Landscape Water Conservation Manual

LANDSCAPE AND IRRIGATION OUTDOOR WATER CONSERVATION MANUAL
(WITH DETAILED WATER BUDGET CALCULATION PROCESS)
March 5, 2012
Prepared by:
INTERSTATE MUD
Outdoor Water Conservation Manual
INTRODUCTION
This manual is the result of the imperative need to properly manage outdoor water consumption. It is intended to be an effective guide to reduce outdoor water use. Due to the specific focus on water conservation, it is important to recognize it is not a Best Management Practice (BMP) manual for general landscape and irrigation; it should be utilized in conjunction with accepted Best Management Practices and where the two seem to conflict, this manual should take precedence. The goal of the manual is to affect real, measurable outdoor water conservation. To achieve this goal the manual is comprised of recommended concepts, practices, procedures and equipment, that when employed result in water conservation. The content of this manual was generated based on the successes and failures experienced in over 30 years working hands on in the outdoor water conservation arena. The manual contains many recommendations and not all are pertinent to each site. The user of this manual must determine which are appropriate for their site/project and then decide how to incorporate them into their sites design, construction, maintenance, and management. The manual is structured to help a user quickly identify appropriate recommendations for three major work categories: site planning, landscape, and irrigation. The recommendations are intended to influence conceptual site planning, the approach to drainage, selection of construction materials, characteristics of planting areas, planting design and materials, landscape installation concepts, the approach to irrigation design, irrigation materials, irrigation installation concepts, and landscape and irrigation maintenance and management practices. The guidelines and framework required to realize significant outdoor water conservation are within this manual. While the potential benefits of implementing the concepts in this manual are significant, it is important to recognize that real water conservation requires a paradigm shift in how all parties approach the design, installation, maintenance, and management of a site. To achieve the stated goals requires intentional, specific, and ongoing efforts focused on water conservation. The water is endless and cheap mindset of past decades must be driven from our collective consciousness. This requires an investment in water conservation, both as a cultural and corporate behavior and as a fiscal practice. If given this investment and commitment by water managers, homeowners, industry professionals, and regulators, millions of gallons of water a year will be conserved within the Interstate MUD boundaries. In an effort to initiate this required paradigm shift, the district has instituted a water budgeting program that will determine the irrigation allotment (water budget) for each potable water meter located in the Interstate MUD boundaries. This allotment will be derived using sound, proven, scientific principles and will be the basis for the districts water rate structure. All properties should find their water budget allotment relatively easy to comply with if their sites design, installation, maintenance, and management incorporate the philosophies and recommendations found in this manual.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................... 2 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 6 1 SITE PLAN .......................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Qualifications of Site Planning Professional...................................................................... 6 Drainage ............................................................................................................................ 7 Drainage Concepts ........................................................................................................ 7 Detention ...................................................................................................................... 9 Bio Swales ................................................................................................................... 10 Rain Gardens ............................................................................................................... 11 Retention..................................................................................................................... 12 MATERIALS ...................................................................................................................... 13 Permeable Paving........................................................................................................ 13 GREEN SPACE .................................................................................................................. 15 Planting Areas ............................................................................................................. 15 Natural Areas .............................................................................................................. 16 Design Intent ................................................................................................................... 17
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.2.1 1.1.2.2 1.1.2.3 1.1.2.4 1.1.2.5 1.1.3 1.1.3.1 1.1.4 1.1.4.1 1.1.4.2 1.1.5 1.2
INSTALLATION ......................................................................................................................... 18 Qualifications of Contractor ............................................................................................ 18 Construction Observation ............................................................................................... 18
1.2.1 1.2.2 2
LANDSCAPE ..................................................................................................................................... 19 2.1 DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 20 Qualifications of Landscape Design Professional ............................................................ 20 Plant Palette .................................................................................................................... 21 Hydrozoning .................................................................................................................... 23
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2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3
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2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.6.1 2.1.7 2.1.7.1 2.1.7.2 2.1.8 2.1.9 2.2
Heat island effect ............................................................................................................ 24 Green walls/roofs............................................................................................................ 26 Soils ................................................................................................................................. 27 Soil Improvement ........................................................................................................ 27 Weed Control .................................................................................................................. 29 Pre-Emergent Herbicide .............................................................................................. 29 Post-Emergent Herbicide ............................................................................................ 30 Mulching ......................................................................................................................... 31 Design Intent ................................................................................................................... 32
INSTALLATION ......................................................................................................................... 33 Qualifications Of Installer................................................................................................ 33 Soils ................................................................................................................................. 34 Soil Compaction .......................................................................................................... 34 Construction Methods .................................................................................................... 34 Plant handling/transportation practices ..................................................................... 34 Planting Techniques .................................................................................................... 35 Construction Observation ........................................................................................... 37
2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.2.1 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.3 2.3
MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................ 38 Qualifications of Landscape Maintenance Professional ................................................. 38 Pruning ............................................................................................................................ 39 Mowing ........................................................................................................................... 40 Fertilizing ......................................................................................................................... 41 Mulching ......................................................................................................................... 42 Weeding .......................................................................................................................... 43 Deadheading ................................................................................................................... 44 Aeration .......................................................................................................................... 44
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.4
MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................ 45 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ............................................................................... 45
2.4.1 3
IRRIGATION ..................................................................................................................................... 47 3.1 DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 47 Qualifications of Designer ............................................................................................... 47

3.1.1
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3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.4.1 3.1.4.2 3.1.4.3 3.1.4.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.1.7 3.1.8 3.2
Water source................................................................................................................... 48 Pressure Guidelines......................................................................................................... 52 Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 53 Delivery Methods ........................................................................................................ 54 Pipe.............................................................................................................................. 60 Valves .......................................................................................................................... 62 Controllers and Sensors .............................................................................................. 64 Zoning.............................................................................................................................. 66 Sleeving ........................................................................................................................... 67 Other applicable codes ................................................................................................... 67 Design intent ................................................................................................................... 68
INSTALLATION ......................................................................................................................... 68 Qualifications of Installer ................................................................................................ 68 Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 69 Pipe.............................................................................................................................. 69 Trenching/Backfill ....................................................................................................... 70 Remote Control Valve Assembly ................................................................................. 71 Head Layout ................................................................................................................ 72 Testing ............................................................................................................................. 72 Mainline Testing .......................................................................................................... 72 Lateral Line Testing ..................................................................................................... 73 Operational Testing ..................................................................................................... 73 Construction Observation ............................................................................................... 74 Post Installation .............................................................................................................. 75 Post installation audit ................................................................................................. 75 As-Builts ...................................................................................................................... 76 Controller Chart .......................................................................................................... 77 Final acceptance.............................................................................................................. 77
3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 3.2.2.4 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.3.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.5.1 3.2.5.2 3.2.5.3 3.2.6 3.3
MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................ 79 System Operational checks ............................................................................................. 79 Maintain Design Integrity................................................................................................ 82

