3.3. Tectonics of Rifting and Drifting Pangea Breakup 3.3.1. Rift Basin Architecture and Evolution Roy W.

Schlische & Martha Oliver Withjack Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers niversity, !iscata"ay, #$ %&&'()&%** .S.+. Rift ,asins have ,een increasingly the focus of research in tectonics, structural geology, an- ,asin analysis. .he reasons for this interest inclu-e/ 012 Rift ,asins are foun- on all passive 0+tlantic 3 type2 continental margins an- provi-e a recor- of the early stages of 0super2continental ,reakup. 042 .he architecture of these ,asins an- the ,asin fill are strongly influence- ,y the -isplacement geometry on the ,oun-ing normal fault systems 0e.g., Gi,son et al., 15&52. .hus, aspects of the evolution of these fault systems, inclu-ing their nucleation, propagation an- linkage, can ,e e6tracte- from the se-imentary recor-. 072 Many mo-ern an- ancient e6tensional ,asins contain lacustrine -eposits 0e.g., 8at9, 155%2 that are sensitive recor-ers of climate. Milankovitch cycles 0e.g., Olsen an- 8ent, 15552 recor-ein these strata provi-e a :uantitative test of the pre-ictions of ,asin)filling mo-els 0e.g., Schlische an- Olsen, 155%2 that can, in turn, ,e use- to infer aspects of crustal rheology -uring rifting 0e.g., ;ontreras et al., 155<2. 0(2 Many of the major petroleum provinces of the "orl- are associate- "ith rift ,asins 0e.g., the #orth Sea ,asins, the $eanne -=+rc ,asin, the >ra9ilian rift ,asins2.

.his section provi-es a ,rief overvie" of the rift ,asins relate- to !angean ,reakup, especially those along the central +tlantic margin 0e.g., Olsen, 155<2. ?n particular, "e e6amine 012 the structural architecture of rift ,asins@ 042 the interplay of tectonics, se-iment supply, an- climate in controlling the large)scale stratigraphy of rift ,asins@ 072 ho" the se-imentary fill can ,e su,-ivi-e- into tectonostratigraphic packages that recorcontinental rifting, initiation of seafloor sprea-ing, ,asin inversion, an- -rifting@ an0(2 ho" coring can ,e use- to ans"er fun-amental :uestions relate- to these topics.

Structural Architecture + typical rift ,asin is a fault),oun-e- feature kno"n as a half gra,en 0Aig. 7.7.1.1a2. ?n a cross section oriente- perpen-icular to the ,oun-ary fault 0transverse section2, the half gra,en has a triangular geometry 0Aig. 7.7.1.1,2. .he three si-es of the triangle are the ,or-er fault, the rift)onset unconformity ,et"een prerift an- synrift rocks, an- the postrift unconformity ,et"een synrift an- postrift rocks 0or, for mo-ern rifts, the present)-ay -epositional surface2. Within the triangular "e-ge of synrift units, stratal ,oun-aries rotate from ,eing su,parallel to the rift)onset unconformity to ,eing su,parallel to the postrift unconformity. .his fanning geometry, along "ith thickening of synrift units to"ar- the ,oun-ary fault, are pro-uce- ,y syn-epositional faulting. ;ore from the #e"ark ,asin confirms the thickening relationships 0see Section 7.7.42. Synrift strata commonly onlap prerift rocks. ?n a cross section oriente- parallel to the ,oun-ary fault 0longitu-inal section2, the ,asin has a synclinal geometry 0Aig. 7.7.1.1c2, although more complicate- geometries are associate- "ith segmente- ,oun-ary fault systems 0e.g., Schlische, 1557@ Schlische an- +n-ers, 155*@ Morley, 15552.

Figure 3.3.1.1. Geometry of a simple half gra,en. 0a2 Map)vie" geometry. 0,2 Geometry along a cross section oriente- perpen-icular to the ,oun-ary fault, sho"ing "e-ge) shape- ,asin in "hich synrift strata e6hi,it a fanning geometry, thicken to"ar- the ,oun-ary fault, an- onlap prerift rocks. 0c2 Geometry along a cross section oriente- parallel to the ,oun-ary fault, sho"ing syncline) shape- ,asin in "hich synrift strata thin a"ay from the center of the ,asin an- onlap prerift rocks. .he half)gra,en geometry -escri,e- a,ove is -irectly controlle- ,y the -eformation 0-isplacement2 fiel- surroun-ing the ,oun-ary fault system 0Gi,son et al., 15&5@ Schlische, 1551, 155'@ Schlische an- +n-ers, 155*@ ;ontreras et al. 155<2. ?n a gross sense, -isplacement is

greatest at the center of the fault an- -ecreases to 9ero at the fault tips 0Aig. 7.7.1.4a2@ this pro-uces the syncline)shape- ,asin in longitu-inal section. ?n traverse section, the -isplacement of an initially hori9ontal surface that intersects the fault is greatest at the fault itself an- -ecreases "ith -istance a"ay from the fault. .his pro-uces foot"all uplift an- hanging)"all su,si-ence, the latter of "hich creates the se-imentary ,asin 0Aig. 7.7.1.4,2. Bo"ever, this geometry is affecte- ,y fault propagation an- force- fol-ing 0e.g., Withjack et al., 155%@ Ga"thorpe et al., 155<2. +s -isplacement accumulates on the ,oun-ary fault, the ,asin -eepens through time. >ecause the "i-th of the hanging)"all -eflection increases "ith increasing fault -isplacement 0>arnett et al., 15&<2, the ,asin "i-ens through time. >ecause the length of the fault increases "ith increasing -isplacement 0e.g., ;o"ie, 155&2, the ,asin lengthens through time. .he gro"th of the ,asin through time pro-uces progressive onlap of synrift strata on prerift rocks 0Aig. 7.7.1.72.

Figure 3.3.1. . Aault)-isplacement geometry controls the first)or-er geometry of a half gra,en.

0a2 !erspective -iagram ,efore 0left2 an- after faulting sho"ing ho" normal faulting uplifts the foot"all ,lock an- pro-uces su,si-ence in the hanging)"all ,lock. .he yello" -ashe- line sho"s the outer limit of hanging)"all su,si-ence an- marks the e-ge of the ,asin. Displacement is a ma6imum at the center of the fault 0only the right half of the fault is sho"n2 an- -ecreases to"ar- the fault tip. 0,2 .raverse section ,efore faulting 0left2 an- after faulting an- se-imentation sho"ing foot"all uplift an- hanging)"all su,si-ence. .he latter pro-uces a "e-ge)shape- ,asin 0half gra,en2.

Figure 3.3.1.3. Simple filling mo-el for a gro"ing half)gra,en ,asin sho"n in map vie" 0stages 1)(2, longitu-inal cross section 0stages 1)'2, an- transverse cross section 0stages 1)(2. Dashe- line represents lake level. .he relationship ,et"een capacity an- se-iment supply -etermines "hether se-imentation is fluvial or lacustrine. Aor lacustrine se-imentation, the relationship ,et"een "ater volume an- e6cess capacity -etermines the lake -epth. Mo-ifiefrom Schlische an- +n-ers 0155*2.

