Report Information from ProQuest November 12 2011 09:28 References

THE ARA !PRIN": #$!$ %E&'(RA() PR'&'TI'N IN E")PT

!ni*er+ Erin A, -aris+ %avi* &$ &i**.e East Po.ic/18$ 0 1-a.. 20112: 39452$ 6in7 to *ocument in ProQuest -in* a cop/ -in* 8 #R 99 Abstract 1summar/2: :$$$; t<e imperatives of maintainin= t<e bi.atera. re.ations<ip prevai.e* 4 to t<e *etriment of pro=rams$>n A 2009 cab.e from t<e #$!$ embass/ in (airo re.ease* b/ ?i7i6ea7s re.a/s #$!$ reco=nition t<at *eficiencies in t<e pub.ic4e*ucation s/stem are an impe*iment to *emocrati@a* on: 'ne cannot spea7 of *emocrac/ or sustaine* economic =roAt< in E=/pt Ait<out bumpin= up a=ainst t<e constraints of t<e e*ucationa. s/stem$ :$$$; t<e #nite* !tates s<ou.* bui.* on eBistin= .in7a=es betAeen American an* internationa. .abor =roups an* t<e nascent E=/ptian tra*e fe*erations$

-u.. TeBt:T<e E=/ptian uprisin= Aas A<o../ uneBpecte* b/ Courna.ists+ po.ic/ ma7ers an* sc<o.ars$ ut A<i.e it is too ear./ to Arite t<e <istor/ of t<at sti..4 unfo.*in= event+ Ae can certain./ eBp.ain <oA so man/ E=/ptians en*e* up in t<e street startin= on Danuar/ 2E+ 201 1 $ 'n t<e surface+ E=/pt appeare* to be part of a Aave of *issent t<at too7 s<ape first in Tunisia Ait< t<e s<oc7in= overt<roA of Fine EI4Aba*ine en A.i$ T<e tempora. proBimit/ of t<e tAo revo.utions appears to =ive cre*ence to GAaveG t<eories of *emocrati@ation+ A<ereb/ citi@ens in aut<oritarian re=imes ma/ emu.ate t<e actions of successfu. uprisin=s in nei=<borin= states$1 T<is ma/ ma7e for a nice stor/+ but it is on./ partia../ satisfactor/ as an eBp.anation$ E=/ptHs

revo.ution *i* not appear out of t<in air as a resu.t of TunisiaHs uprisin=$ It is best to t<in7 of t<e Tunisian case as t<e proBimate cause an* to carefu../ consi*er t<e seIuence of events t<at .e* mi..ions of E=/ptians into t<e streets to c<a..en=e t<eir aut<oritarian ru.ers$ ?<i.e t<e *ramatic ouster of en A.i in Tunisia certain./ inspire* t<e E=/ptian protesters 4 as in*icate* b/ t<e <eartfe.t t<an7s to Tunisia offere* on sites .i7e -aceboo7 an* TAitter after &ubara7Hs resi=nation 4 t<e uprisin= itse.f cou.* never <ave pro=resse* t<is far Ait<out a series of important *eve.opments in recent E=/ptian po.itics$ T<e main cause is t<e near./ simu.taneous emer=ence+ startin= in 2003+ of *i=ita. activists usin= A<at %iamon* ca..s G.iberation tec<no.o=ies+G2 in*epen*ent Courna.ists Aie.*in= press free*oms+ or=ani@e* .aborers sta=in= nationAi*e uprisin=s+ an* opposition =roups norma.i@in= protest po.itics 4 separate movements t<at <ave nevert<e.ess mana=e* to mount a fronta. c<a..en=e to t<e E=/ptian re=ime$ !i=nificant./+ none of t<ese critica. *eve.opments appears to <ave been substantia../ affecte* b/ #$!$ *emocrac/4promotion efforts$ / revieAin= t<e <istor/ of t<ese efforts+ Ae <ope to offer po.ic/ ma7ers an* sc<o.ars a neA pat< forAar* for *emocrac/ promotion in E=/pt+ one t<at combines t<e .essons of t<e past Ait< t<e opportunities of t<e future$

NE"'TIATIN" !TA I6IT) AN% %E&'(RA()

&ost ana./ses of #$!$ *emocrac/ promotion in t<e &i**.e East ten* to focus on t<e .ast *eca*e$ T<e roots of #$!$ fun*in= for *emocrac/ in E=/pt+ t<ou=<+ eBten* to t<e ear./ 1990s+ A<en t<e #nite* !tates A=enc/ for Internationa. %eve.opment 1#!AI%2 first be=an to inte=rate ai* for *emocrac/ into its tra*itiona. *eve.opmentassistance pro=ram$ %emocrac/ ai* Aas t<en a neA component of *eve.opment assistance+ an* ent<usiasm for its promotion =reA fo..oAin= t<e co..apse of t<e !oviet #nion an* t<e fa.. of communism in Eastern Europe$ !/mbo.ica../+ t<e events seeme* to represent bot< t<e triump< of .ibera. *emocrac/ an* t<e superiorit/ of t<e #$!$ mo*e.$ Efforts to promote *emocrac/ assistance Aere t<us buo/e* b/ not on./ a sense of mora. conviction+ but of nationa. interest+ to capita.i@e on momentum =enerate* b/ suc< *eve.opments in or*er to fi.. t<e i*eo.o=ica. vacuum .eft b/ t<e *isappearance of communism$

A=ainst t<is bac7*rop+ #!AI% be=an p.ans to inte=rate *emocrac/ ai* into its tra*itiona. assistance pro=ram$ T<e former *irector of t<e a=enc/Hs *emocrac/ an* =overnance office re.a/e* to Erin !ni*er t<at E=/pt+ as Ae.. as Pa7istan+ Ni=eria an* In*onesia+ Aere t<e focus of initia. efforts+ *ue to t<eir respective importance re=iona../+ an* t<e a=enc/Hs perception t<at serious sta7es for *emocrac/ eBiste* in a.. of t<em$0 #!AI%Hs initia. *emocrac/ pro=rams focuse* on four areas: e.ections an* po.itica. participation+ civi. societ/+ ru.e of .aA+ an* =overnance$ 'f t<ese+ muc< of t<e ai* *istribute* in t<e first <a.f of t<e 1990s to E=/pt fe.. un*er ai* for t<e ru.e of .aA an* civi. societ/$ In t<e .atter part of t<e *eca*e+ pro=rams Aere eBpan*e* to inc.u*e assistance for =overnance an* me*ia pro=rams$ !pen*in= for *emocrac/ avera=e* J20 mi..ion per /ear+ a minute portion of t<e near./ J2 bi..ion =iven annua../ b/ t<e #nite* !tates to E=/pt$3

EBaminin= t<e ne=otiation an* construction of pro=rams since t<at time re.a/s severa. bureaucratic+ *ip.omatic an* pro=rammatic c<a..en=es t<at <ave beset #$!$ efforts to promote *emocrac/ in E=/pt$ T<ese c<a..en=es are a testament to obstac.es in<erent Ait< *emocrac/ promotion+ particu.ar./ in aut<oritarian states$ Initia. reports pub.is<e* b/ #!AI% in t<e ear./ 1990s re.a/ t<e <ope t<at *emocratic *eve.opments in Eastern Europe mi=<t eBten* to E=/pt$ A strate=/ report issue* in 1992+ for eBamp.e+ cites suc< c<an=es+ sa/in= t<at t<e/ Grepresent a HAa7e upH ca.. for t<e tra*itiona. poAer structureG in E=/pt an* a..u*es to si=na.s of cooperation from t<e =overnment of E=/pt for t<e .aunc< of a *emocrac/ pro=ram+ notin= Gt<ere is some in*ication t<at t<e messa=e is bein= <ear*$GE Nevert<e.ess+ cooperation betAeen E=/pt an* t<e #nite* !tates Aou.* prove tense re=ar*in= *emocrac/ pro=rammin=$

