A Qualitative Analysis of Media Messages About Gay Men and Lesbians in Sport

AQualitativeAnalysisofMedia MessagesAboutGayMenand LesbiansinSport
PeterE.Perkowski CaliforniaStateUniversity,LongBeach February5,2011
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThroughoutthisProgram,Ihavebeenprivilegedtolearnfrom and interact with many outstanding professors and scholars. Chief among them is Dr. Sharon Guthrie, who never hesitated to support and encourage my interest in and passion for the subjectthatledtothisresearch.ThroughDr.Guthrie,Imetand becameacquaintedwithProfessorEricAnderson,aresearcher at the University of Winchester, England and a preeminent scholar on sport, masculinities, sexualities, and homophobia, whoseresearchandinteractionshaveinspiredmeinvaluably. I would also like to thank (or blame) my good friend Bob Gookin, who insisted that I do this Program and was always moresurethanIthatitwastherightdecisionforme. Finally, special thanks to my partner Kevin Amell, whose personal sacrifice did not go unnoticed as I juggled coursework,fieldwork,andcareer.IknowthatIwouldnotbe whereIamtodaywithouthisloveandsupport.
PeterE.Perkowski
PHOTOCREDITS
Except where otherwise indicated, the photographs used in this Capstone Report are part of Jeff Shengs Fearless series, whichfeatureshighschoolandcollegiateathleteswhoopenly selfidentify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender and are out to their predominantly straight teammates and coaches. The project began in 2003 and includes over 100 athletes acrosstheUnitedStatesandCanada. Since2006,Shenghasexhibitedtheprojectathighschoolsand collegesaspartofwhathenamedtheFearlessCampusTour. Theprojecthasbeenseenatcollegeandhighschoolcampuses around the United States, as well as at ESPN headquarters, at the International LGBT Human Rights Conference in Copenhagenin2009,andatPRIDEHouseatthe2010Winter OlympicsinVancouverandWhistler. FormoreofShengsphotographs,gotowww.jeffsheng.com.
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page ExecutiveSummary.........................................................................................................................................................................................1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................................................2 LiteratureReview..............................................................................................................................................................................................6 TheGayandLesbianLocker..........................................................................................................................6 HegemonicMasculinity..............................................................................................................................6 CompulsoryHeterosexuality(Heteronormativity)........................................................................8 AttitudesTowardGayMenandLesbiansinSport..........................................................................9 ComingOutoftheLocker..............................................................................................................................12 IncreasingSocietalAcceptance............................................................................................................12 ComingOutEarlier....................................................................................................................................14 ThePioneerorSnowballEffect........................................................................................................15 ReportsoftheHardshipsofOpenlyLGBTAthletes...........................................................................16 FacilitatingOutPlayandAcceptanceofOpenlyLGBTSportsFigures:Support,Inform, Educate ...........................................................................................................................................................20 SupportforLGBTIndividualsinSport ..............................................................................................20 InformingtheMedia..................................................................................................................................21 EducatingStraightSportStakeholders.............................................................................................21 SportRelatedLGBTAdvocacyOrganizationsThatSupport,Inform,andEducate.............22 ItTakesATeam!.........................................................................................................................................22 ChangingtheGame....................................................................................................................................23 NCLRSportsProject..................................................................................................................................24 GLAADSportsMediaProject.................................................................................................................24 GayandLesbianAthleticsFoundation ..............................................................................................25 AthleteAlly....................................................................................................................................................25 Solution:AFormalizedSupportSystemforGayMenandLesbiansinSport........................................................26 Methods,Procedures,andProtocol...................................................................................................................................................27 StudyDesign.......................................................................................................................................................27
AQUALITATIVEANALYSISOFMEDIAMESSAGESABOUTGAYMENANDLESBIANSINSPORT
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
MediaMessagesasanIndicatorofSocialAttitudes....................................................................27 SampleandDataCollection...................................................................................................................28 DataAnalysis.......................................................................................................................................................29 DelimitationsandAssumptions...........................................................................................................................................................30 Results....................................................................................................................................................................................................................31 GayMenandLesbiansInSportFaceHostility,Bias,andMisunderstanding.........................31 ComingOutInSportIsBraveandDifficult............................................................................................36 TheStruggleWithBeingCloseted:Isolation,andAmbivalence...................................................39 PositiveResultsfromComingOut.............................................................................................................41 CondemnationofAntiGayBias..................................................................................................................44 PerceivedProgressTowardandAnticipationofFullAcceptanceofOpenlyLGBTAthletes InSport ...........................................................................................................................................................46 WomenFaceAUniqueSetofChallengesRegardingLGBTIssues..............................................48 Discussion............................................................................................................................................................................................................50 ProjectArtifact..................................................................................................................................................................................................51 ApplicationsandImplicationsoftheArtifact ...............................................................................................................................69 PracticalApplicationstotheSportManagementIndustry.............................................................69 ImplicationsforSportManagementAcademe.....................................................................................70 ContributionstoCareerAspirations........................................................................................................71 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................................................................................72 References...........................................................................................................................................................................................................73 Appendices ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................81
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TABLEOFFIGURES,GRAPHS,TABLESANDPHOTOS
Page Figure1:Percentagewhoconsiderhomosexualityacceptable,byagegroup...........................13 Figure2:Typesofarticlesindataframe,bynumberandpercentage...........................................29 Photo1:BrentBowersstiradeagainstumpireBillyVanRaaphorst.(Photocredit:Brian Gavrilof,EdmontonJournal.)..............................................................................................19 Photo2:GarethThomas(Photographby:KieranDoherty;Credit:Reuters).............................34 Photo3:AndrewMcIntosh(Photocredit:JonathanCohenfortheNYTimes.).........................36 Photo4:BrendanBurkeandfather,BrianBurke(Photocredit:BurkeFamily).......................42
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EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Forlesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender(LGBT)athletesandothersportsfigures, sport in the United States is a dichotomy as disparate as black and white. At the professional level, there are no LGBT athletes competing openly, and no LGBT coaches training them. At the collegiate level, anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more LGBT athletes are coming out. Not a week goes by without news reports of positive developments concerning LGBT issues in sport contextsa supportive comment by an wellknownorrespectedsportsfigure,suchasthisonejusttwodaysago: [NHLforwardSean]Averysaidheswillingtosupportaplayer who might feel intimidated by the decision to openly declare hissexualorientation. If theres a kid in Canada or wherever, who is playing and really loves the game and wants to keep playing but hes worriedaboutcomingout,Idtellhimtopickupthephoneand call (NHLPA executive director) Donald Fehr and tell him to bookmea(plane)ticket. Ill stand beside him in the dressing room while he tells his teammatesheisgay.MaybeifSeanAveryisthere,theywould havelessofaproblemwithit.(Stevenson,2011.) Is there a sea change happening in sport? Some scholars think so, theorizing that cultural and societal changes may be spilling over into sport, however slowly. Assuming thatthesechangesareunderway,andassumingthattheypointtoincreasingnumbersof openly LGBT sport figures at all levels of sport, what needs to be done (if anything) to prepareforthatfutureandhelpbringitabout? This study qualitatively examined media messages about gay men and lesbians in sport. By analyzing the content of articles published in U.S. newspapers, magazines, and online sources over the past fifteen months concerning LGBT issues in sport, media
messageswererevealedandcategorizedintomajorthemes.Amongthefindingswerethat LGBT individuals face enormous obstacles to participating openly in sport as well as personal struggles from participating while still closeted. When LGBT sport figures do come out, however, there is recognition of the acts courage and bravery and, in a large number of cases, positive outcomes both in terms of personal life and relationships. And when negative outcomes occur, they are nearly always met with criticism and condemnation,whichoftentimesleadstochangedbehavior. These findings point to a solution with three parts: First, support for LGBT individuals in sport to help them navigate the sometimes treacherous waters of a hostile environmentandtofacilitatetheireventualcomingout.Second,informationformediato helpensureinthefair,accurate,andsensitiveportrayalofLGBTindividualsandissuesin sport.Andthird,educationforsportstakeholdersincludingteams,leagues,schools,and personnelto combat homophobia, bring about the acceptance of sexual minorities, and allowforthefullparticipationofopenlyLGBTindividualsinsport.
INTRODUCTION
Fromschoolyardplaygroundstoprofessionalplayingfields,menssportsactivities havealwaysbeenwheremasculinityisbothcherishedandexpectedandheterosexualityis assumed.Forwomen,bycontrast,sportparticipationhasoftenbeenaccompaniedwitha lesbian stigma. The latent hostility toward LGBT athletes can cause gay and lesbian athletestoremainhidden. Indeed, organized team sports have traditionally been inhospitable to gay and lesbian participants. Homonegativitydefined as purposeful negative attitudes toward nonheterosexuals, as contrasted to homophobia, which is typically defined as irrational
2 AQUALITATIVEANALYSISOFMEDIAMESSAGESABOUTGAYMENANDLESBIANSINSPORT
fear and intolerance (MaurerStarks, Clemons, & Whalen, 2008)has been shown to be prevalent among college students, particularly college men, and particularly toward gay andlesbianathletes(Gill,Morrow,Collins,Lucey,&Schultz,2006;Roper&Halloran,2007; Southall et al., 2009; WolfWendel, Toma, & Morphew, 2001). Sport settings, especially competitive team sports, have been described as neartotally intolerant of homosexuality(Anderson,2009).Antigayremarksandbehaviorinsportoccurfrequently, atalllevelsandfromallstakeholders,includingplayers,coaches,fans,andevenmedia. Culturally,homophobiaandhomonegativityintheUnitedStatesappeartobeonthe decline. This can be seen, for example, in recent political battles involving LGBT rights, including samesex marriage, dont ask, dont tell, and employment nondiscrimination legislation,wherepublicopinionspollshaveshownsteadyincreasesinsupportofthepro LGBTpositions(Morales,2010;Jones,2010;Saad,2008). Some researchers have theorized that the rigid antigay and antifeminine cultural constructsofhomonegativityandheteronormativitythebeliefthatheterosexualityisthe onlynormal,legitimate,andacceptedsexualorientation(Sartore&Cunningham,2009) are weakening. According to Anderson (2008a, p.106), since the early 1990s, both qualitative and quantitative studies have shown a significant decrease in cultural and institutionalhomophobiawithinNorthAmericansociety,evenamongteamsportathletes. Inaddition,thereisincreasingevidenceofaformofnormativemasculinitygrowingmore inclusiveoffemininegenderexpression,particularlyamonguniversityaged,White,middle class men. Thus: It is reasonable to suspect these changing cultural trends have implications for a sexgender system that conflates homosexuality with femininity (Anderson,2008a,p.106).
Nevertheless, even while some studies suggest that sport settings may be experiencingdecreasedantigaysentiment(Anderson,2002,2005;Kian&Anderson,2009; Southall et al., 2009), there are no openly LGBT athletes currently competing in the four major professional team sports in the United States, and scant few in other professional sports.Exceptforafewprominentexamplesinsomeinternationalprofessionalleagues,it isstilluncommontoseesexualminoritiescompetingopenly.Thatappearstobechanging at the collegiate level, however, where anecdotal evidence suggests that more and more LGBTathletesarecomingouttofamily,friends,andteammates.Theykeyquestions,then, are: Assuming that these changes are real, and that they foretell increasing numbers of openly LGBT sport figures at all levels, what should be done (if anything) to prepare for thatfutureorhelpbringitabout? *** In July 2009, University of Hawaii football coach Greg McMackin stepped to the lectern to address the media at the Western Athletic Conferences annual football media preview. Recalling a banquet that had occurred before the prior years Hawaii Bowl, McMackinusedcolorfullanguagedescribedacheerritualthathisopponentNotreDame performed. He [Notre Dame Coach Charlie Weis] had his guys. We do somethingspecialatNotreDame,hesaid,andtheygetupand theydothislittlecheerleadlikethis,youknow,thislittlefaggot dance.Somyguyswerelookingatme,youknowtheyreall lookingandalltryingnottolaughsoIgavethemthedont writethatfaggotthing.Iwasmisquoted.*** So anyway, please, last year you covered for me as far as I recruit, cover for me, oh yeah, say faggot dance. Please cover for me on that too, right Carl? Ill deny it. Anything else? (Montgomery,2009.)
