A Hundr e d and One Rule s !

A Short Reference for Arabic Syntactic, Morphological & Phonological Rules for Novice & nter!ediate "evels of Proficiency Moha!!ed #iyad
Spring $%%&

'ON()N(S Page Subject I Introd uc tion 1 The Arabic Alphab e t 2 The Arabic Conso n a n t s Diagra m 5 One Direction Conn ec t or s , mph a tic Conson a n t s , Short !o"els in Arabic # $unation, The Shad d a , The Sun %etter s & The 'oon %etters , Arabic S(nt a ), The De*inite Article, Arabic 'orpholog( + The ,eminin e 'ar-er, The Person al prono u n s . Countrie s, to"ns, /illag e s , De*inite n e s s in Arabic, The $isba 10 %ong /o"el to a Diphth o n g , The Poss e s si/ e prono u n s , Sent e n c e s in Arabic 11 The !ocati/e Particle, The Idaa* a, The Simple Idaa*a 12 The Diptot e s , Demo n s t r a ti/ e Pronou n s , The 1uation al Sent e n c e 2=:>;<? 2 728292:252;< 2 324256 1@ Interro g a ti/ e Particles, Inde*inite $oun Subject, $ega ting 1uation al Sent e n c e s 1A 15 1# 1& The Subject mar- e r s , The Di**ere n t ,orms o* 22 2B2C; Interro g a ti/ e Particles, The Idaa*a Dre/isite dE !erbF Subject Agree m e n t , Transiti/e !erbs, Gelping !o"els Object Pronou n s , The "ord $egation o* Past Tens e

2HI, The Clust er Juster !erbs, 2 O P 2Q M , 2HKL M 2N2HKL M 22U2Q , 2 <2T2H25;

,

1+ The conjunction mph a sisSCon tr a s t 1. 20 21 22 $umb e r s 2A Plurals 25 2# 2& 2+ !erbs

D ?E

, De*initen e s s DRe/isite dE,

The De*acto Cas e o* the $oun and Adjecti/e, $umb e r s , Plurals

$umb e r s DRe/isite dE, 2X P 7 Y 232V W7 !erb Object Pronou n s , Object Pronou n s o* Prepo sition s Prepositions , ,eminin e Soun d Plurals, The Roots, The !erb ,orm The Phonological n/iron m e n t *or ,orm !III !erb, $onF hu m a n

'ultiples o* 10, The Conjunction 2 Z2[; , The Singular Subject and its mood mar- er s The Pres e n t Tens e o* the Arabic /erb, The 'oods !o"els o* the Pres e n t Tens e !erb

2 \29]

, $ega tion o* Pres e n t and ,uture Tens e !erbs, The Sic-

2. 2_ M `a ^ 2 O P 2Q M , The Plural !ocati/e s , 'asculine Sound Plural DRe/isite dE @0 $egation o* the ,uture Tens e DRe/isite dE, !erbs "ith T"o Objects, The SemiF Diptot e s @1 Tens e @2d @@

2 b2HQ

Y her Sisters, The Apposition

22c282:;7 , The 2b Wg

'ood( Pres e n t

The Subjuncti/ e 'ood

2b e 7 ^ 2HI

DRe/isite dE, The $ominalifer II

Y her Sisters

@A @5 @# @& @+

Adjecti/e s DRe/isite dE

2 b2Hh

Y her Sisters DRe/isite dE

Phon(S, a- e Idaa*a, The Per*ect Particle ,orms o* the !erbal $ouns The Relati/e Pronou n s

2 82i, The

!erbal $oun

2j82k52;7 2 O2no;< 2=lH5m

mph a sis

2HI

DRe/isite dE, The Cogna t e Accus a ti/ e

@. The noun the Shad d a o*

222B M 2p2s , The

222q242r252;< 22c2o2`2p252;< 2 82CQo9;< ^ 2=Ct The Dropping

o*

A0

her sister s The Imper a ti/ e 'ood,

2b W 7and

A1 The prep o sition o* Jeginning, A2 A@ AA

2u2K2I M

, The Apposition The Acti/e Participle

22c282:;7 D Re/ist e dE, 2v w 27 x

and

!erbs

Deri/ation o* the Acti/e Participle, The nouns

2y w7

The Gaal Constr uc tio n 22c2Hz;< The Passi/e Participle, Deri/ation o* the Passi/e Participle

$egation Particle 22 2B x 2C; DRe/isite dE A5 The Accus a ti/ e o* Distinction DRe/isite dE A# Particles o* )ception 2}2H2K2~2922< 2 {2<?|7 A& The Accus a ti/ e o* Purpos e , The Absolut e $ega tio n A+ The %ong !o"els DRe/isite dE 50 The Peda g o g ( Section, The "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( appro a c h #0 ,unction al Arabic !erbs list #. Re*ere n c e s

I N(RO*+'( ON The Arabic langu a g e de/ elop e d throu g h the earl( cent uri e s in the Arabian Penins ul a in the era imm e di a t el( prec e din g the app e a r a n c e o* Islam, "hen it ac1uire d the *orm in "hich it is -no"n toda (d Arab poet s o* the preF Islamic period had de/ elo p e d a langu a g e o* am a fin g richn e s s and *le)ibilit(d ,or the mos t part, their poetr ( "as trans mi t t e d and pres e r / e d orall(d The Arabic langu a g e "as then, as it is no", easil( cap a bl e o* cre a tin g ne" "ords and ter min olog ( in order to ada p t to the de m a n d o* ne" scienti*ic and artistic disco/ erie s d As the ne" belie/ e r s in the se/ e n t h cent ur ( spre a d out *rom the Penins ul a to cre a t e a /ast empir e, *irst "ith its capital in Dam a s c u s and later in Jaghd a d , Arabic beca m e the ad minis tr a ti/ e langu a g e o* /as t section o* the 'editerr a n e a n "orldd It dre" upon J(fantin e and Persia n ter m s and its o"n imm e n s e inner resourc e s o* /oca b ul ar ( and gra m m a t i c al *le)ibilit(d During the ninth and tent h cent urie s , a gre a t intellect u al mo/ e m e n t "as und e r" a ( in Jaghd a d , in "hich ma n ( ancien t scienti*ic and philosop hic al tract s "ere tran s p o s e d *rom ancien t langu a g e s , esp e ci all( ree-, into Arabicd 'an( "ere aug m e n t e d b( the ne" "isdo m sugg e s t e d b( Arabic thin-er s other te)t "ere simpl( pres e r / e d , until urop e rea" a- e n e d b( the e)plosion o* learning ta-ing place in Arab Spain, sa" its rebirth in the Renais s a n c e d That is ho" Arabic bec a m e b( the ele/ e n t h centur ( the principal res er/oir o* hu m a n -no"led g e , including the repo sitor( *or the accu m ul a t e d "isdo m o* pas t ag e s , suppla n tin g pre/ious cultur al langu a g e s such as ree- and %atind And it "as the Arabic langu a g e alon e "hich unite d ma n ( people s in the Arab mpire and the ci/ilifation "hich *lourish e d und er itd ,or "hen "e spe a - o* the Arab ci/ilifation and its achie/ e m e n t s "e do not nec e s s a ril( me a n that all its repr e s e n t a t i/ e "ere Arab, or that all "ere 'uslimsd It "as the peculiar genius o* Arab ci/ilifation that it attr a c t e d and enco m p a s s e d peopl e o* ma n ( race s and cre e d s d Citifens o* the Arab mpire, the( identi*ied the m s e l/ e s "ith this ci/ilifation and it "as the Arabic langu a g e , "ith its gre a t *le)ibilit(, that ma d e the m e)po n e n t s o* that ci/ilifationdd Jet" e e n the eight h and t"el*th cent urie s , Arabic "as as much the uni/ers al langu a g e o* cultur e, diplo m a c (, the scienc e s and philosop h ( as %atin "as to beco m e in the later 'iddle Agesd Thos e "ho "ant e d to read Aristotle, use me dic al ter m s , sol/e mat h e m a t i c al proble m s , or emb a r - on an( intellect u al discours e , had to -no" Arabicd

The *irst rules o* Arabic langu a g e , including its poetr ( me trical theor(, and its s(nt a ), morp h olo g ( and phonolog (, "ere "ritte n in Ira1d This tas- "as cond uc t e d both in AlFJasra h und e r AlFhalil Ibn Ahme d AlF,arahid( and in AlFuu*ah und e r Abu alF Gas a n AlFisaaid During the 'iddle Ages AlFhalil in his boo-

22Z2C`;< 2 v2H9Q and,

his

stud e n t , Siiba" a (h in 2 v2H9[;< conclud e d that tas-d The *irst comple t e diction a r ( o* the Arabic langu a g e "as comp o s e d b( AlFhalil, "ho had also bee n in/ol/ed in the re*or m o* the Arabic script and "ho is gen e r all( acclaim e d as the in/en t or o* the Arabic metrical theor(d The pro*es s e d aim o* 22Z2C`;< 2 v2H9Q , "hich goes und e r his na m e , "as the inclusion o* all Arabic rootsd In the introd uc tio n, a s-etc h is gi/en o* the phon e tic struct ur e o* Arabic, and II the diction ar ( *ull( uses a/ailable corpor a o* Arabic b( including 1uot a tio n s *rom the ur an and *rom the num e r o u s preF Islamic poe m s , "hich had both und e r g o n e a proc e s s o* codi*ication and "ritte n trans mi s sion b( the hand s o* the gra m m a ri a n s d The earl( att e m p t to "rite the Arabic gra m m a r beg a n as earl( as the time o* the *ourth ellFuided Caliphs, Ali Ibn Abi Taalib, "hen he com mi s sion e d a ma n na m e d Abu AlFAs"ad AlFDuali *or the tas-d In his boo- D 2Ha|< 22 2{2H22: 222 2H:;< report s the *ollo"ing anec d o t e d

23LsE

AlFAnbari,

2XjH:s<

22D2222;< 2 2C4 E 222;2H2 2 2a< 2Za 2 24 22Z2C2K2I2o252;< 2=CI< 2 \24 2224| 2 28V 222 22{28262o2 2 2Q 22242I 22s g 222c2H22 222Z2C2K2I2252;< 2=CI7 2HV 222uL 2HI 2222422 2^32`ij 2 82i 22228262o2 22v2=`;< 2 H22C2 2m< 2b27 22{2|j2 2 F2U26H< 2 2K`V 2}2<2=252z;< 222uL 2232r2;2H>5a 22822M 2 2 2v2o9[I 2H2 C? 2232`2i2=;< 2 W 2;g 22\22;< 2 U W 2 2d22C4 22b2?282529`V? 2^2C;g 2 b2o`6=V 2 ^2\225 W 225 M 2;< 2Z2 2:s7 2HI 222U22H2 2 d22=]? 22O2`2? 222U22g 2 24Q 2 2[;7 2 2; 22c2Hi? 2 d2\2K`I 2 |2H22< 2HI 222=z;<? 2^a 2 } x 2\2:s7 M 2HI 22O2`2p2;<? 2 2C;g 22i? 2HI 22C;g 2 2m<? 2^ozK;< 2<uL 2 x sgd
I cam e to The %ead e r o* the Jelie/ers , Ali Ibn Abi Talib, and *ound that he "as holding a not e in his handd I as- e d, hat is this, Oh %ead er o* the ,aith*ul Ge said, I ha/ e bee n thin-ing o* the langu a g e o* the Arabs, and I ca m e to *ind out that it has

bee n corrup t e d throu g h cont a c t s "ith thes e *oreign e r s dTh e r e*or e , I ha/ e decid e d to put som e t hin g that the( Dthe ArabsE re*er to and rel( ond Then he ga/ e me the note and on it he "rote Spe ec h is ma d e o* nouns , /erbs and particlesd $ouns are na m e s o* things, /erbs pro/id e in*orm a tio n, and particles comple t e the me a ni n g d Then he said to me, ,ollo" this appro a c h and add to it "hat come s to (our mindd AlFDuali continu e d to sa(,

\;< 4n? b< \;g ^H p9<? `9;< aHa U `K;<? r`;< aHa `m? s=I7 D;< C4E 4 \4 H 9m= H54 dZ W [; HI ^H <o<? b W g vHa C4 H 9m= ozK;< v<oa< ZI HaHa `m? H54Q KQ? dH C;g Z W [; Ua ozK;< <uL Z x ]7 HI cHi d3VHp[;< C HI 4k] b< \;g DK < mjE ozs Xu;< ozK;< W 5 M ;u4d
I "rote t"o chap t e r s on conjunction s and attribut e s then t"o chap t e r s on e)cla m a ti o n and interro g a ti/ e s d Then I "rote abou t

2H <o<? 2b W 2g
III

and I

s-ipp e d

2Z W 2[;d hen

I sho" e d that to him DPeac e be upon

himE, he order e d me to add 2 Z W 2[;d There*or e, e/er( time I *inish a chap t e r I sho" e d it to him D'a( od be satis*ied "ith himE, until I co/er e d "hat I thoug h t to be enou g h d Ge said, Go" bea u ti*ul is the appro a c h (ou ha/ e ta-e n ,rom ther e the conc e p t o* gra m m a r

2o2zK;<

ca m e to e)istd

,ollo"ing Abu AlFAs"ad AlFDuali ca m e a group o* gra m m a r i a n s that "e -no" mos t o* b( their na m e s , not their "or-sd The list includ e s

-22U2nH 2Za 2=ks , AlF'ahr( 22b2<282`I 2Za 22322:K 2 X2=2 252;< , AlFA1ran 22b2=i2< 22b2o252CI , AlFAd"aa n ( 2Za 2 \2CzV 222s<2?282`;< 2=5`V , AlFA-h*as h 2=:Q< 2222p2< , AlFAraj , AlF Gadhr a m ( 222I2=z;< 22 2q2z22< 2 2a< 2Za 2222< 28: , Ibn AlFAlaa 2oa7
Ibn AaSim

2}`;< 2Za 2?=5 ,

AlFTha1 a*(

"rote t"o *amo u s boo-s,

2222p22~;< 2=5 2Za 222\22C , 22c2H252Q< and 2 2I2H;<

"ho

aa*i credit e d AlFTha1 a*( 2222p22~;< *or tran s* e rring the inter e s t *rom Jasra h to uu*a, bec a u s e he beg a n his "or- ther e, and AlFhalil "as his stud e n t d Among the other uu*ic gra m m a ri a n s "ere AlF

222252C2529;< 22Z252]=;< 282: 2Za 22b2H2:2C2 2 32V?H`I 2oa7 and AlF Garra a 2}<= ;< 2T2H`I 222U2422I 2oa7 and AlFRua a s ( 2 =2p2`6 2oa7 22222<=;< "ho "rot e 22O2kC2p2;<EE d I* Siiba" a (h "as consid er e d the Ima a m o* gra m m a r in Jasra h, the uu*ic /ersion "as AlFisaa ( 2oa7 222l2H22[;< 2?=C 2Za 2225] 2Za 2 24 222Z22z;< "ho studie d und er AlFGarra a 2}<2= W ;<and AlFRua a s ( d 22222<=;<n*ortun a t el (, AlF
Tamiim( isaa ( did not auth or an( major "or- in Arabic gra m m a r d Go"e/ er, he bec a m e one o* the bes t se/ e n rea d e r s o* the urand The *ram e " o r- o* the Arab gra m m a ri a n s ser/ e d e)clusi/el( *or the an al(sis o* Arabic and, ther e*or e , has a special rele/ a n c e *or the stud( o* the langu a g e d ,rom the period bet" e e n &50 and 1500 "e -no" the na m e s o* mor e tha n A000 gra m m a ri a n s "ho de/ elo p e d a trul( compr e h e n s i/ e bod( o* -no"led g e on their o"n langu a g e d Siiba" a (h "as the *irst gra m m a ri a n to gi/e an accou n t o* the entire langu a g e in "hat "as prob a bl( the *irst publication in boo*orm in Arabic pros ed In his boo-, 2 v2H:;< 2=5? 2 v2<|< 2=L , AlF Gusar( report e d that Siiba" a (h used to ha/ e his "or- re/ie" e d b( anot h e r gra m m a ri a n o* his time na m e d AlFA-h*as h AlFSaghiir "ho said that, Siiba" a (h sho" e d me the gra m m a r rules he ca m e up "ith thin-ing that I -ne" bett e r tha n himd In *act, he has bett e r -no"led g e tha n med Siiba" a (h s e)a m pl e set the tren d *or all subs e 1 u e n t gen e r a tio n s o* gra m m a r i a n s , "ho belie/ e d that their main tas- "as to I! pro/id e an e)pla n a tio n *or e/er( single phe n o m e n o n in Arabicd Cons e 1 u e n tl (, the( distinguis h e d bet" e e n "hat "as tran s mi t t e d and "hat "as theor e tic all( possible in langu a g e d In principle, the( acce p t e d e/er(t hin g *rom reliable resourc e s , "hich includ e d the langu a g e o* the ur an, preF Islamic poetr (, and testi m o ni e s *rom trust" or t h ( Jedouin in*orm a n t s d A*ter the period o* the Islamic con1u e s t s , the sed e n t a r ( popula tion o* 'e--a and 'edina beg a n to reg ar d the *reeF roa min g Jedouin, "hos e

langu a g e pres e r / e d the purit( o* the preF Islamic time s , as the ideal t(p e o* Arab, and the ter m 22v2=`;< 2 2Q %angu a g e o* the Arabs ca m e to deno t e the pure, una**ec t e d langu a g e o* the Jedouinsd !erst e e g h stat e d that the earl( beginnin g s o* gra m m a r and le)icogr a p h ( beg a n at a time "hen Jedouin in*orm a n t s "ere still aroun d and could be cons ult e dd There can be no doub t that the gra m m a r i a n s and le)icogr a p h e r s reg ar d e d the Jedouin as the true spe a - e r s o* the Arabic ,uSGa, and continu e d to do so a*ter the con1u e s t s d In the "ords o* Ibn halduu n, the Jedouin spo-e according to their linguistic intuitions and did not nee d an( gra m m a ri a n to tell the m ho" to use the declen sion al ending s d There are report s that it "as *ashion a bl e amo n g not a bl e *amilies to sen d their sons into the des e r t, not onl( learn ho" to shoot and hunt, but also to practice spe a -in g pure Arabicd The Proph e t 'oha m m e d "as one o* thos e "hen he "as a small bo(d Other report s come *rom pro*es sio n al gra m m a r i a n s "ho sta(e d *or som e time "ith a Jedouin tribe and studie d their spe e c h beca u s e it "as consid e r e d to be more correct tha n that o* the to"ns and citiesd The Arabic linguistic re*er e n c e s tell us that the nee d *or som e linguistic auth orit( cam e to e)ist long be*or e the time o* AlFhalil and Siiba" a (hd There is a /ast amo u n t o* anec d o t e s conc er nin g the linguistic mist a- e s ma d e b( the nonF Arabs "ho con/ er t e d to Islamd It is com m o nl( belie/ e d that thes e anec d o t e s docu m e n t a stat e o* con*usion and corruption o* the Classical langu a g e d According to ma n ( resourc e s , the ellFguide d *ourth Caliph, Ali Ibn Abi Taalib, the cousin and sonF inF la" o* the Proph e t 'oha m m e d , "as the *irst to insist that som e t hin g to be don ed One anec d o t e me n tion e d that Ali cam e to per*or m his preF da" n pra(e r at the 'os1u e o* AFuu*ahd As he "ent in, he he ar d a nonF Arab 'uslim rea ding the uran and that ma n "as assignin g the endF "ords /o"eling incorr ec tl(d The /ers e in 1ues tio n "as *rom ,aaTir DChap t e r @ 5 d !erse 2+E

2} M 2H25242`;< 22 2|H: 2 Z2I 2222 x < 222\22>V 2H5sg

Thos e trul( *ear Allah, Among Gis Ser/a n t s ho ha/ e -no"led g e Appar e n tl(, that ma n had the nomin a ti/ e cas e assign e d to "hat supp o s e d to be the direct object

2222 x <, and

the accus a ti/ e cas e "as

assign e d to the subject 2 } M 2H25242`;<d Jeca u s e the endF "ord /o"eling is the ma ni*es t a tio n o* Arabic langu a g e gra m m a r , the me a nin g o* that /ers e "as compl e t el( me s s e d upd That sa m e da( Ali han d e d a note to Abu AlFAs"ad AlFDuali "hich said that, Spe e c h is ma d e o* thre e

ele m e n t s noun s, /erbs, and particlesd Ali as-e d AlFDuali to e)p a n d on that de*inition and "rite the *irst gra m m a r rules *or ! Arabicd In oth er "ords, Ali "as as-ing *or a linguistic aut horit( "hos e rules should be en*orc e dd According to som e historian s , AlFDuali at *irst hesit a t e d but "as later pers u a d e d "hen his o"n daug h t e r ma d e a terrible mist a- e in the use o* the declen sion al ending s , b( con*using the e)pr e s sio n s

22} x 2H2522;< 222Z x 22]7 2HI S 222} 2H2522;< 222Z M 22]7 x 2HI
Go" be a u ti*ul is the s-(Sh a t is the mos t bea u ti*ul thing in the s-( She "as report e d to ha/ e said