.he simple structural architecture -escri,e- a,ove may ,e complicate- ,y ,asin inversion, in "hich a contractional phase follo"s the e6tensional phase 0e.g., >uchanan an>uchanan, 155'2. .ypical inversion structures inclu-e normal faults reactivate- as reverse faults, ne"ly forme- reverse an- thrust faults, an- fol-s 0Aig. 7.7.1.(, 7.7.1.'2. >asin inversion occurs in a variety of tectonic environments 0e.g., >uchanan an- >uchanan, 155'2, inclu-ing several passive margins relate- to the ,reakup of !angea 0e.g., DorC an- Dun-in, 155*@ Eagnes et al., 155&@ Withjack et al., 155', 155&@ Bill et al., 155'@ Withjack & Fisensta-t, 15552. .he causes of inversion on these passive margins is not "ell un-erstoo-. Section (.4.1 -escri,es ho" coring, in com,ination "ith other metho-s, may help further our un-erstan-ing of ,asin inversion on passive margins.

Figure 3.3.1.!. F6amples of positive inversion structures. a2 ;ross section across part of Sun-a arc. During inversion, normal faults ,ecame reverse faults, pro-ucing synclines an- anticlines "ith harpoon geometries 0after Detou9ey, 155%2.

,2 ?nterprete- line -ra"ings 0"ith 7/1 an- 1/1 vertical e6aggeration2 of +GSO Dine 11%) 14 from F6mouth su,),asin, #W Shelf +ustralia 0after Withjack & Fisensta-t, 15552. During Miocene inversion, -eep)seate- normal faults ,ecame reverse faults. ?n response, gentle monoclines forme- in the shallo", postrift strata.

Figure 3.3.1.". F6perimental mo-els of inversion structures. ;ross sections through three clay mo-els sho"ing -evelopment of inversion structures 0after Fisensta-t an- Withjack, 155'2. ?n each mo-el, a clay layer 0"ith colore- su,)layers2 covere- t"o overlapping metal plates. Movement of the lo"er plate create- e6tension or shortening. .hin clay layers are prerift@ thick clay layers are synrift@ top)most layer is postrift an- pre)inversion. .op section sho"s mo-el "ith e6tension an- no shortening@ a half gra,en containing very gently -ipping synrift units is present. .he mi--le section sho"s mo-el "ith e6tension follo"e- ,y minor shortening@ a su,tle anticline has forme- in the half gra,en, an- is associate- "ith minor steepening of the -ip of synrift layers. >ottom section sho"s mo-el "ith e6tension follo"e- ,y major shortening. .he anticline in the half gra,en is more prominent, an- is associate- "ith significant steepening of the -ip of synrift strata. #e" reverse faults have forme- in the prerift layers. +lthough the inversion is o,vious in this mo-el, erosion of material -o"n to the level of the re- line "oulremove the most o,vious evi-ence of inversion in the half gra,en. Aurthermore, the prominent reverse faults cutting the prerift units coul- ,e interprete- to in-icate prerift contractional -eformation, as is common in the rift 9ones relate- to the ,reakup of !angea.

Stratigraphic Architecture #umerous non)marine rift ,asins of varie- geography an- geologic age share a remarka,ly similar stratigraphic architecture 0Dam,iase, 155%@ Schlische an- Olsen, 155%@ Aig. 7.7.1.*2. 8no"n as a tripartite stratigraphy, the section ,egins "ith ,asin)"i-e fluvial -eposits overlain ,y a relatively a,rupt -eepening)up"ar- lacustrine succession overlain ,y a gra-ual shallo"ing)up"ar- lacustrine an- fluvial succession. .he key to un-erstan-ing the significance of this tripartite stratigraphy rests in the relationships among ,asin capacity an- se-iment an"ater supply 0Schlische an- Olsen, 155%@ ;arroll an- >ohacs, 15552. .ectonics creates accommo-ation space or ,asin capacity. Se-iment supply -etermines ho" much of that ,asin capacity is fille- an- "hether or not lake systems are possi,le 0Aigure 7.7.1.<2. ?n general, fluvial

-eposition results "hen se-iment supply e6cee-s capacity, an- lacustrine -eposition results "hen capacity e6cee-s se-iment supply.

Figure 3.3.1.#. Stratigraphic architecture of .riassic)$urassic rift ,asins of eastern #orth +merica. Aor tectonostratigraphic 0.S2 package ???, nearly all ,asins e6hi,it all or part of a tripartite stratigraphy/ 1, ,asal fluvial -eposits@ 4, G-eeper)"aterG lacustrine -eposits@ 7,

Gshallo")"aterG lacustrine an- fluvial -eposits. .he southern ,asins -o not contain .S)?E. .S)? is only recogni9e- in the Aun-y ,asin an- may or may not ,e a synrift -eposit. Where .S)?? is recogni9e-, a significant unconformity 0in terms of missing time2 commonly separates it from .S)???. Mo-ifie- from Olsen 0155<2, Olsen et al. 04%%%2, an- Schlische 04%%%2.

Figure 3.3.1.$. %BE&'() Relationships among ,asin capacity, se-iment supply, anvolume of "ater -etermine the large)scale -epositional environments of terrestrial rift ,asins. ?n e6ample 1, ,asin)"i-e fluvial se-imentation is pre-icte-. ?n e6ample 4, shallo")"ater lacustrine se-imentation is pre-icte-. Aor the ,asin capacity an- availa,le se-iment supply sho"n in this e6ample, no very -eep lakes are possi,le ,ecause the e6cess capacity of the ,asin 0an- thus lake -epth2 is limite-. .hus, un-er these con-itions, climate is a relatively unimportant control on lake -epth. ?n e6ample 7, -eep)"ater lacustrine se-imentation is pre-icte-. .he relationships sho"n in Aigure 7.7.1.< allo" us to interpret the large)scale stratigraphic transitions o,serve- in many non)marine rift ,asins. .he fluvial)lacustrine

transition may result from an increase in ,asin capacity an-Hor a -ecrease in se-iment supply. .he shallo")"ater lacustrine to -eep)"ater lacustrine transition may result from an increase in ,asin capacity, a -ecrease in se-iment)supply, an-Hor increase in the availa,le volume of "ater. .he -eep)"ater lacustrine to shallo")"ater lacustrine transition may result from a -ecrease or an increase in ,asin capacity 0-epen-ing on the geometry of the ,asin=s e6cess capacity2, an increase in the se-iment supply, an-Hor -ecrease in the availa,le volume of "ater. Bo" -o "e go a,out choosing the more likely interpretationI ?nterestingly, all of the major stratigraphic transitions can ,e e6plaine- ,y an increase in ,asin capacity, for "hich a simple ,asin)filling mo-el is sho"n in Aigure 7.7.1.7. Other ,asin filling mo-els are -escri,e- ,y Dam,iase 0155%2, Smoot 015512, an- Dam,iase an- >os"orth 0155'2. +s -iscusse- in Section 7.7.7, long cores from rift ,asins, com,ine- "ith ,asin mo-eling 0e.g., ;ontreras et al., 155<2 an- seismic reflection -ata 0e.g., Morley, 15552, are re:uire- to test the pre-ictions of these ,asin)filling mo-els.