Sports media jumped on McMackins use of the faggot slur, and sportsrelated newspapers, magazines, and newscasts covered the gaffe (and a subsequent apology) heavily.Fromthisauthorsfirsthandviewofsuchcoverage,thetoneandcontentranged frommeredisapprovaltooutrightcondemnation. Thatthemediacoveredthesluratallwasnoteworthy,especiallygiventhatslurs including,andperhapsespecially,LGBTdemeaningslursliketheoneMcMackinusedare tossed around in sport contexts like footballs and baseballs. So the fact of the coverage itselfwaspossiblyindicativeofprogress. Thecontentofthemediacoveragewasrevealingaswell,inseveralrespects.First, almost universally, the media messages denounced the use of the slur and favored some disciplinary action against McMackin. Second, media often if not nearly always avoided using the word faggot in their reporting, stating instead that McMackin had used a homosexual slur or a derogatory word for gay people. Print media did the same or printed the word with missing letters (as in f****t). And lastly, though media reports sometimes referenced statements made by gay rights groups, television broadcasts and newspaperarticlesinvolvingtheinterviewofopenlyLGBTsportfiguresortheiradvocates werefairlyinfrequent.Oneexception,anESPNinterviewofopenlygayformerNFLathlete EseraTuaolo,wasnotableforTuaolosmediocremediaskills. *** TheGregMcMackinincidentencapsulatestheissuetobeexploredinthisresearch. Are McMackins insensitive comments indicative that homophobia is alive and well in sportsandthatreportsofadeclineinantigaybias,harassment,andmisunderstandingare premature?WhatshouldbemadeofthemediabacklashagainstMcMackinsslur?Ifsports
are becoming more tolerant and accepting of LGBT individuals, will that lead to more openly LGBT sports figures? What, if anything, should be done to help LGBT individuals competeopenly,tofacilitatetheiracceptanceintosport,andtoaddressinstancesofbiasor harassmentwhentheyarise?
LITERATUREREVIEW
TheGayandLesbianLocker
It is common to refer to LGBT individuals who are not open about their sexual orientationasinthecloset.Forathletesandothersportpersonalities,theclosetmight bemoreaccuratelycalledthelockernotjustforthefittingimagery,butalsobecause,in thesportcontext,thesedoorsareoftenlockedshut. Scholars have theorized on the reasons behind the gay and lesbian locker. Two theoriesarediscussedbelow.
HegemonicMasculinity
Onetheoryisgenderbased.Hegemonicmasculinitypositstheexistenceofacultural normative ideal of male behavior to which men must conform (Kian & Anderson, 2009; Connell, 1987, 1995). In this construct, the role of sportparticularly team sports and moreparticularlycontactsportsistodefineacceptableformsofmasculinitybycreating aspaceinwhichmasculineidentityandexpressionarecultivated(Kian&Anderson,2009). According to Kian and Anderson (2009, p. 800), competitive teamsports exist as a microcosm of societys gendered values, myths, and prejudices about the variations between men and women, while simultaneously constructing boys and men to exhibit, value,andreproducetraditionalnotionsofmasculinity.Inadditiontomasculinebravado
and machismo, hegemonic masculinity is characterized by antigay and misogynistic discourseandbehavior(Anderson,2005a,2005b). Gayathleteschallengethisconstruct(Anderson,2002,2009).AsHekma(1998,p.2) stated,Gaymenwhoareseenasqueerandeffeminatearegrantednospacewhatsoeverin whatisgenerallyconsideredtobeamasculinepreserveandamachoenterprise.Gaymen thusdisrupttraditionalnotionsofmasculinity,becausethestatusofbeinggayisequated with femininity and weakness (Anderson, 2005a, 2008a, 2008b; Kian & Anderson, 2009; Pronger, 1990; Southall, Nagel, Anderson, Polite, & Southall, 2009). If gay male athletes demonstratethesamestrength,competitiveness,andathleticachievementasheterosexual male athletes, the distinction between gay and straight, and thus the distinction between men and women, breaks down (Southall et al., 2009; Griffin, 1998). As Southall, Nagel, Anderson,Polite,andSouthall(2009,p.64)stated,gaymaleathleteswhoareseenasa paradox because they comply with the gendered script of being a man through the physicalityinvolvedinsports,butviolateanothermasculinescriptthroughtheexistenceof samesex desiresmay threaten sport as a prime site of hegemonic masculinity and masculineprivilege. This genderbased theory of homophobia in sport applies, in a different way, to lesbian athletes. Femininity is marked as the ideal female quality (Blinde & Taub, 1992), andisoftenaproxyforheterosexuality(Knight&Giuliano,2003).Sometimesreferredto as hegemonic femininity, this gender theory places an emphasis on the ideal feminine bodythinandtonedandonheterosexualsexandromance(Krane,Choi,Baird,Aimar,& Kauer,2004).Butsincethereisnodominantaspectintheconstruct(Connell,1987),the terminology emphasized femininity is preferred (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005).
Becausestrengthandpowerhallmarksofsportcultureareinconsistentwithfemininity (Jacobson,2002),womensparticipationinsportmaybeseenasachallengetotraditional gender roles. Lesbian sportwomen heighten this effect while risking affirmance of the image problem. As Gough (2007, pp. 157158) states, for lesbians the pressures of hegemonic/emphasized femininity are twofold: resistancefor example, in the form of muscularityis pathologised, while conformityfor example, presenting a feminine appearanceriskstrivialization.
CompulsoryHeterosexuality(Heteronormativity)
Anothertheory,perhapsnotentirelydistinct,issexualidentitybased.Compulsory heterosexuality,orheteronormativity,isthebeliefthatheterosexualityistheonlynormal, legitimate, and accepted sexual orientation (Sartore & Cunningham, 2009). Although it includes gendernormative aspects similar to hegemonic masculinity, compulsory heterosexuality is characterized more by heterosexual dominance and corresponding homosexual devaluation. This includes stereotyping, prejudice, and homonegativity, and theresultingsocialstigmaandnegativeconsequencesfromsuchstatus(Anderson,2008a; Sartore&Cunningham,2009). Insport,compulsoryheterosexualityleadstodifferentoutcomes:maleathletesare presumed to be heterosexual and female athletes are presumed to be lesbian (Maurer Starks et al., 2008; see also Griffin, 1998, Knight & Giuliani, 2003). Regardless of sex, however, athletes who are perceived to be heterosexual are more positively viewed than athletes who are perceived to be homosexual (Knight & Giuliani, 2003). Homonegativity against gay men and lesbians has been shown to be prevalent among college students, particularly college men (Gill, Morrow, Collins, Lucey, & Schultz, 2006; Roper& Halloran,
2007;Southalletal.,2009;WolfWendel,Toma,&Morphew,2001).Andmaleteamsport settings, again, have been described as neartotally intolerant of homosexuality (Anderson,2009). Becausehomosexualityandfemininityareculturallyconflated(Anderson,2008a), the genderbased and the sexualidentitybased theories described above also tend to merge as well, particularly in the sport context. To be perceived as heterosexual and masculinewhat Anderson (2008a) terms heteromasculinemen will position themselvesawayfromfemininityandawayfromsamesexdesireorbehavior(Anderson, 2008a). In this sense, conveying either a heterosexual or a masculine orientation is not sufficient. Since both are required, gay male athletes avoid publicly acknowledging their sexuality. Similarly for women: being lesbian is seen as a rejection of the heterosexual orientationandfemininegenderandareinforcementofthelesbianstigma,thusresulting inconflictwithandresentmentfromfemaleathletesfightingsuchstigma(Blinde&Taube, 1992).Accordingly,lesbianathletesavoidpubliclyacknowledgingtheirsexualityaswell.
AttitudesTowardGayMenandLesbiansinSport
Withinthistheoreticalframework,therehasbeenagreatdealofappliedresearch. In nonsport contexts, abundant research has quantitatively examined and described the attitudes toward gays and lesbians in various populations and environments. Within the sportcontext,therehasbeensomeresearch,muchofitqualitative,thathasexploredthe experiences of gay and lesbian athletes in negotiating sports participation as presumed heterosexualsandsometimesasopenlygayorlesbian(Anderson,2002,2005a;Eng,2008; Gough, 2007; Griffin, 1998; Plummer, 2006). Additionally, some studies have examined attitudestowardgaysandlesbiansathletesamongnonsportstakeholderpopulations.
For example, Knight and Giuliano (2003) explored how heterosexist media portrayalofmaleandfemaleathletesaffectedperceptionsoftheathletesheterosexuality. Aspartofa2(GenderoftheAthlete:femaleormale)x2(DepictionofSexualOrientation: clearly heterosexual or ambiguous) study, the researchers tested the perceptions of undergraduate students presented with a fictitious newspaper profile about an Olympic distance runner. The results revealed three patterns, according to the researchers. First, male athletes may be subject to an image problem (similar to the common problem of assumed homosexuality among female athletes) if the sport is not strongly gender schematic enough to provide assurance of heterosexuality. Thus, contrary to previous research,maleathletesdidnotreceiveanassumptionofheterosexuality,butthatmayhave been due to the gender neutral sport that was studied. Second, gender stereotypes were challenged only for males: females with ambiguous sexuality were perceived as equally feminine/masculineastheirclearlyheterosexualcounterparts,butmaleswithambiguous sexualitywereperceivedasmorefeminine/lessmasculinethanclearlyheterosexualmales. Finally,clearlyheterosexualathletesofbothsexeswereseenasmoresimilartotheideal male/female, more physically attractive, and more respectable than their counterparts withambiguoussexuality(Knight&Giuliano,2003). Additionally, there have been a limited number of studies that have explored the attitudes of different sport stakeholdersstudentathletes, coaches, administrators regarding sexual orientation and/or gay and lesbian athletes. Sartore and Cunningham (2009),forexample,investigatedtheattitudesofcurrentandformerathletesandathletes parentstowardgayandlesbiancoaches,specificallyinrelationtoparticipationdecisions. The results identified homonegativity (termed sexual prejudice in the study) as a
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predictor of participatory decisions with the sport context: namely, participants knowledge of a coachs homosexuality elicited sexual prejudice, subsequently prompting decisions to not participate on the basis of such information (Sartore & Cunningham, 2009,p.105).Moreover,sexualprejudicewaspositivelyandsignificantlycorrelatedwith anunwillingnesstoallowachildofanysextobecoachedbyagaymanorlesbian. Gill,Morrow,Collins,Lucey,andSchultz(2006)quantitativelyassessedtheattitudes of undergraduate students, including students in an exercise and sport science (ESS) program, toward a wide range of minorities groups that included sexual minorities. That researchrevealedthat the attitudes of our preprofessional studentstoward gay men andlesbiansaresimilartoattitudesreportedinothersamples (Evans, 2001; Herek, 2000; Rankin, 2003) and reflect the sexual prejudice in society and within the sport context specifically. Evaluation scores were notably lower and more negativeforbothgaymenandlesbiansthanforotherminority groups, with males possessing especially negative attitudes towardgaymen.(Gilletal.,2006,p.562.) TheresultsindicatedthatwhileadvancedESSpreprofessionalstudentsheldmorepositive attitudes than beginninglevel students, many future sport and physical activity professionals hold negative attitudes toward sexual minorities (Gill et al., 2006, p. 562). Undergraduatemen,inparticular,heldparticularlynegativeattitudestowardgaymen(Gill etal.,2006). RoperandHalloran(2007)exploredtheattitudestowardgaysandlesbiansamong selfidentified heterosexual studentathletes. Assessing such attitudes in relation to studentathletes gender, sport, and contact with gays and lesbians, the researchers concluded the following with regard to attitudes toward gays and lesbians: (1) male student athletes had significantly more negative attitudes than female studentathletes;
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(2)studentathletes who reported having contact with gay men and lesbians had significantly more positive attitudes than those who did not report such contact; and (3)except for field hockey, there were no significant differences in attitudes of student athletescompetingondifferentsportteams..
ComingOutoftheLocker IncreasingSocietalAcceptance
The studies described above, and others (Brown, Clarke, Gortmaker, & Robinson Keilig, 2004; WolfWendel et al., 2001) suggest that attitudes toward LGBT individuals (particularlygaymen)insportarenotinclusiveoratleastare lessinclusivethanoverall society. Other studies point to improvements. Southall et al. (2009, p. 74), for example, found evidence that male intercollegiate culture may no longer be a uniform bastion of cultural and institutional homophobia. Southall et al. (2009) found 28% of heterosexual collegemaleathletesselfreportedthelikelihoodofbeingunfriendlyorhostiletogaymale athletes. Though significant, that number was less than previously reportedand may havebeenoverstatedgiventhatstudyparticipantswerefromthedeepSouth,wheresexual prejudiceandhomophobicattitudesmaybehigherthaninotherpartsoftheUnitedStates. Inthebroadersocialcontext,acceptanceofLGBTindividualsappearstobeonthe consistent rise, as demonstrated by public opinion polling. Gallup has reported that the percentage of people viewing samesex relations as morally acceptable increased from 40%to52%overthelasttenyears,whilemoraldisapprovaldecreasedfrom53%to43% (Saad, 2010). Over the past thirtyplus years, there have been similar increases in the number of people who think that gay and lesbian relations between consenting adults
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shouldbelegal(increasefrom43%to58%),thatgaymenandlesbiansshouldhaveequal rightsinjobopportunities(increasefrom56%to89%),andthathomosexualityshouldbe consideredanacceptablealternativelifestyle(increasefrom34%to57%)(Gallup,n.d.; Saad,2008). Positive perceptions of LGBT people are also positively correlated with increased LGBTvisibility.Forexample,ina2010poll,CBSreportedthat77%ofAmericansreported knowing someone who is gay or lesbian, an increase of 35% from 1992. The same poll found that positive attitudes had increased over time, and that respondents who know someonewhoisgayorlesbianwerelesslikelytohavedisapprovingattitudes(Montopoli, 2010). Younger people are also more likely to have positive attitudes towards homosexuality,asshowninthesenumbersfromaGalluppollreportedinUSAToday(Elias, 2010): Figure1:Percentagewhoconsiderhomosexualityacceptable,byagegroup
Homosexualityacceptable
80+ 7079 36% 42% 42% 50% 54% 57% 62% Percentage
AgeGroup
6069 5059 4049 3039 1829
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Becauseyoungpeopleaccepthomosexualityingreaternumbers,theoverallpercentageof individualswhoviewhomosexualitypositivelywillcontinuetoincreaseastheolder,less tolerant population die off. In short, positive attitudes toward LGBT individuals will continuetrendinghigher.Astheydoso,LGBTsportsfigureswillfinditeasiertocomeout andcompeteopenly.
ComingOutEarlier
LGBT individuals are also coming out earlier than in the past. As reported in CianciottoandCahill(2003),a1996studyfoundthatgayandlesbianteenagersfirstself identifiedattheaverageageof16,whilein1988theageofselfidentificationwasbetween 19and21formenand21to23forwomen.Ananalysisofpublisheddatareportedin2002 foundsimilarresults: [An]analysisofdatafromstudiespublishedinthemedicaland professional literature suggest that todays lesbian and gay adolescents first become aware of samesex attraction, on average,46yearsearlierthandoadultgaysandlesbianswho describetheirsexualawakenings. Todays teenage lesbians and gays have their first sexual experience, on average, 26 years earlier and selfidentify 78 yearsearlier,comparedwithadultrecollectionsofthosesame experiences.(Boschert,2002.) Earlier selfawareness and selfidentification can be significant for purposes of changingattitudes:Thereisanewgenerationofathleteswhoareincreasinglyopenand feel entitled to be out and treated with respect. (Ulrich, 2007, p. 42.) This new generationpromisestocarrythatprideandconfidencewiththemastheycompeteinhigh schoolsports,thencollege,andeventuallyprofessionalsportsaswell.
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ThePioneerorSnowballEffect
Finally,asmoreLGBTindividualscomeoutpubliclyandinparticularastheycome out in sports contextsthe resulting increased visibility will be instrumental in causing otherstocomeoutaswell.AsGough(2007,p.167)noted,theimpactoflearningabout othergaysportsmencannotbeunderestimated.Theeffectappearstocomeaboutforat least two reasons. First is the realization that one is not alone, which leads to increased confidence and selfacceptance. This is especially true if the closeted athlete learns of an openlyLGBTathletecompetinginhisorherownsport,anddoingsosuccessfullywithout negativeoutcomes.Secondisthepotentialdevelopmentofasupportnetwork,particularly if the closeted sports figure reaches out to the openly LGBT pioneer. The following account of a gay athlete, reported by Gough (2007, p. 167), exemplifies both of these catalystsatwork: WhilelookingatOutsports.comoneday,Icameacrossthelist ofoutathletes.Readingitover,Ifoundthattherewasanother Nordicskieronthelistwhowasontheskiteamathiscollege out West. This discovery was incredibly powerful. All of a sudden, it didnt seem like I was completely alone in my situation; here was someone else who had really similar interestsandwhowasalsogay.Iwasabletogetintouchwith him through email, and we began corresponding, which helpedmefirsttoacceptmyselfasbeinggayandthentohave theconfidencetocomeout. The potential for this pioneer or snowball effect, especially for LGBT sports figures,shouldnotbediscounted.Theactofcomingoutinsportwillpromptotherstodo so,andeventuallytheeffectwillreachcriticalmass.Asmoreandmoregaymencomeout in sport, the potential for greater support and acceptance is enormous (Gough, 2007, p.167).
