Research Paper 4 in the series Quantitative Iconography of Venus

Descriptive Statistics of the Venus Iconography in Italian and French Art from the 16th to the 20th Century
by

K. Bender
http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction The data sets of the Italian and the French Venus Descriptive statistics and the popularity of topics Measures of diversity of topics Conclusions References

1. Introduction
Museum catalogues and catalogues raisonns of artists are the common sources in art history. However, they are not appropriate to study the iconography of a specific subject across artists, periods and regions. Monographs on subjects respond to this need but they are often restricted in scope and generally do not intend to be full catalogues of the specific subject. Only a few topical catalogues are available: Pigler (1974) has compiled an extensive one for the iconography of 17th and 18th century with a subdivision of the artists region for each topic considered; Rochelle (1991) published a mythological and classical index with a limited number of topics - for artworks executed 1200BC to AD1900 and Reid (1993) presented a two volume guide to classical mythology, 1300-1990s, for all types of art, including literary and music works. Within a series of the specific iconography of Venus from the Middle Ages to Modern Times, two Topical Catalogues of sculptures, reliefs, paintings, frescoes, drawings, prints and illustrations of identified Italian and French artists were compiled by Bender (2007, 2009a). The catalogues list chronologically, under 18 main topics, 1840 artworks of 649 Italian artists and 2997 artworks of 977 French artists, respectively. The methodology of the compilations is explained in the Guideline of these catalogues and discussed in the Research Papers 1 and 2 of this series (Bender 2008a, 2008b). The large size of both catalogues is judged to yield fair samples of the indefinite number of artworks (the population) with the subject Venus created by an unknown number of Italian and French artists. They allow for a thoughtful quantitative 1

analysis taking into account that these samples are not random' samples but convenient samples, biased by the sources available. The time- and topic-distributions of these artworks were presented in the three earlier papers (Bender 2008a, 2008b and 2009b). The goal of this paper is to explore both samples in an innovative visual way and to find out if the understanding of the observations (the data) can be enhanced by defining the popularity of the topics and by applying some descriptive measures of spread or diversity proposed by nonparametric statistics, a branch of statistics dealing with data which do not presume interval measurements and normal distribution.

2. The data sets of the Italian and the French Venus

The data used in this paper are presented in Tables 1 and 2 for the Italian Venus and the French Venus, respectively. For reasons of harmonization of both data sets, artworks created before 1500 and after 1999, which were compiled in the Topical Catalogues, are not included. The tables list the number of artworks (also called frequencies f) per period of 50 years from 15001549 to 1950-1999, distributed among 18 topics which are identical for both samples. Marginal totals and their percentages for each topic and for each period as well as the grand total are given. Issues of categorizing and observation of the artworks should be cleared at this particular point. The categorizing in topics leads to a nominal scale: the artworks are grouped on the basis of shared characteristics which are called topics. This categorization is mutually exclusive and exhaustive: each artwork belongs to only one topic and there are no artworks left out. By its nature the nominal scale limits the possibilities of a statistical analysis of the data. The order of the topics does not matter but their choice is based on the usual allegories and themes associated to Venus, her classical attributes and companions, and some tales (the judgement of Paris; Psyche and Cupid) where she is predominant. The attribution (or observation) of an artwork to a category follows in the first place the title given to an artwork together with the visual inspection of the artwork; e.g. a title such as Venus and Adonis is easily categorized in topic 6, but a title such as Venus actually may depict Venus and Cupid or a title such as Venus and Cupid may be in fact Venus and cupids or Venus at her toilet, etc. The number of topics has been limited to 18 for both statistical and practical reasons: more topics would result in very low or zero frequencies in some periods. A three stage approach, explained in the Guideline of each Topical Catalogue, was consistently applied and is believed to yield a fairly coherent and consistent result; however, there is no proof for it until the same methodology would be applied by an independent researcher or another methodology for a nominal scale would be designed and applied. Meta-analysis could be helpful in this respect and the author will approach this method in a forthcoming Research Paper. The time scale is an interval scale and while the choice of a period of 50 years is convenient, it is arbitrary; it can be justified by the crude approximate dates of creation of many artworks and the presumably maximum length of activity of an artist. An interval of 25 years for instance could be envisaged, but at the present we assume that this would not improve our understanding of the information contained in these time series.