Figure

3.3.1.*. ?-eali9e-

rift

,asin

sho"ing

unconformity),oun-e-

tectonostratigraphic packages. .hin ,lack lines represent stratal truncation ,eneath unconformities@ re- half)arro"s represent onlaps. ?n eastern #orth +merica, .S)? may not ,e a synrift -eposit, an- thus the geometry sho"n here "oul- ,e incorrect. .S)?? is much more areally restricte- an- more "e-ge) shape- than .S)???. .he transition ,et"een .S)??? an- .S)?E is likely relateto an increase in e6tension rate. +n offset coring techni:ue 0vertical orange lines2, as use- in the #e"ark ,asin coring project, -oes not sample .S)? anmost of .S)??. + -eep core 0vertical yello" line2 is necessary to recover .S)? an- .S)??. Mo-ifie- from Olsen 0155<2.

Tectonostratigraphic Packages and Basin Evolution Olsen 0155<2 su,-ivi-e- the synrift strata of central +tlantic margin rift ,asins into four tectonostratigraphic 0.S2 packages 0Aig. 7.7.1.*, 7.7.1.&2. +n in-ivi-ual .S package consists of all or part of a tripartite stratigraphic succession, is separate- from other packages ,y unconformities or correlative conformities, an- generally has a -ifferent climatic milieu compare- to other .S packages. .S)? is a !ermian -eposit that may or may not ,e synrift, "hereas .S)??, .S)???, an- .S)?E are Date .riassic an- Farly $urassic synrift -eposits 0Olsen et al., 4%%%2. .he unconformities ,et"een .S)?, .S)??, an- .S)??? represent significant geologic time. Bo"ever, it is not yet clear if these unconformities are relate- to regional tectonic changes 0e.g., pulse- e6tension2 0Olsen, 155<2 or to relatively local processes such as strain locali9ation 0a change from -istri,ute- e6tension on lots of small faults to e6tension on a fe" large ones@ e.g., Gupta et al., 155&2 0Aig. 7.7.1.52. Given their geometry an- location in the rift ,asin, .S)? an.S)?? can generally only ,e sample- through -eep coring an- not the relatively shallo" offset coring utili9e- in the #e"ark ,asin 0Section 7.7.72. .he rift)onset unconformity ,et"een prerift rocks an- various synrift units shoul- not ,e taken as evi-ence of regional uplift prece-ing rifting@ rather, it more likely reflects erosion an- non)-eposition occurring over a topographically elevate- region resulting from the assem,ly of !angea.

Figure 3.3.1.+. Stages in the evolution of a rift ,asin. 0a2 Farly rifting associate- "ith several minor, relatively isolate- normal faults. 0,2 Mature rifting "ith through)going ,oun-ary fault 9one, "i-esprea- -eposition, an- foot"all uplift an- erosion. .S)??? an- .S)?E "ere -eposite- in much larger ,asins or su,,asins than "as .S)??, anthe unconformity ,et"een them is small to non)e6istent 0Olsen, 155<2. .S)?E inclu-es the "i-esprea- ;+M! ,asalts that "ere erupte- in a geologically short interval at J4%4 Ma 0e.g., Olsen et al., 155*@ Olsen, 15552 0.he ;+M! ,asalts comprise a large)igneous province or D.?.!.@ see Section 7.1.72. Significantly, .S)?E is a,sent in all of the southern ,asins of the central +tlantic margin. +s -iscusse- more fully in Withjack et al. 0155&2, .S)?E "as pro,a,ly never -eposite- in this region, in-icating that synrift su,si-ence ha- cease- prior to .S)?E time. K+ postrift ,asalt se:uence, "hich may or may not ,e the same age as ;+M!, is present in the southern region an- plausi,ly can ,e connecte- to a sea"ar-)-ipping reflector se:uence at the continental margin 0Oh et al., 155'2. .he temporal an- spatial relationships of these igneous rocks is a critical coring target@ see sections (.4.1 an- (.4.4.L +lso significantly, ,asin inversion in the southern ,asins occurre- shortly prior to an- -uring .S)?E time, "hile inversion in the northern ,asins occurre- after .S)?E time. 0During .S)?E time, the northern ,asins un-er"ent accelerate- su,si-ence@ see Aigure 7.7.4.<2. .hus, the en- of rifting, the initation of inversion, an- pro,a,ly the initiation of seafloor sprea-ing are -iachronous along the central +tlantic margin 0i.e., -uring earliest $urassic time in the southeastern $urassic time in the northeastern nite- States an- Farly to Mi--le nite- States an- Maritime ;ana-a2 0Withjack et al., 155&2.

;oring, fiel- analysis, an- seismic)reflection profiles of synrift an- imme-iately overlying postrift -eposits an- the structures forme- in them, are necessary to clarify the important events occurring at the rift)-rift transition. .he inferre- -iachronous initiation of seafloor sprea-ing along the present)-ay margin of the central #orth +merica Ocean is part of larger tren- that reflects the progressive -ismem,erment of !angea. +s the #orth +tlantic Ocean continue- to -evelop, seafloor sprea-ing propagate- north"ar-. Aor e6ample, seafloor sprea-ing ,et"een the Gran- >anks ansouth"estern Furope ,egan -uring the Farly ;retaceous 0e.g., Srivastava an- .apscott, 15&*2@ seafloor sprea-ing ,et"een Da,ra-or an- "estern Greenlan- ,egan -uring the early .ertiary 0anomaly 4<#2 0e.g., ;halmers, et al., 15572@ "hereas seafloor sprea-ing ,et"een eastern Greenlan- an- north"estern Furope ,egan slightly later -uring the early .ertiary 0anomaly 4(R2 0e.g., .al"ani an- Fl-holm, 15<<@ Bin9 et al., 15572.

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;ontreras, $., Schol9, ;. B., 8ing, G. ;. !., 155<, + general mo-el of rift ,asin evolution/ constraints of first or-er stratigraphic o,servations/ $ournal of Geophysical Research, v. 1%4, p. <*<7)<*5%. ;o"ie, !. +., 155&, #ormal fault gro"th in three)-imensions in continental an- oceanic crust, in Aaulting an- Magmatism at Mi-)Ocean Ri-ges/ Geophysical Monograph 1%*, +merican Geophysical nion, p. 74')7(&. Dore, +. G., an- Dun-in, F. R., 155*, ;eno9oic compressional structures on the #F +tlantic margin/ nature, origin, an- potential signficance for hy-rocar,on e6ploration/ !etroleum Geoscience, v. 4, p. 455)711. Fisensta-t, G., an- Withjack, M. O., 155', Fstimating inversion/ results from clay mo-els, in >uchanan, $. G., an- >uchanan, !. G., e-s., 155', >asin ?nversion/ Geological Society of Don-on Special !u,lication &&, p. 115)17*. Ga"thorpe, R.D., Sharp, ?., n-erhill, $.R., an- Gupta, S., 155<, Dinke- se:uence stratigraphic

