area of influence of at least one node on the network. Even if the source and destination are not within each others range, data packets are forwarded to the destination by relaying transmission through other nodes that exist between the two nodes [11]. MANET Constraints and Issues 1. Lack of a Centralized Entity 2. Network Topology changes frequently and unpredictably 3. Routing and Mobility Management 4. Channel Access/Bandwidth Availability 5. Hidden/Exposed Station Problem 6. Near Far Effect

3.1.5 Applications of Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks

1. Military applications Ad-Hoc wireless networks are used to establish communication in a battle field.

2. Collaborative and Distributed Computing A group in a conference can share data in ad hoc networks. Streaming of multimedia among the participating nodes.
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3. Emergency Operations Ad-hoc wireless networks are used in emergency operation such as search and rescue, and crowd control.

3.2 Medium access control for Ad-hoc Networks:

Ad-hoc networks are interesting to researchers because of their wide range of application, probable in areas like detection and tracking, environmental monitoring, industrial monitoring. However, low sensing ranges outcome in dense networks, which bring the necessity to achieve a competent medium access protocol. Different MAC protocols with different objectives were proposed for wireless sensor networks. Here we first outline the wireless network properties that are crucial for the design of MAC layer protocol. Next, we describe MAC protocols proposed for wireless networks. MAC is responsible for resolving the conflicts among different nodes for channel access [9].

3.2.1 Need for MAC layer

Maximizing the network life time is a common objective of sensor network research, since sensor nodes are assumed to be disposed when they are out of battery. In such circumstances, the proposed MAC protocol must be energy resourceful by reducing the potential energy wastes. The types of communication patterns that are observed in sensor network applications should be investigated since these patterns are used to extract the behavior of the sensor network traffic that has to be handled by a given MAC protocol [23]. A. Energy Waste When a receiver node receives more than one packet at the same time, these packets are called collided packets even when they match partially. All the packets which cause the collision must be discarded and the re-transmissions of these packets are required which increase the energy consumption. The second reason of energy waste is over-hearing, means a node receives packets that are destined to other nodes. The third energy waste occurs as a result of control packet overhead. Minimal number of control packets should be used to make a data
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transmission. One of the main source of energy wastage is idle listening means listening to an idle channel. Given the facts above, a correctly-designed MAC protocol should prevent these energy wastes [6]. B. Communication Patterns There are 3 types of communication patterns in wireless sensor networks: broadcast, converge cast. Broadcast type of communication pattern is generally used by a base station (sink) to transmit some information to all sensor nodes of the network. Broadcasted information may include queries of sensor query processing architectures, program updates for sensor nodes, control packets for the whole. In some scenarios, the sensors that detect an intruder communicate with each other locally. This kind of communication pattern is called the local gossip, in which a sensor sends a message to its neighboring nodes within a range. The sensor that detects the trespasser needs to send what they perceive to the information center. That communication pattern is called converge cast, where a group of sensors communicate to a specific sensor. The destination node could be a cluster, base station [7].

3.2.2 Properties of a Well-defined MAC Protocol

To design a good MAC protocol for the wireless sensor networks, the following attributes must be considered. The first attribute energy efficiency. We have to define energy efficient protocols in order to prolong the network lifetime. Other important attributes scalability and adaptability to changes. Changes in network size, node density and topology should be handled rapidly and effectively for a successful adaptation [10]. Some of the reasons behind these network property changes are limited node lifetime, addition of new nodes to the network and varying interference which may alter the connectivity and hence the network topology. A good MAC protocol should elegantly lodge such network changes. Other attributes such as through put, latency and bandwidth utilization may be secondary in sensor networks. Contrary to other wireless networks, fairness among sensor nodes is not usually a design goal, as all sensor nodes share a common duty [13].

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3.2.3 Classifications of MAC Protocols [11] MAC protocols can be classified into three categories: a. Contention based MAC protocols. b. Contention based MAC protocols with reservation mechanisms. c. Contention based MAC protocols with scheduling mechanisms. Contention Based Mac Protocols Sender-initiated protocols - Transmissions are initiated by the sender node. Single channel sender-initiated protocols - A node that wins the contention to the channel can make use of the entire bandwidth. e.g MACA (multiple access collision avoidance) , MACAW [11]. Multichannel sender initiated protocols - The available bandwidth is divided into multiple channels [11]. Receiver initiated protocols - The receiver node initiates the contention resolution protocol [11]. Contention Based Mac Protocols with Reservation Mechanisms Synchronous protocols - All nodes need to be synchronized [14]. Asynchronous protocols - These protocols use relative time information for e reservations [14]. Contention Based Mac Protocols with Scheduling Mechanisms Node scheduling is done in a manner so that all nodes are treated fairly and no node is starved of bandwidth. Scheduling-based schemes are also used for enforcing priorities among flows whose packets are queued at nodes. Some scheduling schemes also consider battery characteristics [14].