'ne of t<e fun*amenta. tensions in eBecutin= *emocrac/ assistance in aut<oritarian states+ as T<omas (arot<ers <as note*+ concerns <oA to c<a..en=e an* c<an=e t<e structure of poAer in states oppose* to suc< en*eavors$ T<at c<a..en=e is amp.ifie* furt<er A<en t<e recipient =overnment is a strate=ic a../+ as in t<e case of E=/pt$ -or t<e *onor =overnment+ t<erefore+ t<e room for en=a=ement can be narroA$ Tensions betAeen t<e =overnment of E=/pt an* #!AI% in ne=otiatin= *eve.opment assistance Aere a.rea*/ eBacerbate* b/ t<e terms of t<e 19K9 peace treat/ betAeen E=/pt an* Israe.$ In reco=nition of *ip.omatic re.ations betAeen t<e tAo countries+ t<e #nite* !tates reAar*e* bot< Ait< si=nificant mi.itar/ an* economic assistance pac7a=es$ !ince 1 9K9+ Israe. <as receive* an avera=e of !0 bi..ion in assistance annua../+ Ait< E=/pt receivin= near./ J2 bi..ion$ Israe.Hs ai* consists of *irect cas< transfers to t<e =overnment+ A<i.e E=/ptHs must be *irecte* toAar*s specific pro=rams a=ree* upon b/ bot< t<e #nite* !tates an* t<e =overnment of E=/pt$

"iven t<e var/in= terms of t<is arran=ement+ E=/ptian ambiva.ence toAar*s reform+ specifica../ t<at fa..in= into t<e cate=or/ of *emocrac/ assistance+ Aas t<us not uneBpecte*$ As part of its bi.atera. a=reement Ait< #!AI%+ t<e =overnment of E=/pt must approve a.. *eve.opment pro=rams$ Resistance toAar*s e.ements of *emocrac/ pro=rams often resu.te* in t<e *i.ution of obCectives+ *iminis<in= t<eir ori=ina. intent$ In t<e en*+ t<e imperatives of maintainin= t<e bi.atera. re.ations<ip prevai.e* 4 to t<e *etriment of pro=rams$ As a former #!AI% officia. reca..s:

T<e :#!AI%; &ission <a* to *ea. Ait< t<eir rea.it/+ A<ic< Aas an Embass/ A<ic< *i*nHt Aant to <ave E=/ptian ministries comp.ainin= about AI% a.. t<e time+ an* an E=/ptian bureaucrac/ A<ic< <a* a ver/+ ver/ fun*amenta../ *ifferent vieA of <oA t<is mone/ s<ou.* be use*$ T<eir attitu*e seeme* to be Ha *ea. is a *ea.$ "ive us t<e mone/$ ?<at is a.. t<is bureaucratic nonsenseL ?</ s<ou.* Ae ta.7 to /ou about po.ic/LH5

Pro=rams .aunc<e* *urin= t<is time Aere simi.ar in t<at t<e/ Aere frame* in terms of t<eir benefit to t<e econom/ an* on=oin= economic4reform pro=rams supporte* b/ t<e E=/ptian =overnment$ An E=/ptian proCect mana=er Aor7in= Ait< #!AT% in t<e mi*41990s reca..e* t<at *ebates amon= staff members revo.ve* aroun* mar7et reforms an* privati@ation$K At t<at time+ <e notes+ bot< #!AI% an* t<e ?or.* an7 focuse* on privati@ation$ No one in t<e office Iuestione* t<e .o=ic of t<is approac<+ nor *i* t<e/ consi*er t<at improper mana=ement mi=<t be t<e prob.em+ or t<at Aor7ersH ri=<ts s<ou.* be incorporate* into a *emocrac/ strate=/$ In*ee*+ as a current emp.o/ee Ait< #!AI% note*+ G?<en /ou rea* t<e proCect papers at t<is time+ t<e/ Aere a.. =eare* toAar*s improvin= t<e investment an* economic c.imate in E=/pt$G8

T<is */namic is ref.ecte*+ for eBamp.e+ in #!AI%Hs *escription of its A*ministration of Dustice !upport 1A'D!2 proCect$ 6aunc<e* in 1993+ t<e proCect aime* to re*uce case.oa* bac7.o= in t<e civi. court s/stem an* improve Cu*icia. e*ucation t<rou=< trainin= pro=rams for Cu*=es an* .aA/ers$ A secon* p<ase of t<e pro=ram be=an in 2003+ focusin= on t<e mo*erni@ation of court s/stems t<rou=< information mana=ement$ ProCects focusin= on t<e ru.e of .aA+ .i7e A'D!+ Aere+ in t<e Aor*s of a #!AI% emp.o/ee+ Gt<e f.avor of t<e 1990s in E=/pt$G9 T<e proCect frame* its eBpecte* benefits to *emocrac/ in E=/pt in economic terms$ -or eBamp.e+ #!AI% states t<at Gan improve* court a*ministration+ an* an informe* Cu*iciar/ are essentia. e.ements Ait<out A<ic< *emocrac/ Ai.. fa.ter an* economic =roAt< Ai.. be t<Aarte*$G10 -urt<er+ #!AI% notes+ Gas E=/pt enters a perio* of economic restructurin= an* privati@ation+ t<ere is a pressin= nee* for an efficient+ pre*ictab.e+ an* time./ a*ministration of Custice$G11 In eBp.ainin= t<e .o=ic un*er./in= t<e pro=ramHs construction+ #!AI% references past eBperiences un*erta7in= Cu*icia. reform in 6atin America an* mentions t<at t<e vieAs of t<e private sector Aere so.icite* in intervieAs as part of t<e pro=ramHs assessment process$ T<ese intervieAs Aere con*ucte* Ait< members of t<e (<amber of (ommerce an* t<e (airo usinessmenHs Association+ a.. of A<om in*icate* Ga stron= interest an* support from t<e private sector for Cu*icia. reform in proce*ures an* re=u.ations t<at a*verse./ affect =roAt< of private enterprise$ $$$ :T;<eir comments are a positive in*ication of po.itica. commitment to reform$G12 Absent from t<e pro=ramHs *escriptions are A<et<er ot<er vieAs from societ/ Aere so.icite*+ =ivin= t<e impression of bot< a narroA e.ement of E=/ptian societ/ seen as beneficia. for *emocrac/ as Ae.. as a narroA conception of *emocrac/ supporte* b/ t<e #nite* !tates$

't<er pro=rams eBecute* in t<e .ate 1990s an* be/on* Aere *escribe* in simi.ar terms+ often focusin= on t<e efficienc/ t<e/ aime* to brin= to a*ministrative functions$ T<e aims of #!AI%Hs E=/ptian %ecentra.i@ation Initiative 1E%I2+ for eBamp.e+ re.a/ t<is */namic$ 6aunc<e* in 2005+ E%. fa..s un*er t<e umbre..a of =overnance reform an* focuses on *ecentra.i@ation in t<ree areas: a*ministrative+ fisca. an* po.itica.$ T<e po.itica. area+ t<ou=<+ is not referre* to pub.ica../ as suc<+ but as G*ecentra.i@ation of *ecision ma7in=+G to .imit possib.e obCections from =overnment counterparts in E=/pt$10 T<e initiative aims+ first+ to eBpan* .oca. oAn4source revenues t<at are use* more effective./ an* transparent./, secon*+ to support =reater pub.ic participation in *ecision ma7in= about t<e =eneration an* eBpen*iture of t<ose revenues, an*

t<ir*+ to *eve.op .e=a.+ re=u.ator/ an* institutiona. structures t<at support *ecentra.i@ation an* en<ance capacit/$13

"iven t<e c<a..en=e of supportin= *emocrac/ assistance in aut<oritarian states+ some practitioners <ave cite* *ecentra.i@ation pro=rams as a Aa/ to encoura=e reform in a Aa/ t<at is not perceive* b/ t<e recipient state as over./ po.itica.$ T<e basic i*ea un*er./in= *ecentra.i@ation pro=rams+ as t<e aims of #!AI%Hs proCect su==est+ is t<e *evo.ution of poAer from t<e center to t<e perip<er/$ If t<e main prero=ative of an aut<oritarian state is t<e preservation of its poAer+ A</ Aou.* officia.s in a state .i7e E=/pt cooperate Ait< suc< pro=ramsL As mentione* above+ activities *escribe* interna../ Ait<in #!AI% as Gpo.itica.G are often *efine* *ifferent./ to =overnment counterparts$ A #!AI% emp.o/ee Aor7in= on t<e proCect eBp.aine* to Erin !ni*er t<at t<e pro=ram Aas pitc<e* to =overnment counterparts as a Aa/ to ease t<e stateHs a*ministrative bur*en$ A**itiona../+ #!AI% emp<asi@e* t<e economic benefits of imp.ementin= suc< pro=rams+ citin= t<eir uti.it/ in <e.pin= to improve *eve.opment rates t<rou=<out t<e countr/$ (o<erence an* efficienc/ in =overnment are unobCectionab.e aims in t<emse.ves, as part of a *emocrac/ strate=/ in an aut<oritarian state+ <oAever+ t<e/ are prob.ematic$ T<e/ p.ace un*ue fait< in a re=imeHs Ai..in=ness to conce*e eventua. po.itica. .ibera.i@ation in t<e future$