It must be recognized that Cupid is depicted in many more works than in those grouped in topic 8 where he is depicted mostly alone with Venus and with no special reference to any attribute or companion of Venus. Actually, Cupid accompanies Venus in almost every work assigned to other topics, but his presence is considered marginal if a third figure is present, an attribute of Venus is dominant, a specific activity or an allegory is shown. Hence, the importance of a coherent methodology for categorizing artworks on a nominal scale.

Table 1. Data set with topics and periods of the Italian Venus.
TOPICS / PERIODS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Allegories of Venus/Planet Apotheosis/...Worship of Venus Attributes of Venus Birth of Venus/...Venus Marina Toilet/Bath/Venus crouching Venus and Adonis Venus and Anchises, Aeneas Venus and Anteros/Cupid Venus and Cupids Venus and Judgement of Paris Venus and Mars Venus and other Gods, etc Venus and Psyche Venus and Satyrs Venus and Vulcan Venus asleep/... with Musician Venus statues Venus unaccompanied TOTALS % 1500- 1550- 1600- 1650- 1700- 1750- 1800- 1850- 1900- 1950- TOTAL % 49 99 49 99 49 99 49 99 49 99 9 7 9 2 2 2 3 1 35 1,97 51 7 4 3 7 8 11 6 3 2 2,87 20 15 6 22 2 60 13 26 29 20 40 2 22 10 12 40 355 20,0 13 18 24 62 4 74 5 25 35 27 2 11 15 13 9 23 371 20,9 3 13 20 53 7 56 5 15 19 16 1 8 13 5 5 17 268 15,1 4 11 9 31 15 29 12 16 11 13 4 9 11 3 4 4 195 10,0 7 5 0 39 8 30 8 13 11 12 6 16 17 1 4 0 187 10,5 4 5 7 26 9 18 9 7 12 24 2 5 10 3 5 5 164 9,23 2 3 14 7 91 5,13 6 7 31 1,75 2 5 18 40 2,25 4 5 37 73 4,11 4 5 11 3 3 3 5 3 22 5 4 4 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 9 2 11 2 57 92 71 239 47 296 52 117 125 126 55 51 90 44 69 158 3,21 5,18 4,00 13,5 2,65 16,7 2,93 6,59 7,04 7,10 3,10 2,87 5,07 2,45 3,89

8,90 1775 100 100

Table 2. Data set with topics and periods of the French Venus.
TOPICS / PERIODS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Allegories of Venus/Planet Apotheosis/...Worship of Venus Attributes of Venus Birth of Venus/...Venus Marina Toilet/Bath/Venus crouching Venus and Adonis Venus and Anchises, Aeneas Venus and Anteros/Cupid Venus and Cupids Venus and Judgement of Paris Venus and Mars Venus and other Gods, etc Venus and Psyche Venus and Satyrs Venus and Vulcan Venus asleep/...with the Musician Venus statues Venus unaccompanied TOTALS % 0 1 9 0,317 2 1 6 60 2,11 3 3 1 1500- 1550- 1600- 1650- 1700- 1750- 1800- 1850- 1900- 1950- TOTAL % 49 99 49 99 49 99 49 99 49 99 56 1 1 3 10 16 5 7 4 9 1,97 116 4,08 4 3 2 18 50 19 16 4 1 2 1 3 9 2 8 1 6 9 5 2 12 8 23 8 7 1 18 8 13 8 6 6 5 4 4 137 4,82 6 21 6 26 17 20 8 12 23 19 4 4 12 5 17 5 210 7,39 5 41 37 37 25 77 13 14 25 54 26 8 43 13 22 15 483 16,0 44 68 66 52 16 146 37 36 34 81 13 6 33 34 17 36 785 27,6 9 33 24 30 12 49 10 28 31 39 12 4 8 14 23 33 383 13,5 15 7 2 2 7 31 25 327 11,5 10 48 40 16 1 65 15 20 24 3 37 2 8 6 2 2 8 25 62 286 10,1 2 30 87 162 5,70 1 5 11 71 12 5 4 21 3 94 316 199 198 81 396 88 182 135 236 76 32 106 90 170 274 2842 3,31 11,1 7,00 6,97 2,85 13,9 3,10 6,30 4,75 8,30 2,67 1,13 3,73 3,17 5,98 9,64 100 100

3. Descriptive statistics and the popularity of topics

3.1 From the 16th to the 20th century
From Tables 1 and 2 one can easily conclude that topic 8 Venus and Cupid is the prevalent category in both samples globally for the whole period. We could call it the icon. In statistical terms it is the mode with the highest frequency. The mode, however, is not unique for all periods considered and the time distribution is called multi-modal: in several separate periods another topic is more frequently represented and especially the periods of the 20th century show a breaking point. In those latter periods the topic 18 Venus unaccompanied is the mode. Thus for the purpose of this analysis, we will first focus on the full period, then analyze the periods of the 16th to the 19th centuries and discuss the 20th century afterwards.