3.3 Multiple Accesses with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

Is a contention based single channel protocol. MACA use signaling packets for collision avoidanceVHDL Implementation of DS-SS CDMA based Mac protocol for Ad-hoc Networks | 36

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RTS (request to send) - sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet. CTS (clear to send) - receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to receive.

Here signaling packets contain sender address, receiver address, packet size. The neighbor node that overhears an RTS packet has to defer its own transmission until the associated CTS packet is transmitted. Then any node overhearing a CTS packet would defer for the length of expected data transmission. When a node wishes to transmit a data packet, it first transmits a RTS (Request To Send) frame. The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, in case it is ready to receive the data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet. Once the sender receives the CTS packet, it starts transmitting the data packet [14]. If a packet transmitted is lost, the node use binary exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random interval of time before retrying. The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might starve flows sometimes. Limitation -

A Time 0 Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

B RTS CTS

CTS collision

RTS RTS CTS

Data collision

CTS

Fig. 3.1 Collision at Node B and Node C a) MACA does not provide ACK. b) RTS-CTS approach does not always solve the hidden node problem.

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Fig 3.1 shown above For example- A sends RTS to B, B sends CTS to A; At the same time, D sends RTS to C, The CTS & RTS packets collide at C, A transmits data to B; D resends RTS to C; C sends CTS to D, The data & CTS packets collide at B.

3.4 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance Wireless (MACAW)MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA (without ACK). The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS (Request To Send) frame if no nearby station transmits a RTS. The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear To Send) frame. In the meantime Neighbors if see CTS, then keep quiet. If the node sees RTS and not CTS, then keeps quiet until the CTS goes back to the sender. The receiver sends an ACK signal after receiving an frame. Neighbors keep silent until see ACK. Thus, no chance of collision. Significantly higher throughput than MACA.

RTS Tx CTS DATA ACK Rx

Fig. 3.2 Working Diagram of MAC In the RTS/CTS algorithm, the node which wants to send frames sends a RTS (request to send) frame to the destination node first, and after the destination node responds with a CTS (clear to send) frame immediately. It is when the source node receives the CTS transmitted from destination node accurately; the source node is allowed to transmit frames. Whenever the source node receives the CTS, it starts the transmission of data. In order to face the unreliability of the
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channel, the MAC protocol adds a positive acknowledgement (ACK) upon the reception of a data packet [15]. The proposed MAC based DS CDMA solution provides a methodology in which after receiving the MAC ID from the transmitters the receiver firstly checks for the destination MAC in the received signal and if the ID matches with the self ID of the receiver it will allow the transmitter to send the data further. This will always restrict the non intended transmitter to transmit the data to the non intended receiver by providing the transmitter the information to reduce its power for transmission if the MAC ID comparison match fails [5].

3.5 Channel Access Mechanism Step 1 If terminal j wants a packet to transmit, it first sends a RTS packet at Pmax, and includes in this packet the maximum allowable power level (P(j)map) that terminal j can use that will not disturb any ongoing reception in js neighborhood. If the destination ID in RTS format matches with the self id of receiver next step is to analyze power level. RTS FRAME Destination address/ID Transmitter address/ID Duration Data Size Allowable power

Additional field Step 2 The intended receiver i receives the RTS packet, and uses the predetermined Pmax, value and the power of the received signal P(ji) received to estimate the channel gain . =

Terminal i will be able to correctly decode the data packet if transmitted at a power P(ji)min P(ji)min =
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PMAI -current(i) = effective current MAI from all already ongoing (interfering) transmissions. All neighbors of terminal i will have to defer their transmissions during terminal is ongoing reception . Step 3 power that terminal j is allowed to send to i is = , where