%E&'(RA() A!!I!TAN(E E)'N% 2001

In t<e aftermat< of t<e attac7s of !eptember 11+ 2001+ *emocrac/ promotion Aas e.evate* as a nationa. 4securit/ priorit/ for t<e first time+ an* ai* for *emocrac/ Aas cast as a critica. too. to combat eBtremism an*+ <ence+ terrorism$ Pursuant to t<is =oa.+ t<e us< a*ministration eBpan*e* fun*in= *ramatica../ for *emocrac/ promotion+ from JE00 mi..ion per /ear in 2000 to more t<an J2 bi..ion b/ 200E$1E #!AI% continue* to a*minister t<e bu.7 of *emocrac/4 assistance fun*in=$ In 2002+ t<e us< a*ministration a.so .aunc<e* t<e &i**.e East Partners<ip Initiative 1&EPI2 as an eBpression of its commitment to *emocratic reform in t<e re=ion$ T<e initiative is a sma..4=rants pro=ram mana=e* b/ t<e #$!$ !tate %epartment an* a**ressin= four areas: po.itica.+ economic an* e*ucationa. reform+ as Ae.. as reform to en<ance opportunities for Aomen$

As t<e most popu.ous state in t<e Arab Aor.* an* one re=ar*e* for its cu.tura. importance an* .ea*ers<ip ro.e in t<e re=ion+ E=/pt became t<e focus of t<e a*ministrationHs neA efforts to promote *emocrac/$ -or *eca*es+ t<e imperatives of maintainin= a =oo* re.ations<ip Ait< a stron= a../ in t<e re=ion an* one supportive of peace Ait< Israe. freIuent./ overs<a*oAe* concerns for *emocrac/ an* <uman4ri=<ts issues$ T<e a*ministrationHs initia. efforts+ t<ou=<+ su==este* a neA reso.ve to pressure t<e re=ime in E=/pt$ In 2002+ for eBamp.e+ Presi*ent us< critici@e* t<e &ubara7 re=ime for its prosecution of !aa* E**in Ibra<im+ a professor+ activist an*

foun*er of t<e Ibn M<a.*un (enter for %eve.opment !tu*ies$ Ibra<im Aas convicte* an* sentence* to prison on A<at man/ re=ar*e* as trumpe* up c<ar=es of embe@@.ement+ tarnis<in= E=/ptHs ima=e abroa* an* receivin= forei=n fun*s Ait<out =overnment aut<ori@ation$15 us<Hs criticism Aas fo..oAe* b/ a refusa. to eBten* a**itiona. forei=n assistance to E=/pt be/on* t<at a.rea*/ a..ocate*+ in a move Human Ri=<ts ?atc< ca..e* Gt<e most si=nificant step t<e #nite* !tates <as ever ta7en to *efen* <uman ri=<ts in t<e Arab Aor.*$G1K

In t<e !tate %epartment+ efforts Aere a.so un*erAa/ to re4eBamine #$!$ assistance proCects in E=/pt as Ae.. as to .aunc< t<e &EPI$ &embers of (on=ress Aere a.so pressurin= t<e a*ministration to a*opt a firmer .ine Ait< t<e &ubara7 re=ime$ Prior to 2003+ no mec<anism Aas in p.ace to ensure t<at t<e E=/ptian =overnment use* #$!$ fun*s for *emocrac/ assistance$18 An amen*ment sponsore* b/ !enator !am roAnbac7 1R4M)2 in t<at /ear+ <oAever+ =ave#!AI%Hs mission in (airo fu.. oversi=<t of fun*s a..ocate* for *emocrac/+ removin= t<e poAer of t<e E=/ptian =overnment to *etermine <oA suc< fun*s Aou.* be spent$19 T<e reverberations of t<ese *eve.opments an* t<e manner in A<ic< t<e/ Aere eBecute* Aere si=nificant in (airo$

T<e a*ministrationHs *esire to pus< *emocrac/ pro=rams accompanie* efforts to reor=ani@e an* centra.i@e forei=n4assistance *ecision ma7in= Ait<in t<e !tate %epartment$ ?<i.e #!AI% Aas empoAere* to contro. fun*s for *emocrac/ in E=/pt vis4N4vis t<e E=/ptian =overnment+ institutiona. tensions resu.tin= from t<is c<an=e Aere apparent in *iscussions betAeen t<e #$!$ embass/ an* t<e #!AI% mission in (airo about t<e *emocrac/ portfo.io$ A #!AI% emp.o/ee Aor7in= on t<e *emocrac/ an* =overnance portfo.io in (airo reca..e* frustration Ait< A<at Aas perceive* as an a==ressive approac< from ?as<in=ton re.a/e* t<rou=< embass/ counterparts+ A<o t<ou=<t+ G?e AerenHt *oin= seB/ enou=< activities$G20 %emonstrative of t<is c<an=e+ t<e emp.o/ee re.a/e*+ Aas t<e su==estion to trans.ate t<e &a=na (arta as an e.ement of a *emocrac/ pro=ram$ T<e emp.o/ee a.so remar7e* t<at E.i@abet< (<ene/+ t<en *irector of &EPI+ t<ou=<t past #!AD% pro=rams Aere ineffective an* critici@e* proCects focusin= on basic4 services provision as mere./ Gor=ani@in= peop.e to co..ect tras<$G21 !uc< inci*ents *urin= t<is sta=e in*icate t<at A<i.e t<ere Aas ent<usiasm for *emocrac/ ai* in E=/pt+ it se.*om ref.ecte* an un*erstan*in= of po.iticai conteBt$

?<i.e eBtra fun*in= for *emocrac/ assistance in E=/pt came t<rou=< &EPI+ A<ic< Aas mana=e* from t<e #$!$ embass/+ t<is *i* not resuit in a more co<esive strate=/ overa.. Ait< #!AI%Hs pre4eBistin= pro=ram$ If an/t<in=+ staff at t<e #!AI% mission an* #$!$ embass/ in (airo in*icate* t<at confusion <a* *eve.ope* initia../ over A<ic< e.ements of *emocrac/ ai* to pursue an* <oA$ An Intera=enc/ ?or7in= "roup on %emocrac/ Aas initiate* *urin= t<is time in or*er to brin= staff from &EPI an* t<e #$!$ embass/ to=et<er Ait< representatives Aor7in= on *emocrac/ an* =overnance Ait<in t<e #!AI% mission$22 T<e meetin=s are noA <e.* ever/

ot<er Aee7 an* are an attempt to coor*inate efforts an* avoi* *up.ication$ An embass/ officia. A<o atten*s t<e meetin=s remar7e* t<at t<e/ are often ca..e* Gt<e ambassa*orHs se.f4<e.p fun*G for sma.. proCects of .ess t<an J300+000$20

&an/ activists in E=/pt Ae.come* us<Hs a==ressive approac< to reform+ seein= it as instrumenta. in pressurin= t<e re=ime to respon* to ca..s for increase* po.itica. reform$ 't<ers+ <oAever+ saA it as an eBtension of an imperia. proCect associate* Ait< re=ime c<an=e in IraI an* *oubte* t<e #$!$ commitment+ =iven its <istorica. re.ations<ip Ait< E=/pt$ In 2005+ t<ose *oubts Aere confirme*$ T<e #nite* !tates tempere* its r<etoric an* its Ai..in=ness to c<a..en=e t<e E=/ptian =overnment fo..oAin= =ains for t<e &us.im rot<er<oo* in par.iamentar/ e.ections+ t<e victor/ of t<e Is.amist =roup Hamas in Pa.estinian par.iamentar/ e.ections+ an* t<e esca.ation of conf.ict in IraI$ Actions t<ereafter serve* to confirm t<at t<e o.* imperatives of stabi.it/ an* securit/ =overnin= t<e #$!$E=/ptian re.ations<ip Aou.* trump t<ose of *emocrac/+ *ama=in= t<e cre*ibi.it/ an* .e=itimac/ of #$!$ efforts$

ME-A)AAN% THE N'R&A6IFATI'N '- PR'TE!T P'6ITI(!