3.3.1 3.3.2
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3.4
MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................ 84 Irrigation Management Concepts ................................................................................... 84 Irrigation Scheduling ....................................................................................................... 86 Central Control ................................................................................................................ 91 Water Budget .................................................................................................................. 92
3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................................... 94 1.1 SITE PLAN ................................................................................................................................ 94 Design Intent Sample ...................................................................................................... 94
1.1.1 1.2
LANDSCAPE ............................................................................................................................. 95 Design Intent Sample ...................................................................................................... 95 Seasonal Landscape Maintenance Schedule .................................................................. 96 General Maintenance Graphic landscape and irrigation ............................................. 97
1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3
IRRIGATION ............................................................................................................................. 98 Irrigation Design Intent ................................................................................................... 98 Common Irrigation Issues & Recommendations ............................................................ 99 TCEQ Sample Irrigation System Maintenance checklist ............................................... 101 TCEQ Components Requiring Maintenance Example for Irrigators........................... 102 Commercial, Industrial & Multi-Family Sites: Irrigation System Evaluation Procedure 104
1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5
1.3.6 Basic Irrigation System Retrofit and Repair Recommendations to Promote Water Conservation ................................................................................................................................. 105 GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................................. 107
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RECOMMENDATIONS
1
SITE PLAN
There are numerous concepts related to site planning that can provide water conservation related benefits. In general, limiting and slowing storm water runoff provides many opportunities for on-site water needs to be met. The hydrologic parts of this concept are the basis of many Low Impact Development (LID) guidelines. Additionally, the size, shape and slope of landscape areas must be designed with forethought that will allow a highly efficient irrigation system layout. Specific information regarding these opportunities follows.
1.1
DESIGN
1.1.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF SITE PLANNING PROFESSIONAL
The layout and design of a site can have a significant impact on the performance of the site for water conservation. The professional who designs the site is, therefore, critical to the overall water conservation goal. Industry Approach: A civil engineer, architect, or landscape architect is hired to lay out the required elements on the site (building, parking, drives, planting areas, etc.). Generally, little attention is given to LID guidelines or water conservation at this stage. Water Conservation Approach: Hire a design professional with experience and documented success with LID features, who has a commitment to long-term water conservation, and a proven track record of projects which have delivered on these goals. The designer should possess one of the certifications below (A, B or C) or have experience with a pilot project for item C. A. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Accredited Professional (LEED-AP) sponsored by the U. S. Green Building Council in order to provide a framework for measureable green building practices worldwide. B. Certified Site Water Planner (CSWP)- offered by the Irrigation Water Management Society (IWMS), a national organization of professionals who promote the efficient use of water in landscape, golf and agriculture. C. Landscape professionals involved with the Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES), which is coordinated by the American Society of Landscape Architects, the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at UT Austin, and the U.S. Botanic Garden to provide guidelines and
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performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction, and maintenance practices. Benefits: A developed site that maximizes the sites ability to conserve water and reduce overall life cycle costs of the project.
1.1.2 1.1.2.1
DRAINAGE DRAINAGE CONCEPTS
While drainage pipes divert water away from landscaped areas and into infrastructure such as the storm water collection system; surficial drainage can route rainwater to various site locations utilizing the runoff as supplemental irrigation water. The re-routed storm water is then filtered through the plant medium at a manageable rate, eventually recharging the groundwater supplies with a clean, healthy product. Industry Approach: Most standard site planning practices include prescribed slopes of roadways and parking areas in order to direct runoff to strategically placed drain inlets which are connected to the storm water collection system. Typically, all storm water generated onsite is collected and routed to the storm water collection system. Man-made controls may sometimes be required to slow the rate of flow of the runoff, no filtering or irrigation use of runoff is expected. Water Conservation Approach: Site grading includes the creation of bio swales, rain gardens and other rain water collection areas near impermeable surfaces such as drives, sidewalks, and parking areas, using the following concepts: A. Hardscape areas must be designed with appropriate slope to allow the run off to flow at a manageable rate to nearby green areas. B. Curb breaks, or curb stops, can be incorporated into the design to allow for the controlled release of runoff into well planned green areas with the intent to utilize the runoff as irrigation. C. Nearby green areas must be designed in order to establish an elevation that allows for the acceptance and beneficial processing of runoff. D. Green areas which receive the runoff must be designed and planted with appropriate plant materials for the amount of runoff that may occur, and/or for drought tolerant plants in the event of drought. 1. Plantings should include primarily grasses with deep root systems which should be placed along the slopes and at the base of the swale. 2. Woody stemmed plants and shrubs may be utilized in these areas to slow the flow rate of runoff. 3. Aesthetics can, and should be, addressed.
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Note: Refer to the following sections for the types of green spaces to which this surface water should be directed: 1.1.2.2 Detention, 1.1.2.3 Bio Swales, 1.1.2.4 Rain Gardens, and 1.1.2.5 Retention. Benefits: Controlling runoff on a site is critical to preventing erosion which when uncontrolled allows healthy plantings to be stripped from the land, leaving bare earth and causing erosion. Once the damage has occurred, weeds and pest will take over. The cost to the project in that respect is measurable; the damage to the receiving waters is immeasurable. In urban areas heated water in the form of solar radiated runoff is transported to receiving bodies of water, which in turn affects ecosystems and aquatic life detrimentally. Chemicals and suspended solids from soils are also carried to the receiving bodies of water unless a healthy, deeply rooted plant system exists to filter the runoff and manage the rate of recharge. The cost savings in infrastructure is substantial. It is generally less costly to incorporate natural filtering systems as opposed to man-made structures and conveyances. Environmentally, the green areas contribute to healthier air, lower temperatures, healthier living areas, healthier people, and provide recreational areas, as well as wildlife habitats. Water savings are realized, as the necessity for supplemental irrigation water is reduced since rainfall in the form of storm water is being utilized to provide for plant needs. By controlling runoff and increasing quality recharge, the water supply is enhanced.
Figure 1-1 Design section - drainage into landscape area
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Figure 1-2 No curbing for sheet flow
Figure 1-3 Curb break
1.1.2.2
DETENTION
Detention basins, sometimes called dry basins, are important for storing and slowing the runoff from impervious surfaces. The detention basin typically will drain by percolation with all water draining completely between rain events. In the case of abnormally large rain events and overflow conditions, a gravity fed outfall, or drain, is incorporated with its elevation dictated by the depth of the receiving channel. Industry Approach: The typical approach requires that storm water be rapidly diverted into the storm water collection system via street drains and a connected piping network. If detention is utilized, it commonly receives water from piping network,s and not surface runoff. Water Conservation Approach: When sufficient land is available, and site characteristics are favorable, detention basins should be utilized to maximize the ability to receive water from surface directed runoff, while including water directed through a piping system, if necessary. Detention of surficial water is a management tool for erosion control due to uncontrolled storm water runoff and should be incorporated as a temporary, additional source of irrigation water. A. Designs should be carefully planned by a qualified Professional Engineer or Landscape Architect to meet applicable local codes such as those listed below: 1. Fort Bend County Construction Site and Post Construction Run off Controls - Storm Water Permit and Storm Water Quality Plans Guidelineshttp://www.ms4web.com/fbcswqc/PDFs/ConstructionGuidance.pdf 2. Texas Water Code Title 2, SubTitle D, Chapter 26 http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/docs/wa/htm/wa.26.htm 3. TAC Title 30, Part 1, Chapter 205, SubChapter A http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.ViewTAC?tac_view=5&ti=30&pt=1& ch=205&sch=A&rl=Y 4. TCEQ TDPES permitting http://www.tceq.texas.gov/permitting/storm water/sw_permits.html
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Benefits: The inclusion of detention basins in a project design are a substantial flood and erosion control measure; which simultaneously creates an additional transient water source for irrigation of the associated landscape. Protection of downstream areas, and receiving bodies of water, is also provided. Once the storm water is deposited into a detention basin, the water slowly infiltrates the soil between rain events.
Figure 1-4 Detention basin
Figure 1-5 Movement of water through a wetland system
1.1.2.3
BIO SWALES
Bio swales are also called vegetated swales, grassy swales, or filter strips. These linear rain gardens are generally planted on a gentle slope, so that runoff flows along the length of the swales allowing the vegetation to regulate the flow of runoff, filter pollutants, and increase infiltration. Industry Approach: Bio swales are not typically incorporated into site designs. Storm water is rapidly directed to street drains and into the storm water collection system. This man-made network of drains and pipes is configured in order to eliminate expected storm water flows quickly; allowing no beneficial processes to occur. Water Conservation Approach: By using natural site drainage elevations, and incorporating bio swales into other areas on a site, the project can be planted with plant material which requires little, or no, additional irrigation water, but still achieves the look of a well-planned landscape on the site in areas not normally considered for landscaping. The natural storm water flow is directed to these areas specifically to utilize the flow to benefit the plant material. Bio-swales should include: A. Plantings primarily include grasses, which are planted at the base and sides of the swale. 1. Grasses should be appropriate for the climate. 2. Grasses should be both drought resistant and accepting of being saturated at different intervals. 3. Woody stemmed plants and shrubs and trees can also be used. B. An aesthetically pleasing landscape. C. Design and construction should be carefully planned and designed by a qualified Landscape Architect to meet applicable local codes which include:
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1. Fort Bend County Construction Site and Post Construction Run off Controls - Storm Water Permit and Storm Water Quality Plans Guidelines http://www.ms4web.com/fbcswqc/PDFs/ConstructionGuidance.pdf 2. Texas Water Code Title 2, SubTitle D, Chapter 26 http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/docs/wa/htm/wa.26.htm 3. TAC Title 30, Part 1, Chapter 205, SubChapter A http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.ViewTAC?tac_view=5&ti=30&pt=1& ch=205&sch=A&rl=Y 4. TCEQ TDPES permitting http://www.tceq.texas.gov/permitting/storm water/sw_permits.html Benefits: Bio swales incorporate an environmentally beneficial, and aesthetically pleasing, element into site design and cut construction costs by using natural features on a site, as opposed to man-made structures. Additional benefits include: A. Recharge of groundwater with filtered water since the controlled storm water runoff percolates through a plant root system. B. Reduced erosion since a healthy plant root system is established, which stabilizes the soil. C. Sustained stream base flows by returning the filtered storm water to receiving bodies of water. D. Reduces detention volumes needed. E. Reduces project costs when used, as opposed to installing man-made structures. F. The need to irrigate associated plantings is greatly reduced, or eliminated, since the plantings can be appropriately matched to the conditions which naturally exist. G. Increased green areas offer space for wildlife habitat and are beneficial to the environment.
Figure 1-6 Bioswale under construction
Figure 1-7 Completed Bioswale
1.1.2.4
RAIN GARDENS
Rain gardens are attractive landscaped areas specifically created in low spots that would naturally catch storm water runoff from surrounding impervious areas, and from the natural drainage of a site.
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Industry Approach: Rain gardens are not typically incorporated into a design. Naturally low lying areas are usually problematic on a site and contribute to erosion and flooding, or require catch basins to convey the runoff to the storm water collection system. Water Conservation Approach: Much like bio swales, rain gardens are strategically placed to allow low lying areas to perform a function to improve the quality of water, control the quantity of runoff, and utilize the runoff to filter through plant root systems. This allows storm water to cleanly recharge groundwater supplies while allowing for an emphasis on aesthetics of the site. Plantings can be incorporated into the site in these areas which use little to no supplemental irrigation water from other sources. Design and construction should be carefully planned and designed by a qualified Landscape Architect. Benefits: Rain Gardens provide prevention of erosion, recharging groundwater with clean filtered water, and utilizing a naturally low-lying, negative feature of a site in an aesthetically pleasing manner while conserving water.
Figure 1-8 Rain Garden section with optional drainage system
Figure 1-9 Rain Garden
1.1.2.5
RETENTION
Retention basins are created in order to allow permanent pooling of collected storm water. The basin outfall elevation (established with a weir or drain) is located at a higher level in order to allow water to remain in the basin. Industry Approach: Storm water runoff is typically carried rapidly to street drains connected to a piping network and into the storm water collection system. Generally, surface drainage is not included, or factored into, the design. These features are often utilized for aesthetic purposes and, therefore, the water levels are artificially maintained utilizing potable, ground or reuse water. Water Conservation Approach: When sufficient land is available and site characteristics are conducive, retention basins should be utilized in order to manage erosion due to uncontrolled storm water runoff.
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Additionally, they should be incorporated as a potential additional source of irrigation water, while preserving the quality of groundwater recharge. While these can also be used for site aesthetic purposes, their water level should be determined by drainage and rainfall; they should not be artificially maintained. Design and construction should be carefully planned and designed with qualified civil professional or Landscape Architect to meet applicable local codes which include: A. Fort Bend County Construction Site and Post Construction Run off Controls - Storm Water Permit and Storm Water Quality Plans Guidelines http://www.ms4web.com/fbcswqc/PDFs/ConstructionGuidance.pdf B. Texas Water Code Title 2, SubTitle D, Chapter 26 http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/docs/wa/htm/wa.26.htm C. TAC Title 30, Part 1, Chapter 205, SubChapter A http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.ViewTAC?tac_view=5&ti=30&pt=1&ch=205 &sch=A&rl=Y D. TCEQ TDPES permitting http://www.tceq.texas.gov/permitting/storm water/sw_permits.html Benefits: By collecting storm water runoff into retention basins, flooding and erosion are prevented in downstream areas. The captured storm water can serve a dual purpose as an aesthetically pleasing recreation area and for irrigation. Retention basins can also provide water quality benefits by reducing sediments and pollutants.
Figure 1-10 Retention basin
Figure 1-11 Retention treatment function
1.1.3 1.1.3.1
MATERIALS PERMEABLE PAVING
Permeable paving includes a range of materials and techniques for paving and pavements that allow the movement of water and air around and through the paving material. Examples of permeable paving are porous concrete, porous asphalt, porous paver/brick systems, single-sized aggregate without binder (loose gravel), and resin bound porous paving. Permeable paving over an aggregate storage bed will reduce storm water runoff, volume, rate and pollutants.
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Industry Approach: A site is developed with paving materials like traditional asphalt and concrete. These materials are impermeable, and therefore create storm water runoff in a rain event. This runoff is viewed as a byproduct of development and both above, and below, ground drainage systems are created to manage it. Water Conservation Approach: A different mindset and approach to hardscape areas is required using the following concepts: A. Use appropriately designed permeable paving for driveways, sidewalks, patios, and other exterior hardscapes. B. Provide a storage area under the permeable paving to balance the native soil infiltration rate and expected water volume. C. Direct any overflow into adjacent planting areas (see above 1.1.2.1 Drainage Concepts, 1.1.2.3 Bio Swales and 1.1.2.4 Rain Gardens sections) D. Permeable paving must be installed properly in order to provide its potential benefits. This includes preventing compaction to the soils beneath proposed permeable paving. If the soils under the permeable paving are compacted and do not allow infiltration, the permeable paving will not provide the water conservation, or other benefits, intended. E. Permeable paving must be maintained properly in order to prevent fine soil particles, sand, etc. from clogging the open pore spaces in the product. If clogged, the permeable paving does not function, or provide the water conservation, or other benefits intended. Vacuuming can be helpful. Following the manufacturers recommended maintenance practices in essential. Benefits: Permeable paving provides a significant aquifer recharge opportunity, as well as reducing the Urban Heat Island effect. Both of these benefits directly/indirectly reduce the landscape water requirement of a site. This means less supplemental (irrigation) water is required to maintain healthy plant material. Additional benefits include: The potential elimination of below grade storm water collection system/infrastructure, reduced land consumption from traditional collection, conveyance and detention areas, reduced development costs, and reduced pollutant discharge.
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Figure 1-12 Permeable concrete
Figure 1-13 Section of permeable pavement
1.1.4 1.1.4.1
GREEN SPACE PLANTING AREAS
Intentionally design planting areas with the physical characteristics (size, shape) that will allow the layout of a highly efficient irrigation system while considering what is safely and readily maintainable. A 6 strip of turf behind the back of a curb in a median planted with shrubs is not practical to irrigate, is unsafe to maintain and requires mowing with a string trimmer which tears at turf vs. cutting like a good mower blade. Additionally, the type of irrigation system that will be utilized directly affects what minimum dimensions should be permissible for irrigated areas. Industry Approach: Planting area dimensions and characteristics are determined by minimum code requirements and what is left over after laying out the hardscape elements of the site. Water Conservation Approach: Use the following basic guidelines to intentionally design planting areas. A. Planting areas that will be irrigated by an overhead irrigation system should not have a dimension < 6; as the minimum coverage arcs for overhead irrigation will not allow high efficiency in areas with dimensions smaller than this minimum (4 specialty nozzles are available, but are not generally efficient). B. Planting areas that will be irrigated by an overhead irrigation system should minimize slopes within the planting areas, especially if traditional spray nozzles (not recommended) will be used, as these systems apply water at rates that generally exceed infiltration rates on steep slopes. (See sections 3.1.4.1 Delivery Methods for irrigation system types and 3.4.2 Irrigation Scheduling for relevant information.) Benefits: Appropriately sized and sloped irrigated areas allow the planting area to be irrigated in a highly efficient manner. The efficiency difference between a highly efficient irrigation system and a typical
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irrigation system can range from 20% to 40%, or more. Areas that are designed with maintenance in mind are also typically easier and safer to maintain; reducing long term maintenance and liability costs.
Figure 1-14 TCEQ RULES Chapter 344
Figure 1-15 Difficult to irrigate planting areas
1.1.4.2
NATURAL AREAS
Natural areas require no, or minimal, irrigation. A natural area is a physical area with native (or Texas friendly) vegetation; with plant combinations that are integral to a sustainable plant community. Industry Approach: A clear-all-and-replace-as-needed-to-meet-minimum-code approach is typical in development, with little or no protection of natural areas. Water Conservation Approach: A. Preserve existing natural area(s) on the property; generally, the larger the area the better its functionality. 1. Delineate the natural area prior to construction by providing physical barriers to prevent access during construction and appropriate sediment protection as required. 2. Existing drainage patterns must be considered, as the vegetation in the existing natural area will be based on the water available to it; if development changes (increases or decreases) the water that has been historically available, the vegetation in the area may be negatively affected. 3. No irrigation should be utilized in existing natural areas. B. Reestablish natural area(s) on the property. 1. Irrigation can be utilized in these area(s) for establishment and then turned off and used only in a severe drought. Benefits: Natural, or reestablished natural, areas use no, or minimal, supplemental water, dramatically lowering water use on the property. Also, the above concepts reduce the requirement for storm water collection system infrastructure, which is an important part of most LID guidelines. Additionally, often
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their preservation will reduce installation costs, as well as long term maintenance and management costs.
Figure 1-16 Development preserving open land
Figure 1-17 Preserved open land
1.1.5
DESIGN INTENT
This is a narrative that explains the goals, objectives, and requirements the site design is intended to accomplish. It is a clear explanation of why the site layout, grading, drainage, material selections, installation details, and specifications have their specific requirements. Typical Approach: The typical site design documents consist of the site plan, paving/grading/drainage plans, installation details and specifications but no narrative of the design intent. Water Conservation Approach: The site design documents focused on water conservation should contain a design intent narrative that, at a minimum, explains the following: A. The look and feel the owner and designer intended B. Drainage system(s) requirements and why C. Why the specific construction materials were chosen D. Green space requirements and why E. Installation methods and why F. Maintenance objectives and requirements and why Benefits: A well written and clear design intent document is the best insurance that the site plan, materials and drainage systems conceived and designed are properly installed, maintained, and managed. If this is achieved, then the owner will have the look, feel, and functionality envisioned at the design stage throughout the sites life cycle. This results in a significant reduction in site irrigation water use, improved ground water and storm water quality, and a safer and easier site to maintain.
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1.2
INSTALLATION
1.2.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF CONTRACTOR
Site installation contractors should be selected based on their demonstrated successful experience in following plans, specifications, and details, their commitment to achieving the owners stated goals (see Section 1.1.5 Design Intent), their ability to stay on schedule and within budget, a demonstrated team member approach, and a substantial reference list of satisfied owners (especially with LID type projects). The focus should be on the overall value of the site development process and its effect on future maintenance and management costs to the owner. Selecting the contractor should not be solely focused on selecting the lowest bidder. Industry Approach: Typically the site contractor is selected on a low bid basis and thus the focus during the construction process is up- front cost, not long- term value. When value is not the primary focus, but cost is, value is determined using criteria not related to water conservation or long- term ownership maintenance and management costs. Water Conservation Approach: The selection of the site contractor is based on qualifications which demonstrate a long and successful track record of being committed to achieving the owners goals as articulated in the design documents, including the design intent section. In addition, the site contractor will have a professional focus on developing sustainable, low impact sites with a focus on water conservation. Benefits: The owner receives a developed site that meets the original design intent which will result in substantial water savings and overall long- term operational cost and aesthetic benefits.
1.2.2
CONSTRUCTION OBSERVATION
This is the oversight and guidance of the site contractors site development work by the professional site design team. The site contractor and the design team should be independent entities.
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Figure 1-18 Construction of hardscape
Industry Approach: While most projects receive oversight and guidance by the professional site design team, it is most often focused on installation costs and what is expedient in the construction phase with little, to no, focus on water conservation or the long- term maintenance and management costs. Water Conservation Approach: The owner requires the site design team be intimately involved in overseeing and guiding site development by the site contractor with an emphasis on long- term ownership costs and water conservation. At a minimum, the site design team should be on-site weekly and preferably daily. Benefits: The original design intent of the owner and design team will be realized and the intended water conservation and long- term maintenance and management needs adequately addressed.
LANDSCAPE
The design, installation, maintenance, and management of the landscape greatly effects the water conservation capabilities of every site. Careful thought must go into each of the four stages in a landscapes life cycle. The following recommendations, if carefully and thoughtfully followed, will help ensure a healthy, aesthetically pleasing, functional, cost effective and water conserving landscape is achieved.
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2.1
DESIGN
2.1.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN PROFESSIONAL
Landscaping is an investment in a property and should address such concerns as aesthetics, lifestyle, environment and long- term value. Professional services are available at every stage of a project from planning to design, installation, maintenance and management. Particular forethought should be given to selecting a professional who is knowledgeable and experienced with water conservation in all of these phases. Industry Approach: Professionals are usually chosen with little or no consideration given to their experience, or expertise, with projects where water conservation is a high priority. Very few design professionals have installation, maintenance, and/or management experience. Water Conservation Approach: A relationship with a landscape professional, which suits the individual needs of the project, should be established from inception and maintained throughout the process. Particular focus should be placed upon professionals with hands on experience in not only landscape design, but also installation, maintenance, and management. Having these credentials and experience, especially specific to water conservation and green building design techniques and principles, is a must. These professionals should have at least one of the following affiliations and/or accreditations: A. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Accredited Professional (LEED-AP) sponsored by the U. S. Green Building Council in order to provide a framework for measureable green building practices worldwide. B. Landscape professionals involved with the Sustainable Sites Initiative (SITES), which is coordinated by the American Society of Landscape Architects, the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center at UT Austin, and the U.S. Botanic Garden to provide guidelines and performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction, and maintenance practices. C. Certified Site Water Planner (CSWP) offered by the Irrigation Water Management Society (IWMS), a national organization of professionals who promote the efficient use of water in landscape, golf and agriculture. Determine how many water conservation based projects the professional has participated in, over what time period, and what their role was for each project. Determine if alternative, water conserving principles and practices were incorporated into the designs. In addition to the above, the professional should also be qualified in one or more of the areas listed below: A. Landscape Architect
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1. Licensed by the State after years of university work and a rigorous state exam. A landscape architect can produce plans and hire contractors to complete the work. B. Texas Certified Landscape Professional 1. A peer reviewed certification from Texas Nursery & Landscape Association (TNLA) 2. Landscape contractor supervisors, owners, and managers 3. 20 topics with exam required 4. Certification requires continuing education C. Texas Master Certified Nursery Professional (TMCNP) 1. Retail nursery employees, managers, owners who want to take TCNP certification to the next step. 2. 4 day course taught by professional instructors, exam required. Advanced training at Texas A&M using TAMU facilities and labs. Benefits: A properly trained and experienced design professional will be thoroughly knowledgeable with all water conserving concepts available, and can work with other disciplines involved in the project to ensure the appropriate concepts are followed from the design stage, through installation, maintenance and management of the project. The appropriate design professional will ensure the design intent results in the realization of intended water savings throughout the life of the project/site.
2.1.2
PLANT PALETTE
Native plant species are generally referred to as plants that occur naturally in a particular region, state, or ecosystem, without direct or indirect human actions. Drought tolerant plants are described as plants that will survive in the typical, or less than typical, amount of rainfall in a specific region. Both types of plants are desirable since both maintain a healthy aesthetic while requiring less water than other plant species. Industry Approach: The primary driving factor in choosing plant materials for a site are aesthetics with little regard for water requirements, ultimate water use, site specific conditions, or any other water conserving principles. Rather than adhering to using primarily native/drought tolerant plants as a rule, generally the least expensive, most commonly available/used plantings are chosen for a project. Water Conservation Approach: Utilizing native or drought tolerant plants and planting other plants with similar water needs saves water and promotes a naturally rich, and easily maintained landscape. These plants require much less supplemental irrigation water since the plant is well adapted to the climate and typical rainfall amount. A. Numerous sources, guidelines and reference material, to guide proper plant selection, are available, such as: 1. Seek the guidance of a local plant/nursery professional,. 2. Refer to some of the online resources which offer specific information based on the climate zone or ecoregion.
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http://www.plantnative.org/index.htm http://harris.agrilife.org/files/2011/05/houstonplants.pdf http://harris.agrilife.org/file/2011/05/natives.pdf http://urbanlandscapeguide.tamu.edu/ B. Consider some of the following options in plant choices 1. Select trees and their placement first since those selections are based upon the sunlight, soil, and micro climate conditions of the site. The shade that trees offer can have an impact on other costs, such as cooling when they provide shade for a building. The aesthetics of the tree should also be considered, as well as future growth and root system. 2. Using a plant list, select shrubs according to their size, the desired aesthetic, the sun, shade, soil, slope and micro climate on the site. 3. Note the path of the sun on the site and place trees and landscaping that will be a benefit to, as well as benefit from, those conditions. 4. Note naturally occurring water/water pathways on the site, or lack thereof, and plant according to those conditions. 5. Minimize turf areas. Turf is a water thirsty plant by nature. By eliminating, or minimizing, the amount of turf on site, the amount of irrigation water required to maintain the desired aesthetic is minimized. When selecting turf, select turf that is the drought tolerant and appropriate for the conditions prevalent on site. 6. Turf grass - Use Zoysia, Buffalo grass, Bermuda grass or similar drought tolerant species which are less water thirsty than St. Augustine grass. Benefits: Rather than challenging a plant to live in inhospitable conditions, thoughtful planning and preparation can promote healthy plant life, pleasing aesthetics, and water conservation. Additionally, proper plant selections will require less maintenance, management and care; resulting in a more desirable impact on the environment. Some primary benefits are: A. The native/drought tolerant plant palette is composed of naturally occurring groups of native/drought tolerant plants that have evolved growing next to each other, and to predictable sizes, which often complement each other. B. These native plantings normally require little, or no, chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, or fungicides as they are inherently resistant to local insects/diseases. C. Little or no maintenance is required since any dropped matter or leaves are soil builders. D. Watering is usually only required during establishment period. E. Native plants are suited to the local climate and soil conditions.
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Figure 2-1 Excessive turf
2.1.3
HYDROZONING
This is the practice of grouping plants with similar water requirements together in a landscape, and is critical to reducing irrigation water needs. When plants are hydrozoned, a more efficient irrigation system can be designed to accommodate the specific water needs of the groupings. Irrigation zones, equipment, application rates and run times are determined by the water requirements of individual plant groupings, which ultimately saves water. Plants with greater water needs are isolated from groupings with lesser water needs through proper zoning (see Section 3.1 IRRIGATION DESIGN). Industry Approach: Hydrozoning is not addressed in designs. When creating plant beds or choosing plant materials, the least expensive, most abundant supply is often times the driving factor. Typically, plants are intermingled, regardless of water requirements, solely based upon aesthetics. Water Conservation Approach: When selecting plants, select plants with similar water requirements and group together in well planned groupings. Aesthetics, performance, purpose, and practicality are all considerations for grouping of plants and should be incorporated into the planning, once water requirements are established. This will create plant beds that achieve their purpose and perform well over the lifetime of a project. Planting designs should consider the microclimate conditions within the site to the benefit of the plantings. In summary, plants should be grouped according to numerous factors such as plant water requirements, plant height, plant density, soil type and infiltration rate, slope of the site, microclimate, aesthetics, maintenance needs, safety, and functionality.
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Figure 2-2 Drought tolerant landscape design
Benefits: Hydrozoning helps the plant material to thrive while requiring less water to do so, and will require less maintenance in the long run. The benefits also extend to the management and zoning of the irrigation system since entire like zones can be grouped and controlled individually with ease, which in turn saves water and maintenance costs.
2.1.4
HEAT ISLAND EFFECT
Heat island effect occurs in both the atmosphere and on exposed outdoor surfaces. As urban areas are developed, and buildings, roads, and other infrastructure replace open land and vegetation, impermeable, dry surfaces become warmer than their rural surrounding, forming an island of higher temperatures in the landscape. As a result of heat island effect, exposed urban surfaces can be as much as 50 to 90 hotter than the air. The elevated temperature of the atmosphere and surfaces are responsible for increased air pollution, increased energy costs, increased water usage, poor water quality, and health issues. Industry Approach: Typical designs do not address heat island effect, but conversely increase the potential for the occurrence of the phenomenon. Due to lack of awareness of the potential of creating heat island effect, designers and contractors continue to conduct business as they have in the past. In urban areas more vertical buildings with modern urban facades are being built in order to meet the demands of increased population in more restricted spaces. Green areas are limited to small parking islands or in small strips alongside walkways as the need for parking, driving and pedestrian walkways increase. Storm water collection systems are commonly used as the only method of directing storm runoff away from hardscapes. Water Conservation Approach: Strategies for reversing, or reducing, heat island effect include installation of trees, vegetation, green roofs, and green walls. Increased green areas in urban settings will conserve water, in the following ways, by reducing heat island effect:
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Figure 2-3 Shaded Parking Lots
A. Increasing canopy trees and vegetation can reduce urban temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration. 1. Shading reduces surface temperatures below the tree canopy. In the summertime 10% 30% of the suns energy reaches below the tree. The remainder is used for photosynthesis, with some portion being reflected back into the atmosphere. 2. In the wintertime 10%-80% of the suns energy reaches below the tree due to a change to winter time foliage. 3. Trees and vegetation cool the air by way of evapotranspiration. a. By transpiration plants move water through their roots and emit it through their leaves. b. Evaporation occurs when the water from the vegetation and the soil around the plant converts from a liquid to a gas. c. Evapotranspiration cools the air by using the heat in the air to evaporate the water from plants and the soils around them. B. Trees and shrubs provide wind breaks around buildings. C. Plantings reduce the temperatures of the atmosphere and nearby surfaces, resulting in cooler temperatures in storm water runoff. D. Placement of landscaping around buildings is critical to the successful reduction in heat island effect. Additional recommendations include: 1. Trees and vegetation on west and east sides of buildings will result in cooler building temperatures. 2. Shade trees on the south side of building substantially reduce summer cooling costs. 3. Vines and plants along trellises and on walls of buildings reduce heat glare and atmospheric temperatures, resulting in cooler indoor spaces. 4. Vegetative roofs can cut building energy costs substantially. 5. Permeable grass pavers can replace dry, permeable pavement allowing for the natural water cycle to occur, resulting in lower atmospheric temperatures and reduced glare.
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Figure 2-4 Shade trees on south side of building
Figure 2-5 Permeable grass pavers
Note: Refer to EPA website for documents, guidance, and research information addressing heat island effects. http://www.epa.gov/hiri/ http://www.epa.gov/heatisld/resources/pdf/TreesandVegCompendium.pdf Benefits: Reducing heat island effect saves energy, reduces water use by both the energy systems within buildings and for the landscape, reduces air pollution, reduces storm water runoff and erosion, reduces environmental and health risks, encourages the development of wildlife habitat, and allows for recharge of groundwater with cleaner, filtered water.
Figure 2-6 Heat island concept
Figure 2-7 Increased heat in the City
2.1.5
GREEN WALLS/ROOFS
Green walls, sometimes called living walls, are self-contained vertical gardens which grow on the walls of a building, either outside or inside. All of the water and nutrients they receive are delivered through the framework of the support system. Green roofs are roofs that are partially or completely covered by vegetation planted in a tray system or a lightweight planting medium over a waterproofing membrane, and usually include drainage and irrigation systems. Industry Approach: Green walls/roofs are not typically included in the design or construction process. Generally this is due to a lack of knowledge and experience in designing, installing, or maintaining them, and unfamiliarity with the benefits. The industry, in general, operates on the belief the inclusion of green walls and roofs in a project will raise building and maintenance costs while offering minimal
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benefit. Additionally, standard building practices do not commonly incorporate unconventional methods of increasing green spaces, either indoors or outdoors. Water Conservation Approach: Green walls and green roofs are included, as and where appropriate, in building and landscape designs. Appropriate areas are selected based on site specific conditions (buildings and area uses). All or parts of the roofing system can be a green roof. South, east, and west facing walls, especially large open expanses directly open to full sunlight, should be designed as green walls.
Figure 2-8 Green wall
Figure 2-9 Green roof
Benefits: Green roofs and walls can significantly lower the temperatures inside and outside of buildings. This results in energy and water savings due to lower cooling needs inside the building while reducing landscape water requirements, especially for plantings adjacent to green walls, outside. Storm water management is another of the many benefits of green walls and roofs. Green roofs store rain water which is then taken up by the plants where it is returned to the atmosphere through transpiration and evaporation. In the summer they can retain 70-90% of the precipitation that falls on them and in the winter they retain between 25-40%. Green roofs and walls moderate the temperature of water and act as natural filters for any water that runs off, while reducing and slowing the rate of runoff.
2.1.6 2.1.6.1
SOILS SOIL IMPROVEMENT