22} 2H2522;< 222Z x 22]7 2HI S 222} x 2H2522;< 222Z M 22]7 2HI
The origin o* the dot, not a tion o* the thre e short /o"els, and the $unation is ascrib e d to Abu AlFAs"ad, and the na m e s o* the /o"els D,atG a, Dha m m a , asraE are conn e c t e d to their articulation s d ,rom that "e ha/ e the com m o n e)pr e s sio n,

2 \24 2222H22K;< 2 m

222?=z;< , literall( me a ni n g put the dots on the lett er s, ided, to be mor e clearSs p e ci*icdT"o oth er inno/a tion s attribut e d to Abu AlFAs"ad conc er n the nota tio n *or ha mf a Dglott al stopE and Shad d a Dcons o n a n t ge min a tio nEd Joth signs are abs e n t *rom the $aba t a e a n scriptd
The *ram e " o r- o* the Arab gra m m a ri a n s ser/ e d e)clusi/el( *or the an al(sis o* Arabic and ther e*or e has a special rele/ a n c e *or the stud( o* the langu a g e d ,rom the period bet" e e n &50 and 1500 "e -no" the na m e s o* mor e tha n A000 gra m m a ri a n s "ho elabor a t e d a compr e h e n s i/ e bod( o* -no"led g e on their o"n langu a g e d 'ost Arabic gra m m a r s *ollo" the order est a blis h e d b( Siiba" a (h and start "ith s(nt a ) 2o2zK;7 , *ollo"ed b( morp h olo g ( 2 2V=k9;< , "ith phonolog ( add e d as an app e n di)d Phonolog ( did not count as an indep e n d e n t discipline and "as ther e*or e releg a t e d to a position at the end o* the tre a tis e, altho u g h a consid e r a bl e bod( o* phon e tic -no"led g e "as tran s mi t t e d in introdu c tion s to diction a ri e s and in tre a ti e s on recita tio n o* the ura n,

2 82Vo 2 v2<=g , a
ter m

The gra m m a r i a n s main preocc u p a ti o n "as the e)plan a tio n o* the cas e ending s o* the "ords in the sent e n c e , called

originall( me a n t the correc t use o* Arabic according to the langu a g e o* the Jedouins but ca m e to me a n decle n siond ees belie/ e s that the "or-s "hich app e a r e d a*ter AlFhalil and Siiba" a (h onl( contribu t e d eith er b( o**ering com m e n t a ri e s or *urth er e)plan a tio n s d In this cont e ) t, this publication is nothin g mor e tha n an accou n t o* the mos t com m o n rules nonF spe a - e r s o* Arabic "ill nee d to re*er to in their 1ue s t *or learning the langu a g e d et, our addition al aim is to o**er som e sugg e s tio n s and idea s on ho" to pres e n t thes e com m o nl( used rulesd !I Thes e sugg e s tio n s and ideas are bas e d on rece n t res e a r c h in langu a g e pro*icienc ( learnin g and ped a g o g (d 'an( res e a r c h e r s agre e that *ormal classroo m instruction o* cert ain gra m m a t i c al struct u r e s Fthat is, morp h olo gic al in*lection s, *unction "ords, and s(nt a c tic "ord orderF can be ben e*icial to stud e n t s d The ration al e *or teac hin g gra m m a r is multi*ac e t e d d ,irst stud e n t s are e)p e c t e d to be alre a d ( literat e and ther e*or e ha/ e est a blis h e d e)p e c t a ti o n conc er nin g langu a g e instructiond ram m a r instruc tion can be ben e*icial bec a u s e o* the *act that it raise s learn e r s conscious n e s s conc er nin g the di**ere n c e s and similarities o* %1 and %2d In this resp e c t, gra m m a r instruction can be used as a linguistic ma p, "ith re*er e n c e points o* rules o* thu m b s to assist stud e n t s as the( e)plore the topogr a p h ( o* the ne" langu a g e d Go"e/ er, "e nee d to rem e m b e r that gra m m a t i c al struct u r e s b( the m s el / e s are rath e r useles s d %i-e road signs, gra m m a t i c al struct u r e s ta-e on me a nin g onl( i* the( are situa t e d in a cont e ) t and in conn e c t e d discours e d ,urth er m o r e , rash e n D1.+ 2E remind s us that gra m m a t i c al struct ur e s "ill beco m e intern alife d onl( i* the learn e r s are place d in a situa tion in "hich the( ne e d to us e the struct u r e s *or com m u nic a ti/ e purpos e s d Cons e 1 u e n tl (, an import a n t role o* the teac h e r is to cre a t e learnin g situa tio n s in "hich the stud e n t s *eel a nee d to ma s t e r the gra m m a r in order to compr e h e n d and com m u nic a t e in the targ e t langu a g e d A det ailed ped a g o g ( sche m e on ho" to teac h and learn gra m m a r is pro/ide d in a section that *ollo"s the pres e n t a ti o n o* the rulesd

1 ,- (he Arabic Alph a b e t The Arabic sourc e s , as long as the( do not attribut e the in/ention o* the Arabic script to Adam or Ishma el, tell us that the script had bee n introd uc e d eith er *rom South Arabia region or *rom 'esopot a mi a DIra1Ed Ibn AlF$adim, *or e)a m pl e , said that the people o* AlFGira, the capital o* the %a-hmid d(n a s t ( in the uphr a t e s /alle(, use d a *orm o* S(riac cursi/e script "hich had de/ elop e d into the Arabic alph a b e t d !erst e e g h claims that the theor ( o* S(riac origin has no" be e n aba n d o n e d b( mos t scholarsd It see m s muc h more li-el( to him that the Arabic alph a b e t is deri/e d *rom a t(p e o* cursi/e $aba t a e a n in Petra, ordand In the Aramaic script, *rom "hich $abat a e a n "riting ultima t el ( deri/e d, ther e are no ligatur e s bet" e e n lett er sd Jut in the cursi/e *orms o* the $abat a e a n script mos t o* the *eatur e s that char a c t e rif e the Arabic script alre a d ( app e a r d !erste e g h adds that the elabor a tio n o* an Arabic script *or te)ts in Arabic too- plac e as earl( as the seco n d cent ur ( C d This "ould me a n that the de/ elo p m e n t o* the Arabic script as it is use d in preF Islamic inscription s occurr e d largel( indep e n d e n tl ( *rom the later de/ elop m e n t s in $abat a e a n epigr a p hic scriptd The mos t import a n t intern al de/ elop m e n t in Arabic script is the s(st e m a t ic elabor a tio n o* conn e c tio n s bet" e e n letter s "ithin the "ord, and the s(st e m o* di**ere n t *orms o* the lett er s accordin g to their position "ithin the "ordd According to Siiba" a (h , the Arabic Alphab e t is ma d e o* 2. letter s , including @ long /o"elsd Ge put the m in the *ollo"ing order startin g "ith the lar(ng e a l and ending "ith labial, repr e s e n ti n g the plac e o* articulation along the /ocal tractd

2 ^ 2 ^ 2N ^ 2y ^ ^ 2 ^ ^ 22L ^< ^}^ 2 ^ 2 { ^ 2| ^ 22 ^ 2b ^ j ^ 2c ^ 2X ^ 22 ^ 2 ^ ? ^ 2 ^ 2v ^ 2 ^ 2 ^ 2T ^ 22 ^ 22 ^

Thoug h Siiba" a (h listed 2. letter s he conclud e d that in realit( ther e "ere @5 soun d s "hich are repr e s e n t e d b( thos e 2. letter s d Ge e)plain e d that the recitation o* the uran and readin g o* poetr ( had nec e s sit a t e d the e)ist a n c e o* thos e # addition al sound s d The list

22232p2C2p2>;< 2 b2oK;<, the me di al Gamf a 5 ;< ZCa ZCa 9;< , Ali* alF Ima al a 8V8 3;HIg cH5 M 9;< ;< ,th e F sound e d Shiin 22U2C2;HQ 2 29;< 22 2Z2C22;< , the Fsoun d e d emp h a tic S
includ e d the light $uun

X<;HQ bo[ 9;< |Hk;< , the

/elarife d Ali*

langu a g e o* Gijaaf in "ords li-e,

222U2C2>2p29;< 2 2;7 in the 222HQ;<? 22k;<? 222HCz;<d

Siiba" a (h "ent on to sa( that he could trac e A2 soun d s but the addition al & sound s "ere not *a/ora bl e in the recita tio n o* the uran and rea din g o* poetr (d There*or e, the( "ere o* less signi*icanc e since their use is onl( limite d to oral com m u nic a tio nd 2 AlFhalil Ibn Ahme d, "ho died in &.1, group e d and put the m in the *ollo"ing order

2 22 ^ 2 { 2| 22 ^ 22 2 ^ 2 22 2 ^ 2N 2 ^ 2y 22L 2 } 2X 2< ? ^ 2 2v 2 ^ 2b 2| j ^ 2T
The codi*ication o* the ur an "as a crucial mo m e n t in the de/ elo p m e n t o* a "ritte n sta n d a r d *or the Arabic langu a g e d On a practic al le/el, the "ritingF do"n o* the hol( te)t in/ol/e d all -inds o* decisions concer nin g the orthogr a p h ( o* the Arabic script and elabor a tio n o* a num b e r o* con/e n tio n s to ma- e "riting less ambig u o u s and more ma n a g e a b l e than it had be e n in preF Islamic Arabiad riting "as not un-no" n in the penins ul a in that periodd Jut, *or religious rea s o n s , earl( Islamic sourc e s emp h a s if e d the illiterac ( o* the Proph e t 'oha m m e d d The Proph e t "as 2 2I7 M, som e o n e "ho could not read nor "rite, and this "as "hat ma d e the re/ela tio n o* the ura n and his recita tio n o* the te)t a miracled There are clear indication s that as earl( as the si)th cent ur ( "riting "as *airl( com m o n in the urb a n cent e r s o* the penins ul a, in 'e--a and to a less er degr e e in 'edinad In the com m e r ci al societ( that "as 'e--a, busin e s s m e n mus t ha/ e had at their dispos al /arious me a n s o* recordin g their tran s a c tio n s d There are re*er e n c e s to tre a ti e s being "ritte n do"n and pres e r / e d in the aba in 'e--ad /en the tran s mi t t e r s o* poetr (, som e ti m e s relied on "ritte n note s , altho u g h the( recite d the poe m s entru s t e d to the m orall(d In the ura n, "e *ind re*lection o* a societ ( in "hich "riting *or com m e r ci al purpos e s "as "ell est a blish e d d In the secon d sura "e *ind, *or insta n c e , det ailed stipula tion s on the settle m e n t o* debt s that includ e the e)act "ritingF do"n o* the ter m s d

2 2<?=;< , the

In the biogra p h ( o* the Proph e t, ther e are ma n ( re*er e n c e s to his using scribes *or his corres p o n d e n c e "ith Arab tribes and o* "riting tre a ti e s d In the accou n t s pres e r / e d b( the historian s , scribe s and "itne s s e s "ere me n tion e d and the Proph e t sign e d thos e docu m e n t s "ith his *inger n aild Tradition has pres e r / e d the na m e s o* se/er al scribes to "ho m 'oha m m e d dicta t e d me s s a g e s , chie* amo n g the m being a(d Ibn Thabitd ust as Christia n mon-s o* the 'iddle Ages spen t li*etim e s "riting and illumin a tin g religious ma n u s c ript s , their Arab and 'uslim *oreb e a r s cont e m p o r a ri e s de/ot e d their li/es to producing eleg a n tl( hand " ritt e n copies o* the urand In lieu o* pictorial repr e s e n t a t i o n, "hich "as *ro"ne d upon, calligra p h ( bec a m e not onl( practic al, but decor a ti/ e, replacing design, painting and sculpt ur e o/er a period o* cent urie s d %ater e/er( caliphs court emplo(e d the s e artists to dra" up o**icial docu m e n t s , design o**icial sign a t u r e s and "rite out diplo m a tic corres p o n d e n c e d The Arabs and 'uslims o* that time use d interlac e d geo m e t ric lines deri/a tion s *rom the u*ic st(le to adorn the "alls o* palac e s and mos 1 u e s , and the na m e o* this st(le, arab e s 1 u e , is a re min d e r o* its cultur al originsd Arabic calligrap h ( *orms a primar ( orna m e n t a t i o n o* the 'oorish palac e o* Alham br a in ran a d a , other citad els and @ mos 1 u e s o* 'oorish Spain spe a- elo1u e n tl( o* the golde n ag e s o* ara b e s 1 u e design and calligra p h (d The trac er ( and *lo"ing patt e r n s o* the arab e s 1 u e st(le, o* calligra p h ( itsel*, impl( a de e p e r, s(mb olic me a nin g ste m mi n g *rom ancie n t m(s tic belie*sd The design s endle s sl( reprod u cin g the m s el / e s in app a r e n tl( con*us e d ent a n gl e m e n t s , but in realit( *lo"ing an ingeniou s s(st e m , are interpr e t e d as s(mb olic o* the order o* nat ur e "hich in perp e t u al chan g e al"a(s rep e a t s its c(clesd The me a n d e r s are said to repr e s e n t the continuit( o* li*e, the circle is held to sta n d *or eter nit( and the ros et t e s and palm e t t o s o* design *or birth and mat urit(d Calligrap h e r s toda ( pla( an integr al role in the Arab and 'uslim orldsd The( not onl( cop( uranic /ers e s and design phra s e s to be incorpor a t e d into building tiles and mos 1 u e s , but the( "rite ne arl( all ne"s p a p e r and ma g a fin e he a dlin e s d 'odern Arabic lends itsel* to the art, "ith its *luid design and diacritical mar-ing s d

$ d (he Arabi c 'on s o n a t i a l Sy s t e ! includ e s e1u al nu mb e r s o* /oiced /ers u s /oicele s s , t"o nas als, thre e /elaris e d, t"o later al and one trilld Pleas e note the *ollo"ing diagr a m Ob s tr u e n t s So n o r a n t s .all voic e d / +nv e l a ri 0 e d 1elari0 e d later al labial labioF dent al interd e n t a l dent oF al/ed !oiceles s trill /oiced /oiceles s /oiced nas al

v |S T S

b c j

{S
palat al /elar u/ular

yS

N }S2L

Phar(n g al %ar(ng e al

A 2- On e *ire c ti o n 'onn e c t o r s d O* the 2. lett er s that ma- e the Arabic Alphab e t onl( si) conn e c t to the proce e di n g letterd Thes e includ e t"o long /o"els 2< and ? , and *our cons o n a n t s conn e c t to both sidesd

^ ^ j 2T ^ 2|

d The rest

3- )!p h a t i c 'on s o n a n t s are a Semitic langu a g e s phe n o m e n o n d In Arabic ther e are *our "hich includ e 2 22 ^ 22 ^ 2 ^d Thes e cons o n a n t s are articulat e d b( a proce s s o* /elarifatio n the tip o* the tong u e is lo"er e d, the root o* the tong u e is raise d to"ard s the so*t palat e D/elu mE, and in the proce s s the timbr e o* the neigh b orin g /o"els is shi*te d to" ard s a post e rior realifationd

4- Sh or t 1o5 e l s in Arabic The not a tion o* the short /o"els "as a complica t e d proble md Abu AlFAs"ad AlFDuali is credit e d "ith introdu c tion o* the s(st e m o* colore d dots in the "riting s(st e m , and the ter min olog (, ,atGa

Fx ,

Dha m m a FM , asra F dd Jut, a subs t a n ti al impro/ e m e n t in the s(st e m o* short /o"els not a tion is usu all( attribut e d to the *irst le)icogr a p h e r o* the Arabic langu a g e , AlFhalil Ibn Ahme dd Ge replac e d the colore d dots "ith speci*ic sha p e s *or the short /o"els and the Shad d a d ith AlFhalils re*or m, the s(st e m o* Arabic orthogr a p h ( "as almos t the sa m e e/er sinced hen use d at the end o* a de*inite noun or adjecti/e the( indicat e cas ed DaE DbE DcE

FM indicat e s Fx indicat e s F

$omina ti/ e cas e as in Accus a ti/ e cas e as in

2v M 2H9[;< 22v x 2H9[;< 2v 2H9[;<

indicat e s eniti/e cas e as in

As (ou might ha/ e notice d, Siiba" aih did not includ e the short /o"elsd $either did he tal- abou t the diphth o n g s "hich are crea t e d e/er( time (ou ha/ e a short /o"el proc e e di n g the long /o"els

?and 2X

as in

2 2Ca x ^ oV x

&- Nun a t i o n - hen a noun or an adjecti/ e is inde*inite it carries $unation, "hich is an( o* the short /o"els plus SnS soun dd DaE

Fw w indicat e s $omina ti/ e cas e as in 22 w2T2H2922< DbE F indicat e s Accus a ti/ e cas e as in 22 2T2H2922< DcE F indicat e s eniti/e cas e as in 22 2T2H2922<
5

Pleas e notice that the accus a ti/ e $unation

F is al"a(s 2 32:2;2H2 , or

"ritte n on D

2< E

as in

2H 9Cad An e)ce p tio n

to that is "hen the *inal conso n a n t is Gamf a,

eith er the *eminin e mar- e r, Taa 'arbuTa

2} 2H252

6- (he Sh a d d a is used "hen (ou ha/ e t"o identic al cons o n a n t s in a se1 u e n c e , pro/iding that the *irst has a Su7 u u n Dfero /o"elEd

2 x 2j x ej| x

is "ritte n as

22 x 2j W| x

8- (he Su n "ett e r s - Due to a Phonological rule, the S 2 cS sound o* the de*inite article is assimilat e d b( an( o* the *ollo"ing sun cons o n a n t s d There*or e, (ou nee d to use Shad d a to replac e the assimilat e d S 2 cSd The Sun %etter s are

22 M 2j28 W 2;< 2b 22 22 2 2 22 22 j 2T 2| 2 2{
9- (he Moo n "ett e r s ha/ e the de*inite article *ull( prono u n c e d d The( are

2v M 2H9[;<

22L 2 2c 2N 2 2 2y 2 2 2 v 222U22g
,

,% - Arabi c Sy n t a : - According to Siiba" a (h "ords are noun

/erb 22O2`2 , or particle 2 2=] x inten d e d *or ite ms "hich are neith e r noun nor /erbd The basic di**ere n c e bet" e e n the thre e parts is the decle n sion, 2 v2<=< dIn principle, onl( nouns and their adjecti/e s ha/ e cas e ending s to indicat e their s(nt a c tic *unction in a sent e n c e d This classi*ication rem ain e d intact throu g h o u t the histor( o* the Arabic gra m m a t i c al tradition sd The noun cate g o r ( "as de*ine d eith er as a "ord "ith cert ain s(nt a c tic char a c t e ris tics such as its combin a bilit( "ith the de*inite article or as a "ord deno tin g an ess e n c e d nli-e the de*inition o* the noun in est er n gra m m a r , the Arabic noun cat e g o r ( includ e s adjecti/ e s , prono u n s and e/e n a nu mb e r o* prep o sition s and ad/ er b s d The cat e g o r ( o* the /erb "as de*ine d as a "ord that deno t e s an action and could be combin e d "ith som e particlesd The particle cat e g o r ( includ e s the rem ai ning "ords, and their *unction is to assist other "ords in their se m a n tic *unction in the sent e n c e d ,, - (he *efi ni t e Articl e in Arabic - A noun or adjecti/ e is ma d e de*inite b( pre*i)ing D 22;<E to itd ad an old hous e bd the old hous e

222U w 2V282i 2 w 2Ca 222U w 2V282i 22 M 2C:;<

&

,$ - (he Arabic Morp h o l o g y - At a /er( earl( dat e, the Arab gra m m a r i a n s in/en t e d a not a tion *or the morp h olo gic al patt e r n s repr e s e n t e d the thre e root radicals 22O2`2 ,or thos e gra m m a r i a n s , the tas- o* morp h olo g ( "as the bre a- d o " n o* "ords into radical and au)iliar( cons o n a n t s 2 82l<?;<d The gra m m a ri a n s set up met h o d s to identi*( the radicals, o* "hich the mos t import a n t "as comp a ris o n o* the *orm und er scrutin( "ith morp h olo gic all(F relat e d "ords "ith the sa m e se m a n tic cont e n t d In line "ith the idea o* the purit( o* the langu a g e , the se m a n tic e)te n sio n o* an e)isting "ord "as reg ar d e d as the mos t appro pria t e de/ice *or e)p a n sio n o* the le)icond The mod el *or this proce d u r e "as belie/ e d to ha/ e bee n gi/en b( the langu a g e o* the ur an itsel*d Sem a n tic e)t e n sio n bec a m e an acce p t e d me t h o d o* cre a tin g ne" ter min olog (d ,2 - (he ;e ! i n i n e Mar7 er - As in ma n ( other langu a g e s , an( Arabic nounS a dj e c ti/ e has to be eith er ma s c ulin e or *eminin ed ith *e" e)ce p tio n s , the gen e r al rule is to su**i) the Taa 'arbuTa D to the mas c ulin e nounS a dj e c ti/ e *orms to deri/e the *eminin e onesd )am pl e s are