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ReportsoftheHardshipsofOpenlyLGBTAthletes
Fewpeerreviewedpublishedstudieshavequantifiedtheprevalenceofopenlygay or lesbian athletes participating in collegiate sport. In one recent example, Southall et al. (2009) reported some statistics of a sample population of athletes at four universities in the Southeastern United States. Of 673 respondents who selfidentified their sexual orientation,97%selfidentifiedasheterosexual.However,atotalof51respondentstwo andahalftimesasmanyreportedhavingengagedinsamesexsexualbehavior.Andafew morerespondedthattheyhidtheirsexualorientationfromteammates,orchosenotto answerthequestion.(Southalletal.,2009.) The inconsistency of these results demonstrates the methodological difficulty in collectingdataregardingsexualorientation.Indeed,estimatesoftheprevalenceofgaysor lesbians in particular populations are difficult to make for several reasons, among them respondentconfusion,selfdoubt,andfearofdisclosure(Bagley&Tremblay,1998).Thus, reliabledataonthefrequencyorpercentageofgayandlesbianathletesishardtocomeby. Anecdotal data, however, suggest that such numbers are increasing in collegiate level and amateur athletics. Media outlets that cater to gay and lesbian readerssuch as the Advocate, a general purpose gay news magazine; outsports.com, a news and commentarywebsitefocusedongayandlesbiansinsport,andCompete,anetworkofgay sports mediareport often on openly gay and lesbian athletes competing openly at the high school, collegiate, and amateur levels in all sports. Outsports.com, in particular, has frequentprofilesthefeaturethecomingoutstoriesoftheseathletes. Despitewhatappearstobeincreasingnumbers,however,researchshowsthatthe experiences of gay and lesbian athletes vary widely. Gough (2007) reported a qualitative
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analysisofthecomingoutstoriesofeightgayandlesbianathletes,whichhadbeenposted to the web site outsports.com. From these stories, Gough (2007) found four master themes:(1)sportasadistractionfromsexuality;(2)invisibilityandisolationwithinsport; (3)coming out to the team: difficult but rewarding; and (4) becoming politicized: challenging heterosexism within sport (p. 163). All of the athletes reported acceptance, support, interest, and loyalty from their heterosexual peers (p.168), and many mentionedthepositiveinfluenceofgaycoachesandfriends. While the stories all emphasized positive experiences and outcomes, they also referenced both internal struggles and external conflict. In particular, the period before coming out was characterized by feelings of guilt, fear, and denial. Closeted gay athletes struggledwithreconcilingtheinternalconflictofadualgayandathleticidentity;toiled vigilantly to maintain a straight faade; worried constantly about the consequences of coming out; and endured the fatigue and discomfort of playing along with locker room heteronormative banter and horseplay (Gough, 2007). The absence of role models, and thusthefeelingofisolation,wastypical. Anderson (2002) reported similar results from a qualitative study examining the experiencesofgaymaleathletes.Basedoninterviewswith34openlygayhighschooland collegelevelmaleathletes,Anderson(2002)examinedtheexperienceofbeingopenlygay in the homophobic environment of sport. He found: (1) while coming out experiences variedwildlyacrossthesample,respondentsviewofsuchexperienceswereallinflated,in that every one of them described coming out positively even though their stories always revealedahighdegreeofheterosexismandhomophobicdiscourse(p.868);(2)manyof the respondents experienced segmented identities, where teammates knew they were
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gaybuttreatedthemasiftheywerent,bydesexualizingorevenheterosexualizingthegay athletesordelegitimizingtheirhomosexualstatus;and(3)straightathletescontinuedto usehomophobicdiscoursesuchascallingothersfagorusingthewordgaytodescribe something distastefuland that such discourse happened so frequently that some gay athletesdismisseditsharmfulpotential. Though carefully researched and reported, the results of Gough (2007) and Anderson(2002)arenot,strictlyspeaking,new.Historyisrepletewithexamplesdetailing thenegativeexperiencesofgaysandlesbiansinsport.Fromthe1980s,gayrumorsdogged thecareersofmanyathletes,includingTroyAikman,MikePiazza,andJeffGordon.Those whoacknowledgedtheirsexualityweretreatedwithvaryingdegreesofnegativepress,or outrighthostility,includingBillieJeanKingandMartinaNavratilovain1981,MajorLeague Baseball umpire Dave Pallone and British soccer player Justin Fashanu in 1988, and AustralianrugbyplayerIanRobertsin1991.LikeBillyBean,DavidKopay,JohnAmaechi, and Esera Tuaolo, most chose not to come out at all until after ending their professional careers.Sadly,theconflictissometimestoomuchtobear,leadingsomeathletestocause themselvesharmorendtheirlives.In1985,formerUniversityofPittsburghfootballplayer EdGallagherssuicideattemptlefthimaparaplegic;in1988,Fashanuwassuccessfulinhis suicideattempt. Nor is the difficulty limited to athletes. Bias and discrimination affects gays and lesbiansinallsportpositions,fromcoachestoumpires.Justrecently,mediareportedthe story of Lisa Howe, the head coach of the womens soccer team at Belmont University in Tennessee. In early December 2010, the University announced, without explanation, that CoachHowehadresigned.Membersoftheteam,however,gaveamoredetailedaccount:
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theUniversityhadgivenCoachHowetheoptionofresigningorbeingterminatedbecause shehadaskedforpermissiontotellherteamthatherpartnerwaspregnant(Organ,2010). Later,theChairmanofBelmontsBoardofTrusteesmadecommentssuggestingthatCoach Howes departure was due to the Universitys religiousbased employment standards of conduct, which include a policyagainst extramarital sex: We expect people to commit themselves to high moral and ethical standards within a Christian context (Pearlman, 2010a;Smietana,2010). Antigaybiaswasalsoallegedlythebasisfordiscriminationagainstacoachatthe UniversityofMinnesotain2010.KatieBrennysaysthatshewashiredtobetheassociate womensgolfcoach.WhentheUniversitylearnedshewasalesbian,however,itreassigned her to a desk job and put an unqualified relative of the Athletic Director in charge of the womens golf team. The University denies the allegations but is seeking a settlement to avoidalawsuit(Olsen,2010). Also in 2010, the coach of a minor league baseball team was ejected from a game,andlaterdisciplinedbytheteamand league, after haranguing an openly gay umpire with antigay slurs and gestures after a bad call (Hanon, 2010). The coachs conduct included calling the umpire a fing faggot, making sexually explicit Photo1:BrentBowersstiradeagainstumpire Billy Van Raaphorst. (Photo credit: Brian comments, and even bending over and Gavrilof,EdmontonJournal.) grabbinghisankles(Hanon,2010;Pearlman,2010b).
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FacilitatingOutPlayandAcceptanceofOpenlyLGBTSportsFigures:Support, Inform,Educate
TheliteraturecontainscluesastohowthelotofopenlyLGBTsportsfiguresmight beimproved,andhowclosetedonesmightbecoaxedoutofthelocker.Threefactorsare key:support,information,andeducation.
SupportforLGBTIndividualsinSport
The availability of personal support makes all the difference for LGBT individuals participatinginsport.Supportiskeyatallstagesofthecomingoutprocess,fromallowing selfacceptance,toprovidingthecouragetotakethefirstcomingoutsteps,tofacilitating thefullcomingoutprocessandcompleteopenness,andtomakingitpossibletocontinue participationinsportaftercomingout.AsGough(2007,p.166)concluded,theabsenceof meaningful role models emphasized the closeted LGBT individuals feelings of isolation and thus militated against coming out. By contrast, social influences made coming out possible, in that all of Goughs athletes referenced one or more people who were key catalystsinbringingaboutthedecisiontocomeoutandtheeventualactofdoingso. As discussed in Ulrich(2009), providing support can beas simple as creating safe spacesforLGBTindividualsinsport.Thatbeginsbydoingawaywiththeassumptionthat all sport figures are heterosexual and instead realizing that you dont actually know (p.42).Itcontinueswithsendingmessagesofinclusionandacceptancethroughwordsand action. One athletic trainer described a diversity window she created that included stickers (such as a gay pride rainbow sticker) that communicate acceptance: Without sayinganything,ImtellingpeoplewhatIstandforandthatourathletictrainingroomisa safeplace(p.42).Anothertrainerenforcesazerotolerancepolicyagainstinsensitiveor
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offensive language. And when LGBT individuals do come out, being a good listener, and offeringresourcesifneeded,alsoprovidesneededsupportatacriticaltime(Ulrich,2009).
InformingtheMedia
As discussed below (pp. 2728), the media can play a key role in both influencing andreflectingpublic opinion.Studieshavealsoshownthatpositivemediacontactwith LGBTindividualscanimproveviewersattitudestowardgaymenandlesbians. For example, Riggle, Ellis, and Crawford (1996) showed college students a film documenting the life of Harvey Milk, a prominent gay politician; results showed that viewingthedocumentaryhadasignificantpositiveeffectonattitudestowardhomosexuals. SimilarresultswerereportedforviewerswhowatchedthefilmObjectofmyAffection, which included positive portrayals of homosexual characters (Mazur and Emmers Sommers, 2002), and for viewers exposed to talk show segments that discussed homosexuality (Rssler & Brosius, 2001). Research has also demonstrated that more frequentviewingofthesituationcomedy Will & Grace,featuringtwogaymaincharacters, loweredmeasuredlevelsofprejudicetowardgaymen(Shiappa,Gregg,&Hewes,2006). Itisthereforecriticalthatthemediabeproperlyinformedsothatthereportingon LGBTissuesinsportcanbebothaccurateandsensitive.
EducatingStraightSportStakeholders
Thefinalaspectoffacilitatingoutplayiseducation.Levelofformaleducationhas beenfoundtocorrelatetoandpredictindividualspositionsonsocialissues.Forexample, in a 2008 popular vote on a state constitutional amendment banning gay marriage in Florida,educationlevelpredictedsupportfortheballotmeasure;accordingtoacoauthor of the study, Theres a lot of evidence showing increased education leads to greater
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tolerance(Crabbe,2009).Asimilarresultwasfoundregardingasamesexmarriageballot measure in California that same year (Ponder, 2008). Public opinion polls show that individuals with lower levels of formal education show less support for gay civil rights issues, often to a statistically significant degree (Yang, 1999). These results have been borneoutinpeerreviewedresearchaswell(Grapes,2006). But providing more formal education is not the sole way to improve attitudes towardLGBTindividuals.Indeed,accordingtoBenAri(1998,p.62),homophobiacanbe confrontedinatleastthreeways:exploringoneshistory,learningthefacts,andgettingto know lesbians and gay men. Cramer, Oles, and Black (1997) noted that among the best ways to bring about attitude change about a population is to provide comprehensive informationonthesubjectalongwithexposuretothepopulation.Applyingtheseconcepts, diversitycoursesandpedagogicalinterventionshavebeenfoundtopromoteacceptance ofandpositiveattitudestowardgaysandlesbians(Case&Stewart,2010;Chonody,Siebert, &Rutledge,2009.)Ifproperlydesigned,educationalprogramsaimedatsportparticipants shouldhelpimproveattitudestowardLGBTindividualsinthesportcontext.
SportRelatedLGBTAdvocacyOrganizationsThatSupport,Inform,andEducate
Despite the importance of support, information, and education, there does not appear to be an existing advocacy organization that provides all of these services in the sport context. A handful of current and former organizations, summarized below, have triedinsomewaytoaddressissuesofhomophobiaandheterosexisminsport.
ItTakesATeam!
The Project to Eliminate Homophobia in Sporta collaborative effort among the WomensSportFoundation,theNationalCenterforLesbianRights,theNationalCollegiate
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Athletic Association, the Gay and Lesbian Education Network, the Ms. Foundation, UncommonLegacy,andtheAstraeaFoundationbeganin1996.Itprimaryfocuswasan educationprojectdesignedtoeliminatehomophobiaasabarriertosportparticipation.To accomplish this, in 2002 the organization developed and disseminated educational informationandresourcestoathleticadministrators,coaches,parentsandathletesatthe high school and college levels to make sport safe and welcoming for all. Eventually, the ProjectbecameapartoftheWomensSportsFoundationandbecameknownasItTakesA Team! In 2005, directorship was undertaken by Dr. Pat Griffin, a pioneer in efforts to combathomophobiainsportandtheauthorof Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and HomophobiainSports(WomensSportsFoundation,n.d.). ItTakesATeam!foldedinearly2010duetobudgetproblems.
ChangingtheGame
Dr.GriffintookherpassionforworkingonLGBTissuesinsporttotheGay,Lesbian &StraightEducationNetwork(GLSEN).InOctober2010,GLSENannouncedthatDr.Griffin wouldbedevelopinganddirectingaprogramtoaddresshomophobiainK12sports.The programwilllaunchinearly2011andwillassistK12schoolsincreatingandmaintaining an athleticand physical education climatethat is based on the core principles of respect, safety and equal access for all students and coaches regardless of sexual orientation or genderidentity/expression(Griffin,2010).
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NCLRSportsProject
The National Center for Lesbian Rights launched its Sports Project in 2001. The Project uses a combination of advocacy, outreach, and litigation to seek to eliminate discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in sport. NCLR provides legal assistance and referrals, counseling services, informational brochures and publications, diversity training, and nondiscrimination employment advice (National CenterforLesbianRights,n.d.).
GLAADSportsMediaProject
TheGay&LesbianAllianceAgainstDefamation(GLAAD)isanorganizationfocused on improving the representation of the LGBT community in media. In the past, this has included working with LGBT athletes and sports media outlets; working to address the homophobiainlockerroomsandinthestandsbyencouragingmediaoutletstoinvestigate theseissuestogenerateconversationandhelpchangeheartsandminds;andworkingto raisetheprofileofopenlyLGBTathletesthroughsupportofLGBTfocusedsportingevents suchastheGayGames(GLAAD,n.d.). In early 2010, however, GLAAD eliminated its sports desk and laid off its sports director due to the difficult economic environment. Though GLAAD stated that it would continueitsadvocacyefforts,andthatpositionsdutieswouldbereassignedtootherstaff members, the organization no longer has a subgroup formally dedicated to sport issues (Ziegler,2010).
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GayandLesbianAthleticsFoundation
GLAFisanonprofitorganizationfocusedontheacceptanceandvisibilityofLGBT athletesintheprofessional,amateur,andrecreationalathleticscommunities.Accordingto its website, GLAF provides education, mentoring, and training on issues of sexual orientation and sport; fosters support networks for athletes and athletic organizations; promotes positive role models and healthy lifestyles through athletics; and advocates inclusion, recognition, understanding, and respect among all members of the athletics community(Gay&LesbianAthleticsFoundation,n.d.).ItappearsthatGLAFhasnotbeen active for several years, however. The most recent event listed on its website dates to 2006indeed, the postings regarding a 2006 conference are listed as newand the contactusphonenumberlistedonitswebsitehasbeendisconnected.
AthleteAlly
Athlete Ally was created in 2010 by Hudson Taylor, a competing athlete and Division I college wrestling coach at Columbia University, as a resource to encourage athletes, coaches, parents, fans, and other members of the sports communitytorespectallindividualsinvolvedinsports,regardlessofperceivedoractual sexualorientation or gender identity or expression (Athlete Ally, n.d.). The organization askssportstakeholderstosignapledgetoendhomophobiainsports: Ipledgetoleadmyathleticcommunitytowardrespectingand welcomingall persons, regardlessof their perceived oractual sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression. Beginningrightnow,Iwilldomyparttopromotethebestof athletics by making all players feel respected on and off the field. AthleteAllydoesnotappeartoprovideservicesorprogramsatthistime.
AQUALITATIVEANALYSISOFMEDIAMESSAGESABOUTGAYMENANDLESBIANSINSPORT 25
SOLUTION: AFORMALIZEDSUPPORTSYSTEMFORGAYMENANDLESBIANSINSPORT