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Soil is the foundation upon which the landscape is grown; in general, better quality soil equals better quality plants. The soils properties (pH, texture, structure, nutrients, and moisture) determine how well plant material will grow, the amount of stress the plant can adequately withstand, and ultimately the amount of water required. Industry Approach: In general, soil amendments are rarely specified and when they are it is usually at the planting hole only. Secondly, little to no effort is mandated in the design to minimize soil compaction during the construction process. The result is parking lot and roadway islands are often filled with, or on top of, compacted road base. In addition, considerable planting areas in heavily traveled construction areas become highly compacted. Water Conservation Approach: After all planting areas have been roughed graded (+/- .1 of finished grade) the following steps should be taken. A. Soil Tests The contractor should obtain soil samples from the site (4 samples/acre of site) and submit to Texas A&M for soil pH, structure, texture, and nutrient recommendations use these links to obtain the proper forms, cost, and directions http://soiltesting.tamu.edu/webpages/forms.html http://soiltesting.tamu.edu/ B. Utilize the results from the soil sample(s) to make recommendations and take actions to improve the soil by adding fertilizer and amendments as indicated. 1. Coordinate this with the sites Landscape Architect who would utilize the results to direct what soil amendment requirements should be implemented. C. For areas where fill dirt is to be used in planters, etc. the fill should also be tested, as noted above, or be otherwise verified as to its quality. D. All landscaped islands should be free of compacted soil and compacted road base, and should drain freely. E. All compacted areas encountered during planting should be tilled to 8 if only a compacted soil surface is encountered, or ripped to 18 deep if compaction is deeper than 8. F. Ensure drainage Test holes should be created to determine the soils percolation rate. 1. Dig three randomly selected test holes for residential properties and ten for commercial properties up to five acres in size. Add one additional hole per acre above five acres. 2. The hole should be approximately 8-10 in diameter and 24-30 deep 3. Fill the hole at least half way up with water 4. Observe and document the time it takes for the hole to completely drain a. 15 minutes or less = too fast of percolation add fine textured organics to retain water b. 15-30 minutes = good drainage soil is fine as is as it relates to drainage
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5.
c. Over 30 minutes = poor drainage = add coarse textured sand to the soil to improve drainage Use the results of the percolation test to inform controller scheduling (see section 3.4.1 Irrigation Management Concepts).
Benefits: Soils with proper structure, texture, and nutrients, create an environment conducive to growing healthy plant material in a low stress environment. These benefits result in less plant mortality, more aesthetically pleasing plants, less water use, reduced fertilization and less maintenance and operational costs.
Figure 2-10 Test hole half full of water
Figure 2-11 Measuring percolation rate
2.1.7 2.1.7.1
WEED CONTROL PRE-EMERGENT HERBICIDE
Pre-emergent herbicides work to prevent seeds from sprouting or maturing they do not kill weeds that have already sprouted. Industry Approach: The use of pre-emergent herbicides is typically under-utilized by the landscape installation industry. Most landscape designs do not require the application of pre-emergent. Water Conservation Approach: All landscape designs should require the application of pre-emergent herbicides after plant installation is complete and before the application of mulch to the planting beds. The appropriate products to use are determined by consulting with your local pesticide distributor for recommendations based on your site specific soil type and predominant weed species. A. Require the application of post-emergent herbicides before plant installation in the planting beds if weeds are present. B. Use a water-soluble dye added to the herbicide to help the applicator see where the herbicide has been applied to avoid missed areas, or over spraying an area.
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C. Follow pesticide label directions to prevent overspray damaging desirable plants, and potential leaching in the soil
Figure 2-12 Herbicide application
Benefits: The use of pre-emergent herbicide in planting beds after new plantings have been installed reduces the amount of weeds which would compete with the desirable plants for water and light. The result is the use of less water, chemicals, and labor in maintaining the landscape.
2.1.7.2
POST-EMERGENT HERBICIDE
Once weeds have sprouted the use of a post-emergent herbicide may be required to kill them, or handpulling if the weedy area is small. A commonly used post-emergent herbicide is Roundup which must be handled with extreme care as it will kill/damage the desirable plants if the spray touches their leaves. There are post-emergent herbicides which are plant type specific and only kill broadleaf weeds, grass, etc. and will usually not harm the desirable plants if they get sprayed. As with all chemicals, only apply as needed to reduce possible water pollution and follow label directions. Hand-pulling of weeds is desirable if the weeds are sporadic. Industry Approach: Most landscape maintenance personnel have a limited knowledge of undesirable plant material (weeds) life cycles and do not apply herbicides at the correct time to prevent not just their growth, but re-seeding. Additionally, they do not understand proper treatment practices and procedures. Water Conservation Approach: Proper and timely weed control is required. Before selecting and applying an herbicide it is necessary to identify the weed that needs to be controlled. Selective herbicides are formulated to control specific types of weeds. An example is Fusilade which eradicates grass only. This is useful when grasses invade a shrub bed where the use of a non-specific herbicide would damage the desirable plant species. In addition knowing the life cycle of the weed will enable the applicator to apply the herbicide at the correct time to kill the plant prior to reseeding. In general, the following are recommended:
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A. Require the application of post-emergent herbicides before plant installation in the planting beds if weeds are present. B. Use a water-soluble dye added to the herbicide to help the applicator see where the herbicide has been applied to avoid missed areas, or over spraying an area. C. Follow pesticide label directions to prevent overspray damaging desirable plants, and potential leaching in the soil D. Treat zones, not individual weeds, as not all weeds are readily visible, especially in their early growth stages. Treating a zone ensures all weeds are treated and thus eliminates or reduces re-treatment needs. E. Treat weeds at the appropriate time in their life cycle. Timely treatment greatly enhances the effectiveness of the kill and can prevent weed seeds from being dispersed, only to arrive later as more weeds.
Figure 2-13 Post-emergent herbicide with dye
Benefits: By killing weeds there is less competition for the available water. Therefore, the landscape plants will need less water to remain healthy. Weeds are also host to a number of diseases and insects which cause harm/stress to the desirable landscape plants. Stressed plants will require more water to remain viable.
2.1.8
MULCHING
Mulching is the practice of putting a layer of bark, gravel, shell, crushed rock, or other material over the top of landscape beds after landscape installation. Industry Approach: Generally, 3 of organic mulching in plant beds is specified in most design plans but little additional direction is provided. There are some places this is not appropriate and there are other common mistakes that should be addressed in plans (see below). Water conservation Approach: Provide additional direction in plans on mulching, consistent with the following concepts.
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A. Do not place mulch on top of a trees root ball or against the trunk. Be sure the base of the trunk and the root flare are not covered. More than an inch of mulch on the root ball of newly planted trees and shrubs can stress plants because mulch can intercept water meant for the roots. B. Do not apply mulch too deeply, or Volcano mulch, as this hinders oxygen exchange to roots, which stresses the plant and can cause root rot. C. Minimize the use of inorganic mulch. Shell, crushed stone or pebbles wont contribute to the soils nutrient and organic content or water-holding capacity. Accordingly, they should be limited to locations where maintenance, and area use demands require them. Limestone and shell both raise soil pH. They also reflect heat, increasing the water needs of plants. D. For well-drained sites, apply a 3 inch layer (after settling) of mulch around trees, shrubs and bedding plants. If there are drainage problems, use a thinner layer. E. Coarse materials, such as pine nuggets, may be applied to a depth of 4", but dont allow mulch to accumulate to a greater depth. F. Mulch a minimum of an 8-foot diameter ring around a tree, or out to a trees drip line. G. Organic mulches may require weeding and replenishment once or twice a year to maintain a total, uniform and constant depth of 2"3". Benefits: Mulching practices can directly affect water conservation in several ways. Organic mulch materials improve soil fertility and water retention capabilities as they decompose. Mulches moderate soil temperatures and help maintain soil moisture by reducing evaporation, and minimize water needs for plants. Additionally, mulching helps prevent weed growth, thereby reducing the competition for water between weeds and desirable plant material. Mulches also offer protection of plants from mechanical damage (trimmers).
2.1.9
DESIGN INTENT
Inclusion of a narrative that explains the goals, objectives, and requirements the design is intended to accomplish. It is a clear explanation of why the landscape plans, installation details, and specifications have their specific requirements. Typical Approach: The typical landscape plan consists of the planting plan, plant list, installation details, and specifications but no narrative of the design intent. Water Conservation Approach: The landscape plan focused on water conservation should contain a design intent narrative that, at minimum, explains the following: A. The look and feel the owner and designer intended B. Why the specific plant palette was chosen C. Soil requirements and why D. Plant handling requirements and why E. Installation methods and why F. Mulching and weed control requirements and why G. Maintenance objectives and requirements during and after grow in and why
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Benefits: A well written and clear design intent document is the best insurance the landscape conceived and designed is properly installed, maintained, and managed. The result is the owner has the look, feel, functionality, and benefits they requested, throughout the life cycle of the landscape.
2.2
INSTALLATION
2.2.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTALLER
Installation of a landscape, in part, will determine the success of the project over time. Specific knowledge and experience is required in order to ensure that the plant material is installed according to sound practices in a manner that promotes longevity of plant material and conserves water. Personnel must have an understanding of the design intent in order to bring the design to fruition. Industry Approach: No particular license/certification is required in the State of Texas in order to work within the field of landscape installation; therefore the quality of the installation is highly variable. Most landscape contractors have little experience or expertise in water conserving practices and concerns during landscape installation. Although the Texas Nursery and Landscape Association, and other associations, offer certifications in the landscape arena which demonstrate a degree of knowledge of planting practices, there is little or no incentive to cause an individual to pursue them; therefore few landscape contractors have such certifications. Water Conservation Approach: Experience with water conservation based projects is of critical importance. A minimum of 3 years of experience installing successful water conservation based landscape projects in the Texas market, is desired. Particular focus should be placed upon professionals with hands on experience in not only landscape installation, but also maintenance and management. Having these credentials and experience, especially specific to water conservation is a must. Contractor installation personnel should be proficient and knowledgeable in grading, soils, plant handling and delivery, planting, mulching, and other pertinent water conserving practices. The following certifications and licenses are desired: A. Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor (CLIA) from the Irrigation Association. B. Certified Landscape Water Manager (CLWM) from the Irrigation Association. C. Commercial Pesticide Applicator (CPA) from the State of Texas (TCEQ). D. Retail Nursery and Garden Center Texas Certified Nursery Professional (TCNP) offered by Texas Nursery and Landscape Association (TNLA) E. Texas Master Certified Nursery Professional (TMCNP) offered by TNLA F. Texas Certified Landscape Professional (TCLP) offered by TNLA G. Texas Master Gardener (TMG) offered through Texas A&M AgriLife Extension H. Certified Arborist offered through the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA)
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Benefits: A well rounded landscape installer will ensure that the parameters of the design are sound, and reasonable, while installing the landscape in such a way as to provide maximum water savings and plant health.
2.2.2 2.2.2.1
SOILS SOIL COMPACTION
During the construction process soil compaction of some future planting areas is bound to occur, especially around buildings. In addition, the actual construction process causes compacted soils, especially in planting islands of parking lots and roadways. Industry Approach: In general, little is done to minimize compaction on a project site. Therefore, the landscape ends up being installed into a compacted soil. Water Conservation Approach: An effort is made during the construction process to limit the areas of compaction to non-planting areas as much as possible by controlling traffic patterns. For future planting areas that do become compacted, they are identified and properly repaired per the soil design requirements outlined in the landscape plans (see section 2.1.6.1 in this manual). Benefits: Healthier plant material, better air and water movement in the soil, less supplemental water is required, and less fertilizer and weed control efforts are needed.
2.2.3 2.2.3.1
CONSTRUCTION METHODS PLANT HANDLING/TRANSPORTATION PRACTICES
The handling and transporting of plants to the project site can stress the plants. Stressed plants require more water, or stated differently, have less drought tolerance. Reducing the amount of stress that plants experience between the nursery and the project site will conserve water. Industry Approach: Plants are usually delivered to the site covered with a mesh wind tarp and trees are handled using a strap connected to the trunk. Water Conservation Approach: Utilize landscape contractors who employ trained personnel experienced in, and committed to, following the requirements listed below. It must be part of the contractors standard operating procedures and corporate culture. Once the correct contractor is selected, the Landscape Designer should inspect their daily plant handling practices. Specific practices to inspect for and ensure the contractor follows are:
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A. Irrigate tree root balls just prior to shipping and secure on truck to avoid movement/impact shocks. B. Do not allow plants to remain in a closed truck standing in the sun in hot weather unless they are air conditioned. C. Shrink wrap the root balls of B&B trees prior to shipping. D. Ship material to the site in enclosed vans or covered with woven shade/wind tarps. E. Do not drop trees to the ground suddenly. Do not lift trees from the trunk. Do not deform the root ball of a B&B tree. F. Irrigate material as soon as it arrives at the planting site. After unloading trees from shipping, stand them erect and irrigate them twice daily until planted. Shrink wrapped B&B trees and trees in plastic containers shall be stored in the shade or with their root ball shaded. Benefits: Reduced water use by the plants based on improved plant health and reduced stress.
2.2.3.2
PLANTING TECHNIQUES
Stressed plants require more water to remain healthy. Improper planting techniques will stress plants and result in increased water use. Stress can cause short, or long- term, plant mortality and/or reduced survival rates. The typical human response to struggling plant material is additional watering without assessing if lack of water is the cause. Additionally, if plants are replaced, a new grow in period is begun, typically over-watering the entire zone in which the affected plant is located. Industry Approach: Since landscape contractors generally provide a warranty on the plants they install, they have an interest in keeping installed plants alive throughout the warranty period. The majority of the focus in this process is on watering the plants after installation. Planting too deep is extremely common, and is the leading contributor to plant decline according to many experts. Water Conservation Approach: Specific planting techniques to follow to reduce plant stress/mortality are: A. The planting hole should be 1.5 to 3 times the width of the root ball, wider if in compacted soil. Emerging roots need loose, friable soil into which to grow. The depth of the hole should be slightly less than the height of the root ball, especially if in compacted soils. If the hole is unintentionally dug too deep, fill it back in to meet the above conditions. If required to fill in the hole due to it being too deep, compact this soil just enough to ensure it and the plant will not settle. B. Fill the planting hole full with water to check for drainage (see 2.1.6.1 Soil Improvement). If poor drainage exists due to hardpan, auger a drain chimney in the bottom of the plant
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C.
D.
E.
F. G. H.
I. J. K.
L.
hole a minimum of 4 in diameter, filled with fine gravel to a depth of 12 inches into undisturbed pervious soil. The trunk flare, or where the uppermost root emerges from the trunk, should be within two inches of the soil surface. If it is greater than this, remove soil from the top of the root ball to meet the above condition. Inspect root balls at the nursery prior to purchase to the maximum extent possible. Avoid purchasing root bound plant material. If root bound material is purchased, loosen circling roots, especially in the top half of the root ball. If numerous roots circle the bottom or sides, slice the root ball about one inch deep in four places (like the points of a compass) from top to bottom before planting. This redirects these roots, reducing the chance of them becoming a problem later. Avoid damage to the root ball when placing into the planting hole. Slide trees carefully into a hole, or lift with straps around the root ball, not by the trunk. Remove all synthetic materials from around the trunk and root ball. Position the trunk flare slightly above the surface of the existing soil. Use a small amount of native soil to backfill and stabilize the tree in the hole. Straighten the plant in the hole. Backfill with native soil, unless otherwise indicated in this manual. (See the 2.1.6.1 Soil Improvement section). Use a shovel to slice down into the backfill. Do not step firmly on the backfill, especially in clay soils, where this could cause compaction and restrict root growth. After the planting hole is backfilled, the root ball should rest one inch (small trees/shrubs) to 3 inches (large trees) above the backfill soil. Avoid earth berms, around plants as this soil could end up on top of the root ball in the future. Add water to the root ball to fill any air pockets with soil. Mulch the bed. (See 2.2.3.2 Planting Techniques section also) Stake trees as necessary, protecting the emerging roots from being broken by a shifting root ball. Remove stakes after establishment, as staking materials can girdle and kill trees if left in place. A general timing guideline for staking removal is one growing season. Water plant material frequently during establishment so roots fully establish. Never water if the root ball is saturated. Generally follow these guidelines, making adjustments per site specific and seasonal conditions. 1. Trees: Apply 1-3gallons of water per inch of trunk diameter per application. Establishment generally requires approximately 3-4 months per inch of trunk diameter. Example: A 3 tree would require 9 gallons per application through the approximate 9-12 month establishment period. 2. Shrubs: Apply 0.5-1 gallon of water per application for a 3 gallon container. Establishment generally required 30-60 days in the growing season. Larger and smaller container sizes generally require proportional amounts of water.
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Benefits: Reduced long-term water use by the plants based on improved plant health and reduced stress. Reduction in plant mortality, thus less plant replacement, and therefore less grow-in watering schedules are utilized and less money wasted.
2.2.3.3
This is the oversight and guidance of the landscape contractors installation operations by the landscape designer. The installation contractor and the designer must be independent entities.
Figure 2-14 Construction Observation
Industry Approach: While most projects receive minimal oversight and guidance by the designer, it is most often insufficient and given little authority. Additionally, most landscape designers are not experienced in, and focused on, water conservation. Water Conservation Approach: The owner requires the landscape designer demonstrate considerable experience and knowledge regarding water conserving designs (refer to Designer Qualifications in section 2.1.1). Additionally, designers should be intimately involved in overseeing and guiding the installation of the landscape by the landscape contractor. At a minimum, the landscape designer would conduct the following: A. Pre-construction meeting attended by owner, general contractor, landscape contractor and landscape designer. Landscape designer controls this meeting and outlines the requirements of all parties regarding the goals and expectations of the plan. The design intent, the plans, details, and specification are thoroughly reviewed and discussed B. Weekly progress inspections a minimum of two per week and preferably more. The landscape designer should inspect every phase and aspect of the landscape installation and approve its progress on a weekly basis. C. Final landscape inspection once the landscape is fully installed and considered complete by the landscape and general contractors, the landscape designer would inspect the entire site and create a punch list of issues that need to be resolved and/or corrected
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D. Punch list inspection inspection to ensure all items listed in the final inspections punch list have been adequately resolved and/or corrected according to the landscape designer. Benefits: The original design intent of the owner and designer will be realized and the intended water conservation, plant health, and aesthetics demanded will be achieved.
2.3
MAINTENANCE
2.3.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE PROFESSIONAL
Maintenance of a landscape, in part, will determine the success of the project over time. Specific knowledge and experience is required in order to ensure that the plant material is maintained according to sound practices in a manner that promotes longevity of plant material and conserves water. Personnel must have an understanding of the design intent in order to ensure it is maintained properly over time. Industry Approach: No particular license/certification is required in the State of Texas in order to work within the field of landscape maintenance. The quality and competency of the maintenance personnel is highly variable. Most landscape maintenance contractors have little experience or expertise in water conserving practices and concerns during the landscape maintenance process. Although the Texas Nursery and Landscape Association, and other associations, offer certifications in the landscape arena which demonstrate a degree of knowledge of pertinent landscape management practices, there is little or no incentive to cause an individual to pursue them; therefore few landscape contractors have such certifications. In general, price for service is paramount to expertise in water conserving landscape maintenance practices. Water Conservation Approach: Experience with water conservation based projects is of critical importance. All maintenance contracting firms should possess a minimum of 3 years of experience maintaining successful water conservation based landscape projects in the Texas market. Particular focus should be placed upon professionals with hands on experience in not only landscape maintenance and management but also installation and design. Having these credentials and experience, especially specific to water conservation, is a must. Maintenance contracting companies should also possess the following minimum credentials: A. Training in basic horticulture and irrigation concepts for all personnel, including Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concepts. B. A certified arborist must be on staff and present when services involving trees are being performed. C. Employees of the company receive formal training in proper landscape maintenance.
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D. Management personnel are Texas Certified Landscape Professionals (TCLP). E. Employees are encouraged to obtain certifications from the Irrigation Association and/or PLANET. The following certifications and licenses are desired: A. Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor (CLIA) from the Irrigation Association. B. Certified Landscape Water Manager (CLWM) from the Irrigation Association. C. Commercial Pesticide Applicator (CPA) from the State of Texas (TCEQ). D. Landscape industry certified horticultural Technician issued by PLANET E. Landscape industry certified manager issued by PLANET Benefits: A well rounded landscape maintenance company will ensure the parameters of the design are maintained throughout the projects life cycle. This will result in a reduction in overall supplemental irrigation required, increased plant health, and lower overall operation and maintenance costs.
2.3.2
PRUNING
Figure 2-15 Pruning
Pruning is the process of trimming and removing what is deemed superfluous plant material. Hedging is a type of pruning commonly performed on shrub material. This is usually done on a regular schedule based on a pre-determined, desired look to the landscape. Industry Approach: Pruning is done without regard to plant health. Tree limbs are not cut back to the collar, but part way down the limb. This causes excessive sprouting at the cut. An example of pruning which is harmful to trees is pollarding. Pollarding is the pruning of tree branches back almost to the trunk to cause numerous shoots and a dense globe-like effect. These trees are less resistant to insect and disease infestations, wind damage, and use more water due to stress. Shrubs are routinely pruned into unnatural shapes or to maintain a height or width which is not natural to the plant. This puts a lot of stress on the plant and requires a higher water intake.
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Water Conservation Approach: Less pruning is better, because pruning is stressful to the plant which causes it to use more water. Tip pruning is to be avoided because it results in the plant becoming denser and may reduce flowering. Proper pruning will encourage dense growth which discourages weeds, and acts as a mulch to the ground, thereby, lowering the evapotranspiration rate and reducing water use. A. Prune during the dormant period usually late winter to early spring. B. No more than one-third of the total plant mass should be removed during pruning. C. Do not prune palm fronds unless they are dead or diseased. D. Specific species like Nandina domestica, which grow by canes, should be pruned by cutting off the canes at grade to maintain desired height and width. E. Groundcovers, like ivy, honeysuckle, and jasmine should be cut back once a year by shearing off the top 1/3 of the groundcover leaf. F. Consult a professional arborist yearly for proper tree care. Benefits: Proper pruning reduces plant mass and allows for better sunlight penetration, and in dense plantings allows better water penetration to the soil, especially when using overhead spray. Other benefits of careful pruning are better airflow which reduces plant diseases and insect infestations. Additionally, proper and infrequent pruning reduces a plants stress and helps to reduce plant water requirements.
2.3.3
MOWING
Maintenance and management practices such as fertilization, weed control, mowing, and soil conditioning all affect the quality of the turf and its use of water. Mowing is one of the most overlooked of these practices, but proper practices can help reduce a turfs need for water. The mowing frequency, amount of leaf matter removed, the maintained height, the cleanliness of the cut (sharp mower blade), and the practice of returning the cuttings to the soil can all have a significant effect on the turfs use of water.
Figure 2-16 Mowing and Lawn maintenance
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Industry Approach: The standard industry approach is to contract with a landscape maintenance contractor to mow the turf a set number of times a year, usually weekly. Little to no concern of the turf or soils condition is a factor in when, and how, to mow. Water Conservation Approach: In this approach, there are no set mowing frequencies as the growing condition of the turf and the moisture content of the soil control mowing frequency. Specific mowing practices to employ to reduce water use in turf include the following: A. Never remove more than 1/3 of the standing leaf structure of the turf B. Maintain the height of the turf utilized to its recommended height 1. St. Augustine turf Mow when the height of the turf is approximately 4.25 tall but do not cut shorter than 3.0 2. Bermuda Mow when the height of the turf is approximately 2.25 tall but do not cut shorter than 1.5 3. Zoysia Mow when the height of the turf is approximately 3.0 tall but do not cut shorter than 2 C. A and B above thereby require mowing frequency based on the turf and its growth characteristics and not a preset maintenance schedule D. Always mow when the soil is dry to minimize compaction. Never mow when the soil is wet, especially to the point of rutting. E. Always use a sharp mower blade F. To prevent thatch build up use a sharp blade, bag your lawn clippings 2/3 of the time (mow once without bagging your clippings and then the next two mows bag your clippings) and follow good irrigation practices outlined elsewhere in this manual Benefits: The result of following the water conservation approach to mowing is a healthier turf, minimal soil compaction, better quality soil, fewer weeds, less turf stress, and less supplemental water is required.
2.3.4
FERTILIZING
Fertilizers are identified by analysis and/or brand name. Many common commercial fertilizers are known by their grade, such as 16-4-8, 10-10-10, or 6-6-6. A complete fertilizer contains N, P and K. The numbers indicate the percentage of each of these respective nutrients. A 16-4-8 fertilizer, for example, contains 16% Total Nitrogen, 4% Available Phosphorus expressed as P2O5 and 8% Soluble Potash expressed as K2O. ). Turf grass commonly requires higher rates and more frequent applications of N source fertilizers than other nutrient sources. In most cases, slow-release N sources can be used to reduce the potential for leaching losses of applied N in order to obtain the desired growth and color response. Apply at the proper rate to avoid plant burning and leaching.
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Figure 2-17 Fertilization
Industry Approach: Fertilizer is applied routinely based on the calendar and not on what the plants require, and when they require it. Water Conservation Approach: Only apply fertilizer to shrub beds/lawns when the plants show signs of nutrient deficiencies, such as yellowing due to lack of iron. Heavy applications of fertilizer increase the potential for leaching and/or may result in rapid plant growth which will increase water consumption by the plant. A. Use a slow release fertilizer in the spring and fall to boost root growth and stimulate upper growth in planting beds and lawns. B. Do not apply fertilizer during the summer months to reduce plant stress and disease. C. Try to schedule fertilizations immediately prior to a forecast rain event. This will allow the fertilizer to be watered in using rainfall and not irrigation water. Benefits: Proper fertilization practices and concepts will ensure healthier plants, lower maintenance costs, less harmful fertilizer leaching, reduced water use, and less liability exposure to the property owner.
2.3.5
MULCHING
Mulch should be renewed yearly to maintain the depth recommended in the landscape plan. The average depth of mulch to prevent weeds and reduce water loss from the soil is three inches. Mulch applied to trees and large shrubs that are not in planting beds should extend to the plant drip line with a minimum size of 4 from the trunk, and all open areas should be mulched to reduce weeds. Industry Approach: Mulch is allowed to become sparse allowing weed growth. Thick blankets of fine mulch can become matted and may prevent water and air from seeping through, or become like potting soil and may support weed growth.
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Water Conservation Approach: Mulch is renewed in the spring and fall to the recommended depth. Mulching helps hold moisture in the soil, moderates soil temperatures, reduces weed growth and slows erosion. Follow the design intent requirements for mulching as described in the landscape plans, which should include: A. Rake old mulch to break up any matted layers and to refresh the appearance. B. Renew yearly in the spring and fall. C. Keep mulch several inches away from the plant trunk to prevent rotting. D. Use less than 1 immediately on top of root balls E. Use biodegradable mulch to add nutrients to the soil.
Figure 2-18 Mulching
Benefits: Mulching practices can directly affect water conservation in several ways. Organic mulch materials improve soil fertility and water retention capabilities as they decompose. Mulches moderate soil temperatures and help maintain soil moisture by reducing evaporation, and minimize water needs for plants. Additionally, mulching helps prevent weed growth, thereby reducing the competition for water between weeds and desirable plant material. Mulches also offer protection of plants from mechanical damage (trimmers).
2.3.6
WEEDING
Weeding should be done on a year round basis for aesthetics and to maintain plant health of the desirable species (refer to Pre-emergent and Post-emergent herbicides in sections 2.1.7.1 and 2.1.7.2 in this manual). Industry Approach: Weed control is rarely practiced, and when it is, it is more commonly due to an infestation or a crisis management approach. Water Conservation Approach: A definitive and aggressive weed management program should be implemented and followed on a monthly basis. In general, the following practices should be part any successful weed management program: A. Apply pre-emergent yearly to landscape beds before refreshing the mulch.
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B. Apply post emergent herbicides with colored dye, as needed and determined by weekly, or monthly, site inspections. C. All weeds must be removed prior to the application of a pre-emergent. D. Follow all pesticide label instructions. E. Treat entire zones, not just visible weeds. F. Apply post-emergent at the proper time in the weeds life cycle. Benefits: The proper implementation of a good weed management program, including mechanical removal and pre/post herbicides will reduce labor costs, increase plant health, improve project aesthetics, and reduce overall water use by the landscape.
2.3.7
DEADHEADING
To achieve long-lasting blooming in flowering plants deadheading is recommended. This practice is the breaking/pinching off of spent flowers and seed pods to encourage the plant to continue to produce blooms. In high traffic, highly visible places this may be desirable but it will require additional irrigation water to meet the plants needs. These plants may also require more fertilizer to meet the plants nutritional demands Industry Approach: Usually done in high traffic areas which are highly visible to the public. Water Conservation Approach: This practice should not be practiced as plants should be allowed to flower, wither, and fall off per a natural blooming cycle. Benefits: Reduced water and fertilization requirements and improved plant health due to less stress and nutritional demands.
2.3.8
AERATION
This is the practice of using a core aerator with 4-6 tines to aerate a turf area, the removal of the plugs, and then spreading the appropriate top dressing over the entire turf area while ensuring the aeration holes are filled with top dressing material. Utilizing aeration and top dressing with appropriate amendments can greatly enhance your soil and reduce water use. Industry Approach: This practice is rarely done and when it is utilized is not done as needed but on a once in every year or several year basis. Water Conservation Approach: The process of aeration and top dressing is performed when a certain level of compaction occurs. The compaction of the turf soils are routinely monitored (usually monthly) using a soil probe. When the soil compaction reaches the point where considerable effort is required to push the soil probe into the soil, aeration and top dressing is scheduled. Compacted soils in the turf
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environment should utilize aeration and top dressing with appropriate amendments to enhance the soil and reduce water use. Specific practices to employ include the following: A. Aerate when soil moisture allows full depth tine penetration but also making sure the soil is not too wet to cause rutting, additional compaction, or other lasting marks. B. Aerate turf to a depth of at least 4 and preferably 6. C. After aeration remove the plugs from the turf. D. Clay soils - top dress with course sand and completely fill aeration holes. E. Sandy soils - top dress with fine organic matter and completely fill aeration holes. F. Aeration should not be performed when turf is dormant.
Figure 2-19 Aeration
Benefits: Improves soil characteristics, improves air and water movement within the soil, healthier turf, fewer weeds, less fertilizer use, reduces thatch, and reduces the amount of supplemental irrigation required.
2.4
MANAGEMENT
2.4.1
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
This approach is to control noxious pest such as weeds, disease and insects in the landscape. Not all insects, weeds, and other living organisms require control. Many organisms are innocuous, and some are even beneficial. Regular monitoring is required to determine when, and if, treatment is needed. Treatment is composed of physical, mechanical, cultural, and biological tactics. Industry Approach: Most maintenance personnel are not trained in IPM and fail to recognize the difference between beneficial insects and those which harm plants. In addition, they do not have the training to recognize signs of disease.
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Water Conservation Approach: Personnel are trained in IPM. To achieve the desired results a regular program of evaluating the landscape is put in place. It is recommended that the landscape be inspected monthly and thresholds be set for the various pests encountered. The person doing the inspections must know, and be able to differentiate between, good and bad pests and know their life cycle, and maintain good records. Additionally, A. Insect traps are set in problem areas for at least one year. B. Insect traps are checked monthly by qualified personnel. C. Use qualified personnel to identify weeds and prescribe herbicide treatment, as needed. D. Use the least toxic control method first and only treat when the insect or weed is at the most vulnerable stage of its life cycle. Benefits: IPM results in healthier landscapes, less use of chemicals, reduced liability due to the reduced use of chemicals, less water use due to less use of chemicals, and an overall more sustainable site. For additional information the following links are provided: State Noxious Weed List - Texas USDA. NRCS. National Plant Data Center. PLANTS Database. Designated legally noxious plants. Status of Invasive Plants - Texas / Details by State and Details by County University of Georgia. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. Entomologists on the Internet http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/selhome/requests.htm http://www.ipmnet.org/experts.html http://www.orkin.com/ (go to "Ask us your bug-related questions") http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/macrae.htm http://ipmwww.ncsu.edu/urban/cropsci/c07insec/c07insec.html Image Collections and Fact Sheets on the Internet http://www.orkin.com/ http://www.ent.iastate.edu/list/insect_collections.html http://entomology.si.edu:591/entomology/art_archive/info.html http://www.insectainspecta.com/html/links.html http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/IPM/natparks/museum.html http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/IPM/natparks http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hygfact/2000/index.html Pest Tracker - Texas USDA. APHIS. Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey. National Agricultural Pest Information System. Texas Invasive Plant & Pest Council (TIPPC) TexasInvasives.org. The Texas Invasive Plant and Pest Council (TIPPC) became formally established in Texas on Jun 2, 2008. The TIPPC was founded to promote awareness of the impact of invasive species in Texas, to provide a
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forum to exchange scientific, educational and technical information and to support research and activities that reduce the impact of invasive plants and pests statewide.
IRRIGATION
The design, installation, maintenance, and management of the landscape irrigation system significantly effects the water conservation capabilities of every site. Careful thought must go into each of these four stages of an irrigation systems life cycle. The following recommendations, if carefully and thoughtfully followed, will help ensure a functional, reliable, cost effective, efficient, and water conserving irrigation system is achieved.
3.1
DESIGN
3.1.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF DESIGNER
The irrigation designer sets in motion the design and installation concepts, practices, materials, and procedures to be employed in the construction of the irrigation system. It is crucial this person have the requisite knowledge, experience, and focus to deliver a water conserving design. In addition, the irrigation designer should follow the recommendations and guidelines outlined in this manual. Note: All irrigation designs must meet TCEQ requirements see TCEQ 30 TAC Chapter 344 http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.ViewTAC?tac_view=4&ti=30&pt=1&ch=344
Industry Approach: Texas requires Irrigation Designers possess a Texas Landscape Irrigators License per Chapter 30 of TCEQ rules relating to Occupational Licenses and Registrations. Landscape Architects and Engineers are also licensed to design irrigation systems in Texas. Little to no experience or special knowledge set regarding water conservation is included in any of these licenses or certifications. Additionally, no irrigation design, installation, maintenance or management experience is required to obtain these licenses. Water Conservation Approach: Irrigation design professionals should have a demonstrated focus, and requisite reputation, on delivering water conserving irrigation designs. Particular focus should be placed upon professionals with hands on experience in not only irrigation design but also installation, maintenance, and management. Having these credentials and experience, especially specific to water conservation, is a must.
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To be able to design an irrigation system that has the capability to utilize substantially less water than the industry standard, the designer must understand the latest technologies and concepts available and have a proven track record of success in their implementation. Additionally, the designer must be able to match available water conserving products to site specific conditions, incorporating sensor technology and weather based controls in order to maximize the outcome. In addition to state mandated licensing, the designer should possess one or more of the following certifications: A. Irrigation Association Certified Irrigation Designer commercial/residential B. Irrigation Association Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor C. Irrigation Association Certified Landscape Irrigation Manager D. Certified Site Water Planner (CSWP) offered by the Irrigation Water Management Society (IWMS) When choosing a design professional for a project which will incorporate any specialty design features, such as drip irrigation, rain water harvesting systems, green roofs, and green walls it is essential to verify that the professional has a minimum of 3 years of design experience (minimum of three successful projects of a similar size and scope) within those specialty design types. Benefits: Substantial water and cost savings in installation, maintenance and management are realized throughout the projects life cycle.
3.1.2
WATER SOURCE
Outdoor water use is the largest user of potable water and largest waste of potable water. Additionally, it is the primary irrigation water source in the Interstate MUD service area. Developing alternative water sources for irrigation use is not only the appropriate choice in light of dwindling clean water supplies; it is also the most financially feasible in most cases. Utilizing one or a combination of alternative sources of water will not only save money, it will conserve water and benefit the environment. Below is a list of potential alternative water sources, listed in order of preference. The practicality and financial feasibility of each should be considered for each project.
STORM WATER HARVESTING