2 2V=k9;< , "hich

222H22922< , the

222S32E

2232:2;2H22S22;2H2 ^ 22232422<2=2I2S2O22<=I ^ 2222T2H2922<2S2T2H2922< adjecti/e s 22 2282V28262S282V86 ^ 223242C25262S2O2C56 22^23252V282i2S2U2V282i

noun s Go"e/ er, (ou ne e d to rem e m b e r that the Taa 'arbut a D 222S32E is use d in cert ain ancien t Arabic male prop e r na m e s such as

2225] ^ 232V?H`I ^ 2232z242

Also, it is us ed on som e bro-e n plural patt e r n s such as Dgiant E

22 2322;2H2522S25 D pro*es s orSsE 2222T2H2922<2S2T2H2922< d 1 2Hs< 2d # 2 Z2zs d2 2 x 2s< d & 22U29s< +d @ 2 2s< 2d 2 Z x 29s< W d A 2oL 2d . 2 U2L M 10d 5 2 2L d 2Z W 2L M

,3 - (he Per s o n a l pro n o u n s are used to replac e nouns d The *ollo"ing is a list o* the singular D1F 5E and plural *orms D#F 10E

,4 - All cou n t ri e s , to5 n s , villa g e s , etcd are tre a t e d as *eminin ed The e)ce p tion s to this rule are si) Arab countrie s d Thes e are

22v2=2252;< 2, 2b2| M j< 2, 2 2<=`;< , 22b2<2|2o22;< 2, 2 b2HK:; M , 222Vo[;<

& ,& - *efini t e n e s s in Arabi c - As (ou might ha/ e notice d in the phra s e s in point 1 1 abo/ e , adjecti/ e s in Arabic usu all( *ollo" noun s and agr e e "ith the m in ter m s o* num b e r , gend e r, cas e, and de*inite n e s s Sin d e*init e n e s s d ad small boobd the small boo-

2= w Cn 2 v w 2H9Q 2= w Cn 22v M 2H9[;<

I* an adjecti/ e compl e t el( agre e s "ith its noun in e/er( asp e c t , then (ou ha/ e a phras e , as in e)a m pl e s DaE and DbE belo"d Go"e/ er, i* a noun Dsubjec tE is de*inite and its adjecti/e Dpredic a t e E is inde*inite (ou ha/ e a sent e n c e , as in DcEd

D aE D bE

a ne" hous e the ne" hous e hous e is ne"

28 w 2V86 2 w 2Ca 228 M 2V282;< 22 M 2C:;< w V86 8 M C:;<

D cE The

,6 - (he Nis b a is an adjecti/e that is crea t e d *rom a nound The mos t com m o n are thos e that re*er to origin, nation alit( or countr (d The main de/ice *or ma-ing such adjecti/e s *rom noun s is to su**i) D 2X E *or ma s c ulin e and D 23V Ww E *or *eminin e to the nound The noun mus t be *irst stripp e d o** DaE the de*inite article, DbE *eminin e su**i), or DcE *inal position long /o"eld ad bd cd

2 2<=`;<E ^ 22 2i2<= ^ 232C W2i2<=E 2232V2|2o2`22;<E ^ 22X 2|2o2`2 ^ 232V W2|2o2`2E 2HVjo22E ^ 2 X 2j2o2 ^ 232V W jo2E ,? x
, the long /o"el chan g e s its

,8 - "on g vo 5 e l to a *ip h t h o n g - I* an( o* the t"o long /o"el

2<

is proce e d e d b( the short /o"el char a c t e r to a diphth o n g

uu FFF ou ii FFF ei

2j?| ^ j?| x 2 Z2V| ^ 2 Z2V| x

,9 - (he Po s s e s s i v e pron o u n s are su**i)ed to nouns to e)pr e s s poss e s sio n and, cons e 1 u e n tl (, ma- e the m de*inited + m( hous e, (our D*E hous e, our hous e

^ 2HK9 M Ca x

2 29 M Ca x ^ 2 29Ca x
plural

The *ollo"ing is a list o* the pers o n al prono u n s Dsingular 1F 5 and #F 10E, and their corre s p o n di n g poss e s si/ e ones

#d 2HK2 2 Z2zs 2 22 2Hs< d1 2d 22U2[2 22U29s< d& 2 x 22 2 x 2s< @d 2 Z W 2[2 2 Z W 29s< 2d+ 2 22 2 2s< Ad 22U2M 2 22U2L d. 2 M 2 2oL 5d 2 Z W 2 2 2Z W 2L d10 2H 2 2 2L
$% - S e n t e n c e s in Arabic - The close s t e1ui/ al e n t in Arabic gra m m a r to the est er n notion o* a sen t e n c e is 22324256, a s(nt a c tic all( comple t e string o* "ords that e)pr e s s e s a se m a n tic all( comple t e me s s a g e d In a sent e n c e , ther e is al"a(s one hea d "ord that rela(s or det e r mi n e s the sent e n ti al *unction s resulting in mar- er s in the *orm o* cas e ending s d According to the est er n anal(sis o* Arabic sent e n c e struct u r e , ther e are t"o t(p e s o* sent e n c e nomin al and /erb ald The Arab ram m a ri a n s di**er and sugg e s t thre e t(p e s d .a/ 2232C242`2p2;< 22324252;< The /erb al sent e n c e is the basic sent e n c e d Its order is .ob< e c t / = > >> su b< e c t => >> ver b - In this t(p e o* sent e n c e , a /erb is mar- e d b( the gen d e r o* its subjectd .b/ 2232C2522< 22324252;< The $omin al Sent e n c e is "her e the subject ta-e s an initial position *or emp h a tic purpos e s , *ollo"ed b( the /erb, .ob< e c t / = > >> ver b => >> su b< e c t d Cons e 1 u e n tl (, the /erb is mar- e d b( the nu mb e r and gen d e r o* its subjectd

.c/ 2=:>;<? 2 72829:252;< 22324256 The 1uation al Sent e n c e is ma d e o* a subject and a predic a t e "ithout an( e)pr e s s e d /erbd The /erb to be is und e r s t o o d , pre d i c a t e = > >> su b< e c t d Joth the subject and the predica t e ha/ e to be in the nomin a ti/ e cas ed $, - (he 1oc a ti v e Parti cl e 2HV is limited *or use "ith people onl(d The noun it is used "ith beco m e s de*inite, and ther e*or e "ould carr( a short /o"el, not $unationd

2 T2H2922< 2HV M

O, pro*es s o r

9 $$ - daaf a 2 322Hm<- The Idaa*a struct ur e is usu all( ma d e o* t"o or mor e nouns that are se m a n tic all( relat e d and in a se1u e n c e d Som e ti m e s it soun d s li-e a sort o* poss e s si/ e relations hip, "her e nglish could use o* or s dThe *irst ter m o* the Idaa*a might be in an( cas e and should not ta-e $unation or a de*inite articled The Secon d ter m o* the Idaa*a, on the other han d, is al"a(s in the geniti/e cas e and ma( ta-e $unation or a de*inite articled the langu a g e pro*es s o r

23 24;< 2 T 2H2922< ^ 2 3 224;< x 2 T2H2922<

a langu a g e pro*es s o r

^ ^

23 24;< M 2 T2H2922< 23 2; M 2 T2H2922<

23 2; 2 T2H2922< ^

23 2; x 2 T2H2922<

If yo u en c o u n t e r a clu s t e r of nou n s , th e n yo u sh o u l d tr y to fin d ou t if it is an Ida a f a s t r u c t u r e . $2 - (he Si! p l e daaf a is ma d e o* t"o nouns d The Comple) Idaa*a is ma d e o* @ or mored As e)p e c t e d , such se1 u e n c e s "ill cre a t e a S(nt a c tic al n/iron m e n t "her e som e nouns "ill pla( double gra m m a t i c al *unction sd ad the uni/ersit( building bd the door o* the uni/ersit( building 3`IH;<

}HKa M 2} HKa 2 v M 2Ha

223 2`2I2H;<

$3 - (he *ipt o t e s is a cat e g o r ( o* prop e r na m e s o* indi/idu als, countrie s, cities, and to"nsd Thes e noun s shar e the *ollo"ing char a c t e ris tics ad The( do not ta-e the de*inite articled bd In spite o* the abs e n c e o* the de*inite article, the( do not ta-e $unationd cd In the geniti/e cas e the( ta-e the accus a ti/ e cas e mar- er inste a d d ad Omer s hobbie s bd *rom Jaghd a d

2= x 5 22{ M 2HV<oL 2| x 2<8a 2 Z2I

$4 - *e ! o n s t r a t i v e Pron o u n s - The use o* thisSth a t Y thes e S t h o s e in Arabic is det e r mi n e d b( the num b e r and gend e r o* the nounS a dj e c ti/ e the( introdu c e d ad Singular s are bd Plurals are distinctionE

D*E 22 2uL ^ D*E ^ 2 x 2;T 2 x 2;?7 ^ 2} L

,%

2 24 D no

^ 2<uL

gen d e r

$& - (he )?u a ti o n a l S e n t e n c e s - As indicat e d earlier, an e1u a tio n al sent e n c e in Arabic is a sent e n c e "ithou t a /erbd It consists o* t"o parts, a subject and a predic a t e d The subject could be DaE a de m o n s t r a ti/ e prono u n, DbE a pers o n al prono u n, or DcE a noun, "hile the predica t e ma ( be eith er o* thes e , as "ell as DcE an adjecti/e, DdE an ad/ er b, or DeE a prep o sition al phra s e d

232C W 4Q 22 2uL w DbE a subject pers o n al prono u n d 228 w 252zI 2Hs7 D cE a subject noun 2 2k;< 222 M 2 T2H2922<d DaE a predica t e pers o n al prono u n 2Hs7 M 2 T2H2922<d DbE a predic a t e noun d w 228 252zI M 2 T2H2922< DcE a predic a t e inde*inite adjecti/ e 28 w 2V86 M 2 T2H2922< d DdE a predic a t e ad/ er b 2N2HKL M 2 T2H2922<d x DeE a predic a t e prepd phras e 22 29[52;< 222 M 2 T2H2922<d
DaE a subject de m o n s t r a ti/ e prono u n d

A prono u n of separation could be add e d in e)a m pl e DbE abo/ e, "her e both the subject and the predic a t e are nouns d

w228 252zI 2oL M 2 T2H2922<d

$6 - nt err o g a t i v e Particl e s - 2 O2L S 27 are interro g a ti/ e particles "hich are used to introdu c e 1ue s tion s that ma( be ans" e r e d "ith eith er es or $od

222 w 29[I 2<uL 22O2L 27

Is this an o**ice There is som e phonological restriction on the use o* *ollo"ing "ord start s "ith a Gamf a, such as

27

"hen the

2 2HKL 2 8 w 2V86 2 x 2s77

It is bett e r, in *act easier phon e tic all(, to use

2 O2L

2 2HKL 2 8 w 2V86 2 x 2s7 2 O2L

$8 - nd e fi n i t e Nou n Su b< e c t - ou cann o t start a sent e n c e in Arabic "ith an inde*inite noun subjectd nder such circu m s t a n c e s , the subject nee d s to be mo/ e d inside the sent e n c e and, ther e*or e, "ill ta-e the predic a t e position, not its s(nt a c tic al *unctiond

2{ w 2HV=kI 22{ w 2H2:2;2H2 2 2k;< 222d

There are g(ptia n stud e n t s D*E in the classro o m d 11 $9 - Ne g a t i n g )?u a ti o n a l S e n t e n c e s - This t(pe o* Arabic sent e n c e is neg a t e d b( using 22 2B x 2C;d Reme m b e r that the predica t e noun or adjecti/ e has to be in the accu a s a ti/ e cas ed The pro*es s o r is not g(ptia nd

2H 2V W =kI M 2 T2H2922< 222B x 2C;d

2% - (he Su b< e c t ! ar7 e r s *or /erbs in the pas t tens e are su**i)ed to the /erb ste m in order to de mo n s t r a t e subjectS/ e r b agr e e m e n t d The( are

2 M 22 e E 2Hs7 ^ 2D2 22 eE 2 2s7 ^ 2D2 x 22E e 2 x 2s7 ^ De2 22 x E 2 2L ^ D2F x E 2oLE 2HK222 e E 2Z M 2zs ^ 2D2Z W 29 M 222 e E 2Z W 29 M s7 ^ 2 D2U29 M22E e 22U29s7 ^ 2D2b x eFE 2 Z W 2L ^ 2D<o2E 2 U2L ME

2, - (he *iff er e n t ;or! s of att a c h e d to

222B x 2C; d hen

subject prono u n s are

222B x 2C;, it "ill ta-e the *ollo"ing *orms 2 H2K22; 2 Z M 2zs 222 M 22; 222U2 29 M22; 22U29s7 222 x 22; 22Z W 29 M22; 2 Z W 29 M s7 222 22; 22<2o22C; 22U2L 222B x 2C; 222Z x 22; 2Z W 2L M e22 222 x 2C; 2$ - nt err o g a t i v e Particl e s 2 O2L S 27 . revi s i t e d / d The Arabic langu a g e does not toler a t e the use o* 2 O2L "ith an( *orm o* 222B x 2C; in order to ma- e a 1ue s tiond ou ha/ e to stic- "ith d 27 2 23 2:9[52;< 222 222 M 2;2H2r2;< 222B x 2C;7
Isnt the stud e n t DmE in the librar(

2Hs7 2 x 2s7 2 2s7 2oL 2 2L

22 - (he daaf a .re vi s i t e d / d Arabic gra m m a r does not allo" an(t hin g to be plac e d bet" e e n the *irst and secon d ter m o* Idaa* a e)ce p t *or a de m o n s t r a ti/ e prono u nd There*or e, DaE the stud e n ts boois correct and DbE this stud e n ts boois also correctd Jut, DcE 3:;Hr;< Ha MH9Q 12 is incorrec t due to the *act that the poss e s si/ e prono u n D insert e d bet" e e n

223 2:2;2H2r2;< 2 v M 2H9Q 223 2:2;2H2r2;< 22 2uL 2 v M 2H9Q

2H 2 E is

the *irst and secon d ter m s o* Idaa*ad

23 - 1erb> Su b< e c t Agr e e ! e n t - A /erb that proce e d s its subject is mar- e d b( gend e r onl(d I* it *ollo"s its subject it should be mar- e d b( both num b e r and gend e r d The stud e n t s D*E "ent to the dor md

2 \2;< 22{ M 2H2:2;2H2r2;< 22 2:LT

22Z2[22;< d

The stud e n t s D*E "ent to the dor md

2 \2;< 2 Z x 2:LT 22{ M 2H2:2;2H2r2;<

22Z2[22;< d
24 - A (ran s i ti v e 1erb DaE re1uir e s an object intra n siti/e DbE does notd ad I ate an appled bd I "ent to the uni/ersit(d

2 32]2Hp2 M 22 M 24Q7 d 223 2`2I2H;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2:LTd

2& - Helpi n g 1o5 e l s replac e the ero !o"el "hen the *ollo"ing "ord starts "ith Gamf ad There*or e, an en/iron m e n t *or using a helping /o"el "ill be crea t e d e/er( time one use s a de*inite articled The purpos e o* this Phonologic al Rule is to pro/id e a smoo t h transition *rom one "ord to the ne)td en er all( spe a -in g, this transition is go/er n e d b( the *ollo"ing rulesd ad I* the proce e di n g /o"el is ,atGa the helping /o"el is asrad Is the boo- ne"

D 2 28 w 2V86 22v M 2H9[;< 2 O2L x D e2 O2L x

bd I* the proc e e di n g /o"el is asra, the helping /o"el is ,atGad This pencil is *rom the o**iced

2Z e 2I E 222U M 2422;< 2<uL

d 9 x [5;< Z xI E

cd I* the proce e di n g /o"el is Dha m m a , the helping /o"el is Dha m m a d

222 x 2= x 2V28252;< 22U M 22 M2942a x H2i De22U22 M2942a x H2i E 2 <2T2H25;

h( did (ou Dm, plE me e t the director D*E 26 - Ob<e c t Pron o u n s - ou rem e m b e r "hat "as me n tio n e d earlier that poss e s si/ e prono u n s are su**i)ed to nouns d $o", I "ould li-e to remind (ou that object prono u n s are su**i)ed to the /erbsd Pleas e, notice the di**ere n c e o* the prono u n s in the *ollo"ing sent e n c e s ad DPoss e s si/ e Pronou nE bd DObject Pronou nE ,2

223 2;2?2H2r2;< 2 \24 2H 2a M H9Qd 22 2o22;< 222 2H2 2 M282L2H2d

28 - (he 5 ord 2HI has di**ere n t me a nin g s , dep e n di n g on the cont e ) td It could me a n "hat, and in this cas e (ou are e)p ec t e d to ha/ e a de m o n s t a r a t i/ e prono u n or a de*inite noun *ollo"ing itd hat is this hat is his job

2 2<uL 2HI 2 2 M 22 M2425 2HI 222U2`2r252;< 2<uL 222 22 M 24Q7 2HId

hen the 1ue s tion "ord 2HI is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the pas t tens e , it chan g e s its o"n *unction to a neg a tio n particled I did not eat at this rest a u r a n t d

29 - (he 'lus t e r @u s t e r - ener all( spe a -in g, Arabic does not toler a t e thre e or mor e cons o n a n t clust e r s d The com m o n practice to deal "ith such a phonologic al en/iron m e n t is to insert a short or long /o"el in bet" e e n d e me n tion e d earlier the use o* the short helping /o"eld A good e)a m pl e *or the us e o* a long /o"el is "hen "e ha/ e an att a c h e d object prono u n *or tran siti/ e /erbs "hich ha/ e

22U29s7 as a subjectd $otice the use o* the long /o"el D the clust er in the *ollo"ing sent e n c e s 222o22;< 222 2 H2L2o2522 M2282L2H2 d
ou DmpE sa" her in the mar- e td

? E to

bre a -

222\2 2252;< 222 2H2s2o2522 M29242aH2id

ou DmpE met us in the ca*ed

2 32Ca=`;< 22 M 2o2522 M292524 x d

ou DmpE taug h t him Arabicd 3% - Ne g a t i o n of Pa s t (en s e 1erb s - There are t"o met h o d s to neg a t e the /erbs in pas t tens e d The eas ( "a( is b( using the /erbd The other is to use the neg a tio n particle the jussi/e *orm o* the /erbd e didnt "atchSs e e this mo/ied

2HI

be*or e

22U2;

*ollo"ed b(

222U x 242p2;< 2<uL 2 H2s282L x 2H2 2HId 222U x 242p2;< 2<uL e2 82L 2H22s M 22U2;d

3, -

2N x 2HKL M S 2HKL M

are noun s that can also be used as ad/ er b s d

DaE There is a stud e n t D*E in the classro o m d

222 w 2 32:2;2H2 2 N x 2HKL M 2HKL M 228 M 2V282;< 22v M 2H9[;<d

2 2k;<d
DbE The ne" boo- is her ed ,3 3$ - 2 O P 2Q M is a noun that "ill be a *irst ter m o* Idaa*a and could me a n e/er(S e a c h i* it is *ollo"ed b( a singular inde*inite nound I* the singular noun is de*inite, 2 O P 2Q M "ould me a n allS"holed I* it is use d a*ter a noun, the n it should carr( its corres p o n di n g prono u n su**i) and its *unction beco m e s emp h a ticd ad I read e/er( boo- bd I rea d the "hole boo-d cd I read the boo-, all o* itd

2v 2H9Q 2 O W 2Q M 22{ M 27=id 22v 2H9[;< 2 O W 2Q M 22{ M 272=id 2 M 22 W 422 MQ 2 v x 2H9[;< 22{ M 272=i

Go"e/ er, i* 2 O P 22 M Q is *ollo"ed b( a plural noun, that noun should be de*inite and both cre a t e Idaa*ad Chec- the *ollo"ing sent e n c e s

222Z x 2C2p22o252;< 2 O P 2Q 2= x ]
All the emplo(e e s DmE cam e d

22 29[52;< 2222p22oI 2 O P 2Q 2= x ]d
All the o**ice emplo(e e s DmE cam e d 32 - (he co n<u n c t i o n neg a t e d d

D ?E

chan g e s to

D 2?7 E

"hen the sent e n c e is

I li-e co**ee and tead

22 x 2o2 22;< 2 P 2] 7 22X x 2H22;<?7 22 x 2o2 22;< 2 P 2] 7 d

22X x 2H22;<?d
$either do I li-e co**ee nor tea

d
33 - *efini t e n e s s in Arabi c .Re vi s i t e d / - ou should -no" b( no" that a noun or an adjecti/ e in Arabic is ma d e de*inite b( one o* the *ollo"ing met h o d s ad a de*inite article bd *ollo"ing the /ocati/ e particle

cd a poss e s si/ e prono u n dd b( relating it to a de*inite noun in Idaa*a struct u r e 34 - )!p h a s i s A' o n t r a s t - Since /erb *orm indicat e s the pers o n, gend e r, and nu mb e r o* the subject an( use o* a subject prono u n is consid er e d redu n d a n t d I*, ho" e/ e r, (ou "ant to emp h a s if e or contr a s t t"o object s Arabic allo"s (ou to us e the subject prono u n in such a linguistic en/iron m e n t d

222U2`2r252;< 2 \2;g 2<o:LT 2 U2L M ? 23 2:9[52;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2:LT 2Hs7 d