The trendsappear to indicate that increasing numbers of gay menand lesbians in sport are coming out. The research shows that before coming out these individuals experience internal conflict, feelings of isolation, and yearning for role models, and that while such isolation militates against coming out, the existence of a support system facilitatesit.Further,whilemanyreportpositiveoutcomesfromcomingout,manyothers insportencounterantigayanimosity,hostility,bias,anddiscrimination. This state of affairs cries out of a formalized support system for gay men and lesbiansinsport.ThesolutionisanonprofitentitycalledPLAYallout.
PLAYalloutsmissionwouldbetocombathomophobiainsportsandtofacilitatethe
acceptanceofopenlyLGBTathletes(andothersinsports).Aspartofitsmission,PLAYallout wouldactasaresourceandsupportorganizationforgayandlesbianathletesexperiencing isolationorantigayharassment,bullying,orabuse.Tofacilitatetheaccomplishmentofits mission, PLAYalloutwouldcreateandimplementeducationalprogramsforuseincollegiate andprofessionalsportsthatincreaseawarenessofandsensitivitytohomophobiainsports. The organization would also develop media training materials and press packages, including talking points for press appearances to comment on instances of antigay behaviorinsportsandimprovingthesituationofgaysandlesbiansinsport.
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METHODS,PROCEDURES,ANDPROTOCOL
StudyDesign
Thestudyemployedqualitativeresearchmethods.Atextualanalysiswasconducted ofpublishedarticlesandcommentaryfromtraditionalandonlinenewspapers,magazines, andothermediathatreportedsportrelatednewsandcommentary,publishedduringthe approximately15monthperiodprecedingthedateofthisreport.
MediaMessagesasanIndicatorofSocialAttitudes
Atextualanalysiswaschosenbecauseofthewayinwhichcommunicationmessages canbeusedasameasureorindicatorofsocialattitudes.Textualanalysisdoesnotinvolve contactbetweenthecommunicatorandtheresearcher,andsoithasbeendescribedasan unobtrusive and nonreactive tool to measure communication messages. (Kian & Anderson,2009.)Analysisofthecontentofthetextsbeingexaminedrevealsthemessages being communicated in media reports, from which the researcher can draw conclusions aboutsocialattitudes: As well as influencing public opinion, mass media reflect opinionandperceptionsthroughreportingwhatotherpeople, companies and organisations are saying and doing. Furthermore, the media report issues and trends, often breaking news and setting or framing the agenda of public debate.(Macnamara,2003b,p.18.) The idea that the content of mass media reporting might serve as an indicator of social change is not new (Beniger, 1978). It is even older now, nearly 35 years after Beniger wrote those words. Since well before then, a specific type of content analysis knownasmediacontentanalysisdeveloped(Macnamara,2006).Mediacontentanalysisis seenasameansforobservingsocietysculturaltemperature(Hansen,Cottle,Negrine,&
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Newbold,1998,p.92).Italsohasanagendasettingfunction: Evenifanindexofmassmediacoverageisapoormeasureof actualsocialchange,suchanindexmayneverthelessbemore useful as a social indicator than more objective measures in thatitbettercapturespublicattitudesandopinionsaboutthe relative importance of various social issues. Attitudes and opinions do not necessarily correlate with object social conditions,but arelikelytoberelatedtomediacoverage.This is not only because it is in the commercial interests of the media to reflect the personal perspectives of their audiences, but also because of the converse relationship, namely, the so called agendasetting function of the media. (Beniger, 1978, p.444.) Thus,textualanalysisofmediamessagesisusefulbecausethemediabothreports onthesocialconversationandbeginsit.Inbothways,thecontentofmediamessagesoffers insightintopublicopiniononthesubjectbeinganalyzed.
SampleandDataCollection
Acombinationofsearchmethodswasusedtocollectthedata.First,theLexisNexis Academic research database was searched using keywords gay or lesbian or bisexual or homosexualandathleteorcoachorsport.Thesearchwaslimitedtoarticlesappearing in United States newspapers and magazines. Second, additional searches were conducted on the websites of ESPN.com and SI.com, using search terms gay, lesbian, bisexual, and homosexual. And third, the data set was supplemented using articles from the personal collectionoftheauthor.Editorialsandcommentarywereincludedinallsearches. Additional criteria were applied to further cull the search results. All results were limited to the period between November 2009 and January 2011. Magazines and newspapers that catered primarily to LGBT readers were excluded, as it was concluded thatthemessagesofthosemediawouldbeskewedbyafavorablebiastowardgaymenand
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lesbiansinsport.Duplicateswerealsoeliminated,particularlythosepublishedfromwire servicessuchasAPorReuters. The searches produced 97 usable results, which are listed in Appendix B (Data Frame).AsreflectedinFigure1,nearlythreequartersoftheresultswerefromtraditional newspapersandmagazines,whiletheremainingonequarterweregatheredfromonline only newspapers and web logs. No transcripts of television or radio broadcasts were located. Figure2:Typesofarticlesindataframe,bynumberandpercentage
Weblogs 5(5%)
DataFrame
Onlineonlynews 20(21%)
Magazines 9(9%)
Newspapers 63(65%)
DataAnalysis
The articles were read and analyzed to determine what messages were being communicated about gays and lesbians in sport. Manifest content of the articles were codedtoidentifylatentconcepts.Thoseconceptswerethenfurthercategorizedintomajor themes.
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Based on previous research, it was expected that some of the following messages wouldappearfromananalysisofthecontentofthesearchresults: Playersarenotreadyforopenlygayathletesinteamsports Thelockerroomisnoplaceforgaymen Lackofsensitivitybyfansorparticipantstowardgaysandlesbiansinsports, includingtheuseofslursandharassment Concern for the safety and wellbeing of openly gay athletes (e.g., from opposingplayers) Gaysandlesbiansaresubjecttohostilityanddiscrimination Respectforgaysandlesbiansinsport,becauseofthecourageforbeingout Condemnationofantigayconductandlanguage Celebrationofinstancesofprogresstowardacceptanceofgaysandlesbians insportandanticipationoffurtheradvancements
DELIMITATIONSANDASSUMPTIONS
Thestudywasatextualanalysisofthecontentofmediareports.Thusthedatawere limited to articles, commentary, and web logs that could be located using the search parameters described above, including: (1) data were included only from U.S.based publications; (2) data from publications catering primarily to LGBT individuals were excluded;(3)onlydatafromNovember2009throughJanuary2011wereconsidered;and (4)duplicateswereexcluded. Itwasassumedthatmediamessagescouldbedeterminedbyanalysisofthecontent of published articles and commentary. It was further assumed that the media messages determinedthroughsuchanalysiswouldbeanindicatorofsocialattitudesregardingLGBT individualsinsport.
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RESULTS
Theanalysisrevealedthefollowingsevendominantthemes. 1. Gay men and lesbians in sport face hostility, bias, and misunderstanding. 2. Coming out in sport was recognized as being both courageous and difficult. 3. LGBT individuals in sport struggle with being closeted, experiencing isolationandambivalenceaboutcomingout. 4. LGBT individuals in sport experienced positive results from coming out. 5. Whentherewerenegativeresultsfromcomingout,theywerenearly alwaysaccompaniedbybacklashagainsttheantigaybehavior. 6. There was a perception of progress toward and anticipation of full acceptanceofopenlyLGBTathletesatalllevelsofsport. 7. WomenfaceauniquesetofchallengesregardingLGBTissuesinsport.
Refer to Appendix C for a full listing of the results of the coding of the manifest content.
GayMenandLesbiansInSportFaceHostility,Bias,andMisunderstanding
Themostdominantmessagefromthedatasetrecognizedtheunwelcomingnature of sport toward LGBT individuals in its ranks. Hostility came from all corners and manifested itself in several ways, from taunts, jeers, and slurs to outright bias and discrimination. In many of the articles, the unfriendly atmosphere was stated as a given. One
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journalistfrom The New York Timesreflectedthistheme,contrastingthegrowingsocietal acceptancetothelackofprogressinsport: To be gay in 2010 is something met with a shrug of the shouldersinmanyplaces.Thoughcourtandlegislativebattles are still being waged over samesex marriage and other civil liberties,acceptancehasbecomethenorm. Sport,though,isoneofthelastquartersweremanygaypeople are not comfortable enough to step outparticularly men. (Witz,2010.) Other articles used show rather than tell. One article described how a coach berated an openly gay umpire with slurs of fag, faggot, and fing faggot after a questionable call (Hanon, 2010). Another described how Yankees fans taunted fans of visitingteamsbysingingWhyareyougayinsteadofYMCAduringperformanceofthe song(White,2010). Theassumptionbehindtheseincidentssometimesunstated,sometimesexplicit was that antigay hostility flowed from the near universal understanding that sport, especiallymensteamsports,wasaplacewheremasculinity,toughness,andviolencewere prizedcharacteristics,andareinconsistentwithasamesexorientation.AnarticlefromGQ, whichtoldthestoryofhowayoungmaninvolvedinoneofthetopNCAAhockeyprograms in the nation came out publicly in a story on ESPN.com, made the point crudely but effectively: Before Brendan came out to an ESPN reporter in November 2009, his dad warned him how big this story would get. NobodyaffiliatedwiththeNHLactive,retired,ordeadwas outasgay,becausehockeyisntlikeanyothersport.Ahockey arenaisaThunderdomewheregiantmenonsteelbladescrash around in pinball machines disguised as rinks, spitting out teeth and getting sewn up on the bench. Its a game with a strict code of macho behavior that most players learn before theyreoldenoughtodrive.
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Less than a quarter of all NHL players come up through the NCAA. The best players are drafted into junior hockey when theyre15or16andplayforsmalltownteamsacrossCanada and the United States. They live with local families and go to high school in town, but their job is hockey. By the time they laceupforanNHLgame,theyknowthatlosingteethisnota realinjury,thatbackingawayfromafightisntanoption,and that the worst thing you can call another player, the cluster bombyoudroptoletaguyknowjusthowsoftyouthinkheis, iscocksucker.(Rogan,2010.) Just as masculinity is celebrated and preferred, effeminacy is shunnedeven, apparently, in sports that are known more for grace than brute force. For example, an articlein New York Magazinediscussedeffortsinthemalefigureskatingworldtobutchit up.ThearticlecomparedandcontrastedthemainstreamandtechnicalEvanLysacek to the flamboyant and magical Johnny Weir, billing it as a contest of athletics versus aesthetics. The article was entitled The Less Flamboyant One (Rosenblum, 2010). Though there was nothing negative about Weir stated directly, the clear implication was that masculine andtechnicalwere better than feminine and aesthetically pleasing, eveninfigureskating.Therepeateduseofthewordmainstreamtodescribeathleticand technicalskatingalsocommunicatedmarginalizationofgayathletes(andthoseperceived tobegay),anddisapprovalofstereotypicalgaybehaviorwasaclearifunstatedmessage. Somemediaaccountsreinforcedstereotypestheoppositeway,byoveremphasizing thestrength,toughness,andathleticismofgaymaleathletes.A Sports Illustratedprofileof GarethThomas,anopenlygayEuropeanrugbyplayer,beganthisway: Hes63and225poundsofmuscle.Hesbrokenhisnosefive times,fracturedbothshouldersandlosteightteeth.Hesdrunk hismatesunderthetableandbrawledbytheirside.Hesbeen namedtotheWelshnationalrugbyteammoretimesthanany otherman.(Smith,2010.)
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The lengthy article did not stop there. It referred to Thomas as the most imposing physical specimen on the rugby pitch, with a body that was a riot of muscles; it asserted that Thomas
dominated the sport of rugby and played so tough that he had been concussed an Photo2:GarethThomas(Photographby: averageofthreetimesayear(Smith,2010). KieranDoherty;Credit:Reuters) Themessageofthesedescriptionswasintheimplicitcontrastnottootherrugbyplayers, buttothehypotheticaltypicalgaymanasifacomingoutstorywouldbeincompleteor misunderstood if the gay rugby player was not hypermasculinized. Sometimes this false dichotomy was explicit, as when gay athletes expressed a disconnect between being gay and being an athlete, or when surprise at the athleticism of a gay athlete was expressed. Said one athlete, about his personal struggle: You cannot be a gay athlete. Gay and athletedontgotogether(Thomas,2010a). Instances of bias and hostility were rife, and the most common among them were antigay slurs and insensitive comments. Another article about Weir, for example, mentioned that two commentators on Canadian television, discussing Weirs Olympic skating performances, suggested We should make [Weir] pass a gender test (Larocca, 2010).Andaminorleaguebaseballmanagerreactedthiswayafteranumpiremadeacall hedisagreedwith: Accordingtotheumpire,Bowersallegedlyrantowardhimand screamed, You know what I heard? I heard you are a [expletive] faggot. The rumor from several managers and peopleintheleagueisthatyouareafagsowhatdoyoudo
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you [expletive] faggot? Do you take it up the [expletive] faggot? Van Raaphorst said Bowers then made an obscene sexual gesture before continuing on with a stream of insults. He ended with, I ought to kick youre a, faggot. (Pearlman, 2010a.) Slurs, disapproval, and prejudgment werent the only negative outcomes that gays and lesbians experienced in sport. Exclusion was a problem as well. There were no examples of gay and lesbian athletes being expressly precluded from playing, except by selfexclusion.Butonearticledescribedhowayounggaymanquitplayinghockeyinhigh schoolbecauseofthesportsantigayatmosphere: Brendan was 16 when he told his family he was quitting hockey.Hisfamilywassurprisedwhenhequitbutaccepted his explanation that he wasnt keen on riding the bench his senioryear.WhattheydidntknowwasthatBrendanwassick oflisteningtothelockerroomslursaboutfaggotsandhomos and the dreaded cocksucker. He was terrified that someone wouldouthimtotheotherplayers,andhewantedtoleavethe teamwhilehisteammateswerestillhisfriends.(Rogan,2010.) Though players were not excluded, coaches were. There were a few examples of coachesbeingfiredbecauseoftheirsexualorientation(Olsen,2010;Organ,2010).Infact, forcoachestherewasadefactoruleofdontask,donttellthatappliedparticularlyto women coachesand that sometimes devolved into an inquisition during which coaches wererequiredtodenytheirsexualityordefendtheirstraightorientation. Weve always had gay faculty as long as Ive been here, said Michael Awalt, a professor of philosophy who has been at Belmont since 1970. But, he said, its been a dont ask, dont tellkindofmentality. In 2001, after a business instructor named Michael Burcham wasoutedbyastudent,hewastoldhewouldneedtodefend himself in front of the board. Mr. Burcham said that he did not feel that the faculty, students or even the administration hadaproblemwithhissexualorientation,butthathesensed theboardwouldnotapprove.Heresigned.(Robertson,2010.)
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Thoughmanyofthearticlesrecognizedthatthingshaveimprovedforgaymenand lesbiansinsport,alotofprogressremained:EventheU.S.militaryispreparingtocross thelinethat25othercountriesarmiesalreadyhave.Willteamsportsbethelastplacein theU.S.whereagaymanfeelshemusthideandlie?(Smith,2010).
ComingOutInSportIsBraveandDifficult
Anothersignificantthemeinthedatawasanacknowledgementofthebraveryand difficultyattendantwithcomingoutandcompetingopenlyinsport. OnearticledetailedthestoryofAndrewMcIntosh,a lacrosse captain at the State University of New York, Oneonta who came out to his family and team. The article brimmed with references to courage: random students on theUniversityquadstatedtheMcIntoshsdecisiontocome outshowedcourage,andwasaboldstep.Theeditorofa local gay magazine commended McIntosh for having the Photo 3: Andrew McIntosh (Photo credit: Jonathan courage to openly express his true being. Teammates CohenfortheNYTimes.) told McIntosh that he had guts, and the president of the campus LGBT student group acknowledged that it was difficult for men in [masculine sports like lacrosse] to come out and demonstrated tremendous courage (Richardson, 2010).Similarly,teammatesandcoachesofrugbyplayerGarethThomascommendedhim forcomingout,statingTheworldisyoursnow,youreallyarebrave(Smith,2010). AcknowledgementofopenlyLGBTindividualsbraverywasoftenconveyedthrough thewordsoffriendsorfamilymembers.InthestoryofBrendanBurkescomingout,family members acknowledgement of Brendans bravery was mixed with expressions of pride,