an- structural evolution of propagating normal faults/ Geology, v. 4', p. <5')<5&. Gi,son, $. R., Walsh, $. $., an- Watterson, $., 15&5, Mo-elling of ,e- contours an- cross)sections a-jacent to planar normal faults/ $ournal of Structural Geology, v. 11, p. 71<)74&. Gupta, S., ;o"ie, !. +., Da"ers, #. B., an- n-erhill, $. R., 155&, + mechanism to e6plain rift) ,asin su,si-ence an- stratigraphic patterns through fault)array evolution/ Geology, v. 4*, p. '5') '5&. Bill, 8. ;., Bill, 8. +., ;ooper, G. .., O=Sullivan, +. $., O=Sullivan, !. >., an- Richar-son, M. $., 155', ?nversion aroun- the >ass ,asin, SF +ustralia, in >uchanan, $.G., an- >uchanan, !.G., e-s., 155', >asin ?nversion/ Geological Society of Don-on Special !u,lication &&, p. '4')'(&. Bin9, 8., Fl-holm, O., >lock, M., an- Skogsei-, $., 1557, Fvolution of #orth +tlantic volcanic continental margins, in !arker, $. R., e-., !etroleum Geology of #orth"est Furope, !rocee-ings of the (th ;onference/ Geological Society of Don-on, v. 4, p. 5%1)517.

8at9, >. $., e-., 155%, Dacustrine ,asin e6ploration))case stu-ies an- mo-ern analogs/ ++!G Memoir '%, 7(% p. Dam,iase, $.$., 155%, + mo-el for tectonic control of lacustrine stratigraphic se:uences in continental rift ,asins, in 8at9, >.$., e-., Dacustrine F6ploration/ ;ase Stu-ies an- Mo-ern +nalogues/ ++!G Memoir '%, p. 4*')4<*. Dam,iase, $. $., an- >os"orth, W., 155', Structural controls on se-imentation in continental rifts, in Dam,iase, $.$., e-., By-rocar,on ha,itat in rift ,asins/ Geological Society Special !u,lication &%, p. 11<)1((. Morley, ;. 8., 1555, !atterns of -isplacement along large normal faults/ ?mplications for ,asin evolution an- fault propagation, ,ase- on e6amples from Fast +frica/ ++!G >ulletin, v. &7, p. *17)*7(. Oh, $., +ustin, $. +., $r., !hillips, $. D., ;offin, M. A., an- Stoffa, !. D., 155', Sea"ar-)-ipping reflectors offshore the southeastern 47, p. 5)14. Olsen, !. F., Schlische, R. W., an- Ae-osh, M. S., 155*, '&% kyr -uration of the Farly $urassic floo- ,asalt event in eastern #orth +merica estimate- using Milankovitch cyclostratigraphy, in Morales, M., e-., .he ;ontinental $urassic/ Museum of #orthern +ri9ona >ulletin *%, p. 11)44. Olsen, !. F., 155<, Stratigraphic recor- of the early Meso9oic ,reakup of !angea in the Daurasia) Gon-"ana rift system/ +nnual Revie"s of Farth an- !lanetary Science, v. 4', p. 77<)(%1. Olsen, !. F., an- 8ent, D. E., 1555, Dong)perio- Milankovitch cycles from the Date .riassic anFarly $urassic of eastern #orth +merica an- their implications for the cali,ration of the early Meso9oic time scale an- the long)term ,ehavior of the planets. .ransactions, Royal Society of Don-on, Series +, v. 7'<, p. 1<*1)1<&*. Olsen, !. F., 1555, Giant lava flo"s, mass e6tinctions, an- mantle plumes Kperspective on Mar9oli, et al.L/ Science, v. 4&(, p. *%( ) *%'. nite- States/ Seismic evi-ence for e6tensive volcanism accompanying se:uential formation of the ;arolina trough an- >lake !lateau ,asin/ Geology, v.

Rosen-ahl, >. R., 15&<, +rchitecture of continental rifts "ith special reference to Fast +frica/ +nnual Revie" of Farth an- !lanetary Science, v. 1', p. ((')'%7. Schlische, R. W., 1551, Balf)gra,en filling mo-els/ #e" constraints on continental e6tensional ,asin -evelopment/ >asin Research, v. 7, p. 147)1(1. Schlische, R. W., 1557, +natomy an- evolution of the .riassic)$urassic continental rift system, eastern #orth +merica/ .ectonics, v. 14, p. 1%4*)1%(4. Schlische, R. W., 155', Geometry an- origin of fault)relate- fol-s in e6tensional settings/ +merican +ssociation of !etroleum Geologists >ulletin, v. <5, p. 1**1)1*<&. Schlische, R. W., 4%%%, !rogress in un-erstan-ing the structural geology, ,asin evolution, antectonic history of the eastern #orth +merican rift system, in De.ourneau, !.M., an- Olsen, !.F., e-s., +spects of .riassic)$urassic Rift >asin Geoscience/ #e" Mork, ;olum,ia in press. Schlische, R. W., an- +n-ers, M. B., 155*, Stratigraphic effects an- tectonic implications of the gro"th of normal faults an- e6tensional ,asins, in >eratan, 8. 8., e-., Reconstructing the Structural Bistory of >asin an- Range F6tension Special !aper 7%7, p. 1&7)4%7. Schlische, R. W., an- Olsen, !. F., 155%, Nuantitative filling mo-el for continental e6tensional ,asins "ith applications to early Meso9oic rifts of eastern #orth +merica/ $ournal of Geology, v. 5&, p. 17')1''. Smoot, $. !., 1551, Se-imentary facies an- -epositional environments of early Meso9oic #e"ark Supergroup ,asins, eastern #orth +merica/ !alaeogeography, !alaeoclimatology, !alaeoecology, v. &(, p. 7*5)(47. Srivastava, S. !., an- .apscott, ;. R., 15&*, !late kinematics of the #orth +tlantic, in Eogt, !. R., an- .ucholke, >. F., e-s., .he Geology of #orth +merica, v. M., .he Western #orth +tlantic Region/ Geological Society of +merica, p. 7<5)(%(. sing Se-imentology an- Stratigraphy/ GS+ niversity !ress,

.al"ani, M., an- Fl-holm, O., 15<<, Fvolution of the #or"egian)Greenlan- Sea/ GS+ >ulletin, v. &&, p. 5*5)555. EOgnes, F., Ga,rielsen, R. B., an- Baremo, !., 155&, Date ;retaceous);eno9oic intraplate contractional -eformation at the #or"egian continental shelf/ timing, magnitu-e an- regional implications/ .ectonophysics, v. 7%%, p. 45)(*. Withjack, M.O., Olson, $., an- !eterson, F., 155%, F6perimental mo-els of e6tensional forcefol-s/ ++!G >ulletin, v. <(, p. 1%7&)1%'(. Withjack, M. O. an- Fisensta-t, G., 1555, Structural history of the #orth"est Shelf, +ustralia )) an integrate- geological, geophysical an- e6perimental approach/ ++!G +nnual Meeting +,stract, v. &, p. +1'1. Withjack, M.O., Olsen, !.F., an- Schlische, R.W., 155', .ectonic evolution of the Aun-y rift ,asin, ;ana-a/ Fvi-ence of e6tension an- shortening -uring passive margin -evelopment/ .ectonics, v. 1(, p. 75%)(%'. Withjack, M.O., Schlische, R.W., an- Olsen, !.F., 155&, Diachronous rifting, -rifting, aninversion on the passive margin of central eastern #orth +merica/ +n analog for other passive margins/ ++!G >ulletin, v. &4, p. &1<)&7'.