See 1.1.2.1 Drainage Concepts for a better understanding of what types of storm water harvesting are available for irrigation water.
RECLAIMED WATER
This is partially treated municipal waste water, which comes in various levels of treatment options. State regulations require that reclaimed water systems be clearly marked and installed using purple components and signage to make the public aware that reclaimed water is being applied in an area. Use the following link for additional information: http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/legal/rules/rules/pdflib/210b.pdf
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Figure 3-1 Reclaimed water distribution infrastructure
RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Rain water harvesting is an ancient practice of collecting rain water from impervious surfaces, initially filtering the water, conveyance of the rain water to a storage device, and utilization later through a delivery system such as irrigation water. Refer Texas Rainwater Harvesting Manual and TCEQ Guidelines: A. Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, Texas Water Development Board http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/publications/reports/rainwaterharvestingmanual3rdedition. pdf B. Rainwater Harvesting, Texas Commission on Environmental Quality http://www.tceq.texas.gov/publications/gi/gi-404.html/view C. Title 30, Administrative Code Chapter 290 on Rainwater Harvesting rules, Texas Commission on Environmental Quality http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/permitting/watersupply/ud/forms/DWAWG/Rain water.pdf
Figure 3-2 Rainwater harvesting schematic concept
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CONDENSATE AND COOLING TOWER WATER