I "ent to the librar( and the( "ent to the rest a u r a n t d 15 3& - (he *ef a c t o 'as e of th e Nou n an d Ad<e c ti v e in Arabic is No! i n a t i v e - A noun cas e is chan g e d to acc u s a t i v e i* it beco m e s an object o* a /erb DThere are other cas e s "her e a noun should carr( the accus a ti/ e cas e mar- e rd Chec- aan a Y Inna pointsEd A noun is said to be in the g e n i t i v e cas e i* it *ollo"s a prepo sition or it is a seco n d ter m o* Idaa*ad $o mat t e r "hat is the cas e o* the noun, the adjecti/ e "ill *ollo", mar- e d b( the sa m e cas ed The g(ptia n ma n is in his hous ed g(ptia n ma nd g(ptia n ma nd

2 29 C a x 222 2X P 2=k25 2;< 2 O M 26 M =;<d 2X W 2=k52;< 2 O x 26 M =;< 222{ M 282L2H2d 2X 2=k52;< 2 O26 M =;< 2 \24 22 M 25222 W242d

I sa" the

I said hello to the 36 -

D"h(E has to be *ollo"ed b( a /erb bec a u s e it as-s abou t actionS a c ti/it( D/erbs usu all( e)pr e s s thos eEd

2<2T2H52;

h( did (ou DmE go bac- to the room

2223 22=;< 2 \2;g 2 M 2`6j 2<2T2H52;

38 - hen it me a n s ho" ma n (, 2 U2Q x has to be *ollo"ed b( an inde*inite noun, in the accus a ti/ e cas ed nli-e nglish, it has to be singulard Arab gra m m a ri a n s call it a particle o* The Accus a ti/ e o* Distinction, or

2CC5 xd 2 2 2k;< 222 2H :2; 2H2 22U2Q

Go" ma n ( stud e n t s are ther e in the class

39 - Nu ! b e r s that proce e d nouns should ta-e the opposit e gend e r o* thos e nouns d ,urth e r m o r e , the( should carr( the mar- er that is det er mi n e d b( their gra m m a t i c al *unction in the sent e n c e d The noun

itsel* has to be in the geniti/e cas e beca u s e this combin a tio n "ill cre a t e an Idaa*ad ad I me t *i/e stud e n t s D*Ed

22{ 2H2:2;2H2 222B x 252 x 22 M 242aH2id 2= x x ] dv 3 M x 5 x D 2b x ? E su**i)ed 2Z x VE in both

bd ,i/e stud e n t s DmE cam e d

4% - Plural s - There are thre e t(p e s o* plural in Arabic ad The 'asculine Sound plural is cre a t e d b( to the noun in the nomin a ti/ e cas e, and D geniti/e and accus a ti/ e cas e s d teac h e r s DmE

22Z x 2C22j 82I M ^ 22Z x 2C22j 82I M ^ 22b x 2o22j 82I M

1#

bd The ,eminin e soun d plural is cre a t e d b( drop pin g the Taa 'arbuuTa and replacing it "ith cas e and

D 2{ w 2<E *or

the nomin a ti/ e

D 2{ 2< E

*or the accus a ti/ e Y geniti/e cas e s d

teac h e r s 22{ 2H22j 82I M ^ 22{ 2H22j 82I M ^ 22{ w 2H22j 82I M cd The Jro-en plural is an irregular *ormd /en thoug h se/ er al noun s ma ( e)hibit the sa m e bro-e n patt e r n , one has to learn the "ords indi/idu all(d dogDsE, catDsE

222 2r2r2i S 22 2r2i ^ 2v w 2Q S 22 w 24Q

4, - Nu ! b e r s .Re vi s i t e d / - It "as me n tio n e d earlier that nu mb e r s that proc e e d noun s should ta-e the opposit e gen d e r o* thos e noun sd An addition al rule "hich (ou ne e d to consid er is that unli-e nglish, the noun has to be in plural onl( bet" e e n @F 10d A*ter that the noun has to be singular in the accus a ti/ e cas ed This is anot h e r e)a m pl e o*

2CC5

accus a ti/ e o* distinctiond

22H 25242i 2 = x 22 x x 2223225 22 M 2V2=2922gd

I boug h t *i*tee n pencilsd 4$ - 2X P 7 S M 232V W 7 both me a n "hich Das a 1ue s tion "ordEd The *irst is use d *or mas c ulin e "hile the secon d is us ed *or *eminin ed The noun "hich *ollo"s eith e r one o* the m has to be in the geniti/e cas ed The

implication is that the t"o nouns cre a t e Idaa*ad Pleas e notice that

M 232V W7

2X P 7 S carr(

the /o"el o* the original cas e o* the noun (ou as- abou td

222 2uL 23 22 W2422I x M 232V W7

ad hich ma g a fin e .s u b< e c t > no ! i n a t i v e / is this

1&

2222{ 282L2H2 22 2;2H2 2X W 7

bd hich stud e n t DmE .ob< e c t > acc u s a t i v e / did (ou D*E see

2222{ x 2=22H2 2 3 2KV82I 23 22 W V7 2 \2;g

cd To "hich cit( .ob< e c t of a pre p - > g e n i t i v e / did (ou tra/ el 42 - 1erb Ob<e c t Pron o u n s - e me n tion e d earlier that object prono u n s are su**i)ed to the transiti/e /erbsd

22{ 2<2j2H2r22;< 223 2r2z2I x 222 2HL 228 x 2L2H2d

Ge sa" her at the train stationd 43 - Ob<e c t Pron o u n s of Pre p o s i t i o n s - The object prono u n s *or transiti/e /erbs are the sa m e *or the intran siti/ e /erbs "hich ta-e prep o sitions d An e)ce p tio n to this is the object prono u n *or the *irst pers o n,

2Hs7

, "hich beco m e s

D2XE *or som e prep o sitions d 222o22;< 2 \2;g 222`I e2 2: x2L xT d

She "ent "ith me to the mar- e td Pleas e rem e m b e r that the object prono u n s in such linguistic en/iron m e n t are att a c h e d to prep o sitions , not th e ver b s d The list o* /erb and prepo sition object prono u n s su**i)es includ e s the *ollo"ing Object Subject Independent

1. )/ 2d x 2 22 @d 2 22 Ad 2 M2 5d 2H 2 #d HK2 &d U[ M2 +d Z W[ M2 .d UM 2

2 x 22 2 22 x F e2 22 HK2 U9 M2 W9 Z M2 <o2

) 2x 2s7 2 2sg 2oL 2 2L Zzs U9s7 W9 Z M s7 UL M

10d Z W M2
,8 44 - Pre p o s i t i o n s "hich end "ith Ali* 'asur a,

x2 Z

WL Z M

D2E "ill reclai m

their

original D 2X E *orm "hen an( object prono u n is att a c h e d to the md Checthe *ollo"ing e)a m pl e

22{ 2<2j2H2r22;< 223 2r2z2I x 222 2 H2L28 x 2L2H2 2 H2I282K 2H C4 22U x 22 W242 xd
Ge gre e t e d her "hen he sa" her at the train stationd 4& - ;e! i n i n e So u n d Plural s ta-e the geniti/e mar- er *or the accus a ti/ e cas ed

28 2V=:;< 2 29[I x 222 22{ 2H2:2;2H2r2;< 2 H2s282L2H2d

e sa" the stud e n t s D*E at the post o**iced 46 - (he Root s - 'ost Arabic "ords can be attribut e d to som e @F letter root, "her e radicals are re*err e d to b( me a n s o* a protot (pic al root, 2 d2 O x 2` x 2 x stan d s *or the *irst radical, *or the seco n d, and 2c *or the thirdd This @F letter root *orm is the entr( (ou ne e d to use "hen (ou "ant to chec- out an( "ord in an( Arabic diction a r (d ou should -no" b( no" ho" to diss ec t "ords in order to get to that rootd 'ainl(, (ou nee d to drop o** an( gend e r and num b e r mar- e r s o* the nounS a dj e c ti/ ed In cas e o* the /erbs, (ou ne e d to drop o** an( subject, tens e , and moo d mar- e r s d 48 - (he 1erb ;or! Nu ! b e r s s(st e m is 1uite old, going bac- to the earlies t urop e a n Arabic gra m m a r s such as that o* uillau m e Postal, Paris, cad 15@+ and Pedro de Alcala cad 1#1@d Their order o* nu mb e ri n g is the sa m e as that "hich "e are *amiliar "ith tod a (d Anoth e r gra m m a r "as publish e d in Rome cad 1#22 "hich use s the nu mb e ri n g s(st e m but has *orms II and I! s"itch e d d rpenius gra m m a r "as onl( sup er s e d e d in 1+10 b( the gra m m a r o* De Sac(, "ho use d the sa m e s(st e m "hich has be e n in /ogu e e/er sinced Inciden t all(, the num b e rin g s(st e m "as also used in older gra m m a r s o* Gebre", but see m s to ha/ e *allen out o* us ag e d The s(st e m , an e)tr e m e l ( use*ul mn e m o nic de/ice is not entirel( unrela t e d to the tradition al "or- o*

22=n x , *or

it *ollo"s the order

o* 2|2= W 2252;< and 2 82V252;< dThe use o* nu mb e ri n g, ho" e/ e r, is the %atin, urop e a n inno/a tion "hich might ha/ e bee n a cla1u e on som e asp e c t o* the stud( o* %atin gra m m a r d At the /er( leas t, it is "ell -no"n that %atin gra m m a r tradition all( nu mb e r s the di**ere n t class e s o* conjug a tio nd De Sac( is care*ul to ma- e clear in his pres e n t a ti o n the /erb *orms that the( *all into group s o*

2 2?=] M 23 2~4:~a 2 82V252;< 2 ^2Z2C22=za 2 82V252;< ^ 2 2=za 2 82V252;<

1. 'ost /erbs in Arabic can be classi*ied into ten *ormsd Thes e *orms are

1d 22O x 2 x 2<= x 22O x 2 x 2Hp2 x 2d# 2d 22 x 22 x242 x2sg 22O x 2` x 2p x2sg 2d& @d 2 x 2p x2 x jg 2O x 2` x 29 x22g 2d+ Ad 2= W 25 x 2]g 22O W 2` x 22g 2d. 5d 22 x 28 x 2>29 x22g 22O x 2` x 2p29 x22g 2d10

22 x 2j x| x 2O x 2` x 2 x 22 x 2j W| x 2O x 2` W 2 x 28 x 2L x 2H2 22O x 2 x 2H2 22O x 2: x2i27 22O x 2` x 227 2 x 28 W 2z x x 2O x 2` W 2p x2 x

,urth er m o r e , each transiti/e patt e r n has an auto m a tic pas si/e count e r p a r t "her e the ste m short /o"el ,tha and asra are replac e d b( Dha m m a and asrad To learn mor e about the s e for m s , pleas e check the com p u t e r progra m ARAFORM. You will find it and other progra m s at the following web sit e: 555-! t h oly o 7 e - e d u A c o ur s e s A ! <iy a dA 49 - (he Ph o n o l o g i c a l )nviro n ! e n t for ;or! 1 1erb - The

char a c t e ris tic *eat ur e o* ,orm !III is the re*le)i/e a**i) S

22 x 92

S "hich

is insert e d a*ter the *irst radical o* the rootd That S 22 x 92 S "ill cre a t e the en/iron m e n t *or a phonological rule o* assimilation that applies itsel* i* the *irst radical is a dent al stop or *ricati/ed The res ult is that the insert e d S cons o n a n t s

22 x 92 S is assi milat e d d

In/ol/ed her e are the *ollo"ing

T|{

Comp a r e the *ollo"ing e)a m pl e s

DaE a *ull( prono u n c e d

2 x 25 x 26 x ^ 2| x <|g F 2| x <
S

22 x 92

2 x 25 x 29 x 6g
DbE a *ull( assi milat e d S

22 x 92

2 \22| W g F 2H| x
%uc-il(, Arabic does not ha/ e ma n ( /erbs o* this t(p ed Go"e/ er, (ou nee d to rem e m b e r the thre e *ollo"ing relat e d phon ologic al rules .,/- A*ter the emp h a tic conso n a n t s insert e d S

22 x 92

S beco m e s

22 2 2 the emp h a tic 22, as in F 2 x 28 xn x

22 x 28 x 2r2ng
$% .$/- A*ter the *ricati/e s assimilation and the "ritte n "ith Shad d a , as in

22 2{

ther e is a compl e t e result a n t double conso n a n t is

22U x 22 x2422 W22g 22U x 22 x242 x D ?E

as in

.2/- I* the *irst radical o* the /erb is

2O x 2n x ? x , the D
S

?E "ill be 22 x 92 S, and thus

comple t el ( assimilat e d b( the insert e d

the use o* the Shad d a Consid er the *ollo"ing e)a m pl e

"ould be re1uir e dd

2O x 2k x 22 W g 2O x 2n x ? x
&% - Non> hu ! a n Plural s are tre a t e d as *eminin e singular in ter m s o* adjecti/e, prono u n , and subjectF /erb agre e m e n t d

2H V7 w 223242C56 2 2L 2 d2 w282V86 2 { M 2<jH2C W22;<d

The cars are ne"d The( are pret t (, tood &, - Multipl e s of ,% do not sh o 5 g e n d e r dis ti n c t i o n - Consid er the *ollo"ing sent e n c e

2H aH9Q 22Z x 2V2=22 22{ M 27=i? 2232;2H22j 22Z x 2V2=22 22 M 2:9Qd

I "rot e t"ent ( letter s and I rea d t"en t ( boo-sd &$ - (he 'on<u n c t i o n

2Z W 2[;

is usu all( *ollo"ed b( a noun or a

prono u n su**i) in the accus a ti/ e cas ed On the other han d, 2 e Z2[; toler a t e s the use o* /erbs a*ter itd Joth are used to ma- e comp o u n d sent e n c e s and me a n butd

x C4z;< P ] 72 e Z2[; x o ;< P ]7 I dont li-e co**ee but I li-e mil-d

w Vo O M2 WK[; O w C56 M IHs=:;<d

The progr a m is be a u ti*ul but it is longd &2 - (he Sin g u l a r Su b< e c t an d its ! o o d ! ar7 e r s *or /erbs in the pres e n t tens e are pre*i)e d and su**i)ed to the /erb ste md This is nec e s s a r ( to de m o n s t r a t e subjectS/ e r b agr e e m e n t d Thes e singular mar- er s are

21

2 2L x 2

2 x 2s7 x 2 2Z x 22

2 2s7 2C2ddd x 2 x 2 FM FM
me n tion e d moo d mar- e r s de mo n s t r a t e mar- e r s ,

2Hs7 2oL 7 F

Subject mar- e r s 'ood mar- e r s

FM

&3 - (he Plural Su b< e c t an d ! o o d ! ar7 e r s - It "as abo/ e that *or /erbs in the pres e n t tens e subject and are pre*i)e d and su**i)ed to the /erb ste m in order to subjectS/ e r b agre e m e n t d The sa m e is true "ith plural "hich are

UL M

WL Z M

U2 M9s7 Z W2 M9s7

2Z M 2zs

Subject mar- er

2Z x 22dd 22 xV Z x2

2?ddd 22 x none

2Z x 22dd e 22 x 22V x ddd

22 xs x 2 none Z FM

'ood mar- er s

&4 - (he Pre s e n t (en s e of th e Arabic ver b re1uire s that (ou pre*i) the subject mar- e r and su**i) the mood mar- er to the ste m o* the /erbd Go"e/ er, this is not as eas ( as it soun d s , esp e ci all( *or ,orm Id The /o"els (ou ne e d to add are going to be a little bit challen gin gd $ote the *ollo"ing par a dig m d

1d1d 22 M 2L x uV x 2F2 x 2L xT x 2d1d 2 M 26 =V x F 2 x6 xj x @d1d 2 M 22 M 9[V x F 2 x 22 x 922 xQ Ad1d 22v M 2= x 22V x F 2v x 2= 2 x 2d 22 M 2j 8V M F 22 x 2j W| x @d 2 8 M 2L 2H22V M F 28 x 2L x 2H2 Ad 22O x 22 2:2V M F 22O x 2: x i27 5d 2 M 28 W 2z x 22 x 9V x F 2 x 28 W 2z x2 x #d 22O M 2a x H222 x 9V x F 22O x 2a x H222 x &d 2 M 2= x kKV x F 2 x 2= xk x sg +d 2 8 M 25 22 x 9`V x F 28 x 25 x 22 x 9g .d 2= P 25 x zV x F 2= W 25 x 2]g 10d 22 M 28 2>22 x2922V x 22 x 28 x 2>22 x2922g
$$

22O M 2` x 2p2V x F 2O x 2` x 22 x2 22O M 2` 2p2V x F 2O x 2` x 22 x2 22O M 2` M 2p2V x F 2O x 2` x 22 x2 22O M 2` x 2p2V x F 2O x 2` 22 x2 2O x 2` 22 x2p2V M F 2O x 2` W 22 x2 22O M 2 2Hp2V M F 22O x 2 x 2H2 22O M 2` 2p2V M F 22O x 2` x 227 22O M 222` W 22 x2p22 x 9V x F 2O x 2` W 22 x2p22 x 22O M 2 x 2H2p22 x 9V x F 22O x 2 x 2H2p22 x 22O M 2` 22 x2p2KV x F 22O x 2` x 22 x2p2sg 2O M 2` 22 x29p2V x 2F2O x 2` x 22 x292g 22O P 2` x 2p2V x F 22O W 2` x 22g 22O M 2` 2p22 x2922V x F 22O x 2` x 2p22 x2922g

&& - (he Moo d s - The Pres e n t tens e /erb in Arabic has thre e mood s d 1d Indicati/ e is the regular pres e n t tens e /erbd

23 22 W222;< 22 2uL 222 2 297 22Z M 22 M2[222 x d

'( sister li/es in this ap art m e n t d 2d Subjuncti/ e is use d "hen ther e is doub t, *ear, hop e, purpos e , obligation, neg a t e d *utur e, etcd

23 22 W222;< 22 2uL 222 2 297 22Z x 22 M2[222 x Z; e d

'( sister "ill not li/e in this ap art m e n t d @d ussi/e is use d in neg a tin g the pas t tens e "ith the particle

22U e 2; 23 22 W222;< 22 2uL 222 2 297 e22Z22 M2[222 x 22U2;d

'( sister did not li/e in this apar t m e n t d &6 - 1o5 e l s of th e Pre s e n t (en s e 1erb - There are thre e import a n t /o"els (ou ne e d to ta-e not e o* "hen (ou conjug a t e an( Arabic /erb *rom pas t tens e to the pres e n t tens e d Thes e includ e ,- The Subject mar- e r /o"el, "hich is the *irst /o"el o* the /erb secon d /erbd The *ollo"ing is a chart o* the s e /arious /o"els *or the ten *orms o* the Arabic /erb s(st e m ,orm Indicati/e 'ood Ste m Subject I II III I! ! !I !II !III I Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a Dha m m a unpr e dict a bl e ,ath a asra Dha m m a asra Dha m m a asra Dha m m a ,ath a ,ath a ,ath a ,ath a asra ,ath a asra ,ath a ,ath a ,ath a asra ,ath a $- The Ste m !o"el, "hich is the /o"el that goes on the radicalSco n s o n a n t o* the root 2- The 'ood 'ar-er !o"el, "hich is the last /o"el o* the

2@ &8 - 2 \22 W 9] me a n s until "hen it is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the pas t tens e d hen it is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the pres e n t tens e it "ill e)pr e s s purpos e and, ther e*or e , me a n s in order toSso thatd In that cas e, the /erb should be in the subjunc ti/ e moo dd DaE DbE

2 M 22 M 94lH e2 {2=] 2 \22 W 9] 2HKL 22Z x 2[2 xd 22 x 2j M 8 2 \22 W 9] 22 2=2L2H22;< 2 \2;g 22 e 22 x2422 x222 x 9sg

2N x 2HKL xd
&9 - Ne g a t i o n of Pre s e n t an d ;utur e (en s e 1erb s !erbs in the pres e n t tens e are neg a t e d b( *utur e tens e are neg a t e d b(

d !erbs

"hich e)pr e s s

e2 Z22;

a*ter droppin g the *utur e mar- er

pre*i) D 2 2 x2 E d Pleas e re m e m b e r that the /erb has to be chan g e d to the Subjuncti/ e 'oodd ad e dont "atchSs e e this mo/ied

2<uL 228 M 2L 2H222 Ms 228 x 2L 2H222 Ms 2 Z22;

222U242p2;<d
bd e "ill not "atchSs e e this mo/ied

222U242p2;< 2<uLd
6% - (he Sic7 1erb s 22324292`252;< 22c2H2`22< - An( /erb that has a long /o"el as one o* the thre e radicals in its root is called a sic- /erbd Thes e long /o"els "ill go throu g h a chan g e "hen the /erb is use d in the pres e n t tens e d Cons e 1 u e n tl (, ther e are thre e t(pe s d ad As si ! il a t e d , i* the *irst radical o* the /erb is a long /o"el such as

2O M 2k V x S 2O x 2n x ? x 2= M 2C22V x S 2j x 2H2

to arri/ed

bd Hollo 5 , "hen the secon d radical position is occupie d b( a long /o"el such as to "al-d

cd *ef e c t i v e , "hen the third radical position is occupie d b( a long /o"el such as