'ne of t<e =roups t<at refuse* #$!$ *emocrac/4promotion assistance precise./ because of t<is crisis of .e=itimac/ Aas I(efa/a+ an* it ma/ actua../ <ave been t<e most important opposition =roup to emer=e *urin= t<is perio*$ Mefa/a+ a.so 7noAn as t<e E=/ptian &ovement -or (<an=e+ Aas foun*e* in 2003$ In E=/ptian Arabic+ GMefa/aG means GEnou=<G, t<e =roup Aas *e*icate* to en*in= E=/ptHs emer=enc/ ru.e an* reinstatin= p.ura.ist+ constitutiona. po.itics$ ?<i.e Mefa/a appeare* su**en./+ it <a* actua../ been t<e pro*uct of /ears of *e.iberation23 b/ o.*er fi=ures invo.ve* in opposition po.itics$ It emer=e* out of a frustration Ait< t<e pace of *emocrati@ation in E=/pt+ A<ic< <a* s.oAe* to a stan*sti..$ %espite #$!$ *emocrac/ assistance+ t<e 199E an* 2000 par.iamentar/ e.ections Aere most./ s<oAcases for e.ectora. vio.ence+ vote4ri==in= an* t<e continuation of t<e status Iuo$ It Aas Mefa/a *emonstrators A<o pioneere* some of t<e s.o=ans bein= recite* b/ to*a/Hs croA*s in E=/pt+ inc.u*in= c<antin= G%oAn Ait< &ubara7OG an* G ate.OG 1I..e=itimate2 to attac7 t<e .e=itimac/ of t<e re=ime$2E It Aas Mefa/a t<at transforme* pub.ic attac7s on t<e presi*ent an* <is ru.e into routine events+ an* it Aas Mefa/a t<at first ca..e* for &ubara7 to step *oAn$ T<is previous./ un<ear*4of *eman*+ once punis<ab.e Ait< prison time+ became so routine on t<e streets of (airo as to be unremar7ab.e$

Mefa/a *emonstrators perfecte* a sort of =ame$ T<e =roup Aou.* ca.. for protests+ in Ta<rir !Iuare+ for instance+ an* t<e =overnment Aou.* surroun* t<ese me*ium4si@e* =roups of protesters 1rarei/ more t<an 1+000 *emonstrators+ often substantia../ feAer2 Ait< <un*re*s of b.ac7c.a* riot troops$ )ou cou.* a.Aa/s te.. A<en one of t<ese protests Aas about to <appen+ because t<e streets of *oAntoAn (airo Aou.* be .ine* Ait< t<e unmista7ab.e =reen truc7s carr/in= t<e troops$ T<e protests Aou.* procee*+ Ait< t<e occasiona. arrest or beatin=+ an*

ever/one Aou.* return to business as usua.$ T<e =roup Aas rare./ ab.e to meet its tar=ets for participation in t<ese actions+ an* t<us Aas =enera../ *ismisse* as a frin=e =roup Ait< no rea. inf.uence$25 It *i* not <e.p t<at t<e re=ime emp.o/e* =en*er4repression tactics t<at inc.u*e* seBua. assau.ts on fema.e protesters+ ma7in= subseIuent protests .ar=e./ ma.e4on./ events an* Custif/in= even more bruta.it/ a=ainst t<ose A<o *are* to s<oA up$ 'ne of t<e most infamous of t<ese instances occurre* on Du./ 25+ 2005+ A<en prominent <uman4ri=<ts a*vocate Ai*a !eif E.4%oA.a Aas bruta../ beaten+ a.on= Ait< severa. fema.e Courna.ists at t<e scene of a Mefa/a protest in Ta<rir !Iuare$ As t<e b.o==er Issan*r E. Amrani Arote after a protest+ G'ne 1fema.e2 frien* A<o Aante* to Coin t<e *emo <esitate* outsi*e+ nervous./ e/ein= t<e Aaitin= t<u=s$ &an/ Ai.. <ave simi.ar *oubts before Coinin= a *emo noA+ unfortunate./$G2K

ut A<i.e t<e imme*iate impact of Mefa/a Aas probab./ Iuite .imite*+ t<e =roup pus<e* t<e boun*aries of acceptab.e *issent an*+ more important+ ma*e t<e si=<t of *emonstrators on t<e streets routine$ T<is Aou.* <ave important ps/c<o.o=ica. ramifications A<en t<e opportunit/ for a *irect confrontation Ait< t<e re=ime emer=e* in Danuar/ 201 1$ T<e *emonstrations t<emse.ves brou=<t a /oun=er =eneration of E=/ptians into t<e streets an* in*ucte* t<em into an on=oin= stru==.e a=ainst t<e re=ime+ tau=<t t<em protest tactics+ an* for=e* neA inter=enerationa. an* cross4i*eo.o=ica. bon*s$ -ina../+ it Aas Mefa/a t<at first investe* Ta<rir !Iuare Ait< its revo.utionar/ si=nificance+ ma7in= it t<e sin=.e most important p.ace of contestation betAeen t<e re=ime an* its opponents$ It Aas not b/ acci*ent t<at Ta<rir !Iuare turne* into t<e GRepub.ic of Ta<rirG *urin= t<e uprisin=+ a *irect resu.t of /ears of or=ani@ation an* ris7/ action b/ Mefa/a .ea*ers an* t<eir fo..oAers$ ut it is important to remember t<at Mefa/a Hs .ea*ers<ip refuse* a.. offers of assistance from American *emocrac/ promoters$ T<is Aas *one part./ to maintain t<e .e=itimac/ of t<e movement as aut<entica../ E=/ptian+ an* part./ because Mefa/aHs po.itics inc.u*e* a stron= reCection of American forei=n po.ic/ in t<e re=ion$ Mefa/a stan*s as an important remin*er of t<e .imits of #$!$ *emocrac/ assistance$

Anot<er critica. *eve.opment *urin= t<e us< a*ministration+ A<ic< a.so too7 p.ace .ar=e./ outsi*e t<e sp<ere of American *emocrac/ promotion+ Aas t<e *eve.opment of an in*epen*ent print4Courna.ism sector$ ?<i.e American *emocrac/ promoters Aere fun*in= an* Aor7in= Ait< t<e =overnment4run press+ an entire./ *ifferent movement Aas ta7in= s<ape$ At about t<e same time t<at Mefa/a Aas ta7in= off+ c<an=es in t<e E=/ptian print4Courna.ism environment Aere ensurin= broa*er covera=e of t<e protests$ T<e in*epen*ent./ oAne* *ai./ A.4&asr/ A.4)oum Aas foun*e* in 2003, A.4%usiur+ a.so in*epen*ent+ Aas reconstitute* t<at same /ear+ first as a Aee7./+ an* t<en in 200K as a *ai./$28 T<eir pub.ication fo..oAe* c<an=es in t<e press .aAs t<at en*e* t<e =overnmentHs monopo./ on t<e neAs$ To*a/+ t<ese tAo neAspapers are amon= t<e most inf.uentia. in*epen*ent neAspapers in E=/pt$ T<e/ Aere Ai..in= to carr/ fran7 criticism of t<e &ubara7 re=ime an* <ave ten*e* to cover stories t<at t<e =overnment papers Aou.* not touc<$ T<e/+ too+ contribute* to an environment in A<ic< E=/ptian voices 1not Cust t<e correspon*ents ofAi4Da@eera2 Aere critici@in= t<e E=/ptian re=ime$ T<eir pioneerin= pieces of investi=ative Courna.ism eBpose* t<e corruption an* bruta.it/ at t<e <eart of t<e re=ime an* .ent a voice to /oun=er E=/ptians A<o *i*nHt see t<emse.ves or t<eir interests represente* on t<e

pa=es of A.4A<ram an* t<e rest of t<e =overnment me*ia$ -or t<e first time in a =eneration+ it Aas possib.e to pic7 up a neAspaper in E=/pt an* see t<e trut< printe* in its pa=es$ It Aas t<ese out.ets t<at =ave covera=e an* voice to t<e Mefa/a protesters$

T<e in*epen*ent press Aou.* p.a/ a critica. ro.e in pub.ici@in= anot<er para..e. *eve.opment+ one for A<ic< #$!$ *emocrac/ promoters can c.aim some cre*it+ a.beit in*irect$ !tartin= in 2005+ t<e E=/ptian .abor movement un*erAent an aAa7enin=$ -or *eca*es+ E=/ptHs Aor7ers <a* been or=ani@e* into a sin=.e tra*e union+ t<e E=/ptian Tra*e #nion -e*eration 1ET#-2$ T<is Aas 1an* remains2 a corporatist arran=ement+ Ait< t<e .ea*ers<ip of t<e ET#- Aor7in= c.ose./ Ait< t<e re=ime to imp.ement po.ic/+ an* re.e=atin= Aor7ersH ri=<ts an* compensation to a *istant secon* priorit/$ HoAever+ economic reforms imp.emente* since 1991 <a* .eft E=/ptHs in*ustria. Aor7in= c.ass in an increasin=./ precarious position+ an* t<e va.ue of t<e Aor7ersH a.rea*/ pa.tr/ sa.aries p.ummete*$