!revious

#e6t

-ntroduction

.he continental shelf of Eietnam comprises several major .ertiary ,asins, of "hich the petroleum potential has ,een confirme- inclu-ing Song Bong >asin, !hu 8hanh >asin, ;uu Dong >asin, #am ;on Son >asin anMalay).ho ;hu >asin. Recent stu-ies in-icate- the estimate- reserves an- resources, ,oth onshore an- offshore Eietnam to ,e 7)( ,illion cu,ic metres 0>;M2 of oil angas, comprising %.5)1.4 >;M of oil an- 4.1)4.& >;M of natural gas. +,out '% oil an- gas prospects have ,een foun- "ith reserves of appro6imately 7 ,illions ,arrels of oil an- 47 .;A of natural gas. ;ommercial oil has ,een -iscoverean- pro-uce- in ;uu Dong, #am ;on Son an- Malay).ho ;hu >asins, "hile commercial gas is ,eing pro-uce- in Song Bong an- -evelope- in #am ;on Son an- Malay).ho ;hu >asins. ;uu Dong >asin is no" consi-ere- to ,e mature, "ith greater than '%P pro,a,ility that more than '%P of the total petroleum in the region has ,een -iscovere-, generally covere- ,y e6tensive seismic gri- an- high -rilling -ensity. Su,mature regions such as Song Bong, #am ;on Son an- Malay).ho ;hu >asins have a greater than '%P pro,a,ility that less than '%P of the region=s total petroleum resources has ,een -iscovere- "ith me-ium seismic an- -rilling -ensity. !hu 8hanh >asin an- frontier areas are those "ithout petroleum -iscoveries, "here seismic coverage is sparse an- "ith fe" "ells -rille-. .Top

Regional /eological Setting

Tectonic Evolution .he Eietnam continental shelf area constitutes a part of a system of ;eno9oic se-imentary ,asins that lies "ithin a transition 9one from the continental crust of the ?n-ochina ;raton to the su, oceanic crust of the eastern -eep "ater ,asins. .he ,asins -evelope- here are rift ,asins "ith multiphase history. .ectonic evolution of the Fast Eietnam Sea ;eno9oic >asins can ,e -ivi-e- into the follo"ing main stages/ 1. Date ;retaceous)Focene/ pre rift upliftHinitial rifting phase. .he major tectonic event is the collision of ?n-ia an- Furasia, resulte- in the southeast"are6trusion in ?n-ochina, represente- ,y strike)slip movements. ?n Date Focene a change in the sprea-ing -irection in the SF !acific resulte- in the -evelopment of a ne" #F)SW su,-uction 9one. 4. Date Focene)Oligocene/ main rifting phaseHinitial ocean floor sprea-ing phase. .his "as the most po"erful, resulte- in the -evelopment of most of the main structure elements in the ,asins. .he -ominating style of the -eformation "as e6tension an- transtensional. 7. Farly)Mi--le Miocene/ regional su,si-enceHrene"e- rifting. ?n the majority of the ,asins, there happene- a shift from the rift to the thermally controlle- high)rate su,si-ence. Significant tectonic pulses occurre- at the enof this perio- marking a major inter ,asinal inversion event. (. Date Miocene/ partial inversionHregional su,si-ence. During this stage, the "hole area ,ecame -ominate- ,y compression, "hich, in com,ination "ith the -e6tral strike)slip fault system east offshore Eietnam, might ,e the -riving force for the contemporary ,asin uplift an- partial inversion in most of the ,asins. '. !liocene)!leistocene/ regional su,si-enceHrene"e- rifting. .he tectonic activity at that stage "as -iverse in -ifferent ,asins, from lo" to mo-erate)amplitu-e -ifferential uplift. .he high)rate fault ,oun-e- su,si-ence in the outer area can ,e consi-ere- as the rifting activation phase associate"ith the sprea-ing of the -eep"ater ,asins.

Depositional Evolution .he main regular se-imentation along ?n-ochina margin "ere -efine- ,y rate of su,si-ence an- structure of the ,asement, location of large river system of the South Fast +sia, eustatic sea level changes an- paleoclimate factor. .he ,asins are characterise- ,y high se-imentation rates, a,rupt facies changes, a,rupt thickening of se-imentary se:uences over short ranges, numerous unconformities an- scattere- volcanicHe6trusive activity. 1. !alaeocene)Focene/ se-iments "ith great thickness "ere -eposite- in the fluvial)lacustrineHcoastal plainH-eltaic con-itions 4. Oligocene/ time of ma6imum -evelopment of the non)marine to transitive -eltaicHcoastal plain con-itions, inclu-ing lacustrine an- estuarine environments, "hich posses the main source potential in the ,asins all over the ?n-ochina margin. 7. Farly)Mi--le Miocene/ "ithin the perio-, se-imentation "as simultaneous "ith a sea level eustatic rise. .he rifting cause- a rapi- increase in su,si-ence rate in all the ,asins, resulte- in the "est"ar- regression of the -eltaHcoastal plain systems. (. Date Miocene/ the marine transgressive -eposition continue-, ,ut its rate "as re-uce-. .he shelf e-ge car,onate platforms "ere -eposite- in most of southern ,asins. '. !liocene)!leistocene/ se-iment input increase-, associate- "ith high) rate of su,si-ence in almost all the ,asins. Rapi- east"ar-s progra-ation of the shelf e-ge of the ,asins "ere accompanie- ,y -eposition of su,marine fan slope systems. Location of Tertiary Basins in Vietnam

.Top Song 0ong Basin Geological Development Song Bong >asin, the largest .ertiary ,asin in the continental shelf of Eietnam, is classifie- as a pull)apart system, fille- up "ith up to 1',%%% m of Focene to Recent se-iment, evolving in several phases throughout Oligocene to !liocene times. .he onset of the ,asin=s formation is relate- to the collision of the ?n-ian su,)continent "ith +sia -uring the Date Focene. Deft lateral strike)slip an- pull apart along the Song Bong Aault Qone in "hich t"o main fault systems forme- the eastern an- "estern limits of its main -epocentre controlle- the shape of the ,asin. .he Focene)Oligocene marke- the major rifting phase. Se-imentation "as primarily in fluvio)lacustrine environment, reflecting the restricte- nature of the ,asin couple- "ith rapise-iment filling.

.he Farly)Mi--le Miocene "as a :uiescent marine se-imentation perio-. ;ar,onate -evelopment along shelf ,oun-ary prolonge- an- ,acksteppe- in areas -uring the Mi--le Miocene sea level transgression. .hroughout the Date Miocene to !lio)!leistocene, a,un-ant clastic se-iment continue- as a result of thermal contraction an- su,si-ence.