Condensate and cooling tower water are excellent sources of supplemental irrigation water. Both are by-products of air conditioning systems. They can provide considerable amounts of water when larger air conditioned buildings are the source. One unique characteristic of this water source is it is more plentiful in hotter, drier, weather patterns; when plants require more supplemental irrigation water. Refer to TCEQ Rule 210 for additional information using this link. http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/legal/rules/rules/pdflib/210e.pdf
GRAY WATER
Gray water is the waste water from showers, bathtubs, hand washing lavatories, sinks not used for disposal of hazardous or toxic materials, sinks that are not used for food preparation or disposal, and washing machines. This is an excellent source of supplemental water when used in combination with other water sources. Permits for using gray water for irrigation are not required if it originates from a single family residence and the amount of gray water used per day is less than 400 gallons. For additional information and regulations concerning gray water see the following: A. http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/legal/rules/rules/pdflib/285a.pdf B. Irrigation system components must meet the standards for reclaimed water.
Figure 3-3 Gray Water schematic use
SURFACE WATER
Surface water is water found in lakes, streams, ponds, and the like. It is generally not treated or filtered unless water quality of the source dictates otherwise. This is also one of the two primary sources for potable drinking water.
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Figure 3-4 Hydrologic cycle
GROUND WATER
Ground water is the second least preferred water source for irrigation, second only to potable water. It is generally not treated or filtered unless water quality of the source dictates otherwise. This is also one of the two primary sources for potable drinking water.
POTABLE WATER - SEPARATE IRRIGATION METER