In 2005 an* 200K+ t<ere Aere <un*re*s of stri7es an* ot<er .abor actions$ In contrast to Mefa/a+ or=ani@e* .abor+ operatin= Ait<out near./ t<e 7in* of attention *evote* to (airo4base* movements+ Aas ab.e to convince man/ more peop.e to participate in co..ective action$ etAeen 2003 an* 2008+ near./ 1$K mi..ion peop.e participate* in or=ani@e* Aor7 stoppa=es$411 ?<i.e t<e =overnment .ar=e./ i=nore* t<e stri7es+ t<e neA./ assertive in*epen*ent press+ inc.u*in= A.4 &asr/ A.4)oum an* t<e noA4*efunct .eftist E.4 a*ee.+ covere* t<em Ai*e./$ ?<i.e t<e state me*ia i=nore* t<e =roAin= unrest+ in*epen*ent neAspapers sent actua. reporters to brin= bac7 rea. neAs about A<at Aas =oin= on in provinces an* cities *istant from (airo 4 particu.ar./ in t<e %e.ta+ A<ere muc< of t<e .abor activit/ Aas concentrate*$ &ost of t<ese actions Aere Ai.*cat stri7es not aut<ori@e* b/ t<e nationa. .abor fe*eration$ T<is *eve.opment Aas critica., it <as sp.intere* t<e E=/ptian .abor movement an* ma*e t<e brea7aAa/ =roups maCor p.a/ers in protest po.itics$ 6ast /ear+ after a .on= stru==.e+ taB co..ectors forme* t<e first in*epen*ent tra*e union since t<e 19E2 revo.ution+ ca..e* t<e In*epen*ent "enera. #nion of Rea. Estate TaB Aut<orit/ ?or7ers 1RETA2+ representin= EE+000 E=/ptians$00 't<er pub.ic emp.o/ees+ inc.u*in= teac<ers+ fo..oAe* suit$

T<e best 7noAn of t<ese Ai.*cat stri7es too7 p.ace on Apri. 5+ 2008+ A<en teBti.e Aor7ers in &a<a..a A.4Mubra+ nort< of (airo+ sta=e* a stri7e t<at turne* vio.ent over t<e course of t<e *a/ as t<e re=ime an* stri7ers sIuare* off 1an* as t<e stri7ers sIuare* off a=ainst t<eir oAn .ea*ers<ip+ A<ic< <a* ca..e* off t<e action un*er pressure from t<e re=ime2$ In a previeA of A<at <appene* in ear./ 201 1 on t<e streets of (airo+ t<e re=ime sent in sIua*s of uniforme* securit/ forces miBe* Ait< a sma.. number of p.ainc.ot<es t<u=s to brea7 up t<e stri7e$ T<e stru==.e .aste* for *a/s+ an* A<i.e t<e Aor7ers Aere =rante* some concessions to en* t<e stan*off+ t<e A<o.e movement appeare* to be infuse* Ait< t<e spirit of &a<a..a$

!ome American *emocrac/ promoters appear to <ave been invo.ve* Ait< t<is movement$ T<e A-64(I'Hs !o.i*arit/ (enter <as receive* =rants from bot< #!AI% an* t<e Nationa. En*oAment -or %emocrac/ 1NE%2 to Aor7 Ait< E=/ptian .abor or=ani@ations$ T<e NE%Hs 2009 =rant of J0 1 8+KEK Aas inten*e* to Ga*vocate for an* *efen* Aor7er ri=<ts+ stren=t<en respect for t<e ru.e of .aA+ an* bui.* bri*=es betAeen E=/ptians an* ot<er .abor movements$GPQ1 ?<i.e a previous !o.i*arit/ (enter proCect betAeen 2001 an* 2000 1fun*e* b/ #!AI%2 appeare* to Aor7 eBc.usive./ Ait< t<e state4a.i=ne* ET#-+ it appears t<at .ater incarnations of t<is Aor7 <ave supporte* t<e *rive for .abor unions in*epen*ent of t<e state+ an* t<e A-64(I' itse.f prominent./ supports t<is =oa.$ ?<i.e one Aou.* not Aant to attribute causa.it/ to t<ese pro=rams+ t<e/ *o *emonstrate t<at #$!$ *emocrac/ promoters correct./ i*entifie* potentia. c<a..en=ers to re=ime supremac/ an* un*ertoo7 pro=rams *esi=ne* to empoAer t<em$

THE R'6E '- !'(IA6 &E%IA

T<e =roAin= stren=t< of t<e .abor movements offers insi=<t into one more important contributin= factor to t<e E=/ptian uprisin=$ ?or7ers c.as<in= Ait< t<e re=ime on Apri. 5+ 2008+ mi=<t <ave been an iso.ate* .abor event in &a<a..a eBcept for a para..e. *eve.opment$ A feA Aee7s before t<e stri7e+ a movement emer=e* on -aceboo7 *e*icate* to a s/mpat</ stri7e Ait< t<e teBti.e Aor7ers$ ?it<in Aee7s+ t<is =roup <a* K0+000 members 1at a time A<en feAer t<an E00+000 E=/ptians Aere on -aceboo72+ an* t<e re=ime starte* to ta7e t<em serious./ a feA *a/s before t<e stri7e$02 "overnment Aor7ers Aere Aarne* t<at t<e/ Aou.* be fire* if t<e/ sta/e* <ome+ an* t<e re=ime en=a=e* in a campai=n a=ainst -aceboo7 itse.f+ be.ate*./ reco=ni@in= t<e t<reat to its aut<orit/ pose* b/ t<e socia. netAor7in= site$ T<e s/mpat</ stri7e Aent vira.+ ta7in= a*vanta=e of -aceboo7Hs vast netAor7in= capabi.ities$

?<i.e t<e rea. action on Apri. 5 Aas in &a<a..a+ (airo Aas a.so t<roAn off 7i.ter+ as man/ peop.e sta/e* <ome+ out of eit<er s/mpat</ or fear+ an* *emonstrations erupte* *oAntoAn$ A san*storm *escen*e* on (airo, muc< of t<e cit/ Aas bot< eeri./ Iuiet an* s<rou*e* in *ar7ness *urin= t<e *a/$ In t<e afternoon+ t<ere Aere protests *oAntoAn+ but t<e/ *i* not *iver=e substantia../ from t<e Mefa/a temp.ate$ )et as a resu.t of t<e *a/Hs events+ t<e -aceboo7 or=ani@ers became internationa. sensations+ A<i.e t<e on4t<e4=roun* .abor or=ani@ers in &a<a..a Aere mar=ina.i@e*$ T<e press inverte* t<e importance of t<e tAo =roups in terras of A<at transpire* on t<e streets$

?<en a fo..oA4up stri7e a /ear .ater+ or=ani@e* b/ A<at Aas noA 7noAn as t<e Apri. 5t< )out< &ovement+ fai.e* Iuite pub.ic./+ t<e/ Aere *ismisse* as naRve or even Aorse+ as *an=erous *istractions from t<e rea. Aor7 of or=ani@in= opposition$ T<e/ Aere a.so impu=ne* for a..e=e*./ acceptin= *emocrac/4promotion fun*in= from =roups .i7e -ree*om House$ T<e summer of 2009 Aas sure./ t<e na*ir for t<e movement$ ut commentators ma/ <ave misse* t<e importance of

t<e neBus betAeen or=ani@e* .abor 4 A<ic< cou.* put peop.e in t<e streets in <u=e numbers+ especia../ in secon*ar/ cities 4 an* (airoHs /oun=+ tec<4saA/ mi**.e c.ass$ &a.co.m ".a*Ae.. <as critici@e* or=ani@in= on socia. me*ia because ties betAeen netAor7e* in*ivi*ua.s ten* to be Aea7$00 ut <e misses t<e point: A<i.e t<ose ties mi=<t <ave been Aea7+ t<e fact t<at /oun=+ e.ite (airenes Aere ma7in= common cause Ait< Aor7ers in t<e factories meant t<at t<ere Aas a broa*4base*+ if nascent+ movement in t<e ma7in=$