A classical way to present the data of Tables 1 and 2 is by plotting the percentages % of the marginal totals of the frequencies for each topic in a histogram: we observe maximum differences of 6,5% (topic 6 'Adonis') and 5,2% (topic 4 Birth) (Fig.1).

Fig.1 Histogram of the topics and their percentages for the global period. We can, however, better highlight the differences by ordering the topics from high to low percentage, using the Italian data set as the basis for comparison between both samples (Fig.2) and then plot the cumulative percentages using the same ordering from high to low (Fig.3).

Fig.2 Histogram of ordered topics. Note: the use of line-diagrams in this paper, instead of bar-diagrams, is for convenience and easy visual understanding only and does not imply in any way an interval-scale of the horizontal axis when the varaiable is the topic.

Fig.3 Cumulative percentages of ordered topics. The above figures point out the difference in the ranking of the topics between the Italian and French Venus. Fig.4 visualizes this difference in another way: the topics above the bisector have a lower ranking and those below have a higher ranking in the French Venus compared to their ranking in the Italian Venus. From Fig.3 it is clear that the overall distribution of topics in both samples is quite similar despite some differences among individual topics. However, the diagram does not show the large discrepancy in the time-distribution with a shift of about 2 centuries as already discussed in Research Paper 3 (Bender, 2009b, Fig.3 & 4) and presented here again in Fig.5 with cumulative percentages of frequencies of artworks per period. Another aspect not shown by the diagram of Fig.3 is the breaking point of the former icon (topic 8 'Venus and Cupid') and the predominance of topic 18 Venus unaccompanied in the 20th century. This is made clear in Fig.6 where the cumulative frequency proportions per period for topics 8 and 18 show a remarkably similar trend, although absolute frequencies differ.

Fig. 4 Comparison of the rankings of topics. Example: Topic 4 Birth has rank 8 in the Italian sample,but rank 3 in the French sample.

Fig.5 Cumulative frequency percentages of artworks per period.

Fig.6 Cumulative frequency proportions per period for topics 8 and 18.

3.2 From the 16th to the 19th century

In these periods the icon topic 8 Venus and Cupid is fully predominant and therefore we can also calculate the ratio of the frequency of artworks of each topic to the frequency in topic 8. We call it the popularity ratio of the topics. Thus topic 8 Venus and Cupid has by definition the popularity ratio = 1 and is the first if topics are ordered from high to low over the whole period considered. Table 3 summarizes these calculations for both data sets. The calculations of popularity ratios can be repeated for any separate period and compared to the global period. Two examples are given for the Italian Venus and the French Venus, respectively.