Potable water is the least desirable source of irrigation water and should be supplemented with any other type of water available in efforts to reduce the amount of potable water utilized. If utilized the irrigation water should be separately metered with separate backflow prevention. The appropriate backflow preventer shall be used as dictated by site conditions and mandated by local and state laws. A. TAC Title 30, Chapter 344 E http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/legal/rules/rules/pdflib/344e.pdf
Figure 3-5 Potable water meter
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Industry Approach: In general, the only water source commonly considered for landscape irrigation is potable water due to its ready availability, low installation and operational costs, and high quality. Water Conservation Approach: Potable water is considered the least preferred water source. All potential sources listed above should be considered, in order listed, to see if they are financially feasible, constructible on the project site, and functionally viable. Benefits: The true cost of potable irrigation water is poorly understood by most lay persons and industry professionals alike; and never fully reflected in the direct cost of the water via a monthly water bill from the water purveyor. Costs to build water treatment and waste water treatment plants, install pumps and wells, piping networks, ongoing maintenance and operational costs, legal costs, environmental costs, filtration and other infrastructure costs combined make up the true cost of potable water. Therefore, the true cost of water is better understood when the expenses of Ad valorem taxes, bond interest payments, and other specialty taxes and assessments related to these infrastructure costs, plus the cost of the monthly water bill, are combined. Every gallon of non-potable water that can be used to irrigate our landscapes, is one less gallon of potable (drinkable) water needed.
3.1.3
PRESSURE GUIDELINES
Correct pressure in the irrigation piping network is critical for efficient delivery of water to the landscape. Different equipment operates most efficiently at different pressures for each type, model, nozzle, etc. Therefore, insuring that each equipment type is operating at its optimal pressure is critical to water conservation. Industry Approach: It is common for systems to have other than optimal pressure. Often, different equipment is used (spray heads and large rotors) within the same system (either on the same zone or separate zones) and little to no effort is made to ensure optimal pressure at each item. Water Conservation Approach: The pressures shown below are at the head/device, and pressure losses between the point of connection (POC, water supply) and the head/device must be taken into consideration. Always follow the specific manufacturers recommendations for the optimal operating pressure for the head/nozzle/device being used. These can be found online at manufacturers websites, and in manufacturers equipment catalogs. Note that catalogs include all pressures under which the head will operate (many are marginal at best and really should not be considered), so the designer must discern between the optimal/most efficient pressure and the other listed pressures. Manufacturers will generally be quite helpful in identifying this, if it is not already identified in the catalog.
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Generally, system operating pressure guidelines are: A. For systems using large rotors, like sports fields and parks, with throws > 50, provide 6080psi at the head. B. Systems using small rotors, like commercial properties or larger residential properties, with throws from 30 to 50, provide 50-60psi at the head. C. For systems using spray heads with turf rotary nozzles, provide 30-45psi at the head. D. For systems using spray heads with fixed pattern nozzles, provide 30psi at the device. E. For systems using drip/low volume products, provide 20-30psi at the device. Pressure fluctuation/variation within a system results in a 2:1 ratio of discharge variation; i.e. if there is a pressure variation of 20% between heads, there will be a corresponding 10% difference in flow between the heads. This variation in flow directly affects the efficiency of the irrigation system. (We use the terms efficiency and distribution uniformity (DU) interchangeably in this manual, though there is technically a difference. Generally, we are describing how evenly water can be applied over a given area by the irrigation system.) Pressure regulation is desirable in all irrigation systems and is most effective at the head. If this is not possible, other methods are available as well, as outlined below: A. Install an adjustable pressure regulator at the remote control valve. These are common, available, adjustable pressure regulators that can be added at an RCV: 1. Hunter Accu-Set http://www.hunterindustries.com/products/miscellaneous/accessories.html 2. Rain Bird PRS Dial http://www.rainbird.com/landscape/products/valves/PRSdial.htm 3. ToroEZReg http://www.toro.com/irrigation/com/valves/220/access_pressure.html B. Install a pressure regulator at a water supply to limit the incoming pressure. Benefits: Operating equipment at optimal pressure will provide a significant improvement in system efficiency (10-15%) over standard practices, resulting in corresponding water savings. Pressure regulation, if required to protect the system from high incoming pressure, will also protect the mainline providing additional water savings through reduced maintenance and repairs.
3.1.4
EQUIPMENT
Generally, commercial grade equipment should be used on all projects based on the corresponding increase in material quality. Increased quality provides reduced maintenance benefits which in turn provide water conservation benefits. As an example, if a stem on a pop up head sticks in the up position, and is then damaged through vandalism (kicking) or maintenance (lawn mower hitting it), water will be wasted until a repair is made. A commercial quality head will have a stronger spring, resulting in fewer stuck heads, resulting in saved water. The three major manufacturers (Hunter, Rain Bird, and Toro) each have good quality commercial grade products available.
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3.1.4.1
DELIVERY METHODS
The delivery method is how, or through what, water is applied to the plants roots. Four different application methods are appropriate for conserving water and are covered in this section: low volume, turf rotaries, bubblers, and rotors. The method should be decided by the designer in consideration of site and planting bed characteristics, and planting design. Different methods deliver water at different precipitation rates. Typically, rotors provide 0.5/hr. and turf rotaries provide 0.4-0.6/hr. Bubblers generally provide precipitation rates in the 1-1.5/hr. range. Low volume precipitation rates are dependent upon several variables and so a typical precipitation rate is not possible to identify. With above ground delivery (rotors/turf rotary/bubblers) only products with the same precipitation rate should be grouped together to run at the same time/on the same zone. Zoning by precipitation rate conserves water by allowing an even application of water (uniformity/efficiency). The following exhibit graphically shows why this is important. Water is conserved with increased uniformity because in order to keep all the plants alive, over-irrigating the other plants is not required.
Figure 3-6 Uniformity diagram (from Irrigation Association)
As noted in the graphic above, uniformity is never perfect physics (the inherent limitations of the products themselves) and on-site conditions such as wind make it impossible to achieve 100% uniformity. The maximum typical efficiency for each type of application device is as shown below.
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Figure 3-7 Rotors (75% efficiency possible)
Figure 3-8 Turf Rotary (85% efficiency possible)
Figure 3-9 Drip Tubing (95% efficiency possible)
Figure 3-10 Bubbler for tree establishment
Industry Approach: The delivery method most commonly used in the industry is the traditional spray head with matched precipitation rate nozzles. This method has a maximum possible efficiency of 65%. In large expanses of turf, along broad mixed planting roadway shoulders and in mix planting medians, rotors are also commonly used. Pressure regulation and check valves are not typically used. Four-inch pop-up height spray and rotor bodies, in turf and mix planting areas, are typically installed to save money despite the fact that regular blockage by the turf and plantings is almost guaranteed. Water Conserving Approach: A. Low Volume (Appropriate for all areas/plants) Use low volume irrigation products in all shrub and groundcover beds. Low volume irrigation products apply water slowly (measured in gallons per hour vs. gallons per minute). These products can apply water directly to the root zones of the plants (below the surface) eliminating nearly all loss of water due to evaporation, drift, runoff, etc. They can also apply water on top of the surface, in immediate proximity to the root zone. This is not as efficient as below grade application, but is still extremely efficient in comparison with traditional overhead methods. 1. Filtration
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Low volume products require appropriate filtration to avoid clogging of the very small orifices through which the water passes. Different filtration levels (micron size) are required for different water sources, and emitter types/sizes. Generally mesh filters are more effective for inorganics (sand, shell, etc.) and disc filters are more effective for organics (algae). Cleaning of the filters (manual or automatic) is also a consideration. a. Potable (clean) Water Source i. See manufacturers recommendation for filtration requirement (micron) for the products being used. Meet or slightly exceed this requirement. ii. Filtration at one location per zone is sufficient. Locate at the remote control valve. iii. A manual filter cleaning system is typically adequate with a clean water supply due to the infrequency (once a month maximum of required cleaning). Consider any particular maintenance or management issues that may change this general rule. b. Non-potable (dirty) water source i. See manufacturers recommendation for filtration requirement (micron) for the products being used. Meet or slightly exceed this requirement. ii. Filtration at two locations per zone is typically sufficient. Locate a primary filter at the point of connection/water supply, and a secondary filter at the remote control valve. c. Filter Cleaning - Depending on the quality of the water, and thus the required frequency of cleaning, a determination between an automated filter cleaning system and a manual filter cleaning system should be decided. i. If filter cleaning is required more than once a month due to clogging, use an automated filter cleaning system. Consider any particular maintenance or management issues that may change this general rule. ii. If filter cleaning is required less than once a month, use a manual filter cleaning system. Consider any particular maintenance or management issues that may change this general rule. iii. Where automatic filtration is required, a combination of automatic and manual filtration (automatic at the water source, and manual at the remote control valves) often provides the best solution. The low volume irrigation products that are being protected by the above filtration are categorized into two major groups, drip tubing and point source.
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2. Drip Tubing (Appropriate for high density plantings, in areas where seasonal plant changes dont occur, including turf) a. Generally, use when plant spacing is less than 36-48 on center b. Install tubing at 4 depth in planting beds; install at 6-8 depth in turf c. Triangulate emitters in the tubing layout d. Use drip tubing with pressure regulation and check valves e. Secure tubing in soil with rounded, steel galvanized staking at 5 on center f. Determine drip tubing spacing and emitter spacing based on soils: i. In sandy soil there are fewer organics and water percolates quickly; there is less lateral movement of the water through the soil. Accordingly, tighter tube spacing is generally required, with lower flow rates (.5 to .6 gph). ii. In loamy soil there are more organics and water percolates at a medium rate; there is moderate lateral movement of the water through the soil. Accordingly, moderate tube spacing is generally required, with medium flow rates (.6 to .9 gph). iii. In clay soil there are few organics and water percolates at a very slow rate; there is significant lateral movement of the water through the soil. Accordingly, larger tube spacing is generally required, with medium flow rates (.6 to .9 gph). g. Tubing orientation and spacing on slopes greater than 10% must be treated differently to improve efficiency. i. Tube orientation needs to be perpendicular to the slope. Tube spacing needs to be at 100% on the top third of the slope. Tube spacing needs to be at 150% on the middle third of the slope. ii. Tube spacing needs to be at 200% on the bottom third of the slope. h. Design tubing zones to ensure the check valve capability is not exceeded within rows of tubing on the same zone. 3. Point source (Appropriate for low to medium density plantings, in areas where seasonal plant changes dont occur; not appropriate for turf) a. Use when plant spacing is >36-48 on center. b. Secure tubing in soil as required with rounded, galvanized steel staking at 5 on center. c. Use emitter staking to secure emitters to intended location. d. Minimize distribution tubing runs to < 4. e. Use pressure regulating emitters/devices (improves efficiency). f. Use multiple emitters (2 minimum, 3 preferred, >3 for large specimens) at each root ball to provide uniform water to all parts of the root ball. g. Select emitter flows for matched precipitation rate within a zone if irrigating similar plants, or as plant needs dictate.
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B. Turf Rotary (Appropriate for turf and plantings in areas 6 to 30 with minimal to moderate slopes) Turf rotary nozzles are the most efficient above ground application device. They distribute water through medium sized droplets, which drift less, and fight wind much better than sprays. Turf rotary nozzles are made to fit into standard spray head bodies. When specifying turf rotary nozzles, the following features should be used: 1. Pressure Regulation a. Use a pressure regulated spray body based on the area being irrigated and the rotary nozzle selected. b. Use Space Pro software to determine optimal spacing/pressure/head layout. http://cit.cati.csufresno.edu/software/ 2. Check valves prevent low head drainage and ensure maximum strength spring for riser retraction. 3. Pop up height a. Use 6 pop up heights in turf. b. Use 6 pop up heights in linear (hedge or similar) shrub treatments, where throwing under foliage is most effective (blockage would occur with taller height) c. Use 12 pop up heights in groundcover beds and shrub beds where appropriate (blockage would occur with smaller height). 4. Risers a. Use 12 pop up heights on stabilized Sch 40 PVC risers in shrub masses (allows top of head to be lower than maintained height of shrubs, and pop up above maintained height of shrubs to distribute water without blockage). b. Do not use risers immediately adjacent to sidewalks or vehicular areas to reduce vandalism/maintenance issues which reduces water loss due to associated issues 5. Nozzles a. Use matched precipitation rate nozzles with radiuses appropriate for the planting area being irrigated. b. Only use variable arc/adjustable nozzles where absolutely required (improves efficiency). c. Adjust nozzles to prevent overspray onto hardscapes. Do not water over sidewalks and other hardscapes. d. New high efficiency spray nozzles have been entering the marketplace. These are new products that may eventually replace all standard spray nozzles. However, use these nozzles with caution according to all the items above, until the market has determined that the products perform as the manufacturer claims. Examples: Toro Precision Spray Nozzle, and Rain Bird HE Van.
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6. Head Layout a. Space heads at 90% of the radius of the nozzle at the design psi according to the manufacturers catalog to improve efficiency. b. Adjust spacing above as required due to typical site conditions, like wind, to improve efficiency. c. Use Space Pro software to determine optimal spacing/pressure/head layout http://cit.cati.csufresno.edu/software/. C. Bubblers (Appropriate for individual trees, and specimen shrub) Bubblers should be placed on their own zone and should be installed on all trees and specimen shrubs. Zone trees and shrubs with bubblers according to watering needs; do not put trees and shrubs on the same zone or trees with large variations in watering requirements on the same zones. 1. Install bubblers on 4 pop-up spray bodies with no pressure regulation in the head. 2. Utilize pressure compensating, fixed flow, bubbler nozzles 3. Install a minimum of two bubbler s (one on each side of tree or shrub) for each tree or shrub to receive bubblers. The number of bubblers is determined by installing sufficient quantity around the tree/shrub to ensure the entire rootball is evenly wetted during operation. Often times, especially on larger specimen trees/shrubs, three or more bubblers could be required. D. Rotor (Appropriate for turf areas > 30 with minimal to moderate slopes) Rotors are most often seen in large open turf areas, like sports fields and parks. When specifying rotor heads/nozzles, the following features should be used: 1. Pressure regulation a. Use pressure regulated rotor bodies where available. b. Use pressure regulation at the remote control valve. (Also see 3.1.3 Pressure Guidelines section) to ensure efficient pressures are achieved. 2. Check valves prevent low head drainage and ensure maximum strength spring for riser retraction. 3. Stainless riser stems help prevent leaks developing at the seal, especially in sandy soils 4. Riser height a. Use 6 pop up heights in turf (blockage would occur with smaller height) 5. Nozzles a. Use matched precipitation rate rotor nozzles where available; where not available, select nozzles to create matched precipitation rates with radiuses appropriate for the planting area being irrigated. The designer must identify the specific nozzle to be used in each pattern/location, to create a matched precipitation rate. As an example, if a nozzle on a head with a 90 pattern was 1gpm, then the nozzle on a head with a 180 pattern on the same zone
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would need to be 2gpm (twice the area) to have a matched precipitation rate. b. Adjust nozzles to prevent overspray onto hardscapes. Do not water over sidewalks and other hardscapes. 6. Head Layout a. Space heads at 85% of the radius of the nozzle at the design psi according to the manufacturers catalog. b. Adjust spacing above as required due to typical site conditions, like wind. c. Use Space Pro software to determine optimal spacing/pressure/head layout. http://cit.cati.csufresno.edu/software/ Benefits: Significant water conservation resulting from increased efficiency/uniformity capabilities, appropriate head layout, matched precipitation rates, increased quality of products, and reduced leaks. Additionally, reduced maintenance will result, saving both time and money.
3.1.4.2
PIPE
Pipe material, sizing, and installation are an important aspect of distributing water efficiently. A high quality piping system will distribute water efficiently. A poor quality piping system will result in water loss, whether through ongoing maintenance repairs/issues, poor uniformity, or both as a result of inappropriate pressure loss. Industry Approach: The use of Class 160 PVC (thin-walled) with Sch 40 PVC solvent weld fittings for lateral piping is prevalent within the industry. These materials are commonly available and generally inexpensive. The thinner the pipe wall, the less plastic is used to make the pipe and the less it costs. Class 160 PVC is extremely susceptible to not only mechanical damage (a hand shovel) but also to pressure surges within the irrigation system. The use of Class 200 PVC (thicker-walled than Class 160 PVC) with Sch 40 PVC solvent weld fittings for mainline piping is prevalent within the industry. Larger systems may use gasketed Class 200 PVC piping with gasketed PVC or ductile iron fittings and thrust blocking. The thrust block is commonly done improperly and contributes significantly to mainline failures. Sch 40 PVC is commonly used for sleeving in the industry. While it is considered a heavy walled pipe, it is thinner walled than Class 200 PVC when the pipe is > 4. Water Conservation Approach: A. Lateral Pipe 1. Sizing Irrigation systems use pressure to move water in the same way that municipal water suppliers use pressure to move water to peoples homes and businesses. That same
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pressure, and the physical effects of moving water through piping, can cause damage to the piping system if not controlled. Proper sizing of the piping network controls pressure losses and is required to avoid these damages and the efficiency problems resulting from low pressure. Water hammer (damaging pressure surge) is also controlled through proper sizing of the piping network. Better designs will result in fewer breaks due to water hammer and the resulting water waste. Specific pressure loss control practices to incorporate into the pipe sizing of a new system are: a. Do not exceed 5fps velocity. b. Use the friction factor method to insure losses are controlled. c. Do not allow pressure losses to exceed 10% of the available pressure. i.e., if 50psi is available at the source, then only a 5psi loss is acceptable through the lateral piping. 2. Depth Provide sufficient minimum coverage for lateral pipes, which results in significantly fewer mechanical damage occurrences in the future. a. -3 pipe: Provide 18 of coverage, or 30 at vehicular crossings b. 4 provide 24 of coverage, or 30 at vehicular crossings 3. Material High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) provides many benefits. HDPE pipe is superior to PVC in its green capacity (more ecologically friendly), its durability, and its leak free nature. a. Use PE4710 DR17 IPS HDPE pipe for lateral lines. b. Fittings -Use HDPE fittings connected via butt fusion or electrofusion methods. 4. Backfill Provide a pipe bedding and backfill on all sides within 6 of the pipe of clean sand. Remaining backfill can be of native material, but with no rocks > 2 in size. B. Mainline pipe 1. Sizing Irrigation systems use pressure to move water in the same way that municipal water suppliers use pressure to move water to peoples homes and businesses. That same pressure, and the physical effects of moving water through piping, can cause damage to the piping system if not controlled. Proper sizing of the piping network controls pressure losses and is required to avoid these damages and the efficiency problems resulting from low pressure. Mainlines are exposed to water hammer (damaging pressure surges) which are controlled through proper sizing of the piping network. Better designs will result in fewer breaks due to water hammer and the resulting water waste. Specific pressure loss control practices to incorporate into the pipe sizing of a new system are:
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a. Do not exceed 5fps velocity. b. Use the friction factor method to insure losses are controlled. c. Do not allow pressure losses to exceed 10% of the available pressure. i.e., if 50psi is available at the source, then only a 5psi loss is acceptable through the mainline piping. 2. Depth Provide sufficient minimum coverage for mainline pipes, which results in significantly fewer mechanical damage occurrences in the future. a. 2-1/2 pipe: Provide 24 of coverage, or 30 at vehicular crossings b. 3 to 4 pipe: Provide 30 of coverage, or 36 at vehicular crossings c. 4pipe: Provide 36 of coverage including at vehicular crossings 3. Material High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) provides many benefits. HDPE pipe is superior to PVC in its green capacity (more ecologically friendly), its durability, and its leak free nature. Use purple stripe pipe when reclaimed water is the water source. HDPE pipe is available in numerous rating categories the rating is to be determined by the designer using the specific project criteria. a. Use IPS HDPE pipe for mainlines. PE4710 DR13.5 IPS HDPE is a good starting point for the designer, who can up or down-grade the pipe according to project requirements. i. Fittings - Use HDPE fittings connected via butt fusion or electrofusion methods. ii. Restraints - No restraints are required with a fused HDPE mainline. 4. Backfill For all pipe installed via open trenching methods, provide a pipe bedding and backfill on all sides within 6 of the pipe of clean sand. Remaining backfill can be of native material, but with no rocks > 2 in size. Benefits: Water conservation through control of pressure loss and the associated water waste caused by low pressure, protection from internal and external physical forces, and reduction of leaks and failures. Additionally, reduced maintenance will result saving both time and money.
3.1.4.3
VALVES
There are 2 different type of valves discussed in the manual: remote control valves (RCVs) and isolation valves. RCVs are electrically actuated valves that control the flow of water to different zones. Isolation valves allow for the compartmentalization of the mainline (isolation of specific areas) to facilitate a repair. All valves must be reliable, require little maintenance, and be sized to accommodate the flow rate of the water.
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Industry Approach: Non-commercial grade RCVs are commonly used in the commercial marketplace. The 10 round or standard 12 rectangular valve boxes are commonly used. Isolation valves at the RCV are rarely used. Isolation valves on the mainline are generally used, but sparingly at best. Water Conservation Approach: A. Remote Control Valves Use an RCV designed for commercial applications. Use the features shown below when specifying RCVs. Size RCVs to accommodate the flow rate of the water in the zone as shown below. Undersized valves will result in excessive pressure loss, thereby affecting the efficiency of the zone. Oversized valves may fail to close, resulting in water loss through excessive application. 1. Remote Control Valve Type a. Use a RCV with a body constructed of heavy-duty glass-filled UV-resistant nylon, rated to 200psi, with stainless steel hardware. b. Flow control adjustment must be included 2. Remote Control Valves sizing a. < 5 gpm: use special Low Flow RCV (see manufacturer catalogs) b. 5-24 gpm: use 1 RCV c. 25-49 gpm: use 1-1/2 RCV d. 50-100 gpm: use 2 RCV e. > 100 gpm: use 3 RCV 3. Remote Control Valve Boxes a. Use Jumbo RCV boxes to allow sufficient room in the valve box for future servicing of the valves without digging up the box. If digging up the box is required, this often results in having to repair landscape material and water in the repaired landscape material. B. Isolation Valves When a mainline needs repair, the mainline must typically be drained. Isolation valves help conserve water by making possible a partial draining of the mainline. While this does not sound significant, consider the amount of water in a 2,500- 4 mainline pipe (nearly 1,700 gallons). Additionally, the mainline refilling process is significantly less with less draining, requiring less system overflow (water loss) to bring the system back online. (It is also during this refilling that trapped air can cause excessive water hammer in the piping; the less air that is allowed to enter, the less potential there is for problems due to air.) Valves should be high quality and sized to match the pipe in which they are installed. 1. Locate isolation valves: a. Immediately upstream of each RCV b. On each side of a major mainline tee c. Halfway around a mainline loop >1000 d. At 1000 on center maximum
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2. Isolation Valve Types a. Use a specialty ductile iron gate valve for HDPE mainlines. The valves come with HDPE on each end for welding directly to the mainline. Benefits: Reduced water consumption through controlled pressure losses and associated increased efficiency. Minimized mainline draining/refilling due to isolation valves and RCV valve boxes sized to allow servicing in the ground both save water, time, and costs.
3.1.4.4
CONTROLLERS AND SENSORS
The controller is the brain of the irrigation system. The settings in the controller (typically set/determined by user) determine how frequently and for how long an irrigation cycle will run. This is the most significant source of wasted water in the landscape running too often and/or for too long with no adjustments for seasonal changes. Accordingly, there is a significant opportunity for water conservation in this equipment category. Sensors such as rain, wind, and soil moisture can greatly inform irrigation watering efforts by ensuring irrigation only occurs during times when appropriate and soil moisture levels dictate. Industry Approach: Residential (basic) controllers are commonly used in the commercial marketplace. These controllers have limited programs/features and generally dont include any automated adjustment (basic) for seasonal climate changes. A standard rain sensor is commonly used, though this is often found to be disconnected, non-operational, or installed in inappropriate locations. No other sensors are commonly used. Water Conservation Approach: A. Advanced controller features/sensors should be utilized by choosing one of the following controller types. In addition, soil moisture sensors ( SMS) and leak detection should be utilized. 1. Weather/evapotranspiration (ET) based controllers a. Historical: These controllers use historical ET data (identified by zip code) to adjust the irrigation to match the historical weather trends/seasons. Rainfall is not integrated into the controls as more than a simple switch. b. Hybrid: There are 6 variables in the Penman equation to determine ET rate. These hybrid controllers use historical ET data for some of the variables, and real time data from sensors for the other variables (hence the term hybrid). Rainfall is actually measured and used by this controller to adjust the irrigation. c. ET Service: ET rates are available from different agencies and companies. An ET Service controller requires a subscription to a third party ET provider and a communication path, and each day the controller is sent the ET rate from
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the third party. The controller uses the ET rate to adjust the irrigation. Rainfall can be a simple switch, or measured and integrated into the controllers adjustments of irrigation. d. Real time ET: This type of controller requires its own weather station capable of producing ET. The controller gets the ET from the weather station and uses it to adjust the irrigation. Rainfall is measured and integrated in the controllers adjustments of irrigation. 2. Rain Sensors A rain sensor, or rain switch, is a device that is actuated by rainfall and turns off the irrigation system during a rain event. The shutoff is caused by a hygoscopic disk that swells in the presence of water (rainfall) and then shrinks back down as it dries out which activates an electrical switch to temporarily suspend watering by an irrigation system. a. A rain sensor can be added to a traditional controller and function simply as an on/off switch. 3. Soil Moisture Sensors (SMS) A SMS measures the moisture content of the soil. Generally, this information can be used by a control system in one of two ways: a. A SMS can be added to a traditional controller and function simply as an on/off switch like a rain sensor, but using soil moisture content instead of rain as the metric. b. A SMS can be used with a SMS based controller, which can use the specific moisture content to adjust irrigation, similar to how an ET controller uses ET to adjust irrigation. 4. Leak Detection/Flow Sensor Leaks have the potential to waste substantial amounts of water, in addition to causing significant amounts of damage. A flow sensor can integrate with some control systems to prevent excessive flows (leaks, stuck valves, etc.) from occurring. Generally, there are two levels of leak detection available: a. Some controllers can learn zone flows, and allow the user to set a tolerance. If the flow for that zone exceeds the tolerance, the controller would shut down the zone or system. These types of systems would not stop a leak that occurred outside of the watering window. There are a few commonly available controllers with this technology built into them. b. Some controllers have the features identified above, but also have the ability to see flow outside the limits of the watering window. This function makes this type of system more valuable. Additionally, a flow sensor provides the ability to measure the amount of water being used for irrigation. This is extremely helpful when water budgets/allocations
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are involved. There are a few controllers that provide built- in budgeting capabilities, allowing a user to set allowable amounts of water per zone per time period. Benefits: Reduced water consumption through any moisture sensors or automated controller features that help prevent applying water when sufficient moisture is present. Additionally, some flow sensor/controller combinations have the ability to shut down the system if a leak is detected, potentially saving significant amounts of water.
3.1.5
ZONING
In planting design the concept of grouping plants with similar water needs is called hydrozoning (see 2.1.3 Hydrozoning section). In irrigatio, basic zoning of the irrigation system is done to: 1) match the hydraulic demand (flow required) with the capability of the water supply (flow available) and 2) enable the application of water to plants with similar water needs at the same time using the same delivery method. Industry Approach: It is common for irrigation system zoning to not differentiate between plant materials and plant water needs. Ex: Turfgrass and planting beds are irrigated on the same zone. It is also common to see different delivery method types on the same zone (sprays and rotors on the same zone). Water Conservation Approach: Zoning the system to match different landscape materials is required. Proper zoning considers plant material, microclimates and application devices, and allows an irrigation manager to efficiently manage the irrigation and landscape material. Proper zoning practices to promote water conservation are: A. Match flow demand to available flow from POC. B. Consider plant water needs. Separately zone high, medium, and low water need plants as different groups. Example: Turfgrass and an adjacent planting bed are not irrigated on the same zone, since the lawn requires more water than the planting bed. C. Consider microclimates that affect plant water needs. Examples of microclimates are areas with different conditions of shade, sun, slope, aspect, wind, etc. Separately zone microclimate areas within areas of similar plant water needs. D. Consider application devices. Separately zone different application devices as they apply water at different rates (see 3.1.4.1 Delivery Methods section). E. Provide separate zones for tree bubblers Benefits: Significant water conservation through controlling pressure loss and the ability to effectively manage the irrigation system and provide plant material with only the amount of water needed.
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3.1.6
SLEEVING
Sleeving serves two purposes; 1) to protect a carrier pipe/wiring and 2) to provide future access beneath hardscapes. Industry Approach: Sleeving is commonly provided as Class 160 PVC, which is thin-walled and very susceptible to manual physical damage (hand shovel). Water Conservation Approach: A. Use minimum sleeve size of 2 B. Size sleeves twice the size of the pipe they carry (Ex: 2 pipe inside a 4 sleeve) C. Use Sch 40 PVC for 2-4 sleeves D. Use CL 200 PVC for 6+ sleeves Benefits: Better protected mainline and lateral lines result in less mainline breaks and less water wasted and reduced repair costs.
3.1.7
OTHER APPLICABLE CODES
The irrigation plans must be designed to meet not only the owners goals, but also all applicable codes. The TCEQ has requirements. The state requires that a local authority (Interstate MUD) must meet TCEQ requirements, at a minimum. TCEQs requirements can be viewed here: http://www.tceq.state.tx.us/assets/public/compliance/compliance_support/regulatory/irrigation/forms _li/rulesforregguid_063008.pdf Industry approach: In times of severe drought, guidelines, rules and codes are developed by governmental and agency personnel who have little to no experience in real world situations. Additionally, they are enacted with little to no enforcement or training of industry personnel. As a result, old habits and practices remain, little to no consequences are encountered by industry installation and maintenance contractors, and very little progress is made in the arena of water conservation. When the drought subsides, these guidelines, rules, and codes are either rescinded or ignored. Water Conservation Approach: Guidelines, rules, codes, etc. are developed by experienced industry field personnel, governmental agencies, and other stake holders and enforcement is strong and consistent. Additionally, significant educational opportunities are provided and required for industry professionals. The guidelines, rules, and codes are generated out of a true concern for the long- term water needs of the citizenry, not a knee jerk response to pending water supply crises. Therefore, these regulations are implemented with the intent to remain, regardless of whether drought is occurring or not.
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Benefits: Old habits die, new ways of thinking emerge, a better understanding of why, what, how, and when is developed by industry personnel and the citizenry as a whole. With understanding comes compliance (by most), and real, long- term, and significant water conservation.
3.1.8
DESIGN INTENT
This is a narrative that explains the goals, objectives, and requirements the irrigation design is intended to accomplish. It is a clear explanation of why the equipment, delivery methods, installation details, and specifications have their specific requirements. Typical Approach: Typical irrigation design documents consist of the irrigation plan, installation details and specifications, but no narrative of the design intent. Water Conservation Approach: The site design documents focused on water conservation should contain a design intent narrative that, at a minimum, explains the following: A. The methodology of the design B. Why products/equipment were used C. Microclimate considerations D. Code considerations E. Special installation methods and why F. Maintenance objectives, requirements and why Benefits: A well written and clear design intent document is the best insurance that the irrigation plan, materials, and overall system conceived and designed is properly installed, maintained, and managed. If this is achieved, then the owner will have the functionality that they wanted throughout the systems life cycle. Additionally, considerable water can be conserved with a water conservation oriented design.
3.2
INSTALLATION
It is not uncommon for a well-designed, water conserving irrigation system to be modified by the installer during installation. While minor modifications are typically required to accommodate site conditions, how those modifications are made is critical. Some of the items in this Installation section are obvious in their contribution to water conservation; others are less so. However, all of the items within this Installation section exist to favor a high quality installation which, in and of itself, is vital for water conservation. Without it, leaks, recurring maintenance issues, poor efficiencies, etc. will significantly increase the amount of water that is used by the system over time.
3.2.1
QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTALLER
The State of Texas requires that anyone who connects an irrigation system to any water supply be a Licensed Irrigation Technician, or work directly under the supervision of a Licensed Landscape Irrigator.
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Industry Approach: Typically the installation contractor meets the minimum state licensing requirement, which requires no previous experience with irrigation installation to obtain. The individual is required to successfully complete a 16 hour course with examination. No emphasis is placed upon water conservation principles or practices in either the course of study or the examination. Water Conservation Approach: Experience with water conservation based projects is of critical importance. A minimum of 3 years of experience and education with water conservation based projects is required. Contractor installation personnel should be proficient and knowledgeable in system layout and design, proper installation practices, hydraulics, electrical practices and codes, grading, excavation, backfilling, scheduling and maintenance issues. The following certifications and licenses are highly recommended: A. Certified Irrigation Contractor (CIC) from the Irrigation Association in addition to Landscape Irrigators License and Irrigation Technician License from the State of Texas (TCEQ). B. Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor (CLIA) from the Irrigation Association. C. Certified Landscape Water Manager (CLWM) from the Irrigation Association. D. Backflow Prevention Assembly Tester from the State of Texas (TCEQ). E. Certified Site Water Planner (CSWP) offered by the Irrigation Water Management Society (IWMS) Benefits: A well rounded irrigation installer will ensure that the parameters of the design are sound, and reasonable, and install the system in such a way as to provide the maximum water savings. As real world conditions often differ from design assumptions, a person with a thorough knowledge of the working components of the irrigation system can adapt the system within its specified limitations to achieve the performance desired.
3.2.2 3.2.2.1
EQUIPMENT PIPE
The installation of the piping network is very important for a successful system installation. There are numerous things to consider during the piping installation from location to obstructions to fittings to restraints. The requirements identified in the 3.1.4.2 Pipe section should be followed. Industry Approach: The installation of pipe is generally performed by labor with minimal experience and education. While they may be state licensed and/or certified, this requires no experience in the industry as noted above (Qualifications of Installer Section 3.2.1). Additionally, little to no supervision by experienced and
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educated supervisors occurs. Next, little if any construction observation by a knowledgeable third party is performed. Finally, costs are paramount versus long- term value for most projects. Water Conservation Approach: Installation personnel must meet State of Texas Licensed Irrigator or Technician requirements and also must be an Irrigation Association Certified Irrigation Contractor and Landscape Irrigation Auditor. Additionally, all installation contractors must have a minimum of five years of experience installing irrigation systems of the size and type contracted for. Finally, a rigorous construction observation effort is required (see construction observation - section3.2.6). Benefits: A properly installed piping network provides the benefit of a high quality piping system that will result in minimal maintenance and repair. The result is less wasted water due to fewer mainline draining, refilling and flushing efforts resulting from main repairs.
3.2.2.2
TRENCHING/BACKFILL
Trenching is required to install the piping network. Proper trenching provides a stable, smooth base for the piping network, and if done poorly can result in future maintenance issues. The backfill surrounding a pipe installed by open trench can compromise the pipe and lead to recurring maintenance issues. Industry Approach: Trenching for pipe is generally not given much attention or specific focus. Undulating trenches create high points in the lines that can trap air and cause significant maintenance/hammer issues. Generally, native soil, with little regard to condition, is used to backfill the pipe; minimal concern is given to removing larger rocks. Additionally, minimal effort is given to proper compaction of trenches.
Figure 3-11 Trenching
Water Conservation Approach: A. Excavate straight and vertical trenches with smooth, flat or sloping bottoms.
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B. Trench width and depth should be sufficient to allow for the proper vertical and horizontal separation between piping as identified in section 3.1.4.2 Pipe. C. Backfill all piping, both mainline and laterals, prior to performing any pressure tests to protect the piping. Do not backfill for 2' on each side of every joint (bell fittings, 90's, tees, 45's, etc.). These joints shall not be backfilled until all piping has satisfactorily passed its appropriate pressure test as outlined in section 3.2.3 below. D. Compact backfill to a dry density equal to the adjacent undisturbed soil, but at a minimum of 90% modified proctor. E. Follow the backfill requirements identified in section 3.1.4.2 Pipe. Benefits: Proper trenching provides reduced maintenance/potential for entrapped air. Proper backfilling provides protection of the pipe. Both of these items result in long-term water savings with fewer mainline draining, refilling and flushing efforts due to mainline breaks.