2o8V x S 2H| x

to in/ited

(o ch e c 7 ho 5 th e s e irre g u l a r ver b s are con<u g a t e d to th e vario u s pron o u n s for bot h pre s e n t & pa s t te n s e s , ple a s e ch e c 7 th e co ! p u t e r pro gr a ! at th e 5 e b s i t e ad dr e s s giv e n e arli er 6, - 2_ M `a x ^ 2O P 22 x Q are nouns and "hen used be*ore anot h e r noun the( crea t e an Idaa*a DaEd I*, ho" e/ e r, the( are used a*ter a noun, the( "ill be emp h a tic *or that proc e e di n g noun, and "ill carr( its cas e and its identical prono u n re*er e n c e DbEd ad bd

22 2j28 W 2;< 22O 2526 M 2O W 22 M Q 2H2K522 W 4`2 x d 2SH 22 W 422 M Q 22 2j28 W 2;< 2 O x 25 x 26 M 2H2K2522 W 4`2 x
2A

2 M 22 W 422 M Qd
6$ - (he Plural 1oc a t i v e s

bee n introdu c e d to the noun s and, ther e*or e , could be *ollo"e d b( a prop e r noun, a title, or an Idaa* a, reg ar dl e s s o* the gen d e r d

2H 22 P V7 and d 2H 22 M 922 W V7 ou ha/ e alre a d ( /ocati/ e 2HV, "hich is used "ith singular ^ 2 2 M 2T2H29227 2HV ^ 22= M 2C252 2HV

22 22 x 9[52;< 2= x V82I x 2HV 2H 22 P V7

The plural *orms sho" gend e r distinction and, ther e*or e, Arabic has *or the mas c ulin e and 2H 22 M 922 W V7 *or the *eminin ed The plural /ocati/ e should be *ollo"ed b( a noun "ith the de*inite article in the nomin a ti/ e cas ed

22{ M 2H2:2;2H2r2;< 2H 22 M 9V W 7 22v M 2 W 2r2;< 2H V P 7

62 - It "as me n tio n e d earlier that the Mas c u li n e So u n d Plural D'SPE is *orm e d b( su**i)ing D

2b x ? E *or

the nomin a ti/ e cas e, and D

2Z x 2C2 E *or

the accus a ti/ e and geniti/e cas e s , to the singular

*orm o* the nound

22Z x 2C2p22 W22o x I S 22b x 2o2p22 W22o x I 2 w 22 W22o xI

The *inal D

2Z x 22 E o* this

-ind o* plural is drop p e d "hen such a noun

ta-e s the position o* a *irst ter m o* Idaa*ad This rule applies reg a r dl e s s

o* the cas e o* the noun, "het h e r it is nomin a ti/ e , accus a ti/ e , or geniti/ed

223 2`2I2H;< 22 22p2 22 W22o x I S 223 2`2I2H;< 2 o2p2 22 W22o xI

the uni/ersit( emplo(e e s D$ and A Y E 63 - Ne g a t i o n of th e ;utur e (en s e .Re vi s i t e d / - hen the *uture /erb is mar- e d b( D be

2 22 x E the

neg a tio n particle that is use d should

e2 Z2;

*ollo"e d b( the /erb in the subjunc ti/ e moo dd

22 2C2: x ;< 2 \2;g 2 x 2L x T7 e2 Z2;

I* the *utur e tens e is mar- e d b( ma( be ma d e neg a ti/ e b( /erb d

beco m e s

22 2C2: x ;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2L x 2T22

22 x 2o2 x the n such a constru c tion placing be*or e the imper*e c t indicati/e
beco m e s $4

22 2C:;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2LT7 22 x 2o2

22 2C2: x ;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2LT7 22 x 2o2

64 - 1erb s 5ith (5o Ob<e c t s - Among /erbs that ta-e t"o objects is a group that me a n s to gi/eSto gran td Consider the *ollo"ing e)a m pl e

232V W 8L 2H 22 x 9Ka 22 M272=252;< 22 2r27 d

The "om a n ga/ e her dau g h t e r a pres e n t d The direct object is

232V W 8L

and the indirect object is

2H 22 x 9Ka

6& - (he S e ! i> *ipt o t e s is anot h e r cate g o r ( that includ e s colors, the elati/ e patt e r n s o* adjecti/e s and som e bro-e n plural patt e r n s d The( beh a / e li-e Diptot e s and, ther e*or e , the( do not ta-e $unation and the( ta-e the accus a ti/ e mar- e r *or the geniti/e cas ed The ruler is on a gre e n boo-d The( DmE stud( in pri/at e schoolsd

2= x 7 2 v 2H9Q 2 \24 22 M 2= x 2r225 2;7d 222 x 2j<282I x 222 22b x 2o22j 8 xV M

23 2n W Hd

I tal-e d to a girl "ho "as taller tha n her sisterd

2 2Ka 2I 22 M 2522 W 4[

2H 29 7 2 Z2I 22c x 2o227d

Go"e/ er, the( can ta-e the de*inite articled hen the( do, the( beh a / e li-e regular noun s or adjecti/e s d

2= < 22v 2H9[;< 2 \24 22 M 2= x 2r225 2;7d 23 2n W H>;< 2222j<2825 x 2;< 222 22b x 2o22j 8 xV Md d 2H 29 7 2 Z2I 22c2o222;< 22 2K:;< 2I 22 M 2522 W 4[
66 -

2b x 2HQ & h er Sis t e r s D ^ j x Hn ^ 22O W 2 ^ 2c x < 2HI ^ 22 x 22a x ^ 2 x :n7 222B x 2C22 x ;E, "hich usu all( go "ith e1u a tio n al sent e n c e s , lea/ e the 2< 2u2Vu; 2 O M 2Q< 2 b2HQd 2< 2u2Vu; 2 O M 2Q< B x C2 x;d 2b x 2HQ d

subject in its nomin a ti/ e cas e but chan g e the in*lect e d predica t e to the accus a ti/ e cas ed The *ood "as deliciousd The *ood is not deliciousd

ou -no" that e1u a tio n al sent e n c e s re*er to pres e n t timed The e1ui/ale n t in pas t time is e)pr e s s e d b( using the /erb

68 - $ouns are said to be in App o s i t i o n 2 c28 x 2: x ;< to anot h e r noun "hen (ou can drop o** an( o* the m "ithout a**ecting the se m a n tic s o* the sent e n c e d ra m m a ti c all( and logicall( spe a-in g, both o* the noun s should carr( the sa m e cas e mar- e rd 2#

|H = M5 x M M 3pC4>;< b x HQd
The Caliph Omar "as *aird 69 - (he Moo d y Pre s e n t (en s e - Pres e n t tens e /erbs are said to be in the ndic a t i v e Moo d d Go"e/ e r, /erbs "hich e)pr e s s hop e, desire, purpo s e , li-e, disli-e, doubt, *ear, uncert ai n t (, obligation s , etcd, chan g e their mood *rom the regular ndic a t i v e to the Su b<u n c t i v e d That also re1uir e s that the( should *ollo" one o* the Subjuncti/ e particles, such as d

2 \22 W 9] ^ Z2 x; ^ b7 ^ 2 ; ^ CQ ^ [;

2 2Q ^

$ote the purpos e e)pr e s s e d in the *ollo"ing sent e n c e

2N x 2HKL M 22 x 2j M | 23 2: x 9[52;< 2 \2;g 22 M 2:LT d

I "ent to the librar( so that I "ould stud ( ther e d 80. In the Su b<u n c t i v e Moo d o* the Arabic /erb, the *inal D 2b x E o* the third pers o n ma s c ulin e plural is dropp e d and replac e d b( a silent ( the( DmE go in order *or the m DmE to go In addition to

2<

).

22b x 2o:LuV x 2<2o2:L2uC;

D 22; E ,

oth er particles o* subjunc ti/it( "hich e)pr e s s

purpos e Sint e n tio n and, thus, me a n in order to, so thatd includ e

2 2[; ^ 2 2Q ^ 2 \22 W 9]d 2N x 2HKL M 22<2o22j8C; 2= x kI 2 \2;g 2 <2?2=22H2 d

The( DmE tra/ el e d to g(pt in order to stud ( ther e d erb is The original for m of the und erline d

D22b x 2o22j8VE

Pleas e note that the *inal D 2b x E o* the secon d pers o n *eminin e singular should also be dropp e d , but "ithout replac e m e n t "ith silent (

2< ) d 22Z x 2C22j M 822 x so that (ou D*dsdE stud( 22222j x 822 x 2 2[; 2N x 2HKL M 22222j M 822 x 2 2[; 2= x kI 2 \2;g 222{ 2=22H2 d
(ou D*dsdE stud( ou D*dsdE tra/ el e d to g(pt in order to stud ( ther e d erb is The original form of the und erline d $6

D22Z x 2C22j M 8 xE

8, - The mos t com m o n subjunc ti/ e particle in Arabic is prob a bl(

2b e 27

, "hich usu all( sits bet" e e n t"o /erbs re*erring to the sa m e or a di**ere n t pers o n, and thus, *unctioning som e t hi n g li-e the in*initi/e in nglishd I* (ou e)a mi n e the sent e n c e care*ull(, (ou "ill notice

that

2b e 27

introdu c e s a subordin a t e claus e "hich *unctions as an

object *or the main /erbd

22 2=k52;< 2 \2;g 2 x 2L x T7 2b e 7 28 M Vj< Md

I "ant to go to the ban-d 8$ - It has be e n me n tion e d earlier that 2HI can be use d as a 1ues tio n "ord and as a neg a tio n particle *or the /erb in pas t tens e d In addition, it can be used to be as a part o* a nomin alifer as in

22 2C2: x ;< 2<uL 222 22Z x 2[2 x 2 H2I28K 2 x 22 x29242aH2id

I me t him "hen he li/ed in this hous e d 82 - (he No! i n a li 0 e r

2b W 2g

& h er Sis t e r s D

2Z W 2[; ^ 2 b W 2Q ^ 2b W 7 ^ 2O W 2`;

2b W^

E chan g e the subject nomin a ti/ e cas e mar- e r to the accus a ti/ e but the( lea/ e the predic a t e in its nomin a ti/ e cas ed J( the "a(, 2b W 2g S 2b W 7 are called $omin alifers beca u s e the( introdu c e nomin al sent e n c e s d

uVu; O x Q< b Wgw d

In *act, the *ood is deliciousd

2 u2Vu; 2 O x 2Q< 2b W 27 2 292< M e222;2H2i w d

'( sister said that the *ood "as deliciousd

2 u2Vu2; 2 O x 2Q< 2 Z W 2[; w d

ddd but the *ood "as deliciousd

2b Wg

is onl( use d in the initial position o* a sent e n c e , and *ollo"ing

an( *orm o* 22c x 2H2id An("her e else (ou ha/ e to use 2b W 27d Its me a ni n g , ther e*or e , chan g e s *rom inde e d Sin *act to tha td Rem e m b e r that all thes e particles should be *ollo"e d b( nouns or att a c h e d prono u n su**i)esd Also notice that 2b W 2gand her sisters should be *ollo"ed b( the subject or its corre s p o n di n g att a c h e d prono u nd $8

83 - Ad<e c t i v e s - e learn e d earlier that adjecti/ e s in Arabic are usu all( plac e d a*ter the noun the( modi*(, and ther e*or e , the( agr e e in ter m s o* nu mb e r , gen d e r , de*inite n e s s Sin d e*init e n e s s , and cas e "ith that nound The comp a r a ti/ e and sup erl a ti/ e degr e e s o* the adjecti/ e s are *ormula t e d *ollo"ing the patt e r n A*alu

D 22O M 2` x 227

E d The(

should be tre a t e d as Diptot e s Dno $unation Y accus a ti/ e mar- er *or geniti/e cas eEd There*or e,

22v M 2=i27

FFFFFFFF

22 w 2V=2i x

and 22O M 25267 FFFFFFFF 22O w 2C526 x a- ith comp a r a ti/ e adjecti/e s , (ou nee d to use the prep o sition D 2 Z e 2I E to comp a r e the t"o noun s, as in '( hous e is smaller tha n hersd

2H 9 Ca x 2Z e 2I 2= M n7 2 29Ca x

b- In sup e rl a ti/ e, the mos t com m o n met h o d is to plac e the adjecti/e be*or e the noun, as in

23 2V2=22;< 222 2 2CMa 2= M n7 2 29Cxad

'( hous e is the smalles t Dhous eE in the /illag e !leas e rem e m b e r that the com p ar a ti e and sup erlati e form s of ad"ecti e s are gen d er blind. Therefor e, and mas c ulin e noun s as well.

2= M n7 can

be use d for fe minin e

84 - 2 x b2HQ& h er Sis t e r s .Re vi s i t e d / d e said earlier that 2 b x 2HQ Y her Sisters are use d "ith e1u a tio n al sent e n c e s d Go"e/ e r, the( can toler a t e the use o* /erbs a*ter the md That /erb has to be in the pres e n t indicati/ e *orm, as in

2H 22 :22 x 9[I x 222 22O M 252`2 x 2 e 22 x sHQd

She "as "or-ing in her o**iced

2. I* the subject is e)pr e s s e d , it should be place d bet" e e n sister s and the /erbd

2b x 2HQ

Y her

2H 22 :22 x 9[I x 222 22O M 252`2 x 22 M 2T2H2922< 2 22 x sHQd

The pro*es s o r "as "or-ing in her o**iced An e)ce p tio n to this rule is "hen (ou "ant to topicalife the subject, and that simpl( me a n s that (ou "ant to emp h a s if e itd

2H 22 :22 x 9[I x 222 22O M 252`2 x 2 e 22 x sHQ M 222T2H2922<d

8& - Ph o n y A ; a 7 e daaf a - ou might ha/ e notice d that the noun "hich *ollo"s the adjecti/e that is in the sup erla ti/ e *orm struct u r e is in the geniti/e cas ed

23 2V x2=22;< 222 2 2Ca x 2= M n7 2 29Ca xd

The reas o n is that this combin a tio n cre a t e s the S(nt a c tic al n/iron m e n t *or Idaa*ad Jecau s e the comp o n e n t s o* this struct ur e are not limite d to the usu al noun s Dthe *irst ter m is in *act an adjecti/eE Arab ram m a ri a n s ten d to call this Phon(S, a- e Idaa*ad 86 - I* the Per*ect Particle 2 82i is used "ith a /erb in the pas t tens e , the n both are tran sl a t e d as a Pres e n t Per*ect DhasSh a / e ParticipleEd She has "or-e d in this *actor(d

2Kk25 x 2;< 2<uL 222 e222425 2 x 2 82i d

hen this particle is use d "ith 2 b x 2HQand a /erb, then the "hole phra s e is transla t e d as a Past Per*ect Dhad p a r ticipleEd

23 22 x2K2 x 22O x 2:22 x2i 22sj x < 2 82i 2222V8n 2 b x 2HQd

'( *riend had /isite d me a (ear agod 88 - (he 1erb al Nou n 2j28 x 2k25 x 2;< is a noun that is deri/e d *rom a /erbd There*or e, it acts li-e a noun, as in the *ollo"ing e)a m pl e s ad a subject

2 w 2`n x 223 2Q2=22;< 22 2uL 222 22O M 25 x 2` x ;<d

bd an object cd a *irst ter m o* Idaa*a

22 x 2} x 2<2=22;< 2 P 2] < Md 28 w 2C 6 x 22} w 22 2222j<2825 x 2;< 2} M HKa d

@0

dd a seco n d ter m o* Idaa*e ed a predic a t e

28 w 2V826 x 22 2} x 2<2=22;< 2 v M 2H9Q d 2 M 2:22 W2r2;< 2 2L 2 292V x <oLd

A /erb al noun deri/e d *rom a transiti/e /erb does som e ti m e s act li-e that /erb and "ould ta-e an objectd

232C W a=`;< 2 T 2H2922< 222B M 2Vj822 x 2 2K2: x2 x 7 x d

89 - ;or! s of 1erb al Nou n s - ActionSac ti/it( is e)pr e s s e d b( /erbs and /erb al nouns d %i-e oth er langu a g e s , the /erb al noun s in Arabic indicat e that actionS a c ti/it(, and beh a / e li-e regular noun sd The *ollo"ing chart sho"s the /arious "a(s o* deri/a tio n accordin g to the *orms !erb ,orm )a mpl e Id !erbal $oun !erb )am pl e !erbal $oun

2O x 2` x 22 x2

unpr e dict a bl e

an( /erb

unpr e dict a bl e

2O x 2` W 22 x2 22O w 2C2`2p22 x IIId w 2 322 x242 x 2H2p2I M 22O x 2 x 2H2 I!d x O` x 7 w H`g c ! 22O w 2` M 22 x2p22 x 2O x 2` W 22 x2p22 x d !Id O x x Hp2 x w O M Hp2 x !IId 22c w 2H2`2p 2sg 22O x 2` x 22 x2p2sg
IId

22 x 2j W| x 28 x 2L x 2H2 x x 7 2 x 28 W 2z x2 x O x x <=2 x 2 x 2= xk x sg

222B w 2Vj822 x w 2228 x 2L x 2H22I M vHg w 2 w 28 P 2z x2 x O w M <=2 x 2 w 2<=k sg

!IIId

22c w 2H`29 22g 2c w 22` 22g 22c w 2H2`2p29 22g

22U x 22 x2422 x2922g 2= W 25 x 2]g 22 x 28 x 2>22 x2922g

2 w 229 22g 2j w <=25 2]g 222 w 2<282>22 2922g

2O x 2` x 22 x2922g
Id

22O W 2` x 22g
d

22O x 2` x 2p22 x2922g

9% - (he *rop p i n g of th e Sh a d d a of

Arab gra m m a r i a n s me n tion e d earlier that the s e particles chan g e the subject s /o"el mar- er *rom nomin a ti/ e to accus a ti/ e cas ed hen the Shad d a is elimin a t e d , the subject maint ai n s its nomin a ti/ e cas e mar- e r DaEd ,urth er m o r e , thes e particles "ill tolera t e the use o* /erbs DbE a*ter the md

2b W 7 ^ 2b W 2Q -

2b W 2g an d h er sis t e r s ^ 2 Z W 2[; call this 2 b2oK;< 22 M 2C2p2>2 x d It "as

2 32I x 2| 2H2i x 222T2H2922< 2b W 7 22 M 2`25 2 x w d

@1 DaE 2 32I x 2| 2H2i M 222T2H2922< 2 e b27 22 M 2`25 2 x w d I he ar d that the pro*es s o r D*E is comingd

2 2= x 2L 2H22;< 2 \2;g 2 = x 22 x22H2 2H 6 x ? x 2Z W 2[; 2| x 2<8a 2 \2;g 2 2jH6 22{ e 2= x 22 x22H2d

DbE

2 \2;g 2H 26? M x 2= x 22 x22H2 2 Z e 2[; 2| x 2<8a 2 \2;g 2 2jH6 22{ e 2= x 22 x22H2 2 2= x 2L 2H22;<d

'( neigh b o r tra/ elled to Jaghd a d , but her husb a n d tra/ elle d to Cairod 9, - (he Rela ti v e Pron o u n s 2 O2no;< 2= x lH5m x are used to introdu c e subordin a t e adjecti/ al claus e s and ther e*or e cre a t e comple ) sent e n c e s d The choice o* such prono u n s dep e n d s on the ant e c e d e n t s num b e r and gend e rd

2 X2u2;<

is use d *or mas c ulin e singulard

2 29;< 222<2o4;< 22Z x 2Vu2;<

is use d *or *eminin e singulard is use d *or *eminin e plurald is use d *or mas c ulin e plurald

a- I* the ant e c e d e n t is part o* the subject phra s e , the relati/ e claus e is emb e d d e d inside the main sent e n c e d

2HKL M 2H K x 22c x 22 2 X2u2;< 2 O M 26 M 2= W ;<d

b- I* the ant e c e d e n t is part o* the object phra s e S p r e dic a t e , the n the relati/ e clos e *ollo"s the main sent e n c e d

2H K x 22c x 22 2 X2u2;< 2 O x 26 M 2= W ;< 22 M 242a x H2id

c- I* the ant e c e d e n t is inde*inite, (ou do not nee d to use a relati/ e prono u n d

2H K x 22c x 22 6 xj M x 22 M 242a x H2id

d- Som e ti m e s (ou "ill encou n t e r a sent e n c e "ith a relati/ e prono u n and a relati/ e claus e, in "hich the ant e c e d e n t is abs e n t , but still und er s t o o d d

2X =kI w 2 T2H2922< M x 232C W a=2` x ;< 222K2 x 2j W| x 2 X2u2;<d

Originall(, this sent e n c e is

D 2X =kI w 2 T2H2922< M x 232C W a=2` x ;< 222K2 x 2j W| x 2 X2u2;< DM 2 T2H2922<d

@2 9$ -

2HI

.Re vi s i t e d / de me n tion e d earlier thre e possible "a(s o*

using this "ordd The *ourth possibilit( *or using

2HI is as

a relati/ e

prono u n li-e 2 X2u2;<d ith that, it can introdu c e a relati/ e claus e *or an ant e c e d e n t that is onl( e)pr e s s e d in a *orm o* an object prono u n d