= effective bit energy-to-noise spectral density ratio Eb/N0eff , that is needed to achieve the target error rate Pthermal= the thermal noise power, Noise rise (i) = (Eb/N0)unloaded / (Eb/N0)loaded) = (Pthermal + PMAI (i) )/ Pthermal (max) = maximum planned noise rise is set. i responds with a CTS (negative) to inform j that i cannot proceed with js transmission

1. If P (ji)allowed < P(ji)min

2. If P (ji)allowed > P(ji)min i calculates the interference power tolerance PMAI -future(i) that it can endure from future unintended transmitters . PMAI -future(i) =3W Gji (P (ji)allowed - P(ji)min)/2 * W= Processing gain.i equitably distributes this power tolerance among future potentially interfering users . P (i) noise = The interference tolerance that each future neighbor can add to terminal i is

P (i) noise= P (i) MAI future/(1+ ) K(i) When responding to js RTS, terminal i indicates in its CTS the power level P (ji)allowed that j must use. i inserts P (i) noise in the CTS packet and sends this packet back to terminal j at Pmax over the control channel using the common code.

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CTS FRAME Frame control Receiver Address/ID Duration Interference Tolerance Pi(noise) Power Pji (allowed)

Additional fields Step 4 - Compute P(s)map Potentially interfering terminal S hears the CTS message from i, then computes the channel gain Gsi between s and i also computes the maximum power P(s)map that s can use in its future transmissions. = min( )

Step 5 - j sends data to i . Step 6 - If transmission is successful, receiver i responds j with an ACK packet over the data channel using the same power level that would have been used if i were to send a data packet to j. Protocol recovery- While receiving a data packet, terminal i hears a RTS message (destined to any terminal) that contains an allowable power level P(.)map value which if used can cause an unacceptable interference with is ongoing reception, means Mac id matching fails. Then terminal i shall respond immediately with a special CTS packet, preventing the RTS sender from commencing its transmission and data transmission cannot occur.

3.6 Block Diagram

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The main blocks of DS-CDMA based MAC CDMA forward link Transmitter & Receiver for Ad hoc network are shown below Data input
MAC checker

Data out

CONVOLUTION ENCODER Frame recovery

VITERBI SYMBOL REPEATOR DECODER

Long Gold code Generator

BLOCK INTERLEAVER

BLOCK DE- INTERLEAVER

1.22 mbps
Decimator

19.2 kbps

Walsh code

19.2 kbps

DBPSK MODULATOR

DBPSK DEMODULATOR

Fig. 3.3 Physical Layer Structure MACAW based DS-SS CDMA Forward Link for Ad-hoc
Network

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3.6.1 Convolution Encoder Convolution coding is a popular error-correcting coding method used in digital communications. A message is convoluted, and then transmitted through a noisy channel. The convolution operation encodes redundant information into the transmitted signal, by improving the data capacity of the channel. All communication channels are subject to the Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) around the environment. Block codes can be applied only for the block of data whereas convolution coding can be applied to a continuous data stream as well as to blocks of data [21]. A Convolution Encoder accepts an input stream of message and generates encoded output streams to be transmitted. In this process for one input bit the encoder generates more than one output bits and these redundant symbols in output bit pattern makes the transmitted data more immune to the noise in the channel. The redundant bits help to decide and correct the errors in received pattern [21]. For the standardization some expressions were generated as: M - Length of the shift registers stage in the encoder. Constraint Length (K) = M+1 - This number represents the number of input bits required to generate a unique output pattern in the encoder. Constraint length of K=3 means that each output symbol depends on the current input symbol and the two previous input symbols. Number of States = 2(K-1) - Defines the maximum number of states that is possible to be mapped by the combinations of the K number of input bits for the convolution encoder. L- Length of Input Message R- Convolution Code Rate R = Number of input bits to create a symbol at the output (m)/ Number of output bits in a symbol at the output (n). Total output bits = v(M+L)

For example, 1/2 code rate means each bit entering the encoder results in 2 bits leaving the encoder. The encoder has n modulo 2 adders, and n generator polynomials one for each adder [21].
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Fig. 3.4 Block Diagram of Convolution Encoder

The Block diagram of convolution encoder is shown in Fig 3.4. To generate the output, the encoder uses three values of the input signal, one value which is present and two past values. The set of past values of input data is called a state. The no. of input values which is used to generate the code is called the constraint length. Each set of outputs is generated by EX-ORing a pattern of current and shifted values of input data. The pattern used to generate the coded output value can be expressed as binary strings called Generator Polynomials [21]. The MSB of the generator polynomial corresponds to the input; the LSBs of the generator polynomial correspond to the state.