3.2.2.3
REMOTE CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY
Remote control valves (RCVs) and their associated gate valves and valve boxes must be installed properly to assist in water conservation. Industry Approach: It is common for the installation requirements of the design plans to be ignored and for undersized valve boxes to be used, requiring the future removal of the valve box for valve maintenance. The use of stabilization (bricks or otherwise) is also commonly ignored, causing sinking of the box and eventual impact of the box edge on the mainline/lateral line, causing breaks and maintenance issues. Water Conservation Approach: The requirements identified in section 3.1.4.3 V must also be followed. A. Center the jumbo valve box on the gate valve and RCV to allow for future maintenance of the RCV without removal of the valve box. B. Provide stabilization to prevent the box from settling or being driven into the ground by mowers, etc. C. Adjust the flow control on each RCV to ensure shut off within 10 seconds after deactivation by the irrigation controller. D. Sequence all valves so that the farthest valve from the point of connection (P.O.C.) operates first and the closest to the P.O.C. operates last. The closest valve to the P.O.C. should be the last valve in the programmed sequence. E. Install all RCVs with unions both upstream and downstream of the valve assembly. Benefits: These recommendations provide protection of the piping system and reduce future maintenance, which will result in less water consumption through fewer mainline draining, refilling and flushing efforts due to mainline breaks. Additionally, RCVs can be easily removed and repaired without digging up piping and valve boxes thus saving time and money.
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3.2.2.4
HEAD LAYOUT
Proper field head layout and adjustments are critical to successfully turn the design into reality. Minor adjustments are nearly always required to accommodate issues/obstructions that were not considered, or unknown, during the design. Industry Approach: It is common for contractors to use the irrigation design as only a general guide and, thereby, routinely take considerable artistic license in performing the task of head layout. Water Conservation Approach: Contractors are instructed they must strictly follow the design intent of the irrigation design plans and that only very minor in field adjustments are permitted without receiving approval from the irrigation design professional. In general, the installation contractor must perform the following: A. Adjust locations and make the necessary modifications to nozzle types, etc. required to ensure 100% head to head coverage (see 3.1.4.1 Delivery Methods also). B. Provide the setbacks noted below to protect heads from damage: 1. Rotors a. Provide 36 setback at a roadway without curbing. b. Provide 4 setback at a roadway with curbing, or at back of a sidewalk. 2. Turf Rotary a. Provide 12 setback at the edge of a roadway without curbing. b. Provide 4 setback at the edge of a roadway with curbing, or at back of a sidewalk. 3. Risers a. Set risers a minimum of 18" off sidewalks, roadway curbing, or any other hardscape area, and 6" inside planted masses for protection from vandalism and damage. Benefits: Taking these steps helps insure a highly efficient system and protects heads from vandalism and damage. Both of these items result in significant water savings potential.
3.2.3 3.2.3.1
TESTING MAINLINE TESTING
Mainline testing is a quality control effort that tests the viability of the installed mainline. Insuring the viability of the mainline is critical to providing an efficient irrigation system. Industry Approach: Mainline testing is commonly performed in the commercial marketplace. It is not commonly performed with a hydrostatic pump, or to pressures beyond the operating pressure; it is typically performed using the water source for pressure.
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Water Conservation Approach: Pressure tests must be performed as follows: A. HDPE Mainline 1. Fill the HDPE mainline with water and pressurize the system to 125 psi. 2. Allow the mainline to stabilize. 3. Monitor the system pressure at two gauge locations; the gauge locations must be at opposite ends of the mainline and begin with the same respective pressures. Monitor the gauges for one hour. 4. The pipe shall pass if after one hour the final pressure is within 5% of the start pressure. 5. For safety reasons use hydrostatic testing only. B. If parameters are exceeded, locate the problem; repair it; wait 24 hours and retry the test. This procedure must be followed until the mainline passes the test. Benefits: Water conservation through eliminating leaks and insuring the viability of the mainline piping system.
3.2.3.2
LATERAL LINE TESTING
Lateral line testing is a quality control effort that tests the viability of the installed lateral lines. Insuring the viability of the laterals is important to providing an efficient irrigation system. Industry Approach: Lateral lines are not typically visually checked for leaks. They are installed, backfilled, and flushed. Water Conservation Approach: A. Fill the lateral lines to the operational pressure (minimum of 50 psi) and visually check for leaks. B. Fix any leaks detected. C. Once a lateral passes this inspection it is ready to be backfilled. Benefits: Water conservation through eliminating leaks and insuring the viability of the lateral piping system.
3.2.3.3
OPERATIONAL TESTING
Operational testing is the test drive of the system for coverage and proper operation from the controller. It provides an opportunity to fine tune the coverage, and eliminate any issues discovered during the test.
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Industry Approach: A thorough operational testing of the irrigation is NOT performed. It is more commonly a casual effort to insure everything looks good. Very little effort is given to the verification of the systems complete and effective operation, especially as it relates to water conservation. Water Conservation Approach: After the mainline and lateral lines have passed their respective pressure tests, and the system is completely operational, perform a coverage test and demonstration of the system. A. Turn on each zone from the controller B. Visually assess each zone for complete coverage while it is running C. Visually assess each zone for needed adjustments like misting, plumb heads, blockage, clogging, nozzle selections, pop up heights, or overspray onto hardscapes. D. Correct any coverage issues or needed adjustments E. Make sure RCVs close within 10 seconds, or less, of being deactivated by the controller. Benefits: Water conservation through fine tuning the system and improving efficiency.
3.2.4
This is the oversight and guidance of the irrigation contractors installation operations by the irrigation designer. The installation contractor and the designer must be independent entities.
Figure 3-12 HDPE mainline during installation
Industry Approach: While most projects receive minimal oversight and guidance by the designer it is most often insufficient and given little authority. Additionally, most irrigation designers have little to no hands on experience with irrigation system installation, maintenance, or management. Therefore, even when designers are hired for construction observation, they provide very little benefit to the project. Water Conservation Approach: The owner requires the irrigation designer to be intimately involved in overseeing and guiding the installation of the irrigation system by the irrigation contractor. When the designer meets the requirements outlined in section 3.1.1, a significant benefit to the projects
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successful outcome is realized. At minimum, the irrigation designer performing construction observation services should conduct the following: A. Pre-construction meeting attended by owner, general contractor, irrigation contractor and irrigation designer. Irrigation designer controls this meeting and outlines the requirements of all parties regarding the goals and expectations of the plan. The design intent, the plans, details, and specification are thoroughly reviewed and discussed B. Weekly progress inspections a minimum of two per week and preferably more. The irrigation designer should inspect every phase and aspect of the irrigation installation and approve its progress on a weekly basis. C. Final irrigation inspection once the irrigation system is fully installed and considered complete by the irrigation and general contractors, the irrigation designer would inspect the entire site and create a punch list of issues that need to be resolved and/or corrected D. Punch list inspection inspection to ensure all items listed in the final inspections punch list have been adequately resolved and/or corrected according to the irrigation designer. E. Assist owner with the final acceptance process. Benefits: The original design intent of the owner and designer will be realized and the intended water conservation, plant health, and management capabilities achieved.
3.2.5 3.2.5.1
POST INSTALLATION POST INSTALLATION AUDIT
An audit measures the efficiency (uniformity) of an irrigation system and provides many needed parameters for proper irrigation scheduling (see IR/MANAEMENT/SCHEDULING section 3.4.2). Thus, a post installation audit measures the efficiency of an irrigation system immediately after installation; presumable when the system is in the best operational condition of its life.
Figure 3-13 Auditing catch can test
Industry Approach: A post installation audit to confirm the efficiency of the installed irrigation system is rarely performed. Generally, systems are installed, visually observed by the installer at completion, and
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according to the visual observation deemed good, or not. No scientific method is employed to empirically determine efficiency. Water Conservation Approach: Perform a post installation Irrigation Association (IA) compliant audit to determine precipitation rates and efficiencies. A. Audit a minimum of 15% of the zones, and at least one of each type of zone on the system (spray, rotor, turf rotary, drip) B. Determine precipitation rates C. Determine efficiency (DU) 1. If the efficiencies measured are below the typical maximum efficiency (rotor @ 75%, turf rotary @ 85% and drip at 95%), adjust head layout, nozzle selection, zoning , etc. until the required efficiencies are obtained. D. Determine soil type, root zone depth, and plant species by zone E. Use the results of the audit to inform the scheduling. Benefits: Water conservation through verified system efficiency and improved scheduling capabilities due to accurate precipitation rate and efficiency information.
3.2.5.2
AS-BUILTS
As-built drawings should accurately show the irrigation system as it was constructed, on top of an accurate as-built base plan. Industry Approach: Accurate as-built drawings are rarely encountered. Generally, they are a redline markup of the original design, with few, if any, dimensions provided. More often than not, they are the design drawings stamped as-builts with no changes shown. Either way, industry as-builts are generally viewed as being relatively inaccurate and of little help in the maintenance stage of a systems life cycle. Water Conservation Approach: A. Locate with a sub-meter GPS device all remote control valves, gate valves, ball valves, splice boxes, controllers, mainline, sleeving, and low voltage wiring. B. Provide the GPS information overlaid on an as-built survey of the developed site, in a plan format to create a high quality, accurate, and legible set of as-built drawings C. Provide the as-built in both hardcopy and electronic format. Benefits: As-built drawings assist in the effective maintenance and management of an irrigation system. They effectively communicate the irrigation system to the maintenance staff without having to run the system. They enable maintenance staff to more easily find equipment in the field when needed for maintenance or repairs, reducing the time and effort required for maintenance items, saving water, time and money. They additionally provide good information for future system modifications.
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3.2.5.3
CONTROLLER CHART
A controller chart is helpful to orient maintenance staff to the layout of an irrigation system. It generally includes the basic layout of the system in a plan format. Industry Approach: Controller charts are not commonly used. Maintenance personnel generally rely on personal experience with a system. Water Conservation Approach: Provide a controller chart at each controller. A good controller chart will minimally be: A. Reduced to a size that will fit inside of the controller door and hermetically sealed in clear plastic for protection from water. B. Mounted inside controller door C. Show the area controlled by each remote control valve using a different color for each zone, including equipment type.
Figure 3-14 Controller chart
Benefits: A controller chart effectively communicates the irrigation system to the maintenance staff without having to run the system, and reduces maintenance run times, saving water, time and money. It can also help with seasonal scheduling if being done at the controller.
3.2.6
FINAL ACCEPTANCE
Final acceptance is a quality control practice. It identifies the specific point in time that the project was officially complete, and was turned over to an owner. There are several requirements that are tied to final acceptance that generally protect the owner. State law requires the following minimum four tasks be completed before final acceptance per TCEQ rule 344.63 Completion of Irrigation System Installation. Upon completion of the irrigation system, the irrigator or irrigation technician who provided supervision for the on-site installation shall be required to complete four items:
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(1) A final "walk through" with the irrigation system's owner or the owner's representative to explain the operation of the system; (2) The maintenance checklist on which the irrigator or irrigation technician shall obtain the signature of the irrigation system's owner or owner's representative and shall sign, date, and seal the checklist. If the irrigation system's owner or owner's representative is unwilling or unable to sign the maintenance checklist, the irrigator shall note the time and date of the refusal on the irrigation system's owner or owner's representative's signature line. The irrigation system owner or owner's representative will be given the original maintenance checklist and a duplicate copy of the maintenance checklist shall be maintained by the irrigator. The items on the maintenance checklist shall include but are not limited to: (A) the manufacturer's manual for the automatic controller, if the system is automatic; (B) a seasonal (spring, summer, fall, winter) watering schedule based on either current/real time evapotranspiration or monthly historical reference evapotranspiration (historical ET) data, monthly effective rainfall estimates, plant landscape coefficient factors, and site factors; (C) a list of components, such as the nozzle, or pump filters, and other such components; that require maintenance and the recommended frequency for the service; and (D) the statement, "This irrigation system has been installed in accordance with all applicable state and local laws, ordinances, rules, regulations or orders. I have tested the system and determined that it has been installed according to the Irrigation Plan and is properly adjusted for the most efficient application of water at this time." (3) A permanent sticker which contains the irrigator's name, license number, company name, telephone number and the dates of the warranty period shall be affixed to each automatic controller installed by the irrigator or irrigation technician. If the irrigation system is manual, the sticker shall be affixed to the original maintenance checklist. The information contained on the sticker must be printed with waterproof ink and include: (4) The irrigation plan indicating the actual installation of the system must be provided to the irrigation system's owner or owner representative. Refer to this link for additional State Law requirements before final acceptance: http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/legal/rules/rules/pdflib/344f.pdf Industry Approach: Within the irrigation industry, final acceptance is generally required by the prime contractor, owner, and/or irrigation designer. While requirements for final acceptance to be complete
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may be listed in the irrigation plans and specifications, all too often small to significant issues are allowed to go uncorrected because a certificate of occupancy (CO) is needed. To facilitate the issuance of the CO the owner, or their representative, accepts a less than expected product; oftentimes with the idea that maintenance personnel can fix it, or deal with it, etc. Water Conservation Approach: Final acceptance of the project should only be granted after the following inspections, documents and conditions have been completed and approved by the owner. A. Progress Inspections 1. Mainline installation inspection(s) - All mainline inspected for proper pipe, fittings, depth of coverage, backfill, and installation method. 2. Mainline pressure test - All mainline pressure tested according to design requirements 3. Coverage and operational test B. Final inspection C. Tests/Reports/Deliverables 1. Flow Meter calibration - All flow meters calibrated with certified calibration report(s) 2. Soil Test and worksheet 3. Irrigation Audit 4. As-Builts 5. Controller charts 6. Operation and maintenance manuals for all components of the irrigation system D. Punch list inspection The project schedule, and expectations, should be such that there is NO compromise in the installed project from what was envisioned at the design stage via the design intent. Benefits: The final acceptance process helps insure that the water conserving system conceived, and designed, was installed.
3.3
MAINTENANCE
3.3.1
SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CHECKS
All components of the irrigation system should be routinely checked for proper operation to ensure the systems original design intent is being maintained. When a well designed and installed irrigation system operates at peak performance, it saves water, energy, and their associated costs. A written system for performing the required tasks should be created and implemented.
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Industry Approach: While monthly wet checks are becoming more common in the industry, little to no routine maintenance is conducted on the control system, POC, sensors, etc. Water Conservation Approach: Periodic inspections are scheduled for ALL components of the irrigation system as outlined below: A. Irrigation System Check monthly Wet Checks - Operate each zone just long enough to walk the entire area and observe its operational condition. Items to look for and repair, as needed, include: 1. Point of Connection (POC) a. Potable water check water meter and backflow for leaks and proper operation monthly. Have the backflow tested and certified annually. b. Pumps check pump for leaks and proper operation monthly. Check grounding annually. Service control valves (if equipped) twice per year, at minimum. Check variable frequency drives (VFD) (if equipped) monthly to ensure drives are properly cooled and operational. 2. Valve opening and closing times a. Verify each irrigation remote control valve opens when electrically activated by the controller. b. Verify each irrigation remote control valve closes when electrically deactivated by the controller. A valve should close within 5-10 seconds when deactivated. Adjust the valve flow control as needed. If no flow control adjustment is provided or the adjustment does not solve the problem, repair or replace the valve, as needed. 3. Leaks and breaks a. Look for leaks in sprinklers around the wiper seal, and lateral or mainline leaks. Repair and replace as needed. 4. Proper coverage a. Head adjustment - make sure each head in each zone is applying water only to the areas needed and intended. Adjust the coverage arc of each sprinkler as required. For drip zones look for soil wetted areas to ensure the intended areas, and nothing else, are receiving water. b. Obstructions to coverage - look for obstructions, such as heads too low in turf areas allowing the turf to block the sprinklers cover arc or shrubs that have grown around sprinklers and are blocking the coverage arc. Make adjustments as required by either replacing the sprinklers with higher popup risers, moving heads to accommodate the landscape growth, trim the shrubbery, etc. 5. Audits
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a. Conduct Irrigation Association compliant audits on all zones every five years and utilize the results of the audits to inform if any equipment, system, or scheduling modifications are needed. Implement this policy by auditing 20% of the zones each year so that all zones are checked every five years. 6. Nozzles a. If clogged nozzles are found, remove nozzle and clean the nozzle and screen of all debris and re-install. Proper operation should be restored but if not, replace the nozzle as needed. B. Sensor Check 1. Flow sensors/water meters check sensor/meter for proper operation and communication monthly. Check and verify the accuracy annually. Each sensor/meter should report flow to within +/- 5% of a known and certified meter. 2. Rain Sensors Rain sensors should be checked monthly for proper placement, operation, communication, and settings. In general, rain sensors should be set to shut off irrigation after receiving .25 of rain fall. Rain sensors should be installed to ensure they do not receive water from the irrigation system and are free of shrubs, roofs, fences, etc. and able to receive rainfall in an open and natural manner. 3. Rain Cans Check for proper operation, communication, and accuracy monthly. Rock the bucket a known number of times and verify the rainfall reported matches. Clean rain can of debris and bird droppings at least monthly or as site characteristics require. Install BB-525 Bird Repellant Apparatus from Texas Electronics, or equivalent to discourage birds from sitting on rain cans. 4. ET Gauges check for proper operation and communication monthly. Add distilled water monthly, or as required per seasonal requirements. Clean ceramic evaporator screen monthly or as required for site specific needs. 5. Weather Stations check monthly for proper operation, communication, and accuracy. Check all sensors and clean as needed. Replace desiccant packs as needed. Check annually to verify grounding requirements are satisfactory. 6. Soil Moisture Sensors check monthly for proper operation and communication 7. Wind Sensors (Anemometer) check monthly for proper operation and communication. Ensure irrigation is suspended during periods of wind speed in excess of 7mph or more, or as site conditions dictate. C. Filtration Check 1. Primary filtration at the point of connection (water source) for non-potable water sources equipped with a filtration system. Check monthly to ensure filters are clean, seals and gaskets are not leaking, and the filters are operating properly. For automatic filters, ensure the back flush sensors, valve(s), and piping are in good operational condition. For manual flush systems, monitor weekly until it is determined the required flushing interval for the water source utilized. Once
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known, set up a regularly scheduled manual flush interval. Potable water sources should not require POC-based filtration systems. 2. Secondary filtration at the remote control valve (RCV) all drip zones, regardless of water source, should have filtration at the remote control valve. All non-potable irrigation systems (other than drip) rarely need a filter at the RCV, especially if POC level filtration is utilized. Check and clean filters monthly, or more often if water quality dictates. 3. Tertiary filtration at the head all major manufacturers spray heads have nozzle screens installed directly under the nozzle. Check and clean all nozzle screens monthly if clogging is noticed during monthly wet checks D. Control Check 1. Grounding utilize an earth ground test to verify proper grounding for all controllers and control components installed in the field on an annual basis. . 2. Date and time is correct check controllers monthly to ensure they are powered on, have the correct date/time, and are operating properly. E. Scheduling 1. Check controller schedules monthly to ensure the current schedules match weather pattern requirements of the plant material being irrigated. Change schedules as new plant material is installed for both grow in and the new plants long- term watering requirements by season. Randomly check soil moisture levels on a weekly basis utilizing a soil probe to determine soil moisture at the root zone. Change schedules according to findings. Benefits: The original design intent will be retained over time and the benefits of a good water conserving design will be realized and a substantial reduction in water use, from a normally maintained system, will be achieved. Note: See Recommended Seasonal Irrigation Maintenance Schedule in the Appendix
3.3.2
MAINTAIN DESIGN INTEGRITY
A well designed irrigation system must be maintained to ensure the original design intent is retained. Seemingly simple changes can significantly reduce a systems operational efficiencies and thus waste water, energy, and money. Industry Approach: In general, maintenance personnel rarely have access or have seen the original irrigation design; therefore, they maintain the system as they do all others. This results in a system being maintained the same as the majority of all other industry standard systems. A common practice is to replace heads and nozzles with whatever is readily available on the service truck or at the contractors preferred supply house. In addition, changes to the landscape will result in no changes to the irrigation
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system, or incorrect modifications, as it relates to the original design intent. The end result is that over time, the irrigation system poorly resembles the original design intent of the irrigation plans. Water Conservation Approach: This approach requires on-site maintenance personnel to have ready access, and be made intimately familiar with, the original irrigation design plans and the designs intent. All system maintenance and modifications are informed by the plans and design intent. The practices to employ are as follows: A. Equipment repairs or replacement 1. Utilize the exact make and model of original design components when making repairs or replacing parts. This pertains to all components, including nozzles, and should be strictly adhered to. B. System Modifications 1. Riser heights confirm sprinkler height ensures the intended coverage pattern/arc is achieved. Raise heads, or install heads with higher pop-up rise,r or place heads on risers, as needed, to accommodate the changing landscape conditions while ensuring the original design intent is maintained. 2. Head type and placement when adding heads, changing bed or turf area shapes, etc., install heads in a head to head pattern as required by original irrigation design. See design section 3.1.4.1 in this manual. 3. Zoning - when areas of turf or shrubs are enlarged, reduced, or just modified make sure to keep turf and shrub beds on separate zones and coverage requirements as outlined in the original design intent. C. Delivery system changes 1. Water source changes - ensure proper pressure is maintained as required in the original irrigation design drawings and as indicated in the point of connection and design intent sections. Be sure to comply with all applicable laws regarding the type of water source utilized. 2. Adding filtration - When the water quality of the water source declines, it is often necessary to install filtration. Make sure to account for the pressure requirements, flow requirements, and maintenance requirements when sizing and specifying the new filtration system. Benefits: The original design intent will be retained over time and the benefits of a good water conserving design will be realized and a substantial reduction in water use from a normally maintained system, will be achieved.
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3.4
MANAGEMENT
3.4.1
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
There are many concepts and tools that can be utilized to ensure the proper management of an irrigation system. When properly understood and implemented, they can ensure the systems capabilities are maximized and the water and energy use are minimized; they will also help to ensure plant material is healthy and vigorous. Note: An efficient system improperly managed can use more water than an inefficient system that is properly managed. In general, good irrigation management is the single most important component, of the four parts of an irrigation systems life (design, installation, maintenance, and management) for conserving water.
Figure 3-15 Water testing as part of ongoing management
Industry Approach: The standard industry approach is one size fits all. This translates into all spray zones receiving a set run time for a set number of days per week; rotor zones receiving a set run time for a set number of days per week, and so on. Drip and bubbler zones are handled in the same manner. These set parameters differ from one maintenance contractor to the next so every time a new contractor is hired, the landscapes irrigation will be managed differently. In general, little effort to manage according to site specific issues is made. Water Conservation Approach: This approach requires irrigation management be guided by site specific parameters such as weather, plant palette, soil type and condition, irrigation delivery system capabilities, and other miscellaneous needs and requirements of the sites landscape. The irrigation manager should manage the site utilizing the following concepts. All irrigation managers should carry, and routinely utilize, either a digital soil moisture probe or mechanical soil moisture probe to verify and inform the proper irrigation schedules.
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Figure 3-16 Soil Probe
A. Seasonal schedules plant water requirements change throughout the year and their life cycle due to weather patterns, horticultural practices, soils, use, and changing site conditions. Irrigation schedules should be modified to account for these variables on a monthly, if not more frequent, basis. Schedules should be derived utilizing scientific and site specific information by trained personnel. All scheduling personnel should be Irrigation Association (IA) certified landscape irrigation auditors (CLIA), or equivalent. When properly derived, most zones on a given controller will have varying run times and operating schedules to meet the individual needs of the landscape in each specific zone. B. Cycle/soak slope, soil characteristics, and other factors can result in run off or low soil moisture holding capacity. No matter the reason, certain zones may require multiple, short, irrigation run times to apply the total needed water the plant material requires. When this is the case, split the total calculated run times into multiple cycles using your controllers cycle/soak feature. If the controller does not allow for this, but the site requires it, replace the controller with one that has this feature. C. Audits irrigation audits should be conducted on all irrigation zones every five years. It is generally recommended to audit 20% of all zones each year. Audits should be conducted by IA certified landscape irrigation auditors, or equivalent, professionals and in general compliance with IA audit guidelines. D. Wind limitations all sites are different and experience varying types of wind conditions and, therefore, exact management regimens for dealing with wind will be site specific. However, in general, any site that routinely experiences wind exceeding 5 mph should have a wind sensor installed to interrupt irrigation during periods of excessive wind speeds. Wind distorts the coverage pattern of overhead irrigation thus minimizing its effectiveness. When wind is a constant the use of drip versus overhead spray should be considered for both shrubs and turf areas at the design stage. E. Freeze concerns all controllers should have freeze sensors installed to ensure no irrigation occurs if freezing conditions are encountered. F. Evapotranspiration (Et) this is a measure of a plants use of water through both evaporation and transpiration. There are many scientific formulas and thoughts on how to
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accurately calculate a landscapes Et requirements. Et gauges, weather stations, and other means can be used to estimate a sites base Et. Once a manager knows the base Et, they need to calculate their site specific, zone by zone, actual Et of their landscape. Using this actual Et and factoring in the irrigation systems inefficiencies and operational parameters, zone by zone irrigation schedules can be calculated. The methodology and the science behind it is complex and is best left to a trained and certified professional or the use of technology; preferably both. The three most common ways Et can be utilized to develop irrigation schedules for the site are the use of Et controllers, central control systems, or the hiring of a professional to conduct tests on your site and calculate Et and corresponding schedules. The first two are the more common and cost effective approaches. G. Soil Moisture Soil moisture is extremely important to a plants health. If it is too wet or too dry a plant will stress and/or die. Each plant species has an optimum soil moisture range to encourage growth and vigor. The goal of irrigation is to attempt to provide plant material supplemental water in order to maintain the proper soil moisture level. Soil moisture can be determined by two basic methods: manual use of a soil probe by a trained professional, or the use of various types of soil moisture sensors. Soil moisture sensors can be automated to supply soil moisture data to an irrigation controller and, thereby, calculate the appropriate irrigation schedules. However, manually collected data can also be used to develop proper irrigation controller schedules, but it requires a trained professional.
Figure 3-17 Evapotranspiration process
Benefits: The amount of supplemental water required by the landscape is provided; but when, how, and in the amounts needed - no more. Providing only the minimum required supplemental water results in healthier plants and substantially less water use.
3.4.2
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Controller scheduling determines how much water is applied to the landscape. Controllers, in and of themselves, have limited ability to conserve water. They must be programmed correctly, adjusted for
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weather/seasonal changes and actively managed throughout the year. More advanced controllers must be populated with specific, accurate site information in order to take advantage of automated features. As noted in the 3.1.4.4 Controllers and Sensors section, there are significant potential water savings available through modified scheduling. Industry Approach: Irrigation schedules are most commonly created by contractors based on inherited rules of thumb as mentioned in the Industry Approach portion of Section 3.4.1 Irrigation Management Concepts. Schedules based on varying soil, wind, sun, slope, plants and the irrigation system itself are not attempted. Water Conservation Approach: Three scheduling categories are presented for common levels of complexity Basic, Simplistic ET, and Central Control A. Basic Scheduling The following guidelines provide an effective way to determine an appropriate first schedule. Every schedule should be refined (adding time here, reducing time there, etc.) by the manager over time to minimize water use while maintaining acceptable aesthetics and risk tolerances. Irrigation scheduling is a dynamic event requiring continual adjustment of the irrigations controller due to actual site soil and landscape conditions. 1. Identify the precipitation rates calculated in the post installation audit of the system (see Section 3.2.5.1Post installation audit). 2. Use the Texas Agrilife Extension On line Scheduler which preloads current rainfall and ET information for the Fort Bend area. This scheduler can be found at the following link http://texaset.tamu.edu/date.php?stn=31&spread=14 3. Generate run times by completing the following steps for each zone: - Use seven day summary Et (bottom/center) - Then click on the Turf/Landscape button (top/center) - Use occasional watering in shrub beds for plant coefficient - Use warm season in turf areas for plant coefficient - Use normal for adjustment factor - Press compute to determine your landscapes Et - Enter Precipitation rates as noted above - Press calculate to obtain the zones run time Once these schedules are entered into the controller, run each zone to determine if the cycle/soak feature is required due to the precipitation rate exceeding the landscapes/soils ability to absorb the water. If run off occurs before the irrigation is complete, note the time it took before run off occurred and program cycle/soaks schedules to ensure the full amount of water is delivered during the irrigation day without experiencing any runoff.
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Note: Monitor the landscape using this first schedule and modify it, as needed. Determining whether to add or reduce run times should involve the use of a soil moisture probe. The manager should check the soil moisture in each zone just prior to a scheduled irrigation. If the soil is too moist then the irrigation scheduled run times/frequencies should be reduced. If the soil is too dry, scheduled run times/frequencies should be increased. (probe soil moisture conditions in multiple locations within each zone).
Figure 3-18 TexasAgrilife extension scheduler
B. Simplistic ET Based Controllers All ET based controllers require some degree of setup. Simplistic ET controllers require the user to program the controller with zone specific information. This simplistic programming is user friendly, but it makes assumptions based on the inputs versus using real data collected in the field (Ex: Root zone depth) 1. Following the prompts on the controller, program the required information for each zone (plant type, new or established, type of irrigation, slope, sun or shade %, soil type, etc.) 2. An initial schedule will be generated automatically by the controller based on user inputs. This schedule will be modified automatically by the controller throughout the year, based on ET and user inputs. These controllers will generally irrigate slightly on the high side. 3. A cycle-soak feature will normally be automatically engaged based on the user inputs (assumed precipitation rate by irrigation type, soil type, and slope). Cyclesoak breaks up the application of water into shorter time periods to allow water to infiltrate before adding more water. 4. After it is determined that the initial schedule was reasonable (look for runoff, plant conditions, or maintenance concerns resulting from too much or too little water) zone specific adjustments to reduce run times to minimize water use should be used. 5. Periodically use a soil probe to verify soil moisture content.
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6. For zone specific adjustments look for fine tuning or advanced controlling features. A per zone % adjustment setting is commonly available (100% setting results in using the controllers selected run time for that zone, 90% would result in decreasing the controllers selected run time by 10% for that zone)
Figure 3-19 Simple ET controller/module
C. Central Control and Advanced ET Controller Setup Central control systems should be populated and managed by an irrigation professional. The quality of the data used to populate the system is critical it must use real world data in all data fields versus factory default settings for DU, PR, etc. Document actual field conditions as follows: 1. Landscape Condition per zone a. Soil Type and Condition (sand, clay, silt, compaction etc.) b. Root zone depth of plant material c. Site micro climate conditions (shaded, heat islands, windy etc.) d. Landscape type and water needs (Shrubs, Turf species specific info.) e. Landscape condition (plant density, topography) 2. Irrigation Condition - per zone a. Irrigation Method (rotor, turf rotary, drip, bubbler, etc.) b. Walk each zone looking for leaks, clogged nozzles, and other operational problems. None can exist make sure all issues are repaired before going further. c. Note the time it takes to turn a zone on from the controller d. Note the time it takes to turn a zone off from the controller e. The gallons per minute (GPM) demand of the zone (no operational problems) f. If a post installation audit was conducted (see section 3.2.4.1), use this precipitation rate (PR) and distribution uniformity (DU) data. If not, conduct random, representative water audits on 15% of all zone scenarios. Identify the precipitation rates calculated in the post installation audit of the system i.e. typical turf, typical shrub etc. to obtain precipitation rate (PR) and
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distribution uniformity. This information will be extracted to all similar zones. g. Master Valves i. Confirm correct installation ii. Verify central computer/controller can operate master valve/pump start 3. Sensor Operation a. Weather Station i. Check to ensure proper installation . ii. Confirm communications with controller/computer and weather source. iii. Verify all sensors are reporting accurate information using independent sources. b. Rain Cans i. Confirm rain can is reporting to central computer. ii. Verify rain can is reporting accurate data and will discontinue irrigation. c. Rain Switch i. Confirm rain switch is properly connected to controller(s). ii. Verify switch will discontinue irrigation. iii. Ensure rain switch is set to proper settings. d. Flow Sensor i. Confirm correct Installation. ii. Verify it is reporting to controller/computer. iii. Check accuracy of reported flow with portable certified flow meter. e. Soil moisture sensors i. Active Sensors Verify correct sensor installation. ii. Confirm sensor is read by central computer/controller. iii. Set sensor to operate according to site conditions. iv. Verify required soil moisture conditions will discontinue irrigation. f. Miscellaneous sensors (freeze, wind, etc) i. Verify correct proper installation. ii. Check settings to ensure they meet site requirements. iii. Verify sensors will report to central computer or controller and suspend irrigation, as required.
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Figure 3-20 Sensor examples
4. Populate the Central Control or ET controller database using the above data and following concepts: a. Enter all flow data by zone and POC. b. Enter plant type, soil type, precipitation rate, D.U., root-zone depth. c. Use irrigation design to determine flow zones and piping capabilities for leak detection. d. Write irrigation schedules utilizing the above data. e. Write monitoring schedules weather based, SMS based etc. f. Write maintenance schedules: test scenarios, specialty schedules, etc. g. Write miscellaneous schedules to ensure proper operation and compliance. h. Ensure weather based scheduling delivers the correct schedule every day.
3.4.3
CENTRAL CONTROL
The use of a computerized central control system, or an ET based standalone controller, to manage an irrigation system requires certain site specific, detailed, and accurate information/data be collected and properly input/programmed into the computer/controllers database.
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Figure 3-21 Central Control system examples
Industry Approach: The set up and programming of either type of control system is generally completed using default settings for the various parameters required. Parameters such as precipitation rate (PR) or distribution uniformity (DU), for example, are estimated based on preset selections offered in the software. In general, site specific data is not collected and utilized. Water Conservation Approach: Site specific data is collected and utilized for each zone for all parameters, within the system. The process and approach required to effectively setup a central control system or ET controller is outlined in the above scheduling section 3.4.2. Benefits: Site specific data ensures as accurate as possible schedules and management capabilities are utilized thus saving time, energy, maintenance and operational costs, and water.
3.4.4
WATER BUDGET
A water budget is a scientifically derived, site specific , method of calculating an allowable amount of supplemental water required by the landscape (additional to effective rainfall) that must be delivered by the irrigation system. The budget takes into account plant type, plant water needs, irrigation system efficiency, historical site weather conditions, and soil type. Water budgets should be devised on an annual basis. Industry Approach: In general, water budgeting is rarely used. Sites are irrigated based on a standard pre-set schedule, sometimes changed for seasons, with little to no attention paid to how much water is being used in a calendar year. Even when the total amount of water use is tracked, it is not compared to a scientifically derived and supported estimate of annual water use.