*The Italian Venus Fig. 7 shows the comparison between the ranking of the popularity ratios for the global period with the popularity ratios in the 16th century, this century being by far the most productive one of Venus-works in Italian art. One observes a ranking in the second half of the 16th century quite close to the global ranking, but the first half of the century shows clear differences: a low popularity of topic 6 Venus and Adonis, while this topic is very popular in the next periods and exceeds even the popularity of the icon Venus and Cupid in the 17th and 18th centuries (see Table 1); a higher popularity of Topic 18 Venus unaccompanied; a very high popularity of topic 13 Venus and Psyche, due to the frescos of *RAFFAELLO (or his workshop) in the Loggia di Psyche in Villa Farnesina, Roma; *ROMANO in Palazzo del Te, Mantova, *PERINO DEL VAGA in Castel San Angelo, Roma, *and the prints by Bernardo DADDI (see the Topical Catalogue The Italian Venus, Bender 2007, pp.88-91). One can also visualize the popularity ratios of the topics over the global period: Fig.8 shows the distribution for the first 6 topics in the ranking, i.e. topics 8, 6, 12, 11, 10 and 18. One observes the multimodal distribution: a steady rising of the popularity of topic 6. Venus and Adonis till the 18th century, with a sudden drop in the 19th century; a high popularity of topic 12. Venus and other Gods in the period 1750-99; a high popularity of topic 18 Venus unaccompanied in the second half of the 19th century, announcing the icon of the 20th century. *The French Venus Fig.9 shows a similar comparison for the French Venus where the 18th century is by far the most productive one. In the 18th century the general trend is close to the global one, but one observes that topic 6 Venus and Adonis has a decreasing popularity, although it was very popular in the 17th century with ratios exceeding the icon Venus and Cupid; topic 10 The Judgement of Paris has also a decreasing popularity; also topics 17 and 18 Venus statues and Venus unaccompanied have lower popularity; topic 15 Venus and Vulcan and to some extent also topic 7 Venus and Aeneas have a higher popularity; topic 13 Venus and Psyche is definitely more popular in the first half of the century than in the second one. Fig.10 visualizes the popularity ratios of the first 6 topics in the ranking, i.e. topics 8, 12, 4, 6, 5 and 10 over the global period 1550-1899 (the period 1500-49 has been omitted because it comprises too few works for a meaningful calculation). One observes again the multi-modal characteristic of the distribution: the icon 8.Venus and Cupid is superseded by all other topics in the first half of the 17th century, with topic 6 Adonis at the top. This is a case where an interval of 25 years of the time series could maybe inform us better about this rather

surprising result. In all other periods we observe a uni-modal distribution and the icon holds its status. More examples like those above can be derived from the basic data sets by calculating the 'popularity ratio' for any specific period or topic.

Table 3. Total number of works, popularity ratios and percentages of topics in the period 1500-1899.
Topics
1.Allegories 2.Apotheosis 3.Attributes 4.Birth 5.Toilet 6.Adonis 7.Aeneas 8.Cupid 9.Cupids 10.Paris 11.Mars 12.Others 13.Psyche 14.Satyrs 15.Vulcan 16.Asleep 17.Statues 18.Unacco

Italian Venus
Totals
35 49 55 72 69 238 45 294 52 109 122 126 55 51 90 38 59 103 1662

French Venus
%
2,11 2,95 3,31 4,33 4,15 14,32 2,71 17,69 3,13 6,56 7,34 7,58 3,31 3,07 5,42 2,29 3,55 6,20 100

Ratio
0,119 0,167 0,187 0,245 0,235 0,810 0,153 1,000 0,177 0,371 0,415 0,429 0,187 0,173 0,306 0,129 0,201 0,350

Totals
43 112 79 224 184 193 81 372 85 137 133 227 70 30 104 80 115 125 2394

Ratio
0,116 0,301 0,212 0,602 0,495 0,519 0,218 1,000 0,228 0,368 0,358 0,610 0,188 0,081 0,280 0,215 0,309 0,336

%
1,80 4,68 3,30 9,36 7,69 8,06 3,38 15,54 3,55 5,72 5,56 9,48 2,92 1,25 4,34 3,34 4,80 5,22 100

Totals

Fig.7 Comparison of the popularity ratios of topics in Italian art between the 16th century and the period 1500-1899.

Fig.8 Popularity ratios of the 6 principal Venus-topics in Italian art for the periods 1500-49 to 1850-99.

Fig.9 Comparison of the popularity ratios of topics in French art between the 18th century and the period 1500-1899.

Fig.10 Popularity ratios of the 6 principal Venus-topics in French art for the periods 1550-99 to 1850-99.

3.3 In the 20th century

The former icon Venus with Cupid has completely lost its status in the 20th century and topic 18 Venus unaccompanied has taken over. Several topics have zero frequencies, especially in the Italian sample which already showed some zero frequencies in the 19th century as well. Once more there is similarity in the ranking of popularity of topics in both samples (Fig.11, where the ranking is now based on the French data set of 448 works while the Italian data set has only 113 works). The larger data set of the French Venus allows for a further dissection of the new icon (Fig.12): Birth of Venus is even more popular than the icon in the first period and also The Judgement of Paris is a source of high creativity, but both topics are declining later on. Cupid is still present in the first part of the century but disappears fully in the second half. Here again, an interval of 25 years in the first half of the century could give better information about these popularities. In the period 1950-99 only half of the topics are still sources of inspiration for the French artists.