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Table 3.1 Generation of Encoded data vectors Input Bit Stream [11000111] State of Shift Register S 100 110 111 011 001 000 100 110 011 001 000 V1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 Output of Modulo- 2 Adder V2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 V3 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 Output Data vector V 101 011 000 101 011 000 101 011 101 011 000

The present state values are the possible 2 bit combinations for both 0 and 1 input. The output is obtained from the expressions in the fig 3.4 . Then, the next state values are calculated by right shifting the input and present state values together by 1 bit position.

3.6.2 Interleaver
An Interleaver is a hardware device commonly used in conjugation with error correcting codes to counteract the effect of burst errors. Interleaving is a standard signal processing technique used in variety of communication system. An Interleaver is a device that takes symbols from a fixed alphabet as input and produces the identical symbol at the output in a different temporal order [20].

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The classical use of interleaving is to disperse sequences of bits into bit stream so as to minimize the effect of burst errors introduced in transmission. The error correcting codes can correct errors successfully as long as there are not too many errors in single code word. However sometimes tends to be bursty in the sense that there can be a local concentration of many errors too many for typical errors to be handled .This occurs in i) Burst errors channels such as wireless
communication channels. ii) Concatenated coding, in which first stage of decoding generates burst errors. Such as, Viterbi decoder [20].

There are two classical kind of Interleaver a) Block b) Convolution Block Interleaver - In this, the input data is written along the rows of memory configured as matrix, and then read out along the columns. Convolution Interleaver - In this, data is multiplexed into and out of a fixed number of shift registers. Interleaving is a process in which the bits that compose a digital signal are reordered before transmission of the signal to compensate for the effects of burst errors resulting during signal propagation of the transrnission channel. The type of bit reordering is determined by the standard of the communication system. In a typical interleaver, the bits are written into a memory block in sequence [20]. Interleaving is basically taking a block of samples from your signal and shuffling (interleaving) them around before sending them. This is so that if a short 'burst' error occurs in a number of bits, the errors affect bits that were not actually next to one another when the signal was created. So when the data is de-interleaved then the error control code can work on the errors more easily, because the errors are spread through the message [20].

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Data Frame
7 6 5

Received Data
4 3 2 1 0

Interleaver
Interleaved Data
7 1 4 2 5 6 3 0

Channel

De Interleaver

Burst Error Fig. 3.5 Concept of Interleaving and De-Interleaving process

3.6.3 Gold code

Gold codes are product codes achieved by the exclusive or-ing (modulo-2 adding) of two maximum length sequences with the identical length. The code sequences are to be added chip by chip by synchronous clocking. Every change in phase position between the two generated m sequences causes a new sequence to generate. When specially selected m sequences are used, the code generated is called the Gold code. Gold codes are well known for the lowest cross correlation values between the codes and are ideal for a nonsynchronous, up-link communication from the mobile hand held unit to the base station [20]. A set of spreading codes used for multiple access system should have as little mutual interference. Therefore, a particular class of PN sequence called Gold sequences. These are chosen so that, the cross-correlation values between the codes over a set of codes are uniform. Gold codes can be generated by modulo two additions of two maximum length sequences with the same length. These code sequences are added chip by chip by synchronous clocking.
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Generated codes are of the same length as the two m-sequences which are added together. One of the advantages of Gold codes is in generating large number of codes [20]. Let and

(X) be preferred pair of primitive polynomials of degree n whose corresponding shift registers generate maximal length sequences of period magnitude less than or equal to +1 +1 for n odd.. for n even. . (X) will generate and whose cross correlation function has a

Then shift register corresponding to product polynomial different sequences ,with each sequence having a period of

, and cross correlation between

any pair of such sequences satisfying the preceding condition.An illustration of generating a Gold set is shown in figure below [20].

Fig. 3.6 Gold Code Sequence Generator with Shift Register of length m= 5 We consider a maximal length sequence requiring the use of linear feedback shift Register of length m=5. For feedback taps, we select the set [5,2] and [5,4,2,1] from the table. Assuming initial state is 10000, the evolution of maximal length sequences are shown in Table 3.2 and 3.3, where generator returns to initial 10000 after 31 iterations [22].