T<e emer=ence of -aceboo7 activism =reA *irect./ out of a stron= *i=ita.activist communit/$ T<is communit/ Aas initia../ .e* b/ En=.is<4.an=ua=e b.o==ers+ A<o Aere soon Coine* b/ a *e*icate* core of Arabic4.an=ua=e b.o==er4activists$ T<is *i=ita.4activist core Aas initia../ *eep./ associate* Ait< Mefa/a+ an* t<e tAo *eve.ope* in tan*em+ Ait< b.o==ers often usin= t<eir p.atforms to sprea* Aor* of an* support for t<e protests+ an* Mefa/a =ivin= t<ose same b.o==ers a raison *HStre$ As Rania A. &a..c/ ar=ues+ t<e tAo moveQ ments G*eve.ope* s/mbiotica../$G13 !ome+ .i7e ?ae. Abbas an* <is &isr %i=ita. site+ ran virtua. one4person me*ia empires on a s<oestrin= an* Aere instrumenta. in brea7in= stories of po.ice abuse+ <arassment an* torture$ 't<ers+ .i7e Hossam E.4Hama.aA/ of !arabaA/+ p.a/e* a crucia. ro.e in t<e .abor movement$ %i=ita. activists became pioneers in t<e practice of Gsousvei..ance+G b/ A<ic< t<e Aatc<e* turne* t<e tab.es on t<eir Aatc<ers b/ recor*in= acts of vio.ence+ bruta.it/ an* corruption$

It became common for citi@ens to recor* an* circu.ate vi*eos of bruta.it/ committe* a=ainst E=/ptian citi@ens b/ a=ents of t<e state+ some ta7en b/ t<e perpetrators t<emse.ves+ as in t<e case of t<e torture* bus *river Ema* E.4Mabir$ In cases .i7e t<ese+ t<e concurrent *eve.opments of *i=ita. activism an* press assertiveness are most important$ T<e Courna.ist A<o bro7e t<e E.4 R(abir stor/+ ?ae. Ab*e. -atta<+ Aas from t<e in*epen*ent neAspaper E.4-a=r+0E furt<er un*erscorin= t<e importance of cooperation betAeen *i=ita. activists an* tra*itiona. me*ia practitioners$05 In a s<oc7in= *eve.opment+ tAo of t<e officers responsib.e for t<e =rap<ic torture of E.Mabir Aere actua../ sentence* to prison+ t<an7s to t<e Aor7 of investi=ative Courna.ists an* *i=ita. activists$

T<e campai=n a=ainst po.ice abuse an* torture =aine* an even <i=<er profi.e .ast summer+ A<en po.ice sei@e* a /oun= man name* M<aie* !ai* from an Internet cafT an* beat <im to *eat< in front of <orrifie* on.oo7ers$ His crime <a* been to post to t<e Internet a vi*eo of po.ice *ivv/in= up a *ru= bust$ T<e ?e Are A.. M<aie* !ai* movement+ A<ic< emer=e* out of *is=ust Ait< <is *eat< an* t<e ri*icu.ous attempts of po.ice to pin t<e b.ame on !ai* <imse.f+ put protesters on t<e streets a.. summer an* into t<e fa.. an* presa=e* t<e .ar=er revo.t t<at sAept t<e countr/ <i Danuar/$ T<e M<aie* !ai* =roup is noA E=/ptHs .ar=est -aceboo7 =roup+ an* <is *eat< provi*e* one of t<e man/ ra../in= cries of t<e Danuar/ 2E protesters$ 'ne of t<e a*ministrators oft<at =roup+ ?ae. "<onim+ became an inspirationa. fi=ure *urin= t<e revo.ution+

A<en <e returne* to E=/pt from %ubai+ Aas arreste* an* =ave an inspirationa.+ tearfu. intervieA to %ream TU A<en <e Aas re.ease*$

?it< neAfoun* vi=or+ civi.4societ/ or=ani@ations a.so Coine* t<e contestation+ an* sometimes Aon victories$ T<e/ *i* t<is b/ usin= t<e courts for t<eir inten*e* purposes+ A<ic< EI4"<obas</ <as ca..e* Gmobi.i@in= t<e constitution$G0K 6e=a. =roups .i7e t<e His<am &ubara7 (enter fi.e* suit on be<a.f of torture* citi@ens an* occasiona../ Aon victories$ 't<ers+ .i7e t<e E=/ptian (enter -or ?omenHs Ri=<ts+ for=e* coa.itions betAeen feminists an* *i=ita. activists an* =reat./ raise* aAareness of t<e prob.em of seBua. <arassment on t<e streets of E=/pt$ !ti.. ot<ers+ .i7e t<e Arab NetAor7 for Human Ri=<ts Information+ comp.ie* *amnin= reports of torture an* ot<er eBtra4constitutiona. practices$ ?<i.e none of t<ese stru==.es =reat./ c<an=e* t<e *a/4to4*a/ eBperience of aut<or i tarianism for or*inar/ E=/ptians+ t<e/ contribute* to a c.imate of confrontation betAeen t<e re=ime an* its citi@ens$ None of t<ese *eve.opments+ save for connections betAeen *emocrac/ promoters an* in*epen*ent tra*e unionists+ seeme* *irect./ inf.uence* b/ American *emocrac/ assistance$ T<at rea.it/ is soberin= but s<ou.* not .ea* t<e #nite* !tates to aban*on t<e proCect a.to=et<er$ It Aou.* be better to .earn t<e .essons of t<e past an* bui.* partners<ips Ait< t<e most vibrant actors in t<e neA po.itica. or*er$

A NE? PATH -'R %E&'(RA() AI%

%emocrac/ promotion in t<e &i**.e East <as <a* a si=nificant./ .oAer profi.e t<us far un*er t<e 'bama a*ministration$ 'bservers *escribe t<e approac< as an attempt to bot< reset po.ic/ an* *istance t<e presi*ent from t<e .e=ac/ of <is pre*ecessor$ T<e resu.t <as often been miBe* si=na.s about t<e a*ministrationHs commitment to reform$ 'bama <as maintaine* &EPI+ for eBamp.e+ increasin= its bu*=et to J5E mi..ion *urin= <is first /ear in office$ EBpectations rose as Ae.. t<at efforts to promote *emocrac/ Aou.* eBpan* in t<e re=ion fo..oAin= <is inspirin= 2009 speec< in (airo ca..in= for stren=t<ene* re.ations betAeen t<e #nite* !tates an* t<e &us.im Aor.*$ Instea*+ fun*in= for *emocrac/ an* =overnance pro=rammin= in E=/pt Aas cut from !E0 mi..ion in 2008 to J20 mi..ion in 2009$ If efforts to promote *emocrac/ <ave been <esitant t<us far+ E=/ptHs popu.ar uprisin= provi*es a critica. opportunit/ to restore American cre*ibi.it/$

In a &a/ 2011 speec<+ Presi*ent 'bama announce* <is a*ministrationHs intention to support transitions to *emocrac/ in t<e re=ion+ particu.ar./ in E=/pt$ As part oft<at support+ t<e #nite* !tates promise* to re.ieve up to J1 bi..ion in *ebt an* =uarantee up to J1 bi..ion in borroAin= to ai* Cob creation an* finance infrastructure$08 T<is is a critica. step toAar*s restorin= confi*ence in t<e econom/ an* provi*in= encoura=ement to investors abroa* in t<e s<ort term+ fo..oAin= *emonstrations$ Ai* amounts <ave a.so been increase* for *emocrac/ assistance+ /et .itt.e su==ests a fun*amenta. c<an=e in t<e Aa/ t<e #nite* !tates conceptua.i@es its *emocrac/ ai* in E=/pt$ #p to J5E mi..ion for *emocrac/ an* =overnance support <ave been ma*e avai.ab.e

t<rou=< #!AI% for t<e comin= /ear in a**ition to !.'' mi..ion for economic transition support$ #!AI% E=/ptHs Aebsite in*icates t<at t<e maCorit/ of ai* aAar*e* t<us far <as been for e.ections an* po.itica.4process support$ Ret<in7in= t<e ort<o*oB/ un*er./in= AmericaHs past efforts to promote *emocrac/+ t<ou=<+ Ai.. be 7e/ for an/ nascent *emocrac/ strate=/ t<at emer=es in t<e comin= /ears$ As *escribe* in t<e first section+ t<e *ip.omatic+ bureaucratic an* pro=rammatic c<a..en=es of *emocrac/ promotion in E=/pt over t<e .ast tAo *eca*es resu.te* in an impotent strate=/ aime* more toAar*s en<ancin= t<e stateHs efficienc/ an* co<erence t<an in c<a..en=in= t<e status Iuo$ T<is focus ref.ecte* bot< an institutiona. preference for a mar7et4oriente* *emocrac/+ as Ae.. as a Aa/ to en=a=e a =overnment a.rea*/ embar7in= on neo.ibera. reforms$ If t<e conception of *emocrac/ =ui*in= strate=/ in t<e past <as been oriente* in t<is Aa/+ t<en t<e Iuestion of t<e Iua.it/ of *emocrac/ promote* in supportin= t<is mo*e of reform Aarrants attention$