2 x 2o2:22< 2<uL 2M 22 M 7=22 x2i 2 X2u2;< S 2HI 2 P 2] < Md

I li-e "hat I read this "ee-d

92 d (he 'og n a t e Accu s a t i v e 22 2q242r25 M 2;< 22c M 2o2`2p25 x 2;< is a /eb al noun, "hich is deri/e d *rom the sa m e /erb o* the sent e n c e , and it does com e in a phra s e as ad inde*inite that is *ollo"ed b( an adjecti/e

2 H252C22 2H2: W 2] M 2 M 28 x 24 xa x 2O M 26 M 2= W ;< 2<uL 2 P 2z V M d

This ma n lo/es his countr ( a lotd bd de*inite as a part o* Idaa*a or *ollo"ing

2O 22 M Q ^ 2_ w `a x

2H 2I 22 2K:;< 22 x 2<=9]< 2H 22 x22T2H2922< M 2 M 2= 9z2 x d

She resp e c t s her pro*es s or Dthe "a(E a daug h t e r resp e c t s her mot h e rd

22 28 x 2 x 2H2252;< 2 O W 22 M Q 2H 22 M 4L7 2H2L28 x 2 x 2H2d

Ger *amil( help e d her gre a tl(d !leas e rem e m b e r that the Cogn a t e Accus a ti/ e phra s e *unction s as an ad/ er b to modi*( the /erb o* the sent e n c e d 93 - The noun 222B M 2p22 x s is *eminin e and me a n s sould I* (ou us e it be*ore anot h e r noun it "ill crea t e Idaa*a and chan g e its me a nin g to sa m e d

222U2`2r252;< 222B2ps 222 2H252l<| 2 O M 2QV d

Ge al"a(s eat s at the sa m e rest a u r a n t d I* it *ollo"s a noun, it should carr( a corres p o n di n g prono u n re*er e n c e to that noun and its cas e as "elld Its *unction beco m e s emp h a ticd

22 M 2 x 2p22 x s 22O x 2 2<=25 M 2;< 22 M 242aH2id

I me t the corre s p o n d a n t , hims el*d 94 - (he )!p h a s i s

2 82CQo9;<"ith

the use o*

2O P 22 M Q ^ 2_ M `a x ^ 222B M 2p22 xs

mph a sis can be e)pr e s s e d b( using an( o* the abo/ e particles a*ter a noun, pro/iding that an identic al @@ pers o n al prono u n be su**i)edd The particle should carr( the sa m e cas e mar- e r o* the noun it re*ers tod ad nomin a ti/ e

M M p2 xs U M2 4`5 M ;< = x x ] xThe teac h e r, hims el*, cam e d bd accus a ti/ e

2Z W 2M 22 W 422 M Q 22{ 2H22j 825 M 2;< 22{ M 282L x 2H2d

I sa" the teac h e r s D*E, all o* the md cd geniti/e

22U22 `a x 2 v22r2;< 2 \2;g 2 M 228 W 2z x2 x d

I spo- e to the stud e n t s , som e o* the md 9& - 2= M Ct is a noun "hich "ill crea t e Idaa*a "hen it is use d "ith anot h e r noun DaEd It also ser/ e s to neg a t e nouns and adjecti/ e s and ma( be transla t e d nonF , unF , and so ond hen it is use d in such a S(nt a c tic al n/iron m e n t Dided, "ith adjecti/ e s E it cre a t e s "hat "e call Phon(S, a- e Idaa*a, "her e the secon d ter m is an adjecti/ e DbEd ad 2 v 2r2;< 2= M Ct x ? 2v M 22r2;< 2 x 2H25296< 2= x x ] xd Stud e n t s and nonF stud e n t s att e n d e d the me e ti n g bd

22c2o2:22I x 2= x Ct x 2 M 22 M 425 x 2 x 2b x 2HQ d

Gis act "as unacc e p t a b l e d

96 - (he !p er a t i v e Moo d o* the /erb is use d "hen som e o n e is gi/en a direct com m a n d or ma-ing a re1u e s t d This com m a n d S r e 1 u e s t is eith e r DaE positi/e or DbE neg a ti/ ed ad 23 2: x 9[25 x 2;< 2 \2;g 222:LTg ou D*dsdE go to the librar( bd 23 2: x 9[25 x 2;< 2 \2;g 222:Lu22 x ou D*dsdE do not go to the librar( The /erb that is use d in both cas e s is *orm e d *rom the s e c o n d p er s o n ussi/e 'ood "ith a little modi*icationd In DaE (ou nee d to drop the subject mar- e r pre*i) and insert a Gamf a S 2gS inste a d to bre a- the res ulting cons o n a n t clust e r, as in

2 2:2L x Td In the

cas e o*

the neg a ti/ e imper a ti/ e DbE (ou just put the neg a tio n particle *ront o* the /erbd

in

@A 98 - Though the imper a ti/ e struct ur e is inher e n tl( addr e s s e d to a secon d pers o n, it can also be e)pr e s s e d indirectl(d In this cas e (ou should ha/ e in mind eith e r DaE *irst pers o n or DbE third pers o nd ou can *orm that b( pre*i)ing the particles D /erbd DaE

22 ; E

or D

2 22422 x2 E to

the ussi/e 'ood

22 2U22` x 2r25 x 2;< 2<uL 222 2 e O22 M QK; d

%et us eat at this rest a u r a n t

DbE 2 <2o2:2L2u2C2422 x2 dU2 oCa M \;g %et the m DmE go to their hom e s 99 - (he pre p o s i t i o n

2u2K2I M

, "hich me a n s since, is gen e r all(

use d "ith "ords that e)pr e s s time conce p t s such as

2 w 2oV x ^ w 2 32 x 2H2

2 32K x2 x ^ 2= w 2 2 ^ 2 w 2o2:22< M ^ w etcd 23 2 x 2H2 M 2u2K2I M 22 2C2: x ;< 2 \2;g 2 x 2L xT xd

Ge "ent hom e since an hourd It can also be used "ith /erbs and, ther e*or e, chan g e s its se m a n ticSs (n t a c tic *unction s to an ad/ er b o* timed

2 H2K2i2= x 22 x2922< M 2u2K2I M 2H 22 M2942a x H2i 2HId

I ha/ e not met her since "e sep a r a t e d d ,% % - (he App o s i t i o n 2 c28 x 2: x ;< . Revi s t e d / d A noun is said to be in appo sition to anot h e r noun i* it o**ers addition al in*orm a tio n abou t that nound The appo sition noun should agr e e "ith the original noun s cas e, gend e r, and nu mb e r d

HC W 4 3 xj x 85 x ;< = x V8I M M 4a x Hi d
I me t the school principle, 'rd Alid ,% , - 1erb s of @e g i n n i n g - Past tens e /erbs li-e 2 O x 2` x6 x ^ x 2u2 x 7 ^ 278a x ma( be use d "ith a *ollo"ing /erb in the pres e n t indicati/ed Joth /erbs agr e e "ith the subject "hich, i* e)pr e s s e d , should be plac e d bet" e e n the m, as in

2 2<=2` ;< 222 22c2H2p22< 2m? x e2Z2 x 2b x 2o28 W 2z x 22 x 9V x 222 M 2HK;< 278a x d
The people beg a n to tal- abou t the situ a tion o* children in Ira1d

,% $ - (he Activ e Parti ci p l e 22O2 2H2p2;< 222U M 22gIn gen e r al, the me a ni n g o* the acti/e participle is per*or min gS h a /i n g per*or m e d the action indicat e d b( the /erbd The nglish e1ui/ale n t is com m o nl ( DaE an adjecti/e ending in Fing, as in 24 DaE

22{ w 2H:2; 2H2 2 3 22 W2222 W22;< 2 2u L 222 22{ M 2H2K2Q2H22 W 2;< 2 } M 2H222 K;<
The "om e n li/ing in this ap art m e n t are stud e n t s d

In addition, a gre a t ma n ( Acti/e Participles ha/ e ta-e n on speci*ic concr e t e me a nin g s and are used as DbE ordinar( noun s such as DbE

22Z w 2Q 2H2 ^ 2 w 2] Ha ^ 22U w 2Q H] ^ 22 w 2; 2H2 ^ 2 O w 2I H ^ 2 w 2 HQ

The third possible use o* the acti/e participle is "hat the Arab ram m a ri a n s call th e circu ! s t a n t i a l or Haal 'on s tr u c t i o n -

H: x2 M9Q x 32 x4I H] k W ;< \;g M 3: x ;Hr;< { = x x ] xd

The stud e n t D*E ca m e to class carr(ing her boo-d ,% 2 - (he *eriv a t i o n of th e Activ e Partici p l e - The Acti/e Participle deri/ation patt e r n *or /erb ,orm I is usu all(

22O2 2H2d ,or

the oth er *orms DIIFE, the patt e r n is to pre*i) D 22 M I E to the ste md The ste m /o"el on the seco n d radical is al"a(s asrad An e)ce p tion to that is *or patt e r n I, "hich has to be ,atGad $otice the *ollo"ing e)a m pl e s

,% 3 - (he no u n s o* the usu al short /o"elsd This usa g e is restrict e d to t"o condition s DaE as a *irst ter m o* Idaa*a or DbE "hen a poss e s si/ e prono u n is att a c h e d to eith er o* the md DaE

^ O2 :I M .. / ^ 2282 2H22I M . / 222j 82I M .1 / ^ = k x KI x E 1 / ^ 22O2 2 2<=92I M .1/ 22U22 422 x [92I M .B/ O2 :2 x9I M ^ . B/ ^ 2= 25 x 2z2I M .1 / 225 22 x2922I M 2v w 27 an d 2y w 7 "ill ta-e long /o"el mar- e r s inste a d
. 1

2XjH6 2oa7 222K42a x H2id 2XjH6 2Ha7 22 M 242a x H2id

2XjH6 2 2a7 2 \24 22 M 2522 W242 xd

DbE

2HLoa7 222K42a x H2id 2HLHa7 22 M 242a x H2id 2H Ca7 2 \24 22 M 2522 W242 xd
@#

,% 4 - (he Haal 'on s tr u c t i o n d 22c2Hz;< As indicat e d earlier the acti/e participle can be use d in the Gaal Constr uc tio nd It has to be inde*inite and in the accus a ti/ e cas ed It has to agr e e "ith the modi*ied noun in nu mb e r and gen d e r d Also, (ou ne e d to rem e m b e r that the Haal could be a claus e d $otice ho" the *ollo"ing sent e n c e can be e)pr e s s e d d

2H 2: x22 M 92 M Q 2 322 x242I H] 2 2k W ;< 2 \2;g M 2 32: x2; 2H2r2;< 2{ 2= x x ]d

The stud e n t D*E cam e to class carr(ing her boo-d

1d 2H 2: x22 M 922 M Q 22O M 25 2z2 x 2 2L? 2 2k W ;< 2 \2;g M 2 32: x2; 2H2r2;< 2{ 2= x x ]d 2d 2H 2: x22 M 922 M Q 22O M 25 2z2 x 2 2k W ;< 2 \2;g M 232: x2; 2H2r2;< 2{ 2= x x ]d
ou might ha/ e notice d that the /erb o* the Gaal Claus e has to be in the pres e n t indicati/ e moodd Jecau s e the /erb 2 O x 25 x 2] x is tran siti/ e, the acti/e participle deri/e d *rom it "ould ta-e an objectd That is "h( the noun cas ed

2H 2: x22 M 92 M Q in the

sent e n c e abo/ e is in the accus a ti/ e

Ob/iousl(, i* a /erb is intra n siti/e, such as 2 2z x m x , the acti/e participle "ill not re1uir e an objectd Chec- the *ollo"ing sent e n c e

2322 x [] Hm 2 2k W ;< 2 \2;g M 232: x2; 2H2r2;< 2{ 2= x x ] x d

The stud e n t D*E ca m e to class smilingd ou nee d to rem e m b e r that "het h e r the Gaal Construc tio n 22c2Hz;< is e)pr e s s e d b( a /erb al sent e n c e or an e1u a tio n al sent e n c e , the indep e n d e n t prono u n agr e e s "ith the noun modi*ied b( the d 22c2Hz;<

2= w Cn x 2oL? x 232C W a= x 2` x ;< 22 x 2j x| xd

Ge studie d Arabic "hile he "as littleS(o u n g d ,% & - (he Pa s s i v e Parti ci p l e 22c2o2`2p25 x 2;< 222U22g is onl( deri/e d *rom transiti/e /erbsd The basic me a nin g o* the pas si/ e participle is und er g oin g or ha/ing und e r g o n e the action indicat e d b( the /erbd The mos t com m o n use o* the pas si/ e participle is as an adjecti/ed

28 2V=2: x ;< 2 29[I x 22 x 2HI7 x 22322 x2i2?2=225 x 2;< 2 x2jH2C22 W 2;< 22{ M 282L x 2H2d
I sa" the stolen car in *ront o* the post o**iced @& Secon dl(, it can be used "ith Idaa*ad

2= M Ct x as

a seco n d ter m o* a *a-e

2 2C 2 v 2ot=2I x 2= x Ct x 2H 2k2>2 M 232` x 2I 2H;< 2HL2= M 22 :9` xd

The uni/ersit( consid e r s her an und e sir a bl e pers o nd Thirdl(, it can be used as a a regular nound

222 2 325 x 2C22 x 2 325 x 2L x 2H22I M 2 <2o252L x 2H2 2 v x 2= x 2` x ;< 2b W 27 22 2?=`25 x 2;< 2 Z x 2I 232C W2s2H22s< 2 2j x H2z x ;< d
It is "ell -no"n that the Arabs ha/ e gre a tl( participa t e d ci/ilifationd in the "orld ,% 6 - (he *eriv a t i o n of Pa s s i v e Partici p l e 22c2o2`2p25 x 2;< 222U22g ou ma( deri/e a pas si/e participle *or ,orm I b( using the patt e r n

22c2o2`2p2I x

)am pl e s are

8 x >2 x9I M ^ vo9[I x ^ }?=I x ^ j 8 xI M

,or the oth er *orms, (ou replac e the ste m asra /o"el "ith ,atGa, as in

2228 x 2>22 x2922I x ^ 2 2= x 22 x 9z2I M ^ 2 2= x [I M ^ 22O2a x2H22I M

,% 8 - Ne g a t i o n Parti cl e

me n tion e d that an( *orm 1uation al Sent e n c e s d e also said in rule #2 that pres e n t tens e /erb al

222B x 2C22 x ; .Re vi s i t e d / d In rule o* 22 2B x 2C22 x ; is used to neg a t e

22, it "as

sent e n c e s are neg a t e d b( using sent e n c e s

d Pleas e

chec- the *ollo"ing

2 2jo~;< 22c 2H2r2a7 2 Z2I 2< 82] <? 2 b x 2HQ 22{2<2|2H22 W 2;< 2b W 27 2 M 2= `2 xs 23 2V W =k52;<d
e -no" that Sad a a t "as one o* the heros o* the re/olutiond g(ptia n

2 2jo~;< 22c 2H2r2a7 2 Z2I 2< 282] <? 2 b x 2HQ 22{2<2|2H22 W 2;< 2b W 7 2 M 2= `2 xs 23 2V W =k52;<d
e don t -no" that Sad a a t "as one o* the heros o* the re/olutiond g(ptia n I*, ho" e/ e r, the sa m e sent e n c e starts "ith a prono u n subject, Arabic allo"s (ou to neg a t e it "ith neg a tio n is prett ( stron gd

222B x 2C22 x ; d In *act,

this *orm o*

2 2jo~;< 22c 2H2r2a7 2 Z2I 2< 282] <? 2 b x 2HQ 22{2<2|2H22 W 2;< 2b W 7 2 M 2= `2 xs 2 Z M 2z2 xs 23 2V W =k52;<d 2 2jo~;< 22c 2H2r2a7 2 Z2I 2< 282] <? 2 b x 2HQ 22{2<2|2H22 W 2;< 2b W 7 2 M 2= `2 x s 2 H2K222 x; 23 2V W =k52;<d
,% 9 - (he Accu s a t i v e of *is ti n c t i o n .Re vi s i t e d /

22C2C2529;7 d In

point A+ "e me n tion e d that 22U22 x Q, "hich me a n s ho" ma n (, should al"a(s be *ollo"ed b( an ide*inite noun @+ in the accus a ti/ e cas ed Arab ram m a ri a n s called this noun

2C2C2529;<

2 X2|28 x 2` x ;<
e)a m pl e

The Distinction o* $umb e rd Consid er the *ollo"ing

23 22 x242r2` M ;< 2c x 2 2H aH9Q 22Z x 2V2=22 22{ M 27=22 x2id

I rea d t"ent ( boo-s during the bre a-d The und erline d "ord could be articles, report s , ma g a fin e s , charts , etcd

There is anot h e r *orm o* this accus a ti/ e noun "hich deals "ith -indSt(p e d It is called d 222oK;< 22C2C2529;< suall( it is an inde*inite singular nounS/ e r b al noun "hich has the me a nin g o* "ith res p e c t to, in ter m s o*, as to, and thus in/ol/es som e le/el o* comp a ris o nd

22b 2Hz9I; 2 < 2|2<282`29 22< 2 v 22r2;< 2= M ~Q7 2 2Ld

As to prep a r e d n e s s *or the e)a m, she is the mos t amo n g all stud e n t s d Go"e/ er, it is not nec e s s a r ( that the accus a ti/ e o* distinction is limite d to e)pr e s si n g comp a ris o nd Consid er the *ollo"ing sent e n c e

22 2| x 2H2`2 x 22 x 2C2: x ;< 2 P 2< 2{ 2I xd

The mot h e r *illed the hous e D"ithE hap pin e s s d ,, % - Parti cl e s of ):c e p t i o n includ e s

d 2}2H2K2~2922< 2 {2<?|7 This

cat e g o r (

x ^ o ^ HH] ^ <8 x ^ Wg
A noun that *ollo"s an( o* the abo/ e has to be in the accus a ti/ e cas ed )am pl e s are ad "ith an intra n siti/e /erb

2< 282; H 2 W g 2v M 2r2;< 2} x H6d

The stud e n t s ca m e , e)ce p t *or halidd bd "ith a tran siti/ e /erb

2< 282;H 2 W g 22 x 2z x 2925 x 2;< 2 v M 2r2;< j x <

The stud e n t s /isited the mus e u m , e)ce p t *or halidd Go"e/ er, i* the /erb is neg a t e d and the se m a n tic s o* the sent e n c e impl( that the noun "hich *ollo"s 2 W g is the one "ho per*or m e d the /erb s act, the n Arabic allo"s (ou to put that noun in the nomin a ti/ e cas ed

28 w 2;H 2 W g 22 2z x 2925 x 2;< 2 \2;g 2 v M 22r2;< 22 2L x uV x e22U22 x ;d

The stud e n t s did not go to the mus e u m , e)ce p t *or halidd @. ,, , - (he Accu s a t i v e of Purp o s e 2 246 22c2o2`2p252;< is an inde*inite, singular /erb al noun in the accus a ti/ e cas ed It gi/es in*orm a tio n abou t "h( the actionS/ e r b is doned It can al"a(s be an ans" e r to the 1ue s tion "ord sent e n c e s

d22<2T2H25;

Consid er the *ollo"ing

2M v2r2;< 22 x 2H2id
The stud e n t s stood upd

222v M 22r2;< 22 x 2H2i 2<2T2H52;

h( did the stud e n t s sta n d up

2T 2H2922; 2 H2I2<=29 ]< 2 v M 22r2;< 22 x 2H2id

The stud e n t s stood up in resp e c t *or the pro*es s o rd ,, $ - (he Abs ol u t e Ne g a t i o n - It "as me n tion e d earlier that one has to use som e *orm o* 22 2B x 2C; x to neg a t e the Arabic e1u a tio n al sent e n c e d Go"e/ e r, Arab gra m m a ri a n s ha/ e also de*ine d a rath e r stron g se m a n tic en/iron m e n t "her e (ou ha/ e to use The( called this met h o d e)a m pl e s

inste a d d

222B2K2 24; 2232C22HK;< d Chec-

the *ollo"ing

,- There is a ma n in the hous e d $- There is no ma n in the hous e d

2O w 26 Mj x 22 2C2: x ;< 222d 2O w 26 Mj x 22 2C2: x ;< 222 222B x 2C22 x ;d 22 2C2: x ;< 222 2O x 26 Mj x d

2- There is a no ma n in the hous ed

A0

,unction al Arabic !erbs %ist

Depe n din g on the t(pe o* the /erb use d in a sent e n c e , ther e are thre e patt e r n s o* Arabic !erbal Sent e n c e s d 1d Jasicall(, a transiti/e /erb nee d s an object, and the patt e r n is DOptiond Ad/d Phd @E DOpd Ad/d 2E DOpd Ad/d Phd 1E Object Subject !erb

23 2 x 2H2 22O x 2:2i x 2DH 2> 2: x2r2I x 222E 2 3 2 x =2 M 2a 22 2u2Vu; 232: x 6? x 22282;<? 222> x 2: x2 xd 1 2 @
'( mother coo-ed a delicious meal in her -itchen an hour agod
Opti o n a l !e a n s th a t yo u can hav e ,, $ ,2, or NON) of th o s e ad v e r b i al phra s e s (he ord e r de p e n d s on 5h a t you 5a n t to e ! p h a s i 0 e - (he !o s t i!p or t a n t co ! e s las t -