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concern,fear,andawe.Asshownatsidebartotheright,the feelings were implicit recognition that openly LGBT sport figures are still fairly infrequent (and especially in hockey) and are therefore entering uncharted waters (Buccigross, 2009). After Brendan died tragically in a car accident, his brotherPatrickhopedthathewouldberememberednotfor his sexuality, but for his bravery and character (Algarin, 2010). Others recognized the bravery as well, as with one journalistwho stated that Brendan came out courageously (Russo,2010). Perhaps because it was understood that competing openly took guts, openly LGBT individuals in sport were often lauded as leaders and role models (Witz, 2010; Richardson, 2010; Buccigross, 2009). Frequent use of words suchaspioneerandtrailblazersentamessageofcourage anddifficultyassociatedwithbeinggayinsport.Onewriter, anticipatingapioneeringgayathletetoleadthechargeof comingoutduringhisorheractivecareer,commentedthatit would take a special individual, endowed with a particular fortitude,totakesuchaboldstepintoheretoforeuncharted territory.Theauthorcontinued:Atrailblazingathletemust be prepared to face potentially staunch opposition, if not openhostility,totheacknowledgementofhishomosexuality,
I had a million good reasons to love and admire Brandon. This news didnt alteranyofthem. I would prefer Brendan hadnt decided to discuss this issue in this very public manner. There will be a great deal of reaction, and I fear a large portion will be negative. But this takes guts, and I admire Brendan greatly, and happily marcharminarmwithhimonthis. There are gay men in professional hockey. We would be fools to think otherwise. And its sad that they feels the need to conceal this. I understand whytheydoso,however.*** I wish this burden would fall on someone elses shoulders, not Brendans. Pioneers are often misunderstood and mistrusted. But since he wishes to blaze this trail, I standbesidehimwithanaxe!. BrianBurke
Hes incredibly brave In so many ways,Ilookuptohimforwhoheisand whathedoes. Obviously, there are gay players in hockey right now And there are gay peopleinmanagementWejustdont haveanyopenlygayones.Ithinkitwill be a challenge for the first person that comes out, because theyll be putting themselvesunderamicroscope. The scary thing for me is that it might be Brendan I dont think its fair the faceofhomosexualityinhockeyshould be a 20yearold college kid, but Brendan is more than willing to be the guy,whichawesme. PatrickBurke
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eveninthisdayandage(Gyurina,2010). These sentimentsthe messages of courage, bravery, trailblazingstemmed from the understanding that sport is inhospitable to LGBT individuals, particularlygay men. It wasunderstoodthatthepotentialeffectsofcomingoutwhilecompetingwereenoughto keepathletesfromdoingso: Itiscertainlyunderstandablewhymoreathletesarereluctant tocomeforthregardingtheirsexuality.Theacknowledgement could be a deathblow to their career and livelihood, making theirlivesconsiderablymoredifficultwhentheypreviouslyled a comfortable existence, quietly living their life, while concealingthenatureofthesexuality.IcannotsaythatIwould wanttotakethatdrasticstepifIwereintheirshoes.(Gyurina, 2010.) Notethatthiscommentatorsconclusionthatclosetedathletesledcomfortablelivesisfar from accurate, as discussed below. But coming out is not seen as the viable alternative, especiallyifonewantstocontinueplaying.Indeed,sportisseenassoinhospitablethatit was recognized to have the potential to driveor actually has drivenLGBT individuals fromthesport.ThishappenedtoBrendanBurke:,whohadadmittedthathehadgivenup thesport[hockey]inhighschoolbecausehefearedthealienationhelikelywouldfaceif histeammatesfoundout(Vaccaro,2010). The message of bravery and strength attendant in coming out in sport was also conveyed by recognition of the apprehension and concern that LGBT sport figures felt before doing so. The anxietyinducing potential outcomes were wideranging: Individuals feared being subjected to rejection or violence by peers. They feared losing their jobs or theirplaceontheteam,orofbeingblackedballedfromfuturejobsornotmakingfuture teams. They feared losing scholarships and endorsements. They felt concern about the effectthattheirannouncementswouldhaveonothers.Theywereworriedthattheywould
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bedefinedbytheirsexuality,andthattheirstatusasgayorlesbianwouldovershadow theironfieldaccomplishments.Andtheyfearedbeingfoundout,beingexposedasLGBT. WherethedatarevealedthesefearsandshowedLGBTindividualsovercomingthemand continuing to participate in sport, that was an implicit recognition of the courage and braveryofcomingout.
TheStruggleWithBeingCloseted:Isolation,andAmbivalence
The next significant overarching message to emerge from the data was that LGBT sportsfiguresexperienceisolationbeforecomingoutandambivalenceaboutcomingout.It wasnotedrepeatedlythatthereareveryfewopenlyLGBTathletesorcoachesinsport andnoopenprofessionalathletesandthusfewrolemodelsforstrugglingindividualsto turntoforsupportorinspiration.Andalthoughahandfulofprofessionalathleteshadcome out,allhaddonesoaftertheystoppedcompeting. Even with thousands of professional athletes competing in baseball, basketball,footballandhockeyoverthepastseveralyearsmanyofwhom are almost undoubtedly homosexualnot a single one has played a single gameasanopenlygayman.(Hartlaub,2010.) Sports have long been viewed as inhospitable to gay men. The number of American male professional team athletes who have come out can be counted on two hands. In locker rooms, antigay slurs are tossed around as casuallyasborrowedtowels.(Thomas,2010a.) ThestoryofGarethThomassjourneythroughrugbyasaclosetedathleteisfullof the message isolation and struggle. Thomas sought out the camaraderie of the rugby brotherhoodasawaytohidehissexuality,confirmhismasculinity,andfeelacceptedby his peers. For awhile, the rugby family compensated for his selfloathing; his teammates circled the wagons against outsiders insinuations regarding Thomass sexuality, even while they privately (and behind Thomass back) wondered the same thing themselves.
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The isolation fueled Thomass athletic drive: Im the only gay person here. Im the minority. They dont accept me. Im going to outmuscle them, outrun them, outdo them (Smith,2010,n.p.).Hesoughtsolaceinalcoholicbingesandcarousing,andinrugby.The writerdrewparallelsbetweenThomassalienationandhisnicknameAlf.Uncannythat hisnicknamecaughtexactlyhowhedendupfeeling:alien.Gaymanonrugbyteam.Even asThomasstruggled,halfintheclosetandhalfout,hehadnoexamplestoturnto,sofew precedentsexistedtoemboldenhim(Smith,2010,n.p.). Similarmessagesofstruggleandhardshipranthroughoutthedataset.Dealingwith rumors about ones sexuality was one of them. Efforts at hiding ones sexuality were common as well, and included such behaviors as deliberately acting or looking more masculine,engaginginstraightrelationships,andthrowingoneselfintothesporttoout dostraightpeers.Atthesametime,theinternalstrugglesdidnotdissipateandfrequently either caused concerns about poor sport performance or actually resulted in self destructive behavior, acting out, selfloathing, and even suicidal ideation and attempted suicide. One gay athlete, reflecting on his personal struggle before coming out: I had experienced no lonelier point inmy life. Ifelt no one could understand myfeelings. Who thehellisgayandplayssports,especiallylacrosse?(Richardson,2010). The struggle of closeted athletes went beyond feelings of solitude and alienation. Many of the articles communicated the struggle in terms of a dichotomy or a dilemma: There was the choice between career security (staying in) and personal peace (coming out),aswellastheconflictbetweenprivate(stayingin)andpublic(comingout).Therewas evenadistractionparadoxofsorts:somewhereconcernedthatcomingoutwouldbea distractionbyinterferingwiththegame,disruptingteamchemistry,orresultinginmedia
40
frenzy. At the same time, there was a recognition that continuing to maintain the closet shut caused distraction as well, especially when athletes felt that they were violating the trustoftheirpeersbynotbeinghonestabouttheirsexuality. Many of the articles expressly recognized the need to provide resources for LGBT individuals in sport, both in terms of giving support for those going through the above strugglesandintermsofcreatingsafeandwelcomingenvironmentsinthesportcontext. Sometimesittookfriendstopointouttheneedforsupport.InGarethThomasscase,itwas anoldcoach:YourestillAlf,right?Weloveyou.Thisdoesntchangeanythingaboutyou as a person or how the boys feel about you But you need support mate (Smith, 2010, n.p.). Other times, gay athletes managed to find support on their own, through family, friends, or resources on the Internet (Richardson, 2010; Thomas, 2010a). Whatever the sourceofsupport,themessagewasclearthatsupportwasneededforLGBTindividualsto successfullynavigatetheworldofsportthatwassometimeshostiletothem.
PositiveResultsfromComingOut
Another major theme that emerged from the data was that gay men and lesbians overwhelminglyexperiencedpositiveresultsfromcomingout.Themostcommonpositive experience was the support and acceptance of family, friends, teammates, and even fans. These experiences were always highlighted in articles featuring coming out stories or personalprofiles.Therewereseveraloftheseinthedataset. One such article was about European rugby star Gareth Thomas. After describing Thomasspersonalstruggleswithbeingclosetedwhileplayingatthetopofhissport,the articlechronicledhisjourneycomingouttofamily,friends,selectteammates,andthenthe world(Smith,2010).Thomasfirstcameouttohiswife,whowasshockedbutsupportive,
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aswastherestofhisfamily.Hereceivedreaffirmancefromanoldcoach:Weloveyou. Thisdoesnotchangeanythingaboutyouasapersonorhowtheboysfeelaboutyou.Two playerssupportedhim:Nobigdeal.Wedontcare.Cheersforgettingitout.Whydidyou tell us before? His teammates followed suit. At the first match after his public announcement, the support was evident: By chance they were playing his old team, Toulouse.Hewaitedtilthelastpossiblemomenttotakethefield,butwhenhisnamewas announced, the roar that went up overwhelmed him. Finally, the fansthe reaction he fearedthemost: HegotafewwolfwhistlesatSwansea,butthevastmajorityof crowds cheered his name louder than ever. The newspapers andtelevisioncoveragewasunrelentinglypositive.Supporton the Internet came like a wave,20,000 people signing up for a Support Gareth Thomas group on Facebook and a Twitter community gathering around him overnight, along with the expectedsprinklingofscrumjokes.(Smith,2010.) ThepubliccomingoutstoryofBrendanBurke,acollegestudentdeeplyimbedded in the world of the NHL and junior hockey, was similarly positive. Burke was a student manager on the NCAAs topranked Miami (Ohio) UniversityhockeyteamandthesonofBrianBurke, a longtime titan in the NHL and current General Manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs. After coming out to family and friends and receiving their support and encouragement, Burke came out publicly in a November 2009 interview to ESPN.com,andthestorywaspublicizedacrossthe Photo 4: Brendan Burke and father, United States and Canada (Rogan, 2010). Even in Brian Burke (Photo credit: Burke Family)
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theultramachoworldofhockey,Brendanwasaccepted: BackatMiamiUniversity,Brendansteammatesembracedhim, and the hockey coach, Rico Blasi, says the news changed the tone of the locker room. Around the league, Patrick [Brendansbrother]foundmostpeoplewerepolite,atleastin public:Imsuretherewerepeoplewhoweresurprisedorhad something cruel to say behind closed doors, but at the end of the day, everyone I heard from, with varying degrees of awkwardnessaboutit,wassupportive.(Rogan,2010.) BrendantragicallydiedinacaraccidentinFebruary2010,justthreemonthsafter publicly coming out and embarking on his campaign to change the NHL. Just a few days later, his father led the U.S. Hockey team to the Olympics as its General Manager. ThroughouttheOlympics,everymemberoftheteamworeadogtagwiththeinscriptionIn MemoryofBrendanBurke(Rogan,2010). The stories about openly LGBT individuals in sport were replete with messages aboutthepositiveoutcomesfromcomingout.Thereweremanyinstancesofsupportfrom players, teammates, coaches, schools, and leaguesas well as from fans. Some LGBT individuals reported that their relationship with their team was improved or at least maintainedandnotmadeworse.Othersfoundthattheirpersonalactofcomingouthadthe effect of changing peoples attitudes about LGBT people and increased awareness of insensitiveoroffensivebehavior. Thepositiveswerenotalwaysexternal.ManyLGBTindividualsreportedimproved emotional and psychological wellbeingincluding a feeling of relief. Others found comingouttobeliberatingandrewarding,andtheyhadapositivefeelingfrombeingable tobehonestwithpeers.Somewerelessworriedaboutperceptionsortryingtohard.And still others were excited at being an agent of change or a role model, spokesperson, or crusader.OnesuchcrusaderwasGarethThomas:
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ItslikewakinguponChristmasDay,walkingdownthestairs andseeingFatherChristmas,hesays.Thehorizonsarewide open.Imlikeateenageragain.Peoplekeepasking,Whatsthe negativeofcomingout?Buttheresnonesofar. Ifthistaboohadbeenbrokenbeforeme,Iwouldhaveknown better.Icreatedthishoolmonsterthatdidntexist.Thefearof rugby being taken away from me, my hool life being taken away people talking about me behind closed doors I createdit.Itsmad.NowIknowImnotanalienandGodisnt punishingme. Iwouldlovetohelpkidswhoaregoingthroughthis,because wereallkids,butt.IwanttobethegayrolemodelIneverhad. ThenoteIgotfromaguywhogaveuprugbyyearsagobecause he was gay and has returned to playing it since I came out that outweighs lifting the biggest trophy as captain of Wales. (Smith,2010.)
CondemnationofAntiGayBias
Another key message that emerged from the data was one of disapproval toward instancesofantigayharassmentanddiscrimination.Soevenwherecomingoutresultedin negative outcomes, those outcomes were condemned both by those close to the participantsandsometimesbyjournalistsandcommentatorsaswell. This was no more evident than in connection with negative employment actions against two lesbian coaches, both at the end of 2010. One involved Lisa Howe, a soccer coachatBelmontUniversity,aChristianschoolinTennessee,whowasseparatedfromher jobaftertellingherplayersthatherpartnerwashavingababy.Thedatareflectedbacklash fromBelmontstudents,thecommunity,andfromjournalists: In the traditionally conservative, Bible Belt city of Nashville, people are livid. Belmonts students are demanding accountability. The Belmont Vision, the schools student newspaper, has been hammering the story with unrelenting vigor. On Sunday, meanwhile, some 40 students braved snow and fierce cold to hold a protest outside the campus. (Pearlman,2010a.)
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Even University benefactors, including a trustee emeritus, decried the schools action: Nothing resonated quite like the surprise statement by Mike Curb, a trustee emeritus of the university and the deep pocketed donor for whom the college of music business is named. ItstimeforBelmonttochange,Mr.Curb,aprominentrecord executive and successful Nascar owner and sponsor, told the Tennessean newspaper. Belmont has to decide whether they wanttobeanational,recognizeduniversity,particularlywith their school of music business, or they want to be a church. (Robertson,2010.) In all, the data showed numerous instances of backlash in reaction to antigay harassment and discrimination. These included the condemnation of the use of slurs or insensitive language, the institution of new policies to prevent future harassment, and protests and criticisms of homophobic persons and conduct. Often, the backlash had its intended effect, resulting in apologies from the individuals engaged in the criticized conductandtheimpositionofdisciplinaryactionagainsttheoffenders.Inothercases,the offendersexpressedregretorembarrassmentbytheirhomophobicconductandvowedto change their behavior in the future by being more aware and more sensitive to LGBT issues. Sometimesantigaybehaviorwascondemnedevenwhenitwasnotdirectedatany particularindividual.Forexample,Thomas(2010a)reportedhowalacrossecoachinNew Yorkpunishedhisteamfordescribingoneofhisdrillsasgay.Thecoachtoldtheplayers thatRegardlessofhowyoufeelaboutwhetherbeinggayisrightorwrongthelanguage isnotappropriate(n.p.).Foraclosetedathleteontheteam,theeventwasrevealingand reassuring,anditpromptedhimtostartthecomingoutprocess.
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PerceivedProgressTowardandAnticipationofFullAcceptanceofOpenlyLGBT AthletesInSport