Fig.11 Popularity ratios of topics for the French and the Italian Venus in the 20th century.

Fig.12 Popularity ratios of topics in the 20th century for the French Venus.

3.4 Topics of inspiration

From Tables 1 and 2 one can derive how many topics were sources of inspiration in the different periods (Fig.13, including the information about periods before 1500). The French artists find full inspiration one century later than the Italian artists and continue till the first half of the 20th century, while the Italian artists loose interest from the beginning of the 19th century onwards.

Fig. 13 Number of topics which were sources of inspiration for Italian and French artists.

4. Measures of diversity of topics

In this exercise we would like to find out if some measures of spread or diversity (or dispersion) among the topics, as shown in the diagrams, can be calculated. These measures would then allow for a quantitative comparison between samples and periods. Nonparametric statistics, a branch of statistics (i. e. the study of populations; of variations of data and of reduction of data) which deals with non-classical distribution-free statistical methods, offer a variety of techniques which apply to frequency data on a nominal scale such as those discussed (Siegel 1956). In this paper we limit the calculations to purely descriptive techniques and reserve nonparametric inference techniques for another paper. Let us call the marginal total fk, for each category (topic) k (k=1, 2, 3K, where K=total number of categories). The proportion pk is fk/N where N is the grand total of the whole period. The percentage is =100.p in % (last column in Tables 1 & 2). As defined before: the mode (or central tendency) fmode is the category with the highest frequency of artworks. Weisberg (1992) proposes four measures of spread for nominal variables: a. the variation ratio V = 1-fmode/N V is 0 if all objects are in one category (f=N) and is 1-N/K for uniform distribution and thus approaches 1 if K becomes very large. V is easy to compute but does not take into account the full distribution of categories. b. the index of diversity where =sum for all k. D = 1-p12-p22-p32-pK2 = 1-pk2

This index shows the degree of concentration of the larger categories, because squaring the proportion p gives emphasis to the larger values. Or one could call it also a measure of heterogeneity. Again: D is 0 if all objects are in one category (zero heterogeneity) or approaches 1 for K very large. c. the index of qualitative variation IQV = D/[(K-1)/K] IQV has the advantage to apply for comparison between samples of different number K of categories. d. the standardized uncertainty or entropy J = - pk log(pk)/log(K) This measure of spread, also called 'efficiency', is based on information theory and gauges how much information is conveyed by the distribution. There is no uncertainty if all objects fall into 1

one category (J=0 for p=1), but the greater the spread the more uncertainty or the higher the entropy, with J=1 for total uniformity. Or in other words: there is less entropy if the distribution is more non-uniform and uncertainty is highest when all possible 'events' are equiprobable. Thus all these measures have a lower bound = 0 (all in one category) and upper bound = 1 (total uniformity), but do not give necessarily the same results. The uncertainty or entropy J has a stronger theoretical basis and is preferred in literature. Table 4 summarizes the calculations for the given samples, split into three periods, taking into account the total number of categories K in each period (Fig.13). All measures V, D, IQV and J are practically identical for both samples in the 16th-19th centuries and in the whole period 1500-1999: this is another proof that the Italian and the French Venus do not differ in terms of topic distribution. In the 20th century values of V, D and IQV are lower for both samples and lowest for the Italian Venus, which corresponds to the number of categories. On the contrary, the entropy or uncertainty J is slightly higher in the 20th century. This result, however, might be biased given the relative low level of sampling for the 20th century. Table 4. Summary of measures of diversity. Italian Venus
15001899 1662 18 Topic 8 294 0.823 0.924 0.979 0.667 19001999 113 12 Topic 18 55 0.513 0.714 0.779 0.688 15001999 1775 18 Topic 8 296 0.833 0.917 0.971 0.663 15001899 2394 18 Topic 8 372 0.845 0.924 0.979 0.649

Description / Periods
grand total N number of categories K mode or 'icon' frequency fmode variation ratio V index of diversity D index of qualitative variation IQV standardized uncertainty or entropy J

French Venus
19001999 448 17 Topic 18 149 0.667 0.816 0.867 0.733 15001999 2842 18 Topic 8 396 0.861 0.924 0/979 0.652