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Water Conservation Approach: All water meters within Interstate MUD will be assigned a water budget. This water budget will be utilized to determine a rate structure for each meter. There are many sources, concepts and approaches for developing a site specific water budget. Below is the simplified approach to be utilized by the INTERSTATE MUD to develop water meter specific water budgets: 1. Determine Reference Evapotranspiration (Et o) utilizing the Texas Agrilife Ft. Bend historical weather data ( http://texaset.tamu.edu/date.php?stn=31&spread=14) for the past five years (2007-2011) This yielded an average Eto for turf within the Interstate MUD of 48.2 2. Determine annual effective rainfall (Re) uUsing Texas Agrilife Ft. Bend historical weather data for the past five years (2007-2011) This yielded an average Re of 19.7 3. A landscape coefficient (KL) of .60 will be utilized (reasonable adjustment factor for a landscape installed and maintained per this manuals recommendations) 4. Utilizing a survey quality global positioning system the irrigated landscape area (in acres) will be obtained for every water meter in the district. (AC) 5. An irrigation system efficiency of .40 DU will be utilized for the initial water budget. The efficiency will be increase incrementally until an efficiency of .70 is utilize. The water budgets will be revised (using the changing/increasing efficiencies) as follows; a. 0-3 years - .40 DU efficiency b. 3+ - 5 years - .50 DU efficiency c. 5+ - 8 years - .60 DU efficiency d. Over 8 years - .70 DU efficiency 6. The constant of 27,154.29 is used to obtain total gallons (gallons per acre-inch of water) 7. Using the above data and the following equation, a water budget will be created per meter. Annual Water Budget (in gallons) = [(Eto)-(Re)][(KL)(AC)]/(DU) X [27,154.29] Benefits: Having a scientifically derived and defensible water budget with which to evaluate and compare actual water use enables the irrigation system manager to readily identify if water use issues exist. Additionally, it is a good metric for the district to determine what normal irrigation water use should be compared to excessive irrigation water use in developing rate structures. .
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APPENDIX
1.1 1.1.1
SITE PLAN
DESIGN INTENT SAMPLE
This site plan was developed around the principles of conserving water, reducing long term maintenance costs, and providing appealing aesthetics. In order for the design to be installed, maintained, managed and modified over time in ways that are consistent with these principles, it is important for all parties involved with the landscape to understand the design intent. The site plan was determined by the desired southwest orientation of the building, the code requirements for development (setbacks, buffers, parking count, etc.), drainage needs, circulation, functional requirements and the pre-construction topography and shape of the site. Green areas were designed to create the space needed for plantings to enhance aesthetics and property value while reducing heat island effect. The maximum slope in a green area was 5% and the minimum dimension was 6, to assist with maintainability of the landscape areas and the design and efficiency of the irrigation system. Areas of natural vegetation were preserved to reduce the water needs of the site, and to reduce the visual and physical impacts. No access to these areas was intended during construction. The drainage was designed to meet local environmental regulations and to maximize on-site ground water recharge through the use of low impact development (LID) surface drainage features (sheet flow, swales, bio-swales, retention, etc.). The hardscape materials were selected based on local availability, aesthetics, reliable function, maintainability and reduced long term maintenance costs. The color and texture of the materials were chosen to blend with the native rock outcroppings on the site. Permeable paving was specifically selected to allow rainfall to percolate through the hardscape to assist with groundwater recharge and indirectly help meet the plant water needs of the site. This material was designed with the intent it be maintained according to manufacturers recommendations. The only specialty construction method required for successful installation of the site elements is the prevention of compaction, particularly beneath permeable paving and in green areas.
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1.2 1.2.1
LANDSCAPE
This landscape design was developed around the principles of conserving water, reducing long term maintenance costs, and providing appealing aesthetics. In order for the design to be installed, maintained, managed and modified over time in ways that are consistent with these principles, it is important for all parties involved with the landscape to understand the design intent. Foremost, the plant selections were intended to be drought tolerant, to mature at desired sizes, and provide dynamic visual interest. The plant palette was generated based on the above requirements, as well as availability, form, durability, and compatibility with existing site soils. Plants were selected with the idea that supplemental irrigation would not be required after plant establishment. In the design, plants were selected for locations so that their mature height and width would fit in the space without the need to prune to prevent the plant from obstructing desired views or passage. Pruning is intended to be performed only to strengthen structure, remove damaged parts, and encourage water and light penetration where needed. Deadheading is not intended to be practiced. Additionally, plants were selected for locations so that shade loving plants were used in shady locations, sun loving plants in sunny locations, water loving plants in low-lying or wet locations, and xeric plants in dry locations. Plants with similar water needs were grouped in the plan (hydrozoning) to allow for efficient irrigation design and management. Providing upper level shade adjacent to heat absorbing hardscapes helps combat the heat island effect, and was considered when selecting material in this type of area. Palms were utilized where leaf litter could present a maintenance issue. Turf areas were minimized, with turf only proposed where active play, use or circulation was anticipated. The mowing of turf was intended to be scheduled based on blade height vs. a prescribed schedule of a mow every X number of days. Soils were intended to be non-compacted and capable of supporting plantings, with good percolation and moisture retention. Organic mulching (3) within plant beds was specified for weed control, evaporation reduction, soil temperature moderation, and soil fertility and water retention capabilities that result from decomposing organic mulch. Mulch depth is intended to be maintained at 3.
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Weeding is intended to be accomplished through the proper implementation of a good weed management program, including mechanical removal and pre and post emergent herbicides.
1.2.2
SEASONAL LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
For maximum water conservation, follow this seasonal landscape maintenance guide: January 1. Prune any tree branches that interfere with public safety or sight lines. 2. Adjust/check tree ties and stakes. 3. Do not pollard or top trees. February 1. Prune shrubs as needed, but avoid routine clipping. 2. Inspect and strengthen, as necessary, barriers to prevent erosion. March 1. 2. 3. 4. April 1. Fertilize landscaped areas, as needed. 2. Remove sucker growth from trunks and base of trees. May 1. Seed warm season grasses in failed grass areas. June 1. Prune spring flowering shrubs as needed. 2. Prune perennial bulbs leaf blades to ground level after they turn yellow and wilt. July 1. Prune vines as needed to control growth. August 1. Add/replace mulch to areas where the depth is less than 2 thick. September 1. Fertilize all landscaped areas. Replace dead/damaged plants. Cut back landscape grasses, groundcovers and perennials. Apply pre-emergent herbicides. Add new mulch to plants/planters where the mulch depth is less than 2 thick
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October 1. Rake and remove leaves to prevent heavy build-up, as necessary. 2. Thin, or remove, over vigorous species. November - December 1. Prune any tree branches that are dead or crossing branches to encourage spreading and upward growth. Do not top or pollard trees. Remove any branches that interfere with public safety. 2. Prune all summer and fall flowering shrubs, as needed.
1.2.3
GENERAL MAINTENANCE GRAPHIC LANDSCAPE AND IRRIGATION
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1.3 1.3.1
IRRIGATION
This irrigation design was developed around the principles of conserving water and reducing long term maintenance costs. In order for the design to be installed, maintained, managed and modified over time in ways that are consistent with these principles, it is important for all parties involved with the irrigation to understand the design intent. A flow sensor was used to measure water use. High density polyethylene (HDPE) was used for all mainline irrigation piping. All HDPE fittings are to be fused. Class 200 PVC with Sch 40 PVC solvent weld fittings were used for all lateral piping. Mainline and fitting materials are intended to be consistent throughout system. Main lines and lateral pipes were sized to not exceed 5 f.p.s. velocity and incorporated a friction factor maximum of 10% variation between the source and the remote control valve. Isolation valves were used periodically on the mainline to facilitate repairs without having to drain the entire mainline. Gate valves were used immediately upstream of all remote control valves (RCVs) to allow the RCV to be repaired without draining the mainline. Jumbo valve boxes were used for RCVs to allow for future valve service without having to remove the valve box. If the box was exposed to vehicular traffic, traffic-rated valve boxes were used. RCVs with scrubber features were used for all non-potable water supplies. Low flow valves were used for zones totaling less than 5 gpm. Disc filters (140 micron) were used at all RCVs serving drip zones. The distribution equipment selected for the project was, most importantly, intended to conserve water. This was partially accomplished through proper selection of equipment type. All shrub and groundcover areas were irrigated with pressure regulated subsurface drip tubing buried 4. Where turf areas were irrigated with drip tubing, the depth of the tubing is 6. Turf areas between 6 and 30 were irrigated by pressure regulated 6pop up heads with matched precipitation rate turf rotary nozzles. Turf areas > 30 were irrigated by pressure regulated 6 rotor bodies with matched precipitation rate nozzles. Where heads were used, the head layout provides head to head coverage at 90% of the catalog radius at design pressure. Spray zones were designed to provide a .7 distribution uniformity (D.U.), rotor zones .8 D.U., rotary zones .85 D.U., and drip zones a .9 D.U. Bubblers were proposed for trees and larger accent shrubs for temporary supplemental watering for establishment following installation. These bubbler zones should be shut off within one year or after shrub/tree establishment, whichever comes first. All like delivery methods and plant material were zoned together. Drip in shrubs, drip in turf, bubblers, turf rotaries, and turf rotors were zoned individually. As different plant materials require different amounts of water delivered at different precipitation rates by different delivery methods, irrigation
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zones were created to ensure only like watering requirements, in similar hydrozones with similar delivery methods were on the same zone. The run times for each zone are intended to be individually adjusted to meet the plant water requirements for that specific zone.
1.3.2
COMMON IRRIGATION ISSUES & RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Low Pressure - All sprinkler systems are designed to run at specific pressures. Improper pressures cause poor uniformity of water distribution leading to inefficiency, wasted water and higher costs. Low pressure puts heavy applications of water in limited areas. Some possible reasons are: 1) poor design, 2) poor installation, 3) broken heads/pipes, 4) clogged equipment, and 5) poor pump performance. In some situations low pressure can be corrected with a booster pump, though this is not a stand-alone cure for most. Low pressure can be also be addressed through re-design of the irrigation system and proper repair and maintenance. 2. Broken Sprinkler Heads Broken sprinkler heads will prevent efficient irrigation. Replace broken heads as soon as possible. 3. Bad seals Sprinkler heads with bad wiper seals leak from around the seal. Replace head or seal/cap as soon as possible.
Figure 3-1 Bad seal
4. Sunken Heads/Tall Grass Sunken heads result in short throws and saturated areas near the head because the grass near the head intercepts the sprinkler stream. Even a properly set head will have problems if the grass near the head grows taller than the heads pop up height. Install heads with pop up heights that allow them to throw over the turf/shrub material at the turf/shrub materials tallest allowable maintained or natural height.
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Figure 3-2 Sunken head with blockage
5. Mis-aligned heads Sprinkler arc and radius adjustments should be made to water only the area they were designed to cover. 6. High Pressure High-pressure results in very fine spray which drifts downwind and creates high evaporative losses. Pressure regulation can be easily achieved with pressure regulators at the water source, at the remote control valve and/or at each individual head. 7. Variable Sprinkler Spacing If the head-to-head and line-to-line spacing in a sprinkler system vary throughout a site, the distribution of water will be uneven, leading to watering inefficiency. In some cases, adjustments can be made in nozzles and pressures to try to account for the weak areas. 8. Poor uniformity This is often overcome by using much more water than would really be necessary, so that adequate amounts are deposited everywhere. The problem with this is excessive water use/high costs for water and the chance of damaging the plants in some areas due to excessive water in the root zone. Possible remedies include pressure regulation and adjustment, changing nozzle sizes, irrigating only during low wind conditions, closer sprinkler spacing and a better designed irrigation system from the POC to the head.
Figure 3-3 Effects of Poor Uniformity
Figure 3-4 Bubbler on established tree
9. Bubblers Where tree bubblers are installed for establishment of the plant and the tree receives water from sprinklers also, turn bubbler zones off after tree establishment. If bubblers were not zoned separately, cap bubblers after tree establishment (approx. 1 year).
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1.3.3
TCEQ SAMPLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE CHECKLIST
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1.3.4
TCEQ COMPONENTS REQUIRING MAINTENANCE EXAMPLE FOR IRRIGATORS
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1.3.5
COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL & MULTI-FAMILY SITES: IRRIGATION SYSTEM EVALUATION PROCEDURE
Point of Connection (POC) Document the following: A. The type of POC 1. Potable or reuse water source a. Separate IR meter installed? Meter size b. Backflow size, make, and model does it meet State and Local Law/Code c. Isolation valves present or not 2. Pumping system a. Make, model b. Isolation valves c. Water source if well, size of casing d. If surface water, measure elevation change from pumps volute to low water level. B. Static Water Pressure C. Dynamic water pressure for each zone D. Filtration or not. If so, make, model, size, and condition E. Water Quality visual F. Meter running when no irrigation is running (IR only meters). If so, note rate. Control System Document the following: A. Controller Make, Model, and number of stations B. Rain shut off device installed? Operational? Properly installed C. Each zones run time(s), run day(s), other scheduling data and parameters being used. D. Master Valve installed. If so, make, model, and size. E. Turn on each Remote Control Valve (RCV) note time to become fully operational (all water and no air being emitted from heads/emitters/bubblers) F. Turn off each zone note the time it takes for a RCV to shut off. Use the controllers test cycle if available. G. Wire size, type, and installation method H. Wire connectors used make, model, size I. Verify grounding, if visible J. Other control systems utilized (ex. Lake Level) exist? If so, are they operational
Delivery System Document the following: A. Mainline type and size, if known (any visible leaks) B. Mainline isolation valves if any, make, model, and size C. Number of zones D. Make, model, and size of RCVs E. Types of delivery methods used drip, sprays, rotaries, rotors, or bubblers
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F. G. H. I. J. K.
L. M. N. O. P.
Make, model, for each type of delivery method component used Make, model, coverage pattern of nozzles used Are zones separated by turf, shrubs, annuals, trees? Are zones separated by delivery methods Is hydro-zoning practiced Physical and operational condition of each delivery method (leaking wiper seals, improperly aligned heads, titled heads, broken heads, spacing, low/high heads, clogged nozzles, low head drainage, and leaks (lateral lines) Zone by Zone coverage visual only Overspray visual Unusual and odd shaped areas being irrigated note issues and concerns Irrigation Association Audits on 15% of a sites zones Note general system condition
Maintenance check and document the following: A. Filters, if present, are they clean or clogged B. Landscape and irrigation components maintained to ensure proper coverage (no interference) C. Shrub pruning practices observed D. Turf mowing practices - observed Miscellaneous Note any additional issues, concerns, unique items found at the site that can affect water conservation.
1.3.6
BASIC IRRIGATION SYSTEM RETROFIT AND REPAIR RECOMMENDATIONS TO PROMOTE WATER CONSERVATION
Control System A. Controller 1. Projects with a single controller - Replace existing dumb controller with a smart Et controller program and manage as outlined in the Landscape and Irrigation Water Conservation Manual (The Manual). 2. Projects with multiple controllers Replace the existing dumb controllers with a centrally controlled control system, including a weather station and strategically place rain cans for environmental based scheduling capabilities. Program and manage as outlined in The Manual. B. Sensors Rain shut off devices are required by state law to be installed on all new irrigation controllers for projects installed since January 1st, 2011. There are two types of acceptable rain shut off devices, a rain sensor or a soil moisture sensor. 1. Rain Sensor
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a. If an existing controller does not have a rain sensor, you can install one per the manufacturers recommendation. b. If a controller has a rain sensor make sure it is operational and set, at minimum, to stop irrigation after .25 inches of rainfall. Setting it to stop irrigation with even less rainfall is preferred but requires closer monitoring of the system and your landscape. 2. Soil Moisture Sensor (SMS) a. If an existing controller does not have a rain shut off device, you can install a soil moisture sensor. Install per the manufacturers recommendations and in the driest part of the controllers area. C. Scheduling Irrigation schedules should be set per parameters outlined in The Manual. If your controller has pre-set run times for all spray zones, another time for rotors, etc., you are probably overwatering. In general, when you have properly followed the scheduling protocol in this manual, each zone will (potentially) have a different run time and frequency of run days based on the zones specific needs.
Delivery System A. Remote Control Valves 1. If your remote control valves do not have a flow control handle, and tend to stay on longer than 10 seconds after you have shut the valve off from the controller, replace with valves which do have flow control. Adjust flow control handles on each valve to ensure the valve shuts off within 5-10 seconds of being deactivated by the controller. B. Irrigation Heads 1. Spray heads ensure you have 6 pop-ups in turf areas, 12 in ground cover areas, and heads on risers in shrub beds, per The Manuals recommendations. 2. Rotor heads - ensure you have 6 pop-ups in turf areas, 12 in ground cover areas. DO NOT use rotors on risers to irrigate large shrub areas. 3. Head type ensure all spray or rotor heads within each zone are of the same make, model, and features. DO NOT mix heads or nozzles from different manufacturers on the same zone. 4. Pressure Regulation ensure all spray and rotary nozzles are installed on spray head bodies with factory installed pressure regulating stems. Choose the correct factory preset pressure to ensure the appropriate pressure at the nozzle/rotary (30, 40, and 50 psi stems are available). 5. Check Valves ensure all spray or rotor bodies come with a factory installed check valve, regardless of elevation changes. 6. Nozzle selection ensure you choose nozzles that deliver a matched precipitation rate within each zone. Use the same make/model of nozzle on every head within a zone and select the proper nozzle pattern for the area being covered. 7. See handout in the Appendix of this manual titled Common irrigation issues and recommendations
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GLOSSARY
Note: The cited terms below should not infer original development by Masuen Consulting.
Active root zone, effective root zone - See root zone. Available water holding capacity - Ability of the soil to retain water. Also see field capacity, permanent wilting point, and plant available water. Backflow - Any unwanted flow of used or non-potable water or substance from any domestic, industrial or institutional piping system into the pure, potable water distribution system. The direction of flow under these conditions is in the reverse direction from that intended by the system and normally assumed by the owner of the system. Backflow prevention device - Safety device which prevents the flow of water from the water distribution system back to the water source Best Management Practice - A Turf and Landscape Irrigation Best Management Practice is a voluntary irrigation practice that is designed to reduce water usage and protect water quality. The Irrigation Best Management Practice is economical, practical and sustainable, and maintains a healthy, functional landscape without exceeding the water requirements of the landscape. Certified Irrigation Contractor (CIC) - The Certified Irrigation Contractor is an irrigation professional, who has met a set of minimum standards specified by The Irrigation Association, whose principle business is the execution of contracts and subcontracts to install, repair and maintain irrigation systems. The CIC must conduct business in such a manner that projects meet the specifications and requirements of the contract. Certified Irrigation Designer (CID) - The IA Certified Irrigation Designer is an irrigation professional, who has met a set of minimum standards specified by The Irrigation Association, and who engages in the preparation of professional irrigation designs. The CID evaluates site conditions and determines net irrigation requirements based on the needs of the project. The designer is then responsible for the selection of the most effective irrigation equipment and design methods. The objective of a CID is to establish specifications and design drawings for the construction of an irrigation project. Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor (CLIA) - The Certified Landscape Irrigation Auditor is an irrigation professional, who has met a set of minimum standards specified by The Irrigation Association, and is involved in the analysis of landscape irrigation water use. Auditors collect site data, make maintenance recommendations and perform water audits. Through their analytical work at the site, these irrigation professionals develop monthly irrigation base schedules. Prior to certification examination, auditors are required to take an Irrigation Association approved preparatory course.
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Certified Landscape Water Manager (CLWM) - The Certified Landscape Water Manager is an irrigation professional familiar with all areas of turf irrigation design and construction management. CLWMs must be certified as either as a CLIA or CGIA. Certified Landscape Water Managers have extensive understanding of design, installation and irrigation management as well as auditing of turf irrigation systems. check valve, spring - A spring loaded valve located in a lateral or at the base of a sprinkler that prevents water from draining through the sprinkler lowest in elevation after the irrigation cycle is complete (sometimes called an "anti-drain valve"). Controller - An automatic timing device used to remotely control valves or heads (valve in head) according to a set irrigation schedule. crop coefficient. See coefficients. Cycle - The operating duration of one, or more, valve(s) for one irrigation start time. Deficit irrigation practice - Irrigation water management strategy where the plant root zone is not filled to field capacity or the plant water requirement is not fully met. Deficit irrigation water budget - Reduced volume of irrigation water that results in allowable stress to the plants during periods of drought or reduced water availability. This volume of irrigation water is equivalent to the base deficit irrigation water requirement. Deficit irrigation water requirement, base - The irrigation water requirement (in inches) that provides a reduced amount of irrigation water to the landscape during periods of drought or reduced water availability. The irrigation water requirement includes the plant water requirement with allowable stress plus an additional amount to compensate for distribution nonuniformity.) Distribution uniformity - the measure of the uniformity of applied irrigation water over an area. Distribution uniformity, lower-quarter - The average of the lowest twenty- five percent of measurements to the overall average measurement, gathered through the use of catch cans, commonly used to evaluate the coverage of one or more sprinklers or drip systems. Drought - A period of dryness, especially when prolonged, that causes extensive damage to crops or prevents their successful growth. Drought response plan - A pre-determined strategy to allow landscape plantings to survive periods of water shortage through a combination of steps that may include deficit irrigation, dormancy, modification of irrigation systems and changes in non-irrigation cultural practices.
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Dynamic pressure - See pressure, dynamic Effective rainfall - the amount of total rain that is actually stored in the root zone. Some rainwater does not reach the soil profile because it is held in mulch or turf thatch or because it runs off. Some water may percolate below the root zone and be lost, depending upon the intensity and duration of the rain event and the water content of the soil prior to the rain event. Efficiency, irrigation system - the percent of irrigation water that is beneficially used for plant growth. Efficiency, water management - quantifies how well the irrigation water is being managed; that is, how well the manager minimizes the additional amount of water needed by the landscape after accounting for non-uniformity and weather. Emission uniformity -An index of the uniformity of emitter discharge rates throughout a microirrigation system. EU takes into account of variations in a group of like emitters and variations in the pressure under which they operate. Emitter - A small fitting (usually in the size range of an aspirin to a spark plug) with a precisely formed orifice or channel in it. This emitter is plugged into flexible plastic pipe permitting water to flow out of the pipe at a very slow rate at any point along its length. Evapotranspiration - Combination of water transpired from vegetation and evaporated from the soil and plant surfaces. current evapotranspiration - for the time period. Actual measured or calculated reference evapotranspiration for a period of time. historical evapotranspiration - A multiple-year average of recorded historical reference ETo data from a weather station or evaporative pan in a given geographic location. This value is typically a monthly average of the specific month in a given multi-year time frame. This value, when corrected for plant species characteristics, can be used as a baseline to evaluate the expected water needs of a landscape planting in that geographic area. reference evapotranspiration - Rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of cool-season grass cover of uniform height of 12 cm, actively growing, completely shading the ground, and not short of water. Field capacity - Depth of water retained in the soil after ample irrigation, or heavy rain, when the rate of downward movement due to gravity has substantially decreased (usually one to three days after irrigation or rain).
Fittings - Collectively, the parts of a drip system; pipe, connecting tees, valves, emitters, etc.
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Flow rate - Volume of flow per unit time, such as discharge from an irrigation sprinkler or emitter; or flow into a zone. Flow sensor - A device that measures the rate of liquid flow or the total accumulated flow.
Flushing - The process of washing captured particles out of a filter.
GPH - Gallons per hour, a term which specifies the rate of water flow through a pipe or the amount of water delivered by a pump. GPM - Gallons per minute, a term which specifies the rate of water flow through a pipe or the amount of water delivered by a pump. Hardscape - Impervious surfaces within the landscape, such as concrete walkways or brick paving.
Header - The length of pipe placed along the high side of the garden to conduct the water into the drip hoses, tubes or lateral drip lines that are laid down along the row. Hose connector - The fitting connected to a plastic pipe or garden hose which has hose threads that match the threads on the house faucet.
Hydrozone - Grouping of plants with similar water (and environmental) requirements for irrigating with one or more common station/zone valves Infiltration rate (intake rate) - The dynamic rate at which irrigation water applied to the surface can move into the soil profile. The rate typically declines rapidly after an initial period of surface hydration. This value depends to a great extent on the texture of the soil and whether the soil is overly compacted. Intake rate. See infiltration rate. Irrigation - The intentional application of water for purposes of sustained plant growth. Irrigation Association (IA) - A non-profit organization formed to improve the products and practices used to manage water resources and to help shape the worldwide business environment of the irrigation industry. The associations interest in water resources encompasses the application, conservation, drainage, improvement and recovery of water for economic and environmental enhancement in agriculture, turf grass, landscape and forestry. The IA interacts with private and governmental organizations and other associations in the development of legislation and regulations to properly and appropriately ensure the availability, quality and accessibility of water supplies for, or affected by, irrigation and the efficacy of trade policies. The IA establishes and conducts authoritative educational programs to broaden and focus public awareness of issues related to water management, to provide professional certification of practitioners of irrigation-related disciplines and to ensure the accessibility of research
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information pertinent to industry practices and products. The IA positions itself as an effective catalyst and umbrella organization for outreach, communication and coordination among the diverse parties and interests involved in irrigation. The IA contributes to the establishment of recognized standards and guidelines dealing with irrigation-related products, engineering applications and practices worldwide. Irrigation audit - The procedure to collect and present information concerning the uniformity of application, precipitation rate, and general condition of an irrigation system and its components. Irrigation contractor - Any person who is in the business of installing, repairing, or maintaining landscape irrigation systems. See also Certified Irrigation Contractor Irrigation design - Drawings and associated documents detailing irrigation system layout, and component installation and maintenance requirements. Irrigation designer - Any person who is in the business of designing irrigation systems. See Certified Irrigation Designer. Irrigation efficiency. See irrigation system efficiency. Irrigation interval - The number of full days between irrigation applications. Irrigation run time. See run time. Irrigation schedule - Set of data describing when and the amount of irrigation water to be applied to each station/zone. Irrigation system - Set of components which may include the water source, water distribution network, control components and other general irrigation equipment. drip/trickle/micro irrigation Method where water is applied at, or below, the soil surface and at low pressure and low volume. sprinkler irrigation Type of irrigation using mechanical devices with nozzles (sprinklers) to distribute the water by converting water pressure to a high velocity discharge stream or streams. Irrigation system efficiency, overall irrigation system efficiency, irrigation efficiency - Percent of irrigation water supplied to the landscape that is beneficially used for plant growth; that is, that contributes directly to the plant water requirement. Irrigation water budget - Volume of irrigation water required to maintain a functional, healthy landscape with the minimum amount of water. This volume of irrigation water is equivalent to the base irrigation water requirement.
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Irrigation water management, landscape The process of comparing landscape irrigation water usage to an expected amount, and then making improvements to the landscape, irrigation system or schedule to achieve irrigation objectives. Irrigation water requirement, base - The amount of irrigation water (in inches) required to meet the supplemental needs of the landscape. The irrigation water requirement includes the plant water requirement plus an extra amount to account for non-uniformity and other irrigation losses. Landscape contractor -Any person who is in the business of constructing, installing, and/or maintaining turf, trees, or ornamental plant material and associated hardscape in an urban environment. Landscape irrigation water management -See irrigation water management. Landscape water allowance, landscape water allotment, landscape water allocation - A volume of water allocated to the entire landscape area for some period of time. This allowance is established by the water purveyor for the purpose of ensuring adequate supply of water resources. Landscape water requirement - The volume of water that is necessary for the landscape to be healthy and functional. Lateral drip lines - Lengths of plastic pipe or tubing, containing emitters or precisely formed orifices, laid down along the center of a row of plants. Line - Another term for plastic pipe or plastic tubing that is used to transport water along rows of plants or from tree to tree in a drip system. Line size - Usually the diameter of a particular pipe or tubing used to conduct water in a drip system. Low-volume irrigation See irrigation drip/trickle/micro irrigation. Matched precipitation rate - System or zone in which all the heads have similar precipitation rates is said to have matched precipitation rates. Microclimate - A subdivision of a landscape characterized by environmental conditions that may differ from the typical site condition to a degree that ETo will be affected, either higher or lower than the expected ETo for the site. Examples of conditions that might create a separate microclimate include reflected heat, breezeways, wind exposure, topography (slope) and shading. Also see site conditions. Moisture sensor A device that monitors or measures soil water content or tension.
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Mulch - Generally, any organic or inorganic substance such as hay, lawn clippings, paper or plastic applied to the soil surface to prevent weed growth and water loss. Net plant water requirement. See plant water requirement, net. overall irrigation system efficiency. Orifice - A precisely formed hole in a plastic pipe or tube or in a small fitting (known as an emitter) plugged into plastic pipe through which water flows out in drops or a tiny stream. Permanent wilting point - The amount of water in the soil, at or below which the plant may permanently wilt and not recover. Also see field capacity and plant available water. Permeability - Rate at which water moves downward through the saturated soil. Photosynthesis - The formation of glucose by the reaction of carbon dioxide and water in the green leaf. Plant available water - The amount of water held within the root zone after gravitational drainage has ceased, less the amount of water that adheres tightly to soil particles. Commonly expressed as PAW = (FC - PWP) x RZ where FC = amount of water (in. of water per in. of soil) held in the root zone at field capacity, PWP = amount of water (in. of water per in. of soil) held in the root zone at the permanent wilting point, and RZ = root zone depth (in.). Also see field capacity and permanent wilting point. Potable water - Water from any source which has been investigated by the health agency having jurisdiction, and which has been approved for human consumption. It can be used as a source of irrigation water, but once water enters an irrigation system (and passes through the backflow device) it is no longer considered potable. Precipitation rate - Rate at which a sprinkler system applies irrigation water; also known as the application rate. Pressure, dynamic - Working or operating pressure at a point within the irrigation system. Pressure regulator - Device which maintains constant downstream operating pressure (immediately downstream of the device) that is lower than the upstream pressure. Pressure, static - Pressure in a closed system, without any water movement. PSI - Pounds per square inch, a term used to specify water pressure to the amount of force pushing on the water in the pipe. Water rate - Unit water rate.
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Rain amount - Actual amount of rainfall during a period of time. See also historical and effective rainfall. Rainfall, historical - A multiple year average of recorded rain from a weather station in a given geographic location. This value is typically a monthly average of the specific month in a given multi-year time frame. Rain shut-off device, rain sensor, rain switch - A device that causes the controller to suspend or override an irrigation cycle or that opens the circuit to a valve or set of valves when a preset amount of rain occurs. Ideally, the device will also override the irrigation cycle as long as rain is withheld in the root zone and is available to the plants. A soil moisture sensor may be considered a rain shut-off device if the sensor overrides or suspends an irrigation cycle based on the conditions above. Reclaimed water - Partially treated municipal waste water, comes in varied levels of treatment. Record drawing - Set of construction plans, mylar film, or computer file, including the original design and noting all design deviations. These drawings should also show the location of all major underground components, dimensioned from permanent features. Reference evapotranspiration - See evapotranspiration. Root zone - The depth of the soil from which the crop roots extract water and nutrients. Runoff - Portion of irrigation or rainwater that leaves the target area, primarily due to slope or the precipitation rate exceeding the soil infiltration (intake) rate. Run time - Length of time to operate an individual station/zone for a single cycle or single irrigation event; can also be the run time of the station/zone for the entire month or other time period. Run time, base - See run time, event. Run time, cycle - Station/zone run time for one cycle start. Run time, event - Station/zone run time for one irrigation event based on whole day intervals between irrigations. (An event is all cycle start times for the irrigation.) Salts - Chemical elements in the form of dissolved ions that are carried in irrigation water and deposited in the soil when water moves into plants or evaporates from the soil surface. Sprinkler - A device attached to a hose to propel streams of water into the air, thereby distribution water evenly over a lawn or garden surface.
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Service connection - The terminal end of a service connection from the public potable water system, i.e. where the water purveyor may lose jurisdiction and sanitary control over the water at its point of delivery to the consumers water system. Site conditions - Any physical or environmental factor that can affect the evapotranspiration rate of a site, or a microclimate within a site. Conditions can be dynamic (i.e. wind, reflected heat, seasonal shading, etc.) or static (i.e., finished topography, solar exposure and soil types). Also see microclimate. Slope - Ground where grade varies or is not level. Soil probe - A soil coring tool that allows an intact soil core to be removed from the soil profile for examination. soil texture - The size and shape of individual soil particles such as sand, silt, or clay. Soil texture largely determines the amount of water that can be stored in a soil as well as the soil infiltration rate and permeability. Soil texture class - Soil classification defined by the relative amounts of sand, silt or clay in a particular soil. Static pressure - See pressure, static System efficiency - See irrigation system efficiency. Transpiration - The process by which water moves from the leaf into the air in vapor form. Velocity, water - The speed at which water moves through the system (pipe). Water purveyor - The public, or private, owner or operator of the water supplying an approved water supply to the public. Water rate - Unit water rate. Watering window - The hours and days of the week available for irrigation to be completed. Site uses and local statutes may limit the time and days on which irrigation can occur. Watershed - A region or area bounded peripherally by a divide and draining ultimately to a particular watercourse or body of water. Xeric landscape - Alternate term is Drought Tolerant Landscape. An approach to landscape design that focuses on utilizing a plant palette limited to species that are adapted to local climate conditions. A xeric design stresses arid region adaptation, but does not limit a design to native species. This term is typically associated with arid geographic regions where natural
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rainfall is limited in quantity and/or to a narrowly defined rainy season. As such it is generally applied to native plants, although not all native plants are xeric. Xeriscape (see xeric landscape)
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LANDSCAPE AND IRRIGATION OUTDOOR WATER CONSERVATION MANUAL

(WITH DETAILED WATER BUDGET CALCULATION PROCESS)

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3

Masuen Consulting, LLC 866-928-1533

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.2.1 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.3 2.3

2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.4

MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................ 45 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ............................................................................... 45

Masuen Consulting, LLC 866-928-1533

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Masuen Consulting, LLC 866-928-1533

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4

1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3

1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5

Masuen Consulting, LLC 866-928-1533

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

QUALIFICATIONS OF SITE PLANNING PROFESSIONAL

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

DRAINAGE DRAINAGE CONCEPTS

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-1 Design section - drainage into landscape area

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-2 No curbing for sheet flow

Figure 1-3 Curb break

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-4 Detention basin

Figure 1-5 Movement of water through a wetland system

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-6 Bioswale under construction

Figure 1-7 Completed Bioswale

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-8 Rain Garden section with optional drainage system

Figure 1-9 Rain Garden

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-10 Retention basin

Figure 1-11 Retention treatment function

MATERIALS PERMEABLE PAVING

Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

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Outdoor Water Conservation Manual

Figure 1-12 Permeable concrete

Figure 1-13 Section of permeable pavement

GREEN SPACE PLANTING AREAS

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