In t<e protests t<at brou=<t *oAn &ubara7+ *eman*s for brea*+ free*om an* socia. Custice feature* prominent./ on posters an* banners an* Aere ec<oe* b/ t<ousan*s in Ta<rir !Iuare$ !uc< eBpressions testif/ to t<e sense of frustration an* *esperation t<at <as esca.ate* in E=/pt as economic ineIua.it/ <as =roAn$ T<e/ are a poAerfu. remin*er of an important component often mentione* /et ne=.ecte* as part of t<e #$!$ *emocrac/ strate=/ in E=/pt an* vita. for future efforts$ In intervieAs con*ucte* over t<e .ast four /ears in E=/pt+ activists+ *eve.opment contractors an* #!AI% emp.o/ees <ave Iuestione* t<e absence of a *eve.opmenta. approac< to *emocrac/ t<at incorporates aspects of socia. Custice an* <uman *eve.opment$ In*ee*+ an E=/ptian A<o <as Aor7e* on #!AI%Hs *emocrac/ pro=rams eBpresse* frustration to Erin !ni*er t<at si=nificant time Aas spent on conferences *iscussin= concepts .i7e civi. societ/ Ait<out rea.i@in= t<at Gt<e poor *onHt <ave t<e ener=/ to focus on t<ese t<in=s+ =iven *eterioratin= socioeconomic con*itions$G09

!uc< an approac< a**resses t<e *eve.opmenta. c<a..en=es in<erent in mi**.e4income countries .i7e E=/pt an* sees investments in e*ucation an* efforts to incu.cate civic cu.ture as necessar/ steps toAar*s ensurin= bot< t<e Iua.it/ an* sustainabi.it/ of *emocrac/$ If *emocrac/ is re=ar*e* as a =enerationa. proCect+ suc< investments are as Custifie*+ if not more so+ t<an investments to improve =overnance an* reform par.iaments$ Emp<asis s<ou.* not be confine* to institutiona. reform+ but en<ancin= t<e capabi.ities of citi@ens staffin= t<em in t<e future$ ?<i.e support for e*ucation is not a panacea+ t<ere is a stron= connection Ait< civic en=a=ement to su==est its importance in en<ancin= participation an* opportunit/$ A 2009 cab.e from t<e #$!$ embass/ in (airo re.ease* b/ ?i7i6ea7s re.a/s #$!$ reco=nition t<at *eficiencies in t<e pub.ic4e*ucation s/stem are an impe*iment to *emocrati@a* on: G'ne cannot spea7 of *emocrac/ or sustaine* economic =roAt< in E=/pt Ait<out bumpin= up a=ainst t<e constraints of t<e e*ucationa. s/stem$G30

#!AI% <as an e*ucation pro=ram in E=/pt+ an* t<e cab.e ac7noA.e*=es t<e a=enc/Hs Aor7 in assistin= reform to improve t<e Iua.it/ of teac<in=+ amon= ot<er t<in=s$ T<ere is no reason e*ucation cou.* not be conceptua.i@e* as part of t<e a=enc/Hs *emocrac/ an* =overnance strate=/$ Initiatives focusin= on improvin= access to e*ucation+ supportin= sc<oo. eBpansion+ an* <i=<4sc<oo. eBc<an=es betAeen t<e #nite* !tates an* E=/pt Aou.* re.a/ t<e .on=4term #$!$ interest in ai*in= reform as Ae.. as cu.tivate stron=er re.ations betAeen t<e tAo countries$ Efforts s<ou.* a.so bui.* on recent me*ia4reform initiatives sponsore* b/ t<e #nite* !tates to *eve.op a tru./ in*epen*ent me*ia sector an* support information tec<no.o=/$ T<e voices of b.o==ers+ activists an* in*epen*ent Courna.ists <ave .on= been an instrumenta. force in c<a..en=in= t<e &ubara7 re=imeHs <uman4ri=<ts an* ru.e4of4.aA practices$ !uc< voices Ai.. continue to p.a/ a critica. ro.e in t<e post4&ubara7 era$ -ina../+ t<e #nite* !tates s<ou.* bui.* on eBistin= .in7a=es betAeen American an* internationa. .abor =roups an* t<e nascent E=/ptian tra*e fe*erations$ -ortunate./+ Ait< t<e &ubara7 re=ime noA rep.ace* b/ A<at appears to be a more *emocratic or*er+ *emocrac/ promoters Ai.. no .on=er be face* Ait< t<e c<oice of eit<er c<a..en=in= t<e re=ime b/ supportin= =roups t<at are not approve* b/ t<e re=ime or Aor7in= Ait< compromise* actors .i7e t<e ET#- or =overnment4run neAspapers$ %emocrac/ promoters s<ou.* noA be free to see7 an* support .e=itimate+ =rass4roots actors$

T<e mec<anisms to imp.ement suc< c<an=es to *emocrac/ ai* are a.rea*/ in p.ace$ As a sma..4 =rants pro=ram+ &EPD is Ae.. p.ace* to *e.iver assistance rapi*./ in response to s<iftin= nee*s an* c<an=in= po.itica. circumstances$ As a *eve.opment a=enc/+ #!AI% p.a/s an important ro.e imp.ementin= pro=rams t<at necessitate a .on=er time <ori@on$ To=et<er+ &EPT an* #!AI% are comp.ementar/ too.s Aor7in= toAar*s t<e same obCective$ In t<e past+ bureaucratic *issonance betAeen ?as<in=ton an* (airo resu.te* in re*un*ant pro=rams often Aor7in= at cross4 purposes$ In or*er for pro=rams to succee*+ c.oser coor*ination betAeen t<e !tate %epartment an* #!AI% Ai.. be crucia.$

T<ese su==estions serve as a startin= point for supportin= *emocrac/ in E=/pt an* repairin= AmericaHs ima=e as a cre*ib.e partner in reform$ In 200K+ a civi.societ/ activist eBpresse* <er frustration Ait< A<at s<e fe.t Aere *ictates t<en comin= so.e./ from ?as<in=ton: G?e :civi. societ/; *i* not participate in se.ectin= t<e strate=ic p.annin= of # ! AI% Hs :*emocrac/; pro=ram$ $$$ Ii Aas a comp.ete./ American a=en*a$G31 T<e cre*ibi.it/ of an/ *emocrac/4 assistance strate=/ rests u.timate./ Ait< <oA Ae.. it supports .oca. *eman*s an* ref.ects .oca. aspirations$ T<e braver/ an* tenacit/ s<oAn b/ protestors t<rou=<out E=/pt in*icate a *esire for substantive *emocratic reform$ As suc<+ efforts to construct a neA *emocrac/ strate=/ must be =ui*e* b/ E=/ptians in c.ose coor*ination Ait< bot< =overnments$

!i*ebar

T<e #nite* !tates tempere* its r<etoric an* its Ai..in=ness to c<a..en=e t<e E=/ptian =overnment fo..oAin= =ains for t<e &us.im rot<er<oo* in par.iamentar/ e.ections+ t<e victor/ of t<e Is.amist =roup Hamas in Pa.estinian par.iamentar/ e.ections+ an* t<e esca.ation of conf.ict in IraI$

!i*ebar In 2005 an* 200K+ t<ere Aere <un*re*s of stri7es an* ot<er .abor actions$$$$ V'Vr=ani@e* .abor Aas ab.e to convince man/ more peop.e to participate in co..ective action$ etAeen 2003 an* 2008+ near./ 1$K mi..ion peop.e participate* in or=ani@e* Aor7 stoppa=es

References 1 !amue. Huntin=ton+ G%emocrac/Hs T<ir* ?ave+G T<e Dourna. of %emocrac/+ Uo.$ 2+ No+ 2 1 199 1 2: 12403$

2 6arr/ %iamon*+ G6iberation Tec<no.o=ies+G T<e Dourna. of %emocrac/+ Uo.$ 2 1 + No$ 0 120 102: 59482$