Thenextmajorthemeofthedatainvolvedmessagesconcerningtheprogressthat hasbeenmade,andstillneedstobemade,toimprovetheenvironmentforopenlyLGBT individualsinsport,aswellasanticipationforgayprofessionalplayerscomingoutwhile still competing. These messages were overwhelmingly favorable to LGBT individuals in sportandgavebotharealisticoverviewandahopefuloutlookforthefuture. Messages assessing sports progress on LGBT issues both emphasized the positive and conceded that more needed to be done. There were many examples of tolerance, expressions of support, and openmindedness from straight players and other sport stakeholders;amongthem,aChicagoBlackhawktooktheStanleyCuptotheChicagoGay Pride Parade, and the Chicago Cubs sponsored a float in that parade as well. Several messages expressed pride at instances of LGBT athletes competing openly. Still other commentscommunicatedthesignificanceandimportanceofbeingoutinsport.Teamsand leagues started to pay attention to, cultivate, and support gay fans. There were several mentionsofthefactthatyoungpeoplearemoreacceptingofLGBTindividuals,suggesting evenmoreprogressinthefuture.ManycommentedthatsportsarereadyforopenlyLGBT athletes and that straight athletes are more tolerant than given credit for. Many others noted that sexual orientation has nothing to do with athletic skillits the game thats important!andthatitthereforedoesntmatter. Intheend,though,theamountofprogressmaybeexaggerated:Progresssports inching toward acceptanceremains so slow that even small examples of it feel noteworthy (Cote, 2010). There were also some disagreements whether professional
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sportwas,infact,readyforopenlyLGBTplayers.FormerNFLplayerMarcellusWileyputit thisway: ItwouldreallybetoughforagayguyintheNFL,forthelocker roomtounderstandhimasahomosexualImnotsayingits impossible to pull off, but Im saying right now the fear of comingoutoftheclosetandmoresocomingoutinthelocker room would really be too tremendous to overcome. I dont knowwhetherthatwillbefive,ten,ortwentyyearsfromnow but right now the NFL culture has no tolerance toward it. (Hollander,2010.) On the other hand, most others disputed the locker room panic aspects of Wileys comments.AthleteandcelebritypublicistHowardBragmanmaintainedthatagayplayers teammateswouldbefullybehindhim: Ithinktheydbeshockinglysupportive.Ofcourse,otherteams andplayersmightnot.Healsodismissesthetalkofplayers beinguncomfortableshoweringwithagayteammate.Theres nothing less sexual than an NFL locker room, he insists. (Gyurina,2010.) Thus,despitethehighconfidenceinsportsreadinessforopenlyLGBTathletes,the media messages acknowledged that more needed to be done and that it would require work from everyone: teams and leagues to put more effort into combating homophobia, and fans and straight athletes to act better toward LGBT athletes. It was stated several timesthatfullthroatedsupportfromstraightathleteswillbekeytochangingminds. With that context, there was a great deal of anticipation concerning when a professionalathletewouldcompeteasopenlygayorlesbian.Opinionsvaried:itwillbea highlyskilledcollegeathletewhoisalreadyoutbeforegoingpro;itwillbesomeonewhois outed;itwillbeamegastarathlete,someonewhoistoovaluabletotheirteamtobelost. Butmostagreedthatitwouldbesoon:
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Buttime,Simsstresses,isdefinitelyonthesideofithappening sooner, rather than later. The fact is, he says, the NFL is comprisedmostlyofpeopleundertheageof40,andpeoplein thatagegroup,statisticallyspeaking,skewheavilyprogressive ongayrightsissues.Somethinglike80percentofyoungpeople areprogressivethere.Butifyouaskthemhowtheythinkother peopleintheiragegroupfeel,theyonlythinkaboutathirdof theirpeerssharetheirbelief.(Gyurina,2010.) Several comments described it as a baffling and depressing thought (Hartlaub, 2010)andsad(Cote,2010)thatnoprofessionalmaleathletehasevercompetedopenly and are still afraid to come out during their prime. But as John Amaechia former NBA playerwhocameoutafterretirementstated,WhenwillprominentPlayerXcomeouton hisown?Whenwedeserveit(Cote,2010). Whenever that might be, many hope that the day comes, and soon, when this [a gay athletes coming out] is not a story (Buccigross,2009). Ihopethedaycomes,andsoon,when thisisnotastory. TorontoMapleLeafsGMBrian Burkeonthecomingoutofhisson (Buccigross,2009).
WomenFaceAUniqueSetofChallengesRegardingLGBTIssues
The final major theme that stood out from the data was that a unique set of challengesaroseinthecontextofwomenssports. Primary among these issues was negative recruiting in college sports: Pitches emphasizingaprogramsfamilyenvironmentandimplicitheterosexualityareoftenpartof a consciously negative campaign targeted at another programs perceived sexual slant (Cyphers & Fagan, 2011). While negative recruiting is part of mens sports as well, those campaignstargetdifferentaspectsofmensprogramshintingthatacompetingschoolis headed to probation, is unfriendly to AfricanAmericans, or has a coach that is about to leave. According to Cyphers and Fagan (2011), antigay negative recruiting is unique to
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womenssports.Andisappearstobeprevalent:55%offemaleplayerssurveyedsaidthat sexualorientationwasanunderlyingtopicofconversationwithcollegerecruiters. Antigaynegativerecruitinghasmanyadverseconsequences,apartfromitsimplicit acceptance and reinforcement of homonegative attitudes. It drives lesbian women from coaching, or forces them into the closet to avoid potentially losing recruits. It also forces lesbian athletes into the closet, as the disapproval implicit in the negative message is internalizedbytheathletereceivingthenegativemessages.Italsoputslesbiancoachesin thepositionofhavingtodenybeinggayordefendtheirsexuality.Buteventhesestrategies cant prevent unfounded rumor from having its intended effect, thereby becoming a job securityissue: OneplayercanbethedifferencebetweenMarchMadnessand anAprilpinkslip.Coachesarentworriedaboutgettingfired forbeinglesbian,saysBarber,thesportspsychprofessor,but they do worry about being fired for not being able to recruit successfullybecauseofit.(Cyphers&Fagan,2011.) Thesecondissueuniquetowomenisthattheyareconstantlybattlingstereotypes thelesbianstigmawherebytheirheterosexualityiscalledintoquestionsolelybyvirtue of their participation in sports. Paradoxically, this causes womens sports to become a breedinggroundforintoleranceamongthoseontheinsideseekingtoassertaplacewithin the supposed normalcy of heterosexuality (Hays, 2010). The intolerance is a defense mechanismbystraightwomenfeelingtheneedtodefendtheirsexuality: Zeigler says the experience of female athletes who are gay is verydifferent.Althoughtheyareopenlygayinlargernumbers than men, he said female athletes had to fight the opposite stereotypethe assumption that all women who play sports are gay. As a result, female athletes who are gay have sometimes encountered harassment from coaches and fellow teammates.(Thomas,2010a.)
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The articles communicating these messages concerning womens sports also sounded a positive tone, however, noting that these issues should disappear as more lesbianathletesandcoachesparticipateopenlyandassportstakeholdersdecrytheuseof negativerecruiting.
DISCUSSION
Theresultsdiscussedabovedemonstratethreemainbarrierstofullacceptanceof LGBTindividualsinsport.First,closetedsportfigureslackthesupportandresourcesthat permitthemshakeofffeelingsofisolation,gaintheconfidencetocomeout,andtocontinue participating in sport afterwards. Second, as demonstrated by the implicit homophobia from reporting that emphasized stereotypes (mainstream vs. flamboyant), demeaned throughtheuseoffalsedichotomies(e.g.,hypermasculinityasanexceptionaltraitinagay man),orhighlightedunfoundedfears(e.g.,lockerroompanic),themediasometimesneed help in fairly and accurately portraying LGBT issues in sport. And third, straight participantsinsportcouldbenefitfromeducationandtrainingregardingLGBTindividuals andissuesinsport. Thesefindingsthereforepointtoasolutionwiththreeparts: support,inform,and educate.Onthefollowingpages,anadvocacyorganization PLAYalloutisproposed.Its missionwillbetocombathomophobiainsport,tofacilitatetheacceptanceofopenlygay, lesbian, and bisexual athletes in sport, and to eliminate bias, negativity, and intolerance againstLGBTathletesandothersportfigures.Toaccomplishthatmission, PLAYalloutwill offersupport,information,andeducation.
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ProjectArtifact
PreliminaryBusinessProposal
Promoter:PeterE.Perkowski Phone:3237073154 Email:pperkowski@playallout.org Website:www.playallout.org
PLAYallout
THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINS PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION AND IS NOT TO BE DISTRIBUTEDWITHOUTPRIORWRITTENPERMISSION
Copyright2011PLAYallout.Allrightsreserved. Byacceptingacopyofthisreport,therecipientagreesnotto reproduce it in whole or in part,not to use it for any other purposethanreading,andnottodiscloseanyofitscontents tothirdpartieswithoutwrittenpermissionofPLAYallout.The report is furnished for information purposes only. No representation or warranty is made by PLAYallout or any other entity as to the accuracy or completeness of the information,andnothingcontainedinthereportis,orshall be,reliedonasapromiseorrepresentationofthefuture.
PLAYallout | 1
ExecutiveSummary
OrganizationConcept
is a nonprofit charitable and educational organization created to combat homophobia in sports, to increase awareness of and sensitivity to antigay bias heteronormativityinsports,andtofacilitatetheacceptanceofopenlygay,lesbian,bisexual, ortransgender(LGBT)athletesandothersinsports. Tofacilitatetheaccomplishmentofitsmission,PLAYalloutwouldhaveathreepartfocus:to actasaresourceforgaymenandlesbiansinsport,tobearesourceformediareportingon issues concerning gay men and lesbians in sport, and to be an educational resource for sportsorganizationsatalllevels. ResourceforGayMenandLesbiansinSport
PLAYallout will be a resource for gay and lesbian athletes and other sport stakeholders PLAYallout
experiencing instances of isolation, harassment, bullying, or abuse in the sport context. PLAYalloutwilloffermentalhealth,legal,andotherprofessionalservicesandreferrals,as wellastheabilitytoconnectstrugglingLGBTpeoplewithopenlyLGBTsportstakeholders forconfidentialadviceandinformation. ResourceforMedia
PLAYallout will have media materials, training kits, and press packages, including talking
pointsforcommentaryoninstancesofantigaybehaviorinsports. ResourceforTeams,Leagues,andSchools Forhighschoolandcollegiateathleticdepartments,amateurandproleagues,andathletic associations, PLAYallout will offer educational programs that increase sensitivity to and awarenessofhomonegativityandhomophobiainsports.
Mission
mission is to combat homophobia in sport, to facilitate the acceptance of openly gay, lesbian, and bisexual athletes in sport, and to eliminate bias, negativity, and intoleranceagainstLGBTathletes.
PLAYallouts
| PLAYallout
Overview
Formation
The organization will be started by Peter E. Perkowski in 2011 as an unincorporated association.RegistrationwillbeintheStateofCalifornia.Forfederalincometaxpurposes, PLAYallout will be classified under Section 501(c)(3) as exempt from taxes as a nonfor profitcharitableandeducationalorganization.
Geographicalareas
BecauseLGBTindividualsparticipateinsportsacrosstheUnitedStates, PLAYalloutwillbe an organization with nationwide focus. PLAYallouts national activities will be enhanced througharangeofcooperativerelationshipswithentitiessuchas: legalandagentnetworks governmentalcontacts otherLGBTadvocacyorganizations clientbranchandtradebodies
Vision
Our premarket research has shown there to be a considerable need for an organization such as PLAYallout. The management style is flexible, progressive, and energetic. Enthusiasm of the management as well as the employees and volunteers will greatly stimulatetheenvisionedgrowth.
BoardofDirectors
will be governed by a Board of Directors, which will have the principal responsibilityforfulfillmentoftheorganizationsmissionandthelegalaccountabilityforits operations. The Board of Directors will further ensure adequate human and financial resources and activelymonitorandevaluatetheorganization'sexecutivedirector,,aswellastheoverall financial results. The board members will approve and implement policies to ensure achievement of the mission of the organization and to prevent perceived, potential, or actual conflict of interest. They will accomplish these functions through regular meetings scheduledbimonthly.
PLAYallout
PLAYallout | 3 Personnel
ExceptfortheExecutiveDirectorandanofficemanager,allemployeeswillbevolunteers from the community and surrounding area and have been chosen not only for their qualificationsbutfortheirdedicationandideologytoassistPLAYalloutinitsgoals.
ProgramsandServices
The programs and services to be offered by PLAYallout were developed in response to researchandanexaminationoftheneedsofthetargetedcommunity. PLAYalloutintendsto spendmorethan75%ofrevenuesonthefollowingprogramsandservices.
SUPPORT/inform/educate
SupportServices
PLAYalloutwill provide services and programs to LGBT athletes,coaches, and other sport
stakeholders. Such services will include mental health, legal, and other professional servicesandreferrals,aswellastheabilitytoconnectstrugglingLGBTpeoplewithopenly LGBTsportstakeholdersforconfidentialadviceandinformation. AllsupportserviceswillbeprominentlydisplayedonPLAYalloutswebsiteforeasyaccess. 24hourhelpline
PLAYallout
willestablisha24hourtollfreehelplinethatwillbeavailableforLGBTsports personalitiestocallforassistance,advice,orjustafriendlyvoicetotalkto. Mentalhealthreferralsandcounseling
PLAYalloutwillnotbeamentalhealthorganization.Itwill,however,beequippedtoprovide
emergency counseling services via the helpline, as well as referrals to existing mental healthgroupsandprofessionalsacrosstheUnitedStates. Publicationsandbrochures
PLAYallout will publish and distribute informational brochures and publications, some of
whichwillbetargetedtoLGBTindividualsinneedoftheorganizationsservices. Publicrelations
PLAYallout
will offer publicists, public relations, and media skills assistance to LGBT athleteswhowishtocomeoutpublicly.
| PLAYallout
Legalreferrals
PLAYalloutwillnotprovidelegalservices.Itwill,however,beequippedtoprovidereferrals
tolegalprofessionalsandlegalserviceorganizationswhenneeded. Supportgroups,mentoring
PLAYalloutwill also organizeandsponsor support group meetingswherethere is enough
interest for doing so. More critically, PLAYallout will maintain a confidential list of LGBT sports figures willing to act as mentors or advisors to those who may be struggling with issuesuniquetoLGBTindividualsparticipatinginsport.
MediaResource
PLAYallout will provide resources to the media in the form of sensitivity guides, training
kits,andpresspackages,includingtalkingpointsforcommentaryoninstancesofantigay behaviorinsports. Mediaguides will publish a Media Reference Guide that provides instructions and best practices to enable the media to provide fair, accurate, and inclusive coverage. The Reference Guide will include a glossary of terms that instructs the media on the most appropriateandsensitivelanguagetouseinreferringtopeopleandcircumstancesthatare oftenrhetoricallycharged.Theglossarywillincludealistofproblematic,offensive,and defamatory terms that should be avoided in all media coverage, along with preferred alternatives. TheReferenceGuidewillalsoincludeanindepthtreatmentofissuesthatfrequentlyarise in the sport context related to LGBT individuals and issues. Public opinion polls will be includedtogivecontexttomediareportingwhenneeded. Finally, the Reference Guide will include a director of resources for the media to use in gatheringinformationfortheirreportsandtofacilitatethelocatingofpeopleinterestedin beinginterviewedonparticulartopics. Mediaconsultingservicesandtraining
PLAYalloutwillprovideconsultingservicestomediaoutletsthatneedadviceorassistance PLAYallout
indevelopingnewsstoriesorfinalizingnewsreports.Thisservicewillincludepreliminary and final review of news copy to identify sensitive issues and instances of offensive language,inaccuracies,orstereotypes.
PLAYallout | 5
PLAYalloutwillalsoprovidetrainingseminarsandtrainingkitsfornewsorganizationsthat
are interested in improving their coverage of LGBT issues in sport or in raising the standardsoftheirreportersinvestigationandtreatmentofsuchissues. Mediacontacts,sources,andinterviewees
PLAYalloutwillbecommittedtoprovidingtimelyandaccurateresourcesforjournalistsand
news organizations. This will include making knowledgeable individuals available for timelyinterviewsforbroadcastandprintstoriesonLGBTissuesinsport.Thisservicewill alsoincludepressreleasesthatencouragethereportingofeventsinvolvingLGBTissuesin sport, ghostwriting broadcast copy and print news articles for placement in newscasts, newspapersandmagazines,aswellasstoryplacementserviceswhenbreakingeventsand newsitemsgounnoticedbynewsorganizations.
Education
PLAYalloutwilldevelopandimplementeducationprogramsaimedatincreasingsensitivity
toandawarenessofhomophobiaandhomonegativityinsports. Secondaryschools
PLAYalloutwillworkcloselywithGLSENsChangingtheGameprogramtoprovideservices
toK12schoolsandyouthsportsorganizations. Colleges,conference,andassociations
PLAYallout will coordinate with collegiate athletic departments to become a part of the
annualtrainingalreadybeingprovidedtocollegiateathletes.PLAYalloutwillalsoworkwith theNCAAandathleticconferencestoprovideeducationalmaterialsandtrainingtothose organizations. Professionalteamsandleagues