Petroleum System ."o potential source rocks have ,een i-entifie- in the ,asin/ Oligocene lacustrine oil prone shales an- Oligo)Miocene -eltaicHparalic gas)prone coalsHcoaly shales. Mo-eling results in-icate that most of the ,asin is mature for gas 08erogen type ???H??2. !aleogene se-iments are mature for oil only in the north"estern part an- in some of the half)gra,en area in the "estern margin of the ,asin. Reservoirs in the ,asin comprise- pre-ominantly of MioceneHOligocene clastic se-iments associate- "ith rifting an- su,se:uent thermal contraction ansag. .he car,onates inclu-ing car,onate ,uil-)ups an- reefs can ,e foun- in the ,asin=s central parts or margins "here uplift has occurre- cause- ,y listric faulting. Aracture- ,asement coul- also ,e an e6ploration target. .he major trap types in Song Bong ,asin are rollover fol-s, tilte- fault ,locks, ,asement high an- car,onates ,uil-ups. .he -ominant seal in the Song

Bong >asin is the .ertiary seal an- although there is very little regionally correlata,le shale across the ,asin, local shales forming intraformational seals are numerous an- appear to ,e very competent. Prospectivity Song Bong >asin is assesse- to contain 1'P of the total hy-rocar,on resources of Eietnam. .he major petroleum plays in the Song Bong >asin inclu-e/

!re).ertiary fracture- granite -rape across ,asement high ,locks OligoceneHMiocene san-stones structure associate- "ith tilte- fault ,locks, ,asement ,locks or inversion

OligoceneHMiocene san-stones stratigraphic plays 0especially tur,i-ites2 Mi--le Miocene car,onates reef platforms .here are ( petroleum contracts that remaine- in active in the Song Bong

>asin. .here is one small pro-ucing fiel-, an- another is ,eing -evelope- at the onshore north"estern part of the ,asin. ?n the southern area, a num,er of significant gas -iscoveries "ere ma-e, ,ut unfortunately contaminate- ,y high ;O4 content. .Top Phu 1hanh Basin Geological Development !hu 8hanh >asin is a present -eep"ater ,asin. ?t sho"s characteristic rift structures, "hich ,elong to the transtensional system -evelope- along the mega shear 9one at the ,oun-ary ,et"een the relatively rigi- continental ,lock anthe more mo,ile sprea-ing 9one of the Fast Sea. .he >asin "as forme- -uring the Oligocene to Farly Miocene main

rifting phase. .he -ominant styles of -eformation "ere e6tension antranstension. During the Mi--le Miocene, a regional su,si-ence took place "ith a tilting to"ar-s the east that affecte- the entire ,asin, an- a me-ium rate of su,si-ence "as maintaine-. ."o significant transpressional tectonic events took place -uring the Mi--le Miocene, forming large)si9e flo"er structures in se-imentary succession an- partial inversion of the ,asement ,locks. During the Date Miocene)Nuaternary, the tectonic activity "as a rifting phase "ith high rate of su,si-ence. .he -eepening of the ,asin "as accompanie- ,y minor events of su,marine erosion an- non)-eposition in the shelf areas. .he final su,si-ence along the inherite- fault 9ones at the shelf margin an- a relatively lo" amplitu-e uplift of the "estern part of the inner shelf gave the ,asin its present -ay morphostructures.

Petroleum System and Prospectivity Since there have ,een no e6ploratory "ells -rille- in the area, hy-rocar,on systems as "ell as characteristics of source rocks, reservoirs ancap rocks in the ,asin have ,een assesse- on the ,asis of analogue from a-jacent ,asins 0Song Bong, ;uu Dong an- #am ;on Son2. .he main source rock is ,elieve- to ,e Oligocene an- possi,le Do"er Miocene an- Focene organic rich shale. .here are several types of reservoirs,

inclu-ing

OligoceneHMiocene

-eltaic

to

shallo"

marine

san-stones@

!aleogeneHMiocene car,onates platforms an- reefs, an- possi,le fracturegranite. .he major trap types are relate- to fault ,locks associate- "ith transtensional an- transpressional movements@ ,ut car,onates)in)situ an,asement are prospective e6ploration targets. !otential seals are Oligocene anMiocene claystones an- claystones intercalate- "ith siltstones. !hu 8hanh >asin is forecaste- to contain 1%P of the total hy-rocar,on resources of Eietnam. .he major petroleum plays in the !hu 8hanh >asin inclu-e/

OligoceneHMiocene shallo" marine san-stones fault ,locks structures MioceneH!aleogene car,onates reefsH,uil-)ups Miocene stratigraphic plays relate- to pinch)out, su,marine fan, tur,i-ites

Aracture-H"eathere- granite pre).ertiary ,asement ,locks

.Top 2uu &ong Basin Geological Development ;uu Dong >asin, a #F)SW tren-ing e6tensional ,asin, is forme- "ithin the Sun-alan- craton at the Date Focene. During the first phase of e6tension, narro" gra,ens "ere create-. During Farly Oligocene, a ,roa-er -o"n "arping pro-uce- a shallo" sag ,asin. .he a6ial 9one of the ,asin su,si-e- rapi-ly again in the Date Oligocene. + regional unconformity at the en- of the Oligocene marke- a perio- of uplift. During the earliest rifting phase 0!alaeocene or Focene2, narro" gra,ens su,si-e- rapi-ly an- "ere fille- "ith great thickness of the non)marine clastics.

.he ,asin su,si-e- ,roa-ly -uring the Oligocene, an- the fluvial lacustrine formations "ere -eposite-, containing coarse clastics in its lo"er part angra-es up"ar- into san-, silts an- mu-stones. During the Mi--le Miocene, a "i-esprea- marine incursion floo-e- the ;uu Dong >asin, -epositing the Rotalia mu-stones, a thick shale section, "hich act as a regional seal. .his formation comprises a progra-ing -elta se:uences, from pro-elta to -elta plain. .he pper Miocene an- the overlying !liocene) Nuaternary se-iments "ere -eposite- -uring transgressiveHregressive cycles of the mo-ern ;uu Dong -elta. .hey appear to ,e controlle- ,y changes in eustatic sea level.

Petroleum System .he common source rocks in ;uu Dong >asin are Oligocene lacustrine mu-stones "ith high .O;. 8erogen is mainly of type ?H?? 0oil prone2. .he most important reservoir rocks in ;uu Dong >asin are "eathere- anfracture- granite an- grano-iorite ,asement "ith more than 1,%%% m thickness.

Aractures in the ,asement are -evelope- into vertically -ifferent 9ones "ith porosity of 1)'P. Oil test rate is greater than 1%,%%% ,op-. .he remaining proven reservoirs are Oligocene an- Miocene san-stones. .he Oligocene an- Miocene Rotalia shale provi-es ,oth vertical anlateral seals. Docal caprocks are Do"er Oligocene lacustrine clay an- Do"er Miocene mu-stones. .rap types encountere- are/ ,asement highs, rollover fol-s, tilte- fault ,locks, -rape anticlines an- stratigraphic pinchouts. Prospectivity ;uu Dong >asin is assesse- to contain 4%P of the total hy-rocar,on resources of Eietnam. .he major petroleum plays in the ;uu Dong >asin inclu-e/

!re).ertiary granite)fracture- ,asement on horst or tilte- fault ,locks, Oligocene an- Do"er Miocene clastics associate- "ith four)"ay -ip structures, -rape a,ove ,asement fault ,locks, locally ,y inversion. ;uu Dong >asin is the major source for Eietnam oil pro-uction.