5. Conclusions
This paper analyzes one step further the data about the iconography of Venus in Italian and French art, compiled in the two Topical Catalogues published by Bender (2007, 2009a). Descriptive statistics are used and some measures of diversity, proposed by nonparametric statistics, are applied without concealing that the samples can be biased. Their seize, however, is considered fair for this type of applications. Topic 8 'Venus and Cupid' is the prevalent category or icon in both samples globally for the whole period considered (Fig.1). In statistical terms it is the mode with the highest frequency of artworks. However, Tables 1 and 2 also show that the distribution is multimodal in several separate periods of 50 years. But overall the distribution of topics shows a remarkable similarity in both samples (Fig.3), in spite of the large discrepancy in time-distribution (Fig.5). The icon is definitely superseded in the 20th century by topic 18 'Venus unaccompanied' (Fig.6). The popularity ratio, defined as the ratio of the topic frequency to the icon frequency, allows for a ranking from high (=1 for the icon) to low of the 18 topic popularities. This has been illustrated in several diagrams: e.g. Fig.7 shows that the popularity is already lower than 0.5 for the third topic in the ranking of the Italian Venus. Fig. 9 shows a less steep decrease of popularities for topics of the French Venus with a popularity ratio lower than 0.5 for the 6th topic in the ranking. However, also a separate period such as 1750-1799 of the French Venus shows a popularity ratio as low as 0.5 for the third topic in the ranking. A splitting in periods of 25 years could possibly offer a better interpretation of the popularities. Topic 6 'Venus and Adonis' is more popular than the icon with Italian artists in period 1650-1799 (Fig.8), and with French artists one century earlier (period 1550-1699) (Fig.10). This changing popularity of Adonis is remarkable and could receive interest from iconographers and iconologists. In the 20th century the distribution of topics is practically identical in both samples (Fig.11). Four descriptive measures of diversity have been defined and Table 4 summarizes the calculation results. All measures are consistent with the observations made above: there is indeed not much difference of diversity between the samples of the Italian and the French Venus over the whole period, and the 20th century shows a lesser degree of diversity. One can safely conclude that the categorization applied to both samples yields an identical result in terms of diversity of topics, notwithstanding the strong discrepancy in time distribution of frequencies and the possible sampling bias. The calculations for the 20th century separately, however, may be more strongly influenced by the sampling bias given the smaller size of the samples. There is a potential to improve our understanding of these data through application of metaanalysis and nonparametric statistical inference techniques.

6. References

Bender, K. (2007) The Iconography of Venus from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Vol. 1.1 The Italian Venus: a Topical Catalogue of sculptures, reliefs, paintings, frescoes, drawings, prints and illustrations of identified Italian artists. 156 pp. Published as a hard copy book and a pdf-document under the Creative Commons License Deed. http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home Bender, K. (2008a) A Quantitative Survey of Iconography of Venus in Italian Art from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Paper presented at the Interdisciplinary Conference 'Aphrodite revealed' 8-10 May 2008, Department of Classics, University of Reading. Paper (8 pp.) free for downloading at http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home Bender, K. (2008b) Identification of artists, types of artworks and Lotkas production law in the Iconography of the Italian Venus from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Paper (11 pp.) free for downloading at http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home Bender, K. (2009a) The Iconography of Venus from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Vol. 2.1 The French Venus: a Topical Catalogue of sculptures, reliefs, paintings, frescoes, drawings, prints and illustrations of identified French artists. 196 pp. Published as a hard copy book and a pdf-document under the Creative Commons License Deed. http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home Bender, K. (2009b) Quantitative Comparison between the Italian and French Iconography of Venus from the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Paper (13 pp.) free for downloading at http://sites.google.com/site/venusiconography/home Pigler, A. (1974) Barockthemen Ein Auswahl von Verzeichnissen zur Ikonographie des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts. 3 volumes. Akadmiai Kiado, Budapest. Reid, J. D. (1993) The Oxford Guide to Classical Mythology in Arts, 1300-1990s. 2 volumes. Oxford University Press, NY. Rochelle, M. (1991) Mythological and classical art index. A locator of paintings, sculptures, frescoes, manuscript illuminations, sketches, woodcuts and engravings executed 1200 BC to AD 1900 with a directory of the institutions holding them. McFarland & Cy, Jefferson & London. Siegel, S. (1956) Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. McGraw-Hill Book Cy, New-York. Weisberg, H. F. (1992) Central tendency and variability. Sage Publications, Newbury Park (CA) & London.