PLAYallout
will reach out to professional sports teams and leagues to to make its educational services and programs standard fare at newplayer orientations and annual meetings.
| PLAYallout
Finances
Being a nonprofit organization, we aim to raise income through several fundraising activities.Wehaveplansfor: Grantsandpledges Memberships Donations Fundraisingevents Contributorsareexpectedtoinclude: majorfoundationsandfamilyfoundations government(grants) corporations individuals colleges/universities associations othernonprofits
Marketing
There are currently over 1.5 million nonprofit organizations including some 700,000 501(c)(3)charities.In PLAYalloutsarea,theprovisionofeducationalandsupportservices toLGBTindividualsinsportisunderdevelopedandseverelyneglectedandthereisample roomforPLAYallouttooperate. Theimportanceofthenonprofitsector Thenonprofitsectorisbecomingincreasinglyimportantinseveralways: economicallywithashareof10%ofGDP approximately$200billioningovernmentfunding moreandmoresocialservicesarebeingprovidedbynonprofitorganizations
Sectoranalysis
Peter Perkowski undertook substantial research before proposing the formation of PLAYallout.Thefocusofthisresearchwasontheneedforandimportanceofaformalized support network for LGBT individuals in sport. The research results were encouraging. There is a trend of more and more athletes and coaches coming out and participating in sport as openly LGBT. These individuals will need the services of PLAYallout and organizationslikeit.
PLAYallout | 7
Marketinggoals
PLAYalloutaimstoraise$1millioninincomeinitsfirstyearofoperation,andtorealizean
annualincreaseofatleast1015%inthefollowingfiveyears. Torealizehigherfundraisingincome. Eliminatecomplexandtimeconsumingprocedures. EnlargetherecognitionfactorofthePLAYalloutname.
Operations
The organizations identity will be made clear by its logo, signs, ads, communication material,anddecoration.Theorganizationsstylizedtradenameisimmediatelybelow.
PLAYallout
On ads, letterhead, newsletters, signs, and other communication material, the tradename may be accompanied by a trademarked phrase that encapsulates its mission, as in the examplebelow.
Location
PLAYallout will be located in Los Angeles. This location has been selected because of it is
home to a large number of amateur, high school, collegiate, and professional sport organizations. Internet
PLAYalloutusesitsWebsite(www.playallout.org)primarilyasachannelforitsservices,to
finding sponsors and donors, and to provide information to its members. We are well listed in all relevant local, regional and national Web directories. Since several of PLAYallouts employees and volunteers work from home, they can log into the organizationsnetworkforinformation.
| PLAYallout
SWOTanalysis
INTERNALFACTORS
Strengths
Welltimedtoprovideservicesandprograms forincreasingnumbersofLGBTathletes, coachesandothersportstakeholders Need:Attitudesarechanges,buttherewill alwaysbeaneeded
Weaknesses
Neworganization;nonamerecognition Mightbedifficultorcostlytostandoutin crowdedfield Findingsponsorsandfinancing
Howtopromote,spreadtheword,build Fillavoid:noonespecificorganizationprovides membership alloftheprogramsandservicesbeingoffered Someoverlapinmissionorprogramsoffered byPLAYallout byotheradvocacygroups EXTERNALFACTORS
Opportunities
Timing:organizingnowandgettingestablished beforenumbersofopenlyLGBT athletes/coachesstartstoincrease CanworkwithotherLGBTadvocacygroupsto fulfillmission Hotbuttonissueappealstomedia,fans prurientinterests Capitalizeonsportsorganizationsdesiretobe seendoingtherightthing
Threats
Competition(forfunds,attention,services) fromLGBTadvocacyorganizations Potentialsponsordisinterestordonoroverload (especiallyinLGBTcontext) Economicconditionswillmakeitdifficultto raisefunds Bigotryandhomophobiamaymakeitdifficult toachievemission
PLAYallout | 9
OrganizationalStructure
Managementandpersonnel
Chairman ofthe Board
Boardof Directors
Development ProgramsStaff
Operations
Administration
Volunteers
Field workers
10
| PLAYallout
Administrativeorganization
The administration will be handled done an Executive Director and an Office Manager. Theywillalsoproducetheannualprofitandlossaccountandbalancesheetaswellasfile ourtaxreturn.
PLAYalloutordersanannualindependentauditofitsfinancialstatementswhichisprepared
by a certified public accountant. The CPA also prepares a management letter containing recommendationsforimprovementsinthefinancialoperationsoftheorganization.Thisis later reviewed by the Board of Directors. The report is also made available to service recipients,volunteers,contributors,andsponsors. We will take periodic inventories to monitor the inventory against theft, to reconcile generalledgerinventoryinformationandtomaintainanadequateinventorylevel.
PLAYallout will have a written fiscal policy and procedures manual, and internal controls
willbeputinplacetoensurethatsuchpolicieswillbestrictlyfollowed. Information
PLAYallout will have systems in place to provide the appropriate information needed by
staffandboardtomakesoundfinancialdecisionsandtofulfillIRSrequirements.
PLAYalloutwillmonitorunitcostsofprogramsandservicesbydocumentingstafftimeand
direct expenses, as well as applying a process for allocation of management and general andfundraisingexpenses. Insurance
PLAYallout has suitable insurance coverage which is periodically reviewed to ensure that
theappropriatelevelsandtypesofcoverageareinplace. Fireinsurance Theftinsurance Buildinginsurance Liabilityinsurance Directors&officersinsurance Burglary&dishonestyinsurance
RiskManagement
Important risks to consider are described below according to internal and external risk categories.Anumberofriskfactorsshouldbeconsidered:
PLAYallout | 11
Early stage. Duringtheearlystageof PLAYallout,afterformation,theorganizationand its prospects must be considered in light of the risks, expenses, and difficulties frequentlyencounteredbycompaniesinanearlystageofdevelopment. Dependence on key personnel and volunteers. PLAYallout performance will be dependent upon the continued services of its founders, executive officers, and volunteers. This is of particular importance while the organization is relatively young andstillundergoingdevelopmentandgrowth.Duringthisperiod,theorganizationwill behighlydependentuponretainingandmotivatingitsseniormanagers.Tooffsetthis risk,inthefuture,theorganizationwillcarryakeymaninsurancepolicyonkeyofficers whoselosscouldhaveamateriallyadverseaffectonthefutureoftheorganization. Maintaining and strengthening the name. Building, strengthening, and maintaining thePLAYalloutnameandpurposeisimportant. Privacy and risk reduction.Muchofdatathat PLAYalloutwillstoreandmaintainwill involvethepersonalprivacyofindividuals.Systemsandprocedures,suchaspassword protection and other limitations,will needto be put in place to avoid the inadvertent disclosureofsuchinformationtothepublic. System failures. Success and the ability to conduct business will depend on the efficient and uninterrupted operation of our Internet connectivity systems. PLAYallout will obtain its highspeed Internet access through thirdparty Internet Service Providers (ISP). ISPs maintain physical and electronic systems that are vulnerable to failure, damage, or interruption resulting from any number of possibilities, ranging from earthquakes, floods, fire, loss of power, telecommunication failures, breakins, sabotage,vandalism,andsimilarevents.Tomitigatethisrisk,theCompanywillacquire fullyredundantsystems,adisasterrecoveryplan,oralternateISPsincludingalternate hosing services. Additionally, PLAYallout will carry sufficient business interruption insurancetocompensateforpotentiallossesthatmayoccur. Intellectual property. Copyrights and trademarks trade secrets (including methodologies,practices,andtools)andotherintellectualpropertyrightsarecriticalto success. PLAYallout will rely on a combination of trademark and copyright laws, trade secretprotection,nondisclosureagreements,andothercontractualagreementswithits employees,affiliates,clients,strategicpartners,acquisitiontargets,andothers.
APPLICATIONSANDIMPLICATIONSOFTHEARTIFACT
The anticipated applications and implications of the PLAYallout organization are discussedbelow.
PracticalApplicationstotheSportManagementIndustry
ThereisaprofoundneedforanorganizationlikePLAYallout,whichpromisestohave profoundpracticaleffectsinallareasofsportsandthebusinessofsport. BecausePLAYalloutsprimarymissionwouldbetocombathomophobiainsportsand to facilitate the acceptance of openly LGBT athletes and other sport stakeholders, its primary practical effect will be on the gay men and lesbians in sport. Of the existing organizationsthatfocusonhomophobiainsport,fewappeartoprovideresourcesdirectly to or for LGBT athletes. PLAYallout will focus on the needs of sports vulnerable sexual minorities by offering references and connections to other LGBT athletes and coaches; referrals to health, mental health, and legal professionals; and advice and consulting services. This will all be part of PLAYallouts mission to act as a resource and support organization for gay and lesbian athletes experiencing isolation or antigay harassment, bullying,orabuse. Through its education programs, PLAYallout would also have important practical effectsonsportmanagersatalllevelsofsport,especiallyatthecollegiateandprofessional sports.Thoughoneotherorganizationalreadyprovidessimilareducationalprogramsand services, GLSEN focuses on K12 education.
PLAYallout
will fill the void by targeting
educational programs to schools, conferences, and leagues after high school. These programswouldbedesignedtoincreaseawarenessofandsensitivitytohomophobiaand heteronormativityinsports.
69
In addition, PLAYallout would develop and implement a media guide and training programthatwouldhavepracticaleffectsacrossthesportmediaspectrum.Theprogram wouldbedesignedtoeducatethemediaabouthomophobiainsport,provideinformation about reporting on issues in sensitive and nonoffensive ways, and make available to the media personalities for interview and commentary for articles and televisions segments regarding LGBT issues in sport, especially antigay behavior in sports and improving the situationofgaysandlesbiansinsport.
ImplicationsforSportManagementAcademe
Insights, concepts, and foundations learned in Sport Management coursework and field experiences contributed to the creation of the Proposal. Foundations in Sport Management provided the broad contextual basis on which the Preliminary Business Proposal is grounded. The course emphasized the concepts of Sport as a business and taught how to apply management concepts to sport business entities, many of which were important in creating the Preliminary Business Proposal. These included the concepts of management inputs and outputs, which were key in designing the
PLAYallout PLAYallout
Preliminary Business
organization, as well as the concept of corporate social
responsibility, which will play an important role in the informational and educational aspectsofPLAYalloutsmission. Marketing and Finance also provided key knowledge and information that was useful in putting the Preliminary Business Proposal together. Although the PLAYallout proposalisonlyapreliminaryoutlineandnotabusinessplan,theproposaldoescontain portionsdirectedtomarketingandfinance.Theinformationlearnedinthoseclasseswas
70
important to assist in designing those sections of the proposal. Likewise, Facility, Event, andPersonnelManagementprovidedhelpfulbackgroundforaddressingothersectionsof the proposal, including the business structure, operations, management, and personnel portions. Sport in U.S. Culture also proved invaluable in creating the Preliminary Business Proposal.PLAYalloutisanorganizationprimarilydedicatedtoaddressingsociologicalissues suchasinequalityandpowerdynamics.Puttingtogetherthebusinessproposalwouldhave beenimpossiblewithoutathoroughunderstandingoftheconceptstreatedintheSportin U.S.Cultureclass. Finally,LegalandEthicalIssuesinSporthelpedinchoosinganappropriatenamefor thebusiness.Itwasimportanttoselectannamethatconveyedwhatwasatstakeforout athletes while emphasizing the importance of fair play and competition. Knowledge on issuesregardingintellectualpropertyprovedusefulinselectinganorganizationnamethat wouldnotbeindangerofinfringingexistingtrademarksorservicemarks.
ContributionstoCareerAspirations
Much remains to be done to continue breaking down barriers to the full participation of openly gay and lesbian individuals at all levels of sport and to increase sensitivitytogayandlesbianissuesamongathletes,coaches,fans,andbusinesspeople.Itis theauthorshopetobecomeinvolvedinfurtheringsuchprogress.Thus,theauthorhopes to be involved in the creation and operation of accomplishmentofitsmissionsdescribedabove. Accomplishing the mission of
PLAYallout PLAYallout,
and to be part of the
will also dovetail with other career
aspirations of the author. Possibilities include providing professional services to LGBT
71
athletes and other sport stakeholders, such as acting as a sports agent or manager, and actingasapressrelationsconsultantforLGBTindividualswhodesiretocomeoutpublicly.
CONCLUSION
At the outset of this project, it was believed that the research would reveal a dire situationforGLBTindividualsinsport.Surprisingly,themediacontentanalysisexposeda muchmorepositivestateofaffairsperhapsmorepositivethannegative.Nevertheless,it wasconfirmedthat,despitetheprogressthathasbeenmade,workstillneedstobedone. Like the findings four years ago by Gough (2007), LGBT sportsmen and women still experience isolation and crave support systems. As in Kian and Anderson (2009), openly LGBTathleteswerecommendedforbravery;fortunately,themediaseemstohavemoved awayfromtheirpriorfocus,asfoundbythoseresearchers,onthelockerroomasbeingno placeforgaymen. Itishopedthat PLAYalloutwillhavearealimpactonthelivesofLGBTindividualsin sport.Thereisafear,however,thattheorganizationwillbeunabletodistinguishitselfina crowdedfieldofLGBTadvocacyorganizations,particularlyasLGBTissuesinsportappear tobegainingwidespreadnotice,eventhoughnoneoftheseexistingorganizationsofferthe fullrangeofservicesthat PLAYallouthasplanned.Futureworkondevelopingtheproposal should focus on potential areas of collaboration and partnership with these existing organizationstoavoidduplicationofeffort.
72
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A Qualitative Analysis of Media Messages About Gay Men and Lesbians in Sport