;urrently, oil is pro-uce- from four fiel-s "ith average of 77%,%%% ,op-, 5%P of "hich is from fracture- ,asement. With the recent significant oil fiel-iscovery, the pro-uction is e6pecte- to increase &%,%%%)14%,%%% ,op- ,y 4%%(. +lso, the ,asin is presently supplying all the associate- gas "ith pro-uction of appro6. 1*' mmcf- through the first pipeline system. Fight petroleum contracts have ,een signe- since 15&& an- < of them are still effective. .he success rate for e6ploration "ells in the ,asin is greater than '%P. .Top 3a4 2on Son Basin Geological Development Development of the #am ;on Son >asin situate- at the intersection of

t"o major tectonic systems relate- to ?n-ochina e6trusion an- Fast Sea floor sprea-ing, "as initiate- -uring the !aleogene. During the Focene)Oligocene, e6tension relate- to the early opening of the Fast Sea resulte- in the -evelopment of #F)SW tren-ing half)gra,en@ rift se:uences fill of these half)gra,en are continental. +s thermal su,si-ence set in an- the in-ivi-ual -iscrete half)gra,en fille-, the se-iment provenance ,ecame more regional resulting in the ,asin)"i-e -eposition of high net to gross fluvial se-iments from the "est. Sag se:uences ,ecame more non)marine up"ar- anmore marine "est to east, -ue to overall transgression an- ,ackstepping of -eltas -uring the earliest Miocene. .o"ar- the en- of Farly Miocene, #W)SF e6tension associate- "ith a change in sprea-ing -irection of the Fast Sea le- to enhance- topographic relief "ithin the ,asin centre an- structurally controlle- facies pattern, in "hich car,onate systems "ere restricte- to platform or foot"all locations "hilst -eeper shelf an- slope facies "ere -eposite- "ithin the gra,en. ?n the Date Miocene, the ,asin "as again tectonically restructure- ,y a mil- inversion, follo"e- ,y thermal su,si-ence, resulting in large car,onate reefal ,uil-ups aninfille- san-y tur,i-ites, ,asin floor. .he process "as interrupte- -uring the early !liocene -ue to a major transgression.

Petroleum System .he Do"er Miocene paralic mu-stones of the upper post)rift are esta,lishe- as the major, oil prone source rocks. shales are also of importance. .hree major types of reservoirs i-entifie- in the #am ;on Son >asin are, pre);eno9oic "eathere- fracture- ,asement, Oligocene an- Miocene clastics, ranging from continental -eltas to -eep marine tur,i-ites in origin, an- high :uality Miocene car,onates. .here are a variety of trap types recognise- in the #am ;on Son, the major ones are rollover fol-s, e6tensional tilte- fault ,locks, ,asement highs an- car,onate ,uil-ups. Develope- throughout the ,asin, inter,e--e- mu-stones are local seals. pper Miocene) !liocene mu-stones are consi-ere- as a regional seal. Oligocene, Miocene pper Oligocene coals 08erogen type ?? an- ??, gas prone2 an- Oligocene syn)rift lacustrine oil)prone

Prospectivity #am ;on Son >asin is assesse- to contain 4%P of the total hy-rocar,on resources of Eietnam. .he major petroleum plays in the ,asin inclu-e/

!re).ertiary fracture- granite at ,asement highs Oligocene clastics on four)"ay -ip structures, -rape across ,asement faults

Miocene clastics on rollover fault ,locks, four)"ay -ip or anticline pper Miocene san-stones associate- "ith tur,i-ites pper Miocene car,onate platforms ;urrently, operations are performe- on & contracts in the #am ;on Son

>asin. +lthough oil is pro-ucing in Dai Bung fiel-, the ,asin is consi-ere- to have mainly natural gas potential "ith proven reserves estimate- at aroun- 1% .cf. >esi-es the Dan .ay)Dan Do fiel- "ith first gas in the en- of 4%%4, other fiel-s such as Rong Doi, Bai .hach)Moc .inh, etc., are sche-ule- to ,e ,rought on pro-uction -uring the perio- of 4%%')4%%<. +--itional gas -iscoveries in ,locks %()7, 14 have ,een on appraisal. .he #am ;on Son pipeline system "hich has a capacity of *)< ,cm per year marke- a milestone in the -evelopment of the gas in-ustry of South Eietnam. .Top 5ala67Tho 2hu Basin Geological Development Malay).ho ;hu >asin is kno"n as the Eietnamese part of the Malay >asin. .his can ,e -escri,e- as an intra)cratonic ,asin, "hich "as create- in Farly .ertiary as a result of the collision ,et"een the ?n-ia plate an- the Furasian plate, involving three main phases of structural -eformation. .he first phase "as relate- to rifting, "hich commence- in Date

FoceneHFarly Oligocene resulting in the formation of numerous Fast)West orientate- half gra,ens, some cut ,y #orth)South tren-ing faults. .his rift phase "as connecte- to the -rift of the ?n-ochina ,lock relative to the +sia mainlan-, "hich move- along the main left)lateral strike)slip faults. .he se-imentation in the early part of rift phase "as -ominate- ,y alluvial)fluvial facies -eposite- in narro", half)gra,en)like area, an- follo"e- ,y -eposition of a possi,le lake facies at the late stage in "i-er ,asin. .he secon- phase "as a sag phase, "hich laste- until the Date Miocene. During the Date Miocene, the transtensional stress change- to transpressional movement, "here the gra,en fills "ere inverte-, ,asically along Fast)West orientate- anticline an- associate- "ith "rench relate- fol-s. .he inversion phase en-e- "ith an eustatic -rop in sea level, causing the erosion of most anticlines. + "eak e6tensional phase prevaile- in this area -uring most of the !liocene)!leistocene time, "hich is referre- to as the thir- phase.