2d An intra n siti/e /erb does not nee d an object, and the patt e r n is DOpd Ad/d Phd @E DOpd Ad/d 2E DO pd Ad/d Phd 1E Subject !erb

22 2o2C x ;< 22c x 2o2 2H 29 =t M 222 2228 x 2C]? x 2 29< M e22222 x 246 xd
'( sister sat b( hersel* in her room all da( longd @d I* the intran siti/ e /erb ta-e s a prep o sition the patt e r n is DOpd Ad/d Phd 1E Object o* the Prepd Preposition Subject !erb

23 2 x 2H2 M 2u2K2I x 23 2: x22 x29[52;< 2 \2;g 2 27 2 x 2L x Td

'( brother "ent to the librar( since an hourd Pleas e note the *ollo"ing Indicat e s a sic- /erb "hich me a n s that ther e is a long /o"el amo n g the @ Radical %etters o* its roo td Indicat e s a double end Shad d a !erbd Joth t(p e s beh a / e a little bit di**ere n t *rom the regular /erbs "hen the( are conjug a t e d to the /arious subject prono u n s d to tra/ el to eat

d 1 2 =22 x22H2 d 2 2 O22 x2Q x7

A1

d @ 2 O2a x H2i to "rite d A 2 22 x 922 xQ to drin- d 5 2 v2= 2 x to as- d # 22c22 to read d & 7= x2 xi to "or-, do d + 2 O25 M 2 x to obt ain, get d . 2 \24 2 O2k x ] x to be*rien d "ith d 10 2 x I 2 2|Hk x 2S2| x Hn to bu( d 11 2 2=2922g to "al- d 12 22 2\22I x to tal- "ith d 1@ 2 x 2I x 22U22 W 422 x [ S 2 x 28 W 2z x x to tal- abou t 1A 22U22 W 422 x [ S 2 x 28 W 2z x x d Z x to he ar d 15 2 25 2 x to listen to d 1# 2 \2;g 2 25 x 22 x2922g to learn d 1& 22U x 24 x to learn sthd d 1+ 22U22 W 4` to pla( d 1. 2 2` 22 x; to go d 20 2 2L xT x to lea/ e d 21 2 N = x x to run d 22 2_22 xh xj x to ride d 2@ 2 2Q j x to dri/e, lead d 2A 2 |2H2i to coo- d 25 22: x22 x2 to slee p d 2# 2 2Hs
to me e t

A2

to

d 2& 2Hzn to sho" er d 2+ 22U W 2z x 2922g "elco m e , recei/e som e o n e d 2. 22] Wj x to see, "atch d @0 2 82L x 2H2 to carr( d @1 22O25 x] to mo/ e, tran s* e r d @2 22O2s to go up d @@ 28`n x to go do"n d @A 2 c2s to rent d @5 2 =2622922g to spen d d @# 22= xx n to e)ch a n g e Dcurre n c (E d @& 22= Wx n to stan d up d @+ 222i2? x to sit do"n d @. 22 2B246 x to danc e d A0 22ij x to sing d A1 2 \22 WKt to help, assist d A2 2 82 x 2H2 to begin, start d A@ 2728 xa x to compl e t e , *inish d AA 22O25 x 2Q7 to argu e A5 d iHK x to discus s A# d 2222i2Hs to loo- *or d A& 2 Z2 2 2z xa x to *l( d A+ 2jH2 to boo-, res er/ e d A. 22 x] x to laugh d 50 2 2z m x to cr( d 51 2 \2[a to li-e, lo/e d 52 2 W 2]7
to "a-e up

to hat e A@

d 5@ 22= Q x

to be

d 5A j< to marr( d 55 2? W to elect d 5# 222> x 9sg to beco m e sic- d 5& 22= 2I x to *eel, sens e d 5+ 2=2` x 2 x to s"im d 5. 22: x2 x to hug, embr a c e d #0 2Z2 x ] x to -iss d #1 2 O2: Wi to ope n d #2 2 29 to close d #@ 2 q24t7 to hit d #A 2v2= xx m to jump d #5 222 x2p22 x2i to be in*orm e d d ## 2=22 :< M to teac h d #& 22U22 W 4 x ^ 222j W| x to "ear d #+ 22B2: ; x to ta-e o** d #. 224 x x to drin- d &0 2 v2= 2 x to ans" er d &1 2 v2H67 to corre s p o n d "ith d &2 22O2 x 2<= x angr( "ith d &@ 22\2422S2Z2I 22 t x to comp e t e "ith d &A 22 2B22 x2HK x to ta-e d &5 2u2 x7 to gi/e d &# 22\2r27 to aut hor d && 2 22 W ;7
to /isit

to ste al AA

d &+ 2 2= x 2 x

to

d &. 2=22 W [22 x2 to belie/ e d +0 2 82 x29 x g to immigr a t e d +1 2=26 x HL to att a c- d +2 22U26 x HL to li/e, resid e d +@ 22Z2[2 x to grad u a t e d +A 22= W> x to ad/ er tis e, anno u n c e d +5 22Z247 to smile d +# 22 2U22 x 29 x ag to use d +& 22O2 25 M 2`2922g to emplo( d ++ 2228 x 2>29 x22g to me n tio n d +. 2=22 x QT x to rem e m b e r d .0 2=22 W Q2u x to ass e m b l e , me e t d .1 225 x 29 x 6g to borro" Dnot mon e (E d .2 2jH2`2922g to introd uc e d .@ 222 28 W 2i to imagin e d .A jo Wx k pres e r / e , maint ai n d .5 2 \24 22 22 x2H] to sol/e d .# 2 O W 2] x to esc a p e d .& 2 v2= xL x to continu e d .+ 2 O2n x <? to gre e t d .. 2 \24 22U2 22 W242 x to arri/e d 100 2O2n x ? to *ind 101d 2826 x? x to pro mis e 102d 282 x? x to in/ite 10@d 2H| to reco/ e r 10Ad 226 x 2=2922g
to thin-

 to act cruel(, to be hars h

d 105 22H22i to "al- d 10# 22 2\22I x to return d 10& 2|H

A5

d 10+ 2222s to criticife d 10. 2 822 x222 x 9sg to in*luenc e , a**ect d 110 2=22 W 7 to e)it d 111 2= x x to ent e r d 112 2 O2 x| x to scre a m , shout d 11@ 2y= xx n to "hisp er d 11A 22 2B25 x 2L x to cross d 115 2=: x x to e)pr e s s d 11# 2Z2 x 2=: W x to sa( d 11& 22c2H2i to bu( d 11+ 2 2=2922g to complain d 11. 2 H2[2 to gro" d 120 2H5s x to "in d 121 2a j x to lose d 122 2=2 2 x to participa t e d 12@ 2 N2j x H2 to *ast d 12A 2 2Hn to pra( d 125 2 \22 x 4n x to build d 12# 2 \2Ka x to de molis h, tear do"n d 12& 2228 x 2L x to con/ er t to Islam d 12+ 22 2U2 22 x24227 to surre n d e r d 12. 22 2U222 x2422922g to settle do"n d 1@0 2 = 22 x222 x2922g to be able d 1@1 2 Z22 W [25 x 22 x to plea s e d 1@2 22= x 27
to *orge t

to ma- e hap p (

d 1@@ 2 82` x 227 to raise an issu e d 1@A 2jH7 to add d 1@5 2 2Hm7 to de m a n d d 1@# 2222 x2;2H2

A#

to deal "ith a

d 1@& 2 28 x 2] x to rem ai n, sta( d 1@+ 2222a x to tr( d 1@. 2 c2? x H] to be d 1A0 2 b2HQ to ta-e plac e, occur d 1A1 2 28 x 2] x to e)ert d 1A2 2 c2ua x to apologife d 1A@ jx 2 u29g to "ant d 1AA 2 \22 W K5 x to respo n d d 1A5 2| j x to do d 1A# 2 O25 2 x to acce p t d 1A& 22O22 :22 x2i to decline, re*us e d 1A+ 2_22 x j x to lose d 1A. 22822 x222 x2 to e)po s e d 150 2222 x22Q x to pus h, pa( d 151 222 x22| x ma t t e r, to eat a me al d 152 2 c2? x HK2 x to disco/ e r d 15@ 222 2 x 22 x 9Qg to rep e a t d 15A 2|H7 to sup er/is e d 155 2222 x2i<j to encour a g e d 15# 22 W 2 x to lie d 15& 22v2uQ to pre*er d 15+ 2 O222 W 22 x2 to trust d 15. 2 q2 ? x to continu e d 1#0 2 = 25 x 2922g
to happ e n

d 1#1 22q22<? to decr e a s e d 1#2 22O 22 x2i to incre a s e d 1#@ 2|<|g to app e a r d 1#A 2=2x 2 to sa/e d 1#5 2 u22 x22s7
to acce p t A&

to

d 1## 2 \24 2222 x m x to com e d 1#& 2}H6 to di**er d 1#+ 2222 x 422 x 9g to doub t d 1#. 2 22 x to und er s t a n d d 1&0 22U2 22 x2 to ser/ e d 1&1 2228 x 2 x to describ e d 1&2 22n x ? x to thin-, belie/ e d 1&@ 22Z 222 to "ait d 1&A 2=22 x222 x 9sg to be late d 1&5 2=2 W to surpris e d 1&# 2 262H2 to both e r, harra s s d 1&& 2 x 7 to calculat e , ass u m e d 1&+ 2 Z25 W 2 x to indicat e d 1&. 2 \2;g 2jH227 to includ e d 1+0 22O25 2 x to ma n a g e , direct d 1+1 2j<|7 to get clos er d 1+2 2 v2= x 22 x29i2g to accus e d 1+@ 22U2x 22 W g to e)ce e d d 1+A 2?H2 x to e)plain d 1+5 22= x 2 x to de*ine d 1+# 2|28 W 2] x achie/ e, in/es tig a t e d 1+& 2 q22 W22] x to be e)pos e d d 1++ 222 x 2[sg
to pres s u r e

to

d 1+. 222 W2i2o x to carr( out, e)ec u t e d 1.0 2 u22 W2p22 xs "ond e r, 1ue s tion ones el* d 1.1 22c2} x 2H22 x to stroll, "al- arou n d d 1.2 22\222 W225 x x to succ e e d d 1.@ 22 x2 xs to *ail d 1.A 22 2O22 2 x
to e)p e c t A+

to com mit a mist a- e , crime

to be

d 1.5 2 22 x [2 x jg to honor d 1.# 2 2= x Q7 to ren e " d 1.& 2|28 W 26 x to get angr( d 1.+ 22 t x to targ e t d 1.. 22282 22 x2922g hesit a n t, to be spre a d DrumorE d 200 2|2| W= x x to -ill d 201 2 O29 x2i x to "oun d d 202 2= 6 x d to get rea d ( d 20@ 2 8 2` x 22 x2922g to allo" 20Ad 2 25 x 2 x to ta-e 205d u2 x7 to eat 20#d O2 xQ7 to come , att e n d 20&d 2= x ] x to stud ( 20+d 222j x| x to me n tion 20.d 2=22 x QT x to /isit 210d j< to li/e, resid e 211d 2 Z22 x [2 x to "rite 212d 2 22 x 92 xQ to li/e 21@d 222H to be abs e n t 21Ad 2v2Ht to spe n d the night, e/e nin g 215d 2=2x 2 x to me m o rif e 21#d 222p 2] x

to

21&d B2 :2 x; to pla( 21+d 2 2` 22 x; to smo- e 21.d 2 Z22 W | x chan g e sthd 220d 2=C W 2t x to help 221d 2 82 x 2H2 to tra/ el 222d 2 =22 x22H2 to be late 22@d 2=2 W 2 x
to "ear

A.

22Ad 22O22 x22 x 2sg to me e t , ass e m b l e 225d 225 x 22 x 96g to mo/ e to 22#d 2 \2;g 22O22 x222 x 9sg to rent 22&d 2=26 x 22922g to "elco m e 22+d 22O2: x222 x2922g to lea/ e 22.d 2 N = x x to occup( 2@0d 2 O 22 x 9]g
to be bus(

50 (he Pe d a g o g y S e c t i o n (he ):plicitA ! p li ci t 'ontr o v e r s y Althoug h ma n ( pro*es sio n als agr e e on the ben e*its o* som e gra m m a r instruc tion, the 1ues tio n o* ho" to teac h gra m m a r has met "ith little agr e e m e n t d The contro/ e r s ( has beco m e particularl( acut e "ith the ad/ e n t o* the com m u nic a ti/ e langu a g e teac hin g re/olution, "hich has consist e n tl( und e r s c or e d the import a n c e o* stres sin g me a nin g o/er *ormd ,or (ear s, our pro*es sion has bee n grap pling "ith polarife d /ie"s concer nin g the teac hin g o* gra m m a r "ithin a com m u nic a ti/ e *ra m e " o r-d Some scholars DGiggs and Cli**ord 1.+2E ad/oc a t e an e)plicit me t h o d o* gra m m a r instruction, "ith direct teac h e r e)plan a tio n s *ollo"ed b( relat e d ma nip ul a ti/ e e)ercis e s d 'an( o* us ha/ e prob a bl( e)p erie n c e d this me t h o d o* gra m m a r instruc tion, since mos t te)tb o o- s tend to pres e n t gra m m a r in this *ashiond n*ortun a t el (, ma n ( o* the te)tb o o- s ma nip ul a ti/ e drills are groun d e d in shallo" and arti*icial cont e ) t s , so thes e drills beco m e rath e r me a ni n gl e s s to stud e n t s d Anoth er proble m "ith e)plicit gra m m a r instruc tion is that it ad/oc a t e s a direct and o/ert role on the part o* the teac h e r d Cons e 1 u e n tl (, this practic e design a t e s a rath e r pas si/e role on the part o* the stud e n t s d Inter a c tion *or the m is supp o s e d to ta-e plac e a*ter the e)plan a tio n and a*ter a plent ( o* struct ur al ma nip ula tion o* the gra m m a t i c al ele m e n t s d In Ri/ers D1.+@E ter m s , s-illFgettin g should be stres s e d be*ore s-illFusingd On the oth er side o* the spectr u m , implicit gra m m a r e)plan a tio n as espo u s e d b( rash e n D1.+5E, Terrel D1.&&E, and Dula( and Jurt D1.&@E reject the nee d *or *orm al gra m m a r an al(sisd Thes e res e a r c h e r s argu e that stud e n t s can ac1uir e langu a g e natur all( i* the( are pro/id e d "ith su**icient compr e h e n s i bl e input *rom the teac h e r d In other "ords, i* stud e n t s are e)pos e d to a su**icient amo u n t o* compr e h e n s i bl e input, the( "ill e/e n t u all( be able to h(pot h e s if e and det er mi n e the *unctions as "ell as the me a nin g s o* linguistic *ormsd Theor e tic all(, the learn e r s should be able to do the h(pot h e s ifing on their o"nd Go"e/ er, Gerron and Toma s ello D1..2E ad/is e that the inducti/e met h o d cann o t guar a n t e e that the learn e r "ill disco/ e r the und e rl(ing conc e p t s or that the induc e d conce p t s "ill actu all( be correctd ,urth er m o r e , the inducti/e appro a c h can be *rustr a tin g to adult learn e r s , ma n ( o* "ho m ha/ e alre a d ( beco m e an al(tical "ith reg ar d to the rules that go/er n their nati/e langu a g e s d The learn e r s intuiti/el(

(ear n to spe e d up the learnin g proce s s b( consciou sl( comp a rin g and contr a s tin g their o"n nati/e rules to the rules that go/er n the ne" targ e t langu a g e d Ref or ! u l a t i n g Cra! ! a r ns tr u c t i o n

Althoug h e)plicit and implicit teac hin g are clearl( opposit e s , the( shar e som e nota bl e de*iciencies d $either appro a c h ac-no"le d g e s the critical role o* the teac h e r in nego tia tin g classro o m e)pla n a tio n s , and neith e r appro a c h ac-no"le d g e s the contribution s and bac-gro u n d s that the learn e r s bring to the instruc tion al settin g DTharp and allimor e 51 1.++Ed 'oreo/ er, neith e r appro a c h recog nif e s the nat ur al learning ten d e n ci e s that occur bet" e e n hum a n being s outsid e the classroo m d %earning is a d(n a mic, reciproc al, and inter a c ti/ e proc e s s d Go"e/ e r, our pro*es sion has bee n grap pling "ith t"o est a blish e d met h o d s , neith e r o* "hich recog nif e s the mut u all( respo n si/ e inter a c tio n s that are *und a m e n t a l to learning as it occurs nat ur all( bet" e e n hu m a n s in e/er(d a ( li*ed There*or e, "e belie/ e it is time *or the pro*es sion to begin a serious reap p r ai s al reg ar din g teac hin g o* gra m m a r d e are ad/oc a tin g a "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( appro a c h that contr a s t s "ith tradition al e)plicit or implicit teac hin gd In ma n ( "a(s, this alter n a ti/ e appro a c h ma ( ser/ e as a /iable compr o mi s e bet" e e n e)plicitSimplicit polarife d /ie"sd ,or a nu mb e r o* rea s o n s that "ill be discus s e d later, "e belie/ e that a "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( appro a c h might hold the -e( to dra m a tic impro/ e m e n t in the teac hin g o* gra m m a r d @a si c Prin ci p l e s of Dhol e "an g u a g e (ea c h i n g Je*ore discus sing som e practical application s o* this appro a c h , "e should discus s som e basic principles o* "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( teac hin gd 'an( specialists in *irst langu a g e de/ elop m e n t ha/ e bee n e)ploring the implications o* "hole langu a g e teac hin g *or the pas t dec a d e d %i-e"is e, res e a r c h e r s in cogniti/e ps(ch olog ( ha/ e bee n in/es tig a tin g guide d particip a tion in the are a s o* scienc e , mat h, and social studie sd n*ortu n a t e l (, *oreign langu a g e educ a tio n has be e n lagging behind thes e other discipline sd ,irst "e "ill discus s som e basic principles o* a "hole langu a g e appro a c h to gra m m a r instruction, and the n "e "ill discus s ho" to use guide d and joint proble m sol/ing to enh a n c e gra m m a r e)plan a tio n s d

As earl( as 1.&#, ps(cholo gis t en ood m a n stat e d that lang u a g e is langu a g e onl( "hen it is "hole D1uot e d in ,ount a s and Gannig a n s 1.+., pd 1@AEd According to ood m a n , the "hole is al"a(s /ie" e d as being gre a t e r tha n the su m o* its parts, and it is the "hole that gi/es me a nin g to the partsd In ter m s o* gra m m a r instruction, "ords, phra s e s , or sent e n c e s are not linguistic island s unto the m s el / e s on the contr a r (, the s e linguistic ele m e n t s onl( gain me a nin g "hen the( are plac e d in cont e ) t, and "hen us ed in conjunction "ith the "holed According to ood m a n , once stud e n t s e)p erie n c e the "hole, the( are then bett e r prep a r e d to deal "ith the anal(s e s o* the partsd e should ac-no"le d g e that ood m a n is primaril( addr e s si n g the ne e d s o* *irst langu a g e learn e r s d Go"e/ e r, res e a r c h in *irst langu a g e de/ elop m e n t has o*ten ti m e s act e d as a cat al(s t *or theor e tic al ad/ a n c e m e n t in secon d langu a g e de/ elop m e n t d ,urth er m o r e , ma n ( seco n d langu a g e specialists are curre n tl( emp h a s ifing the import a n c e o* cont e n tF bas e d instruction, auth e n tic te)ts *or listening and rea din g compr e h e n s i o n, and the ne e d *or conn e c t e d discours e in gra m m a r instruction, all o* "hich emp h a s if e the import a n c e o* "hole langu a g e rath e r tha n *rag m e n t e d spe e c h in secon dS*or eig n langu a g e classroo m d Conce p t u all(, the n, "e ne e d to rea p p r ais e our orient a tio n to gra m m a r instruc tion i* "e ha/ e too o*ten *ocus e d on *rag m e n t e d discours e and arti*icial e)ercis e s d 'an( 52 langu a g e progr a m s stre s s a botto mF up appro a c h b( emp h a s ifing the bits and piec e s o* langu a g e Dsoun d, /oca b ul ar ( lists, /erb drills, etcdEd This classro o m practice usu all( results in nonF langu a g e that can be char a c t e rif e d as being unn a t u r al, cogniti/el( und e m a n d i n g , and dull DCum mi n s 1.+AEd On the oth er hand, a "hole langu a g e appro a c h stre s s e s natur al discours e and encour a g e s stud e n t s to compr e h e n d me a nin g*ul and long sa m pl e s o* discours e *rom the /er( beginnin g o* the lessond J( introdu cing the lesson "ith a "hole te)t D*or e)a m pl e , a stor(, poe m, song, tap e d listenin g selection or cartoo nE, the teac h e r is *ores h a d o "i n g the gra m m a r e)plan a tio n throu g h the use o* integr a t e d discours e that "ill highlight the critical gra m m a r to be taug h t d allo"a( and %abarc a D1..0E e)plain that *ores h a d o "in g o* ne" langu a g e ele m e n t s is ben e*icial, *or it pro/id e s learn e r s "ith a *eel *or "hat is to com e and can help stud e n t s cast *or"ard a *amiliarit( net b( "hich asp e c t s o* langu a g e pro m p t initial recog nitions and later, grad u all(, are pulled into the learn e r s produc ti/ e rep er t oir ed In this