0 IntervieA Ait< "era.* H/man+ former %irector of t<e 'ffice of %emocrac/ an* "overnance+ #!A.%+ ?as<in=ton+ %$($+ Du./ K+ 2008$

3 &ic<e.e %unne+ GInte=ratin= %emocrac/ Promotion into #$!$ &i**.e East Po.ic/+G in (arne=ie ?or7in= Papers+ e*$ (arne=ie En*oAment for Internationa. Peace 1(EIP+ 20032$

E GE=/pt !trate=/ RevieA+G #nite* !tates A=enc/ for Internationa. %eve.opment :#!AI%; 119922$

5 'ra. <istor/ intervieA Ait< ra*s<aA 6an=mai*+ <ea* of *eve.opment p.annin= for t<e Near East ureau+ 19K5480+ "eor=etoAn #niversit/ 6ibrar/+ Du./ 13+ 1998$ E1$

K IntervieA Ait< Tamer &ee</+ former proCect mana=er$ 'ffice of Institutiona. %eve.opment an* !upport+ #!Af%W(airo+ Du./ 13+ 2009$

8 IntervieA Ait< anon/mous E=/ptian emp.o/ee+ 'ffice of %emocrac/ an* %eve.opment+ #!AI%W(airo$ &a/ 200K$

9 Ibi*$

10 GA*ministration of Dustice !upport ProCect I*entification ProCect+G #!AI% 119932+ 8$

11 Ibi*$+ 5$

12 Ibi*$+ 21$

10 IntervieA Ait< anon/mous #!AI% emp.o/ee+ (airo+ &a/ 2+ 200K$

13 Ibi*$

1E T<omas '$ &e.ia+ GT<e %emocrac/ ureaucrac/: T<e Infrastructure of American %emocrac/ Promotion+G Paper prepare* for t<e Princeton ProCect on Nationa. !ecurit/ ?or7in= "roup on ".oba. Institutions an* -orei=n Po.ic/ Infrastructure 1200E2$

15 -or an insi=<tfu. account of t<e po.itics surroun*in= Ibra<im Hs conviction+ an* conf.ictin= vieAs amon= E=/ptian inte..ectua.s an* activists+ see &ona E.4"<obas</+ GAntinomies of t<e !aa* E**in Ibra<im (ase+G &ER.P on.ine 120022$

1K Peter !.evin+ G us<+ in !<ift on E=/pt+ 6in7s Ai* to Ri=<ts+G T<e ?as<in=ton Post+ Au=ust 1E+ 2002+

18 'ffice of Inspector "enera.+ GAu*it of #!AI%WE=/ptHs %emocrac/ an* "overnance Activities+G e*$ #nite* !tates A=enc/ for Internationa. %eve.opment 120092+ 0$

19 Ibi*$

20 IntervieA Ait< Anon/mous #!AI% emp.o/ee+ (airo+ &a/ 200K$

21 Ibi*$

22 IntervieA Ait< Anon/mous #$!$ Embass/ officia.+ (airo+ Du./ 13+ 2009$

20 Ibi*$

23 &anar !<orba=/+ GT<e E=/ptian &ovement for (<an=e 4 Mefa/a+G Pub.ic (u.ture+ Uo.$ 19+ No$ 1 1200K2: 1KE498$

2E G#n*erstan*in= Mefa/a: T<e NeA Po.itics in E=/pt+G Arab !tu*ies Quarter./+ Uo.$ 29+ No$ 1 1200K2: 09450$

25 Rabab E.4&a<*i+ GEnou=<O E=/ptHs Quest for %emocrac/+G (omparative Po.itica. !tu*ies+ Uo.$ 32+ No$ 8 120092: 1011409$

2K Issan*r E. Amrani+ GA 6itt.e &ore About )ester*a/Hs %emo+G in T<e Arabist 1(airo 200E2$

28 Deffre/ .ac7+ GE=/ptHs Press: &ore -ree+ !ti.. -ettere*+G Arab &e*ia an* !ociet/ 3 120082$

29 Doe. einin+ GDustice for A..: T<e !tru==.e for ?or7er Ri=<ts in E=/ptG 1?as<in=ton+ %$($: T<e !o.i*arit/ (enter+ 20102$

00 Ibi*$

01 G?<ere ?e ?or7: E=/pt+G Nationa. En*oAment -or %emocrac/+ <ttp:WWAAA$ne*$or=$e@p$.ib$roc<ester$e*uWA<ere4Ae4Aor7W mi**.e4east4an*4nort<ern4africaWe=/pt$

02 %avi* Paris+ GRevo.utions Ait<out Revo.utionariesLG Arab &e*ia an* !ociet/ 2 120082$

00 &a.co.m ".a*Ae..+ G!ma.. (<an=e: ?</ t<e Revo.ution ?i.. Not e TAeete*+G T<e NeA )or7er+ 'ctober 3+2010$

03 Rania A. &a.7/+ G .o==in= for Reform: T<e (ase of E=/pt+G Arab &e*ia an* !ociet/ I 1200K2$

0E Heba !a.e<+ G-ears for E=/pt Torture Uictim+G

( NeAs+ Danuar/ 15+ 200K$

05 ?ae. Ab*e. -atta<+ G'fficer from Qism A.4Haram Torture Ui*eo Arreste*+G E.4-a=r+ November 2K+ 2005$

0K &ona E.4"<obas</+ G(onstitutiona. (ontention in (ontemporar/ E=/pt+G American e<aviora. !cientist+ Uo.$ E1+ No$ 1 120082: 1E904510$

08 Remar7s b/ Presi*ent 'bama on t<e &i**.e East an* Nort< Africa on &a/ 1 9+ 20 1 1 + %epartment of !tate+ ?as<in=ton+ %$($+ <ttp:WWAAA$A<ite<ouse$=ov$e@p$.ib$roc<ester$e*uWt<e4 press4officeW201 1W0EW19Wremar7s4presi*ent4mi**.e4eastan*4nort<4africa$

09 IntervieA Ait< Anon/mous E=/ptian emp.o/ee+ #!AI%W(airo+ &a/ 200K$

30 GE*ucation Reform in E=/pt+G #nc.assifie* cab.e from t<e #$!$ Embass/ in (airo+ -ebruar/ 19+ 2009+ from t<e ?i7i.ea7s cab.e vi eAer: <ttp:WW210$2E1$13E$95$e@p$.ib$roc<ester$e*uWcab.eW2009W02W09(AIR'002$<tm.$

31 IntervieA Ait< Amani Qan*i.+ EBecutive %irector of t<e Arab NetAor7 for N"'s+ (airo+ Dune 3+ 200K$

Aut<orAffi.iation Erin A$ !ni*er an* %avi* &$ -ans

%r$ !ni*er is a "ates !c<o.ar at (ambri*=e #niversit/+ an* %r Paris is a professor at Rooseve.t #niversit/$

In*eBin= 1*etai.s2: 10000018!ubCect Rebe..ions, E*ucation, Dourna.ists, %emocrac/, Po.itics

6ocation #nite* !tates44#! Et<nicit/ Arab+ &i**.e Eastern Tit.e THE ARA !PRIN": #$!$ %E&'(RA() PR'&'TI'N IN E")PT Aut<or !ni*er+ Erin, -aris+ %avi* Pub.ication tit.e &i**.e East Po.ic/ Uo.ume 18 Issue 0 Pa=es 39452 Number of pa=es 13 Pub.ication /ear 2011 Pub.ication *ate -a.. 2011

)ear 2011 Pub.is<er &i**.e East Po.ic/ (ounci. P.ace of pub.ication ?as<in=ton (ountr/ of pub.ication #nite* !tates Dourna. subCect ArabW&i**.e Eastern+ usiness An* Economics44Internationa. (ommerce I!!N 10511923 !ource t/pe !c<o.ar./ Dourna.s 6an=ua=e of pub.ication En=.is< %ocument t/pe -eature %ocument feature References !ubfi.e Rebe..ions+ Po.itics+ Dourna.ists+ %emocrac/+ E*ucation ProQuest *ocument I% 90012303K %ocument #R6 <ttp:WWsearc<$proIuest$com$e@p$.ib$roc<ester$e*uW*ocvieAW90012303KL accounti*X10E5K (op/ri=<t (op/ri=<t .ac7Ae.. Pub.is<in= 6t*$ -a.. 2011 6ast up*ate* 2011410420 %atabase Et<nic NeAs?atc<