Petroleum System .he pper Oligocene an- Do"er Miocene coalHclaystones se:uence is the primary source rocks in the Malay).ho ;hu >asin. .he Oligocene lacustrine claystones are proven to ,e "orl- class oil source rock "ithin the ,asin 08erogen type ? an- ??2, "hile the Do"er Miocene -eltaic an- lagoonal liptic coals an- claystones are goo- source for ,oth oil an- gas. .he organic matter

comprises a mi6ture of type ? an- ??? kerogens "ith a pro,a,le up"ar- trento"ar-s type ???. .he Mi--le an,elieve- to ,e more gas prone. Reservoirs in the ,asin are primarily vertically stacke- san-stones -eposite- in a variety of continental to shallo" marine environment, inclu-ing Oligocene -eltaic, alluvial fan an- lacustrine san-stones@ "i-ely)-istri,uteDo"er Miocene -elta plain -eposits, an- locally Mi--le Miocene fluvial anlacustrine san-stones. .here are a num,er of trap types foun- in the ,asin, such as structures inherite- from ,asement horsts, e6tension tilte- ,locks, e6tension relate- -rape closure, four)"ay -ip closure, stratigraphic pinch)outs, etc. Regional seal is pper Miocene)Do"er !liocene marine mu-stones. Docal seal is OligoceneHMiocene alternating mu-stones. pper Miocene sections are therefore

Prospectivity Malay).ho ;hu >asin is assesse- to contain 'P of the total hy-rocar,on resources of Eietnam. .he major petroleum plays in the Malay).ho ;hu >asin inclu-e/

Oligocene san-stone anticlines or fault ,locks 0may ,e associate- "ith e6tensional tilte- ,locks

Do"erHMi--le Miocene san-stone anticlines or fault ,locks .here have ,een 7 petroleum contracts signe-. Aor the Eietnam)Malaysia

overlapping overlapping area, the first -iscovery >unga Orki- "as ma-e in 1551 follo"e- ,y a series of other oil an- gas -iscoveries. ;urrently, the >unga 8ek"a fiel- pro-uces appro6imately 1',%%% ,op-@ a-jacent fiel-s are -eveloping. With the area=s proven reserves of a,out * .cf gas, the secon- gas pipeline system "ith capacity of 1.')7 ,cm per year has ,een sche-ule- to

complete in 4%%'.

Plate Tectonics, Stress, and Unconformities: Evolution of the African Rift System and Atlantic Continental Margins
J. Derek Fairhead1,2, C.M. Green1,2, S.M. Masterton1 and R. Guiraud1
1

GETECH, Leeds, LS8 2LJ, UK, jdf@getech.com ; Sheona.Masterton@getech.com ; rg@getech.com

2

School of Earth Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK , cmg@getech.com

This webpage is a summary of: airhead, !."., #.M. $reen, S.M. Masterton, %. $uiraud, 2&1', The ro(e that

p(ate tectonics, inferred stress changes and stratigraphic unconformities ha)e on the e)o(ution of the *est and #entra( +frican %ift System and the +t(antic continenta( margins, Tectono hysics, 594, 11,12..
The Mug(ad rift basin of Sudan, is a good e/amp(e of po(yphase rifting, with at (east three major phases of basin de)e(opment. 0ach phase resu(ted in the generation of source roc1, reser)oir and sea( geo(ogy with structura( traps often c(ose(y (in1ed to basement highs. !airhead et al"22&1'3 in)estigate on a regiona( sca(e the tectonic processes that contributed to rift basin de)e(opment. 4n a regiona( sca(e, the e)o(ution of the +frica-wide Meso5oic rift system is intimate(y (in1ed to re(ati)e mo)ements of +frican sub-p(ates and to g(oba( p(ate tectonic processes and p(ate interactions. #hanges in p(ate interactions are obser)ed in the oceanic crust as a5imuth changes of fracture 5one geometries 2 igure 13. 6y inference, these ha)e caused significant modifications to both the orientation and magnitude of the motions of the +frican sub-p(ates. Such p(ate motion processes ha)e contro((ed the po(yphase de)e(opment of the *est and #entra( +frican %ift System 2 igure 23.

!i#$re 1% &'im$th chan#e of fract$re 'ones for the Central, E($atorial and So$th &tlantic" Clic) here or on !i#$re for enlar#ement"

!i#$re 2% *est and Central &frican +ift system" Clic) here or on !i#$re for enlar#ement"

4n the basina( sca(e, changes of sub-p(ate motions ha)e resu(ted in changes in the stress fie(d. These ha)e had a c(ear impact on the deformation and fau(t geometries of rift basins and on the resu(ting stratigraphy. The unified stratigraphy of the *est and #entra( +frican %ift System 2 igure '3 shows c(ose corre(ation in time between the major unconformities and re(ati)e p(ate motion as shown by changes in the a5imutha( geometry of the oceanic fracture 5ones in the #entra( +t(antic 2red dots, igure 13. Since simi(ar(y timed unconformities e/ist a(ong the continenta( margins of +frica and South +merica, we propose that the causati)e mechanism is change in re(ati)e p(ate motion, (eading to increase or decrease in tension in the p(ate in the region of the continenta( margin. This contro(s the strength or effecti)e e(astic thic1ness, Te, of the crust7p(ate beneath the margins. 8n turn, this resu(ts in a focused change in isostatic response of the margin during short-period changes in re(ati)e p(ate motion, i"e" more tension wi(( mean that (oads are not compensated (oca((y resu(ting in (oca( up(ift of the margin.

!i#$re ,% Unified strati#ra hy chart for the *est and Central &frican +ift System" #(ic1 here or on igure for en(argement.

The continenta( margins thus comprise an effecti)e wea1 5one within an e)o()ing p(ate due to the sedimentary (oading effect. #hanges in p(ate stress, at times of p(ate motion change, are recorded in the form of sedimentary unconformities as the margin is isostatica((y up(ifted or subsides. This study thus ca((s into 9uestion the idea that eustatic sea-(e)e( changes are the principa( cause of the unconformities. 8nstead, it suggests that the principa( cause is a p(ate-tectonic dri)en mechanism.

!i#$re -% Continental mar#ins act as .ea) 'ones to chan#es in late stress

/i0lio#ra hy of references for the *est and Central &frican +ift Systems 6rown, S.0., airhead, !."., 1:,'. $ra)ity study of the #entra( +frican rift system: a mode( of continenta( disruption. 1: the ;gaoundere and +bu $abra rifts. Tectono hysics, 94, 1,.<2&'. airhead, !."., #.M. $reen, S.M. Masterton, %. $uiraud, 2&1', The ro(e that p(ate tectonics, inferred stress changes and stratigraphic unconformities ha)e on the e)o(ution of the *est and #entra( +frican %ift System and the +t(antic continenta( margins, Tectono hysics, 594, 11,-12. airhead, !."., 6in1s, %.M., 1::1. "ifferentia( opening of the centra( and south +t(antic oceans and the opening of the #entra( +frican rift system. Tectono hysics, 187, 1:1<2&'. airhead, !."., $reen, #.M., 1:,:. #ontro(s on rifting in +frica and the regiona( tectonic mode( for the ;igeria and 0ast ;iger rift basins. Jo$rnal of &frican Earth Sciences, 8 227'7=3, 2'1<2=:. airhead, !."., Ma5ur, S., $reen, #.M., Masterton, S., >ousif, M.0., 2&12b. %egiona( p(ate tectonic contro(s on the e)o(ution of the *est and #entra( +frican rift system, with a focus on the Mug(ad %ift 6asin, Sudan. S+?0$. Jo$rnal S$danese &ssociation of 1etrole$m Geoscientists, 233, 1=<2: 2 eb 2&123. *atts, +.6., airhead, !."., 1:::. + process oriented approach to mode((ing the gra)ity signature of continenta( margins. S0$.The Leadin# Ed#e, 2582 3 2 ebruary, 1:::3.