Heat transfer The sunlight provides most of the heat energy that we use, but for a small quantity

obtained from nuclear stations. It is the sunlight that supplies the energy required for photosynthesis and for such atmospheric phenomena as seawater evaporation or rain. Likewise, the sunlight was also responsible for the formation of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas). henever there e!ists a temperature difference in a medium or between media, a transfer of heat is produced, as can be observed in so many familiar actions. "or e!ample# a) place the end of any all$metal tool over a fire and it will soon become red$hot% b) pour boiling water into a teapot and after a few seconds its outer surface will get warm% c) open the window of a room with stagnant air on a winter cold day and a draught of fresh air will rush in% or, at last, place your hand near an ob&ect in the sun and the heat radiated will be felt. These phenomena may lead to establish that heat energy transfer is energy in movement due to a temperature difference or temperature gradient, the transit being from the higher temperature body to the lower temperature body. There are three main modes of heat transfer# conduction, convection and radiation. hen a temperature difference e!ists in a stationary medium (a solid or a fluid), the heat transfer across the medium is known as conduction. In contrast, when there e!ists a temperature gradient between a surface and a moving fluid, the heat transfer is referred to as convection. "inally, the heat transfer between two surfaces at different temperatures is called radiation. 'ecall that all surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. (lthough these three mechanisms can be studied separately, in any real engineering situation heat transfer usually involves at least two of them, if not the three all. To e!plain the physical mechanisms of conduction by which the more energetic particles (atoms or molecules) of a substance transfer energy to the lower ones, it is convenient to refer to atomic and molecular interactions. )eat transfer is accomplished in two ways# by molecular interaction or*and by motional free electrons. In the first case, the atoms or molecules at relatively higher temperature (as having higher energy levels) vibrate or move with greater energy than those in the cooler part (as having lower energy levels) and by means of collisions, the former pass on a portion of their energy to the latter. This energy transfer which is valid for systems where molecules of solid, liquid, or gas are present occurs in the direction of the decreasing temperature. In the case of solids the energy transferred is attributed to atomic activity in the form of lattice vibrations or waves. The second conduction heat transfer mechanism, however, only takes place in metals, which contain a pool of +free+ electrons. These free electrons are more or less free to wander throughout the volume of metals transporting and transferring heat energy (they are also responsible for electrical conductivity,). The concentration of free electrons is higher in pure metals, very low in non$metals and it varies considerably for metallic alloys. Thus, pure metals turn out to be the best heat (and electrical,) conductors because energy is transferred via lattice waves and also by the translational motions of the free electrons. To ease the understanding of the conduction processes let us e!amine this study$ case. -onsider an insulated cylindrical bar whose ends are in thermal contact with two bodies. .ne of the bodies is maintained at a higher temperature than the other, but both temperatures are kept constant. The amount of heat energy Q which flows from the warmer end of the bar to the cooler end depends on the following factors# 1. The longer the time, the greater the heat energy flow will be. Therefore, Q is proportional to the length of time t of conduction (Q t).
1. The larger the temperature gradient is, the more heat energy flows. Therefore, Q is

proportional to the temperature difference DT between the two ends of the bar (Q T). .bviously, no energy flows when T / 0. 3. The larger the cross$sectional area, the more heat energy will flow. If you replace the cylindrical bar of radius r with others of radiuses 1r, 2r, 3r, etc., then the amount of energy

flowed through it will be two, three, four times, etc. that of r. Therefore, 4 is proportional to the cross$sectional area ( of the bar (Q A). 3. The longer the bar, the less heat energy will flow. Therefore, Q is inversely proportional to the length L of the bar (Q 1/L). The proportionalities above can be stated together as (Q A T t/L) and taking into account the nature of the conduction medium, the equation obtained is kA T t 4/ L where k is the proportionality constant, called the thermal conductivity. The equation of heat transfer was presented in 5611 by "ourier as qx -kdT = A dx where qx is the !$directional heat flow rate in % ( is the area normal to the direction of heat flow in m 1 % dT/dx is the temperature gradient in the ! direction in 7*m, and k is the thermal conductivity, having units of *m$7. The ratio qx/A having the units *m 1, is referred to the !$directional heat flu!. The complete e!pression for the heat flu! is q = !kT A where q is the heat flow vector and T is the temperature gradient in vector form. In both equations the negative sign accounts for the fact that heat flow by conduction occurs in the direction of a decreasing temperature gradient.
Thermal conductivity is an e!tremely important property of a material or medium as its value determines, in large part, the suitability for a given application. 8ifferent materials have different thermal conductivities which can be used to classify them into thermal conductors and thermal insulators. The former conduct heat very well whereas the latter conduct heat poorly. It is widely known that most metals, such as aluminium, copper, gold and silver, are e!cellent thermal conductors. In these materials the e!isting free electrons greatly enhance the heat$carrying and electric current$carrying capacities. In comparison to metallic solids, non$metallic solids, liquids

and gases generally have smaller thermal conductivities. This fact e!plains why wood, glass, and most plastics are e!amples of common thermal insulators. 9till air is also an e!cellent thermal insulator when confined to small spaces where no appreciable convection currents can be established. "or e!ample, a 1 cm enclosed air space has a better insulating value than a 50 cm of solid concrete. Likewise, pressed fibrous materials have good insulating qualities because they entrap numerous pockets of dead air as in goose down, styrofoam, and wool. Thermal insulators have many important applications especially in new buildings to reduce heating and cooling costs.