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Table3.2 Evolution of the maximal length sequence generated by the Feedback Shift Register (a) Feedback taps [5,2 ] Feedback Symbol 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 State of Shift Register 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 Output Symbol 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Code: 0001010111011000111110011010010 VHDL Implementation of DS-SS CDMA based Mac protocol for Ad-hoc Networks | 49

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Table 3.3 Evolution of the Maximal Length Sequence generated by the feedback Shift Register [22] (b) Feedback taps [ 5,4,2,1 ] Feedback Symbol 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 State of Shift Register 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Output Symbol 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Code: 0001101010010001011111011001110 VHDL Implementation of DS-SS CDMA based Mac protocol for Ad-hoc Networks | 50

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3.6.4 Decimator
The decimation is accomplished by essentially using every sixty-fourth bit out of the long code frame. Here 64 times decimation reduces the data rate from 1.2288 Mbps to 19.2 Kbps.

Fig. 3.7 Concept of Decimator 64:1 &24:1 working

3.6.5 DBPSK Modulator & De-modulator

Differential binary PSK is a non coherent form of phase shift keying which avoid the need for a coherent reference signal at the receiver. Non coherent receivers are easy and cheap to build and hence are widely used in wireless communication. In DPSK System the input binary sequence is first differentially encoded and then modulated using a BPSK modulator [22]. In DBPSK system one previous bit used to decided the phase shift of next bit and change in output occurs only if input bit is at logic 1 and no other change occurs if input bit is at logic 0. Therefore one previous bit is always used to define the phase shift in next bit there the symbol is said to have two bits. The output is passed through a product modulator to obtain the DPSK signal. At the receiver end, the original sequence is recovered from the demodulated differentially encoded signal through a complementary process [23].

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Fig. 3.8 Block Diagram of DPSK Transmitter & Receiver

3.6.6 Walsh Codes

Walsh codes are perfectly orthogonal codes and are used in synchronous communication from base station to the mobile hand-held user. Hadamard form of Walsh transform so called Walsh- Hadamard transform (WHT) is iteratively generated from the Kernels. Higher length Walsh code sets are iteratively generated from the lower length Walsh code sets using Kronecker product [21]. [ ] where [ ]1)

The

simplicity

of

their them

generation a good

and

fixed for

power the

feature

along

with

orthogonality property make

choice

synchronous multiuser codes

communications systems. The Hadamard Walsh codes are generated in a set of N= With length N= .The generating algorithm is as follows=[

] where N is a

power of 2 and dash denotes the binary complement of bits in the matrix. The smallest set of N=0 is with length 1.
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The rows or columns of matrix symmetric. The set of 2 is shown asare the Hadamard walsh codes since the matrix [ is

]. Orthogonality is the most important

property of walsh codes, because of this the cross correlation between any two hadamard walsh code of same set (matrix) is 0 when the system is perfectly synchronized [20]. For example, lets examine the codeword denoted W(1, 2) and the codeword denoted W(2, 4) to see if they are orthogonal. Since they are of different lengths, we repeat W(1, 2) to match the length of W(2, 4). Hence, we get the following two code words in polar formW(1, 2) [ 1 -1 1 -1 ] W(2, 4) [ 1 1 -1 -1 ] Computing the orthogonality we get (11+ -11 + 1-1+ -1-1 = 0 ) Hence, W(1, 2) and W(2, 4) are orthogonal.

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3.6.7 Viterbi Decoder

The Viterbi algorithm uses the trellis diagram to compute the accumulated distances (called the path metrics) from the received sequence to the possible transmitted sequences. The total number of such trellis paths grows exponentially with the number of stages in the trellis, causing potential complexity and memory issues [23]. Table 3.4 Convolution code for Fig .3.4

Input data stream 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 101 101 101 101 101 101 101 101 000 000 000 000 101 101 101 101 110 110 110 110 011 011 011 011 000 000 101 101 110 110 011 011 011 011 110 110 101 101 000 000 000 101 110 011 011 110 101 000 000 101 110 011 011 110 101 000 000 110 011 101 000 110 011 101 000 110 011 101 000 110 011 101 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 011 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 Coded output bit stream

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Fig.3.9 Code Tree for the encoder of Fig. 3.4 utilizing Table 3.5 [23]
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