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AQualitativeAnalysisofMedia MessagesAboutGayMenand LesbiansinSport

PeterE.Perkowski CaliforniaStateUniversity,LongBeach February5,2011

6069 5059 4049 3039 1829

Thoughmanyofthearticlesrecognizedthatthingshaveimprovedforgaymenand lesbiansinsport,alotofprogressremained:EventheU.S.militaryispreparingtocross thelinethat25othercountriesarmiesalreadyhave.Willteamsportsbethelastplacein theU.S.whereagaymanfeelshemusthideandlie?(Smith,2010).

willestablisha24hourtollfreehelplinethatwillbeavailableforLGBTsports personalitiestocallforassistance,advice,orjustafriendlyvoicetotalkto. Mentalhealthreferralsandcounseling

annualtrainingalreadybeingprovidedtocollegiateathletes.PLAYalloutwillalsoworkwith theNCAAandathleticconferencestoprovideeducationalmaterialsandtrainingtothose organizations. Professionalteamsandleagues

annualincreaseofatleast1015%inthefollowingfiveyears. Torealizehigherfundraisingincome. Eliminatecomplexandtimeconsumingprocedures. EnlargetherecognitionfactorofthePLAYalloutname.

Howtopromote,spreadtheword,build Fillavoid:noonespecificorganizationprovides membership alloftheprogramsandservicesbeingoffered Someoverlapinmissionorprogramsoffered byPLAYallout byotheradvocacygroups EXTERNALFACTORS

Chairman ofthe Board

theappropriatelevelsandtypesofcoverageareinplace. Fireinsurance Theftinsurance Buildinginsurance Liabilityinsurance Directors&officersinsurance Burglary&dishonestyinsurance

will fill the void by targeting

organization, as well as the concept of corporate social

and to be part of the

will also dovetail with other career

aspirations of the author. Possibilities include providing professional services to LGBT

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