"a(, the lesso n highlights the *unction al signi*icanc e o* the gra m m a r struct ur e be*or e the learn e r s att e n tio n is *ocus e d on *ormd In a "a(, this is li-e using ad/ a n c e orga nifer s to assist the stud e n t s b( pro/iding an anch oring *ram e " o r- *or the ne" conce p t s to be learn e d d nli-e ma n ( classroo m te)tb o o- s , "hich ma ( o**er a group o* discon n e c t e d sent e n c e s or a cont e ) t u alife d drill, a "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( appro a c h in/ites the learn e r to use langu a g e *unction all( and purpos e* ull( throu g h integr a t e d cours ed This practice is in agre e m e n t "ith rash e n s D1.+2E Input G(poth e si s, "hich stres s e s the import a n c e o* compr e h e n s i bl e input that cont ains struct u r e s a little be(o n d our le/el o* comp e t e n c e d As a result, *rom the /er( beginning o* the lesson the teac h e r and learn e r s are eng a g e d in auth e n tic us e o* langu a g e throu g h joint proble mF sol/ing acti/ities and inter a c tion s d J( using pictur e s , mime , and ges t ur e s , the teac h e r sca**olds and guide s the learn e r s to e/e n t u all( compr e h e n d the stor( or other sa m pl e o* conn e c t e d discours e d Once compr e h e n s i o n is achie/ e d , the teac h e r can the n turn the stud e n t s att e n tio n to /arious linguistic ele m e n t s d nli-e botto mF up proc e s sin g, "hich is tradition all( linear in appro a c h , gra m m a r instruction using a "hole langu a g e appro a c h is c(clicald During the *irst sta g e o* the c(cle, the teac h e r *ores h a d o " s the gra m m a r struct u r e "ith an appro pria t e te)td At this point, the me a nin g or compr e h e n s i o n o* the te)t is o* prime import a n c e d The secon d stag e is actu all( an e)te n sio n o* the *irst stag e , since once again the emp h a s i s is on me a ni n g d Go"e/ er, the seco n d sta g e di**ers due to an incre a s e d le/el o* learn e r particip a tiond $o" the learn e r s ha/ e a gen e r al idea o* the signi*icanc e o* the te)t cons e 1 u e n t l (, the( can beco m e mor e particip a t o r ( throu g h /arious acti/ities, mim e, role pla(ing, etcd All o* thes e acti/ities ser/ e to de e p e n compr e h e n s i o n *or the learn e r s d Once compr e h e n s i o n is achie/ e d and me a nin g is und e r s t o o d , the teac h e r mo/ e s into the third stag e and turns the learn e r s att e n tio n to *ocus on *orm, or the /arious linguistic ele m e n t s o* the gra m m a t i c al struct u r e s d 5@ A*ter this stag e , the teac h e r comple t e s the c(cle b( encour a gin g learn e r s to inter a c t "ith integr a t e d discours e throu g h e)p a n sio n acti/ities such as re"riting or recr e a tin g similar stories, paired acti/ities, or group acti/itiesd Throug h thes e e)t e n sio n acti/ities, the learn e r s beco m e mor e a" ar e o* the *unction o* the gra m m a t i c al struct ur e d That is, the( learn that the( can carr( out a particular tas-

or *unction b( e)ploiting or using the appro pria t e gra m m a t i c al struct ur e d This appro a c h is in agr e e m e n t "ith %arse nF ,ree m a n s D1..1E sugg e s tio n that me a nin g , *orm, and *unction nee d to be inter a c tin g dime n sio n s o* gra m m a r instructiond A Mod e l for nt e g r a t i n g ;or! in a Dhol e "an g u a g e Appro a c h ,ocus on *orm has rece n tl( beco m e the topic o* inten s e res e a r c h and has be e n sho"n to be an import a n t design *eat ur e o* langu a g e teac hin g D%ong 1..1Ed The theor ( o* learnin g and de/ elo p m e n t has emp h a s if e d the import a n c e o* cre a tin g a fone o* pro)im al de/ elo p m e n t "ith the learn e r so that "hat the learn e r re1uire s help on toda ( "ill em e r g e as indep e n d e n t , auto m a tic per*or m a n c e at a later timed ra m m a r teac hin g can also be /ie"e d in this "a(d It is no less an inter a c ti/ e proce s s bet" e e n e)p e r t and no/ice than an( oth er asp e c t o* de/ elo ping com m u nic a ti/ e abilit( in learn e r s d %earn er s nee d to be guide d to re*lect on langu a g e the( us e to cre a t e their o"n me a nin g s d $o langu a g e teac hin g should be dri/en b( gra m m a r instruction alon e, nor should gra m m a r instruction be literall( interpr e t e d to me a n instruc tion on morp h olog ( Dedgd, adjecti/e or subjectF /erb agre e m e n t , rules *or pluralifation, etcdE or me a nin gl e s s ma nip ula tion o* *ormsd hen the teac h e r *ocus e s on *orm, att e n tio n is dra" n to the *ormal prop e r ti e s o* the langu a g e , "hich includ e s its soun d s(st e m , "ord *orma tio n, s(nt a ), discours e mar- e r s , and de/is e d *or relating one sent e n c e to anot h e r , to na m e a *e"d Our collea g u e s "ho teac h rea din g in the ele m e n t a r ( schools call this *orm o* instruc tion lang u a g e Artsd Class e s that *ocus on langu a g e *orm *or the purpo s e o* incre a sin g compr e h e n s i o n and me a nin g ha/ e bee n sho"n to result in gre a t e r langu a g e gains than class e s "her e no *ocus on *orm is a/ailable or "her e *orms are learn e d as me a nin gl e s s struct u r e s D%ightbo" n and Spad a 1..0Ed There*or e , the issue is not "het h e r a teac h e r should *ocus on *orm rath e r, ans" e rin g the 1ue s tion o* ho" and "hen and in "hat cont e ) t "ill ultima t el( clari*( this import a n t design *eat ur e o* *oreign langu a g e instructiond The *ollo"ing is a *our ste p mod el *or cont e ) t u alifing inter a c tion s "ith stud e n t s abou t the *orms in a "hole langu a g e lessond ,- Pre s e n t a t i o n of Mea n i n g f u l "an g u a g e This ste p repr e s e n t s the "hole langu a g e (ou are pres e n tin g in a the m a tic "a(d It can be an inter e s ti n g stor( D*ol-tales and lege n d s "or- "ellE, a TPR lesson, a record e d aut h e n tic listenin g or /ideo seg m e n t , an aut h e n tic docu m e n t , or a de m o n s t r a ti o n o* a realF li*e situa tiond 'aterials *rom the te)tb o o- Dnarr a ti/ e s , dialogu e s , storiesE ma( e/e n be use d i* the( are *ound to be inter e s tin g and episodicall(

orga nife d d The pres e n t a ti o n does not consist o* isolat e d , discon n e c t e d sent e n c e s illustr a tin g the targ e t *orm in 1ues tio nd Rath e r, it is the m a tic, cont e ) t u alif e d "hole langu a g e inten d e d to captur e stud e n t inter e s t and 5A pro/id e opport u nitie s *or the teac h e r to cre a t e compr e h e n s i o n throu g h the nego tia tion o* me a nin gd The struct u r e should app e a r o*ten enou g h during the pres e n t a ti o n to be salient to the stud e n t "ithou t ma-ing the langu a g e soun d unn a t u r al or stiltedd Authe n tic stories, docu m e n t s , or listenin g seg m e n t s can guar a n t e e nat ur al n e s s and o*ten cont ain nat ur all( occurring rep e tition sd The pres e n t a ti o n should also be inter a c ti/ ed J( sca**olding particip a tion in the acti/it(, teac h e r s can guide stud e n t s throu g h the ne" ele m e n t s o* the langu a g e to be learn e d d This guide d particip a tion ma( ta-e the *orm o* stud e n t rep e tition o* -e( phra s e s cued b( the teac h e r during a stor(t elling ses sion, stud e n tF teac h e r role re/er s al in a TPR acti/it(, clofe e)ercis e bas e d on listening seg m e n t s , or discus sio n s that anticipa t e the cont e n t o* a readin gd The goal here is to ena bl e stud e n t s to stre tc h their langu a g e abilities b( using the ne" ele m e n t s o* the targ e t langu a g e in me a nin g*ul "a(s throu g h the help and me dia tion o* the teac h e r d This step ma( last eith er part o* or the entire class ses siond ,or e)a m pl e , a stor(t elling lesso n ma ( cont ain preF stor(t elling acti/ities, dra m a tif a tio n, pairF "or- compr e h e n s i o n chec-s, or stor(F telling e)ercis e s d The lengt h o* time re1uir e d dep e n d s on the nat ur e o* the acti/it( and the amo u n t o* nego ti a tio n "or- re1uire d to charg e the langu a g e "ith me a nin gd $- Att e n t i o n This ste p *ocus e s learn e r att e n tio n on som e asp e c t o* the langu a g e used during the pres e n t a ti o n acti/it(d In this step, the teac h e r highlights som e regularit( o* the langu a g e d This can be achie/ e d in se/ er al "a(sd Teach e r s can as- 1ues tio n s abou t patt e r n s *ound in a "ritte n te)t or abou t "ords and phra s e s rep e a t e d in a stor(d O/erh e a d tran s p a r e n ci e s o* e)a m pl e sent e n c e s *rom the pres e n t a tio n can be prep a r e d , "ith import a n t "ords and phra s e s circled or und erline dd The point to this step is to get learn e r s to *ocus att e n tio n on the targ e t *orm "ithout nee dl e s s elabor a tio n or "ast e d timed 2- 'o> co n s t r u c t an ):pla n a t i o n %earn er s and teac h e r s should be coF constru c t o r s o* gra m m a t i c al e)plan a tio nd A*ter learn e r s *ocus att e n tio n on the targ e t *orm, the teac h e r assis ts the m in raising their a"ar e n e s s abou t the targ e t

struct ur e d During this ste p, stud e n t s are guide d to h(pot h e s if e , gue s s , ma- e prediction s, or com e to gen e r alifa tion s abou t the targ e t *ormd CoF constru c tin g an e)pla n a tio n re1uire s teac h e r 1ues tio n s that are "ell chos e n, clear, and directd ues tion s are po" er*ul tools in the hand s o* teac h e r s "ho can adjus t their 1ues tio nin g in *light to me e t the em e r g e n t und er s t a n d i n g s o* their stud e n t s d ,or e)a m pl e , as-ing stud e n t s 1ues tio n s such as "hat "ords do (ou he ar or see rep e a t e d in the te)t, and "hat could the( me a n , hat patt e r n do (ou see in this group o* "ords, and Go" do cert ain "ords chan g e as their me a nin g s chan g e is a "a( to help stud e n t s to dra" insights *rom the langu a g e the( he ar and und e r s t a n d d Thes e cogniti/e prob e s help learn e r s disco/ er regular gra m m a t i c al patt e r n s , soun d s(st e m s , "ord order, uni1u e cultur al me a nin g s o* "ords, or langu a g e *unctionsd 55 As stud e n t s h(pot h e sif e and gen e r alife abou t the targ e t *orm, teac h e r s build upon and e)t e n d stud e n t s -no"led g e "ithout o/er" h el mi n g the m "ith sup e r*luo u s gra m m a t i c al det ailsd G(poth e sis testin g can also be cond uc t e d , "ith teac h e r s leading learn e r s in tr(ing out their ne" -no"led g e b( appl(ing their gen e r alifa tion s to ne" situa tion s d Teach e r s are also a"ar e that the help the( pro/id e is grad u a t e d and ma ( rang e *rom brie* hints abou t the targ e t *orm to e)plicit instruc tion i* ne e d e d DAljaa*re h 1..2Ed It is import a n t to not e that, unli-e guide d induction tech ni1 u e s , "hich primaril( rel( on teac h e r 1ue s tionin g, a coF cons tr uc t e d e)plan a tio n is not in1uisitiond Rath e r, coF cons tr uc t e d e)plan a tio n s recog nife that stud e n t s ma( not be able to perc ei/ e the *ormal prop e r ti e s o* langu a g e on the basis o* the teac h e r s 1ues tio n s alon ed hat is ob/ious to an e)p er t langu a g e user is o*ten a m(s t e r ( to the no/iced A coF cons tr u c t e d e)pla n a tio n is as participa t or ( *or the teac h e r as it is *or stud e n t s d That is, teac h e r s nee d to ass e s s the abilities o* their stud e n t s and assist the m b( pro/iding as "ell as eliciting in*orm a tio n "hen nec e s s a r (d As Tharp and illimor e D1.++E point out, teac hin g is resp o n si/ e assist a n c e and canno t be reduc e d to series o* actions to be per*or m e d in the sa m e order in e/er( instruction al circu m s t a n c e d J( listening clos el( to learn e r contribution s during this step, teac h e r s can ass e s s ho" much help is ne e d e d to att ain the conc e p t d In time, som e learn e r s ma( be able to "or- in small group s on their o"n gra m m a r proble m s and report bac- to the class abou t their disco/ erie s D,otos and llis 1..1Ed 3- ):t e n s i o n Activit y

,ocus on *orm is onl( use*ul i* this -no"led g e can be pres s e d into ser/ice b( the learn e r s in a ne" "a( at a later timed In "hole langu a g e teac hin g, the teac h e r ne/ er loses sight o* the "holed There*or e, the e)t e n sio n acti/it( pro/ide s learn e r s "ith the opport u nit( to use their ne" s-ill in crea ti/ e and inter e s tin g "a(s "hile at the sa m e time integr a tin g it into e)isting -no"led g e d The e)te n sio n acti/it( should be inter e s ti n g, be relat e d to the the m e o* the lesso n in som e "a(, and, mos t import a n tl(, allo" *or cre a ti/ e sel*F e)pr e s sio nd )ten sio n acti/ities are not "or- she e t s on "hich learn e r s use the targ e t *orm to *ill in the blan-s o* discon n e c t e d sent e n c e s d Rath er, the( can be in*orm a tio nF gap acti/ities, role pla( situa tion s , dra m a tif a tio n s , ga m e s , auth e n tic "riting project s, paire d inter/ie" e d , class sur/e (s , or simulation s o* real li*e situa tio n s d The possibilities are endle s s , as long as the learn e r s ha/ e the chanc e to tr( to use the targ e t *orm in "a(s that the( see are use*ul and me a nin g* uld The e)t e n sio n acti/it( clos es the circle and puts the "hole bac- into "hole langu a g e teac hin gd The discus sio n abo/ e should lead to the conclusion that langu a g e learning is a thin-ing proce s s , or *rom the learn e r s /ie"point, a gue s sin g ga m e d Teach e r s ne e d to design cogniti/el( de m a n di n g acti/ities that "ill encour a g e learn e r s to h(pot h e sif e, predict, ta-e ris-s, ma- e errors, and sel* correct D,ount a s and Gannig a n 1.+.Ed J( doing so, the learn e r s beco m e acti/e particip a n t s in the learning proc e s s d All the "hole langu a g e and guide d particip a t o r ( acti/ities should enco ur a g e the learn e r s to be acti/e thin-er s and h(pot h e s if e r s as the( collabor a t e in langu a g e learning acti/ities "ith the teac h e r or "ith their pe ers d 5# heth e r listenin g to a stor(t elling acti/it(, coF cons tr uc tin g a gra m m a r e)plan a tio n, or collabor a tin g "ith peer s during an e)t e n sio n acti/it(, the learn e r s are acti/el( disco/ ering and h(pot h e sifing abou t the targ e t langu a g e d This appro a c h concur s "ith Jruner s D1.+#E ad/ice that stud e n t s nee d to be cogniti/el( challen g e d throu g h the use o* disco/ er ( met h o d s d 'oreo/ e r, all he classro o m acti/ities should encour a g e inter a c tion and the *unction al use o* langu a g e b( gi/ing learn e r s opport u nitie s to shar e in*orm a tio n, as- 1ue s tion s , and sol/e proble m s collabor a ti/ el(d ,inall(, a distinguis hin g the m e o* "hole langu a g e and a guide d particip a t o r ( appro a c h to gra m m a r instruc tion is that learnin g nee d s to be integr a t e d , cont e ) t u alife d, and me a ni n gF cent e r e d acti/ities DPears o n 1.+.Ed Such acti/ities *acilitat e compr e h e n s i o n and ret e n tio n on the part o* the learn e r s d ,urth e r m o r e , the e)t e n sio n acti/ities encour a g e learn e r s to integr a t e me a ni n g , *orm, and *unction "hile e)p erie n cin g langu a g e in cont e ) td It should be me n tio n e d that crea tin g

integr a t e d and me a nin gF cent e r e d acti/ities is prob a bl( one o* the mos t di**icult asp e c t s o* "hole langu a g e teac hin g, since, ma n ( te)t b o o - s still stres s cont e ) tF reduc e d practice and *rag m e n t e d ma t e ri alsd Creatin g cont e ) t u alife d acti/ities is the onl( "a( to imple m e n t , encour a g e and succe e d at "hole langu a g e teac hin gd Throug h "hole langu a g e learning stud e n t s are able to con/er s e "ith mor e con*ide n c e , and their listenin g, readin g, and "riting s-ills impro/ ed As the( use Arabic in real com m u nic a tio n, it beco m e s less *oreign and mor e nat ur al , integr al part o* their e)p e ri e n c e d e -no" the bes t "a( to learn a *oreign langu a g e is to li/e "ith thos e "ho spe a - it, and our stud e n t s should be encour a g e d to ta-e this step and go to the Arab orld *or a se m e s t e r or a (ear progr a m d In prep a r a ti o n *or that e/e n t, and also *or thos e stud e n t s "ho "ill not /ent ur e be(o n d the classroo m , ther e is muc h practic e to be don e "ith peer s and "ith teac h e r , "hos e respo n sibilit( is to *ind or crea t e me a nin g*ul practiced

5& Ref e r e n c e s E

=? qCz dvH:;< =5? v<|< =L ^s<?=C;< 4 Za UCL<=a< 222H2z22< 2oa7 2^X2=kz;< Q 1.25 {?=Ca ^ OC;< j<| ^NjH:Id j<| ^l<j|H;< UCL<=a<? I?>5;< X8 I qCz dZC`;< vH9Q ^ 85]< Za OC4>;< ^X8CL<=p;< =LH;< ^c ;< 3:9[I?d 1.&# {?=Ca ^3Ca=`;< 3 K;< j<| dv=`;< Q ^ Z] ^HHd 1... F 2L 1A20 ^bHK:; ^{?=Ca ^3C54`;< 9[;< j<| dvH9[;< ^Vo:Cd 2L 1@2# ^=LH;< dHzK;<? ZCVo4;< {H: Ho;< 3Ca ^ZV8;< c6 ^oC;<d =LH;< ^3;Hp;Ha =K;<? :r4; =kI 3 s j<| d34;< ^8]<o;< 8: 4 ^<?d
Aljaa*re h, Ad The Role o* ImplicitS )plicit rror Correction and %earn er s one o* Pro)im al De/elop m e n t d npublish e d diss ert a tio nd ni/ersit( o* Dela" ar e , 1..2d Jruner, d Actual Minds, !ossible #orlds d Cambrid g e , 'A Gar/ar d ni/ersit( Pres s, 1.+#d CelceF 'urcia, 'd 'a-ing In*orm e d Decisions About the Role o* ram m a r in %angu a g e Teachingd Foreign $angua g e Annals 1+ D1.+5E2 . &F @01d Cum min s , d %angu a g e Pro*icienc(, Jilingu alis m and Acade mic Achie/e m e n t d %ilingualis m and &pecial 'ducation: (ssue s in Ass es s m e n t and !edago g ) d San Diego, CA CollegeF Gill, 1.+Ad ,otos, Sdd, and Rd llisd Com m u nic a tin g abou t ra m m a r A Tas-F Jase s Approac hd T'&O$ *uarterl) 25 D1..1E #05F #2+d ,ount a s , Id, and Id Gannig a nd 'a-ing Sens e o* hole %angu a g e The Pursuit o* In*orm e d Teachin g, +hildhoo d 'ducation #5 D1.+.E 1@@F 1@&d

allo"a(, !d, and Ad %abarc ad ,rom Stud e n t to %earn e r St(le, Proces s and Strat e g (d dd Dd Jirc-bichlerd ,ew !ersp ec ti e s and ,ew -irections in Foreign $angua g e 'ducation d %incoln"oo d, I% $ation al Te)tboo- Comp a n (, 1..0 111F 15+d 5+ Gerron, Cd, and 'd Toma s ellod Ac1uiring ram m a t ic al Structur e s b( uided Inductiond The French Re ie w #5 D1..2E &0+F &1+d Giggs, Td !d, and Rd Td Cli**ordd The Push To"ard Com m u nic a tio nd Td !d Giggsd +urriculu m , +om p e t e n c e and the Foreign $angua g e Teach er d ACT,% ,oreign %angu a g e Series, /old 1@d %incoln"oo d, I% $ation al Te)tbo o-, 1.+2 5&F &.d rash e n, Sd !rinciples and !ractice in &econ d $angua g e Ac.uisition d O)*ord Perg a m o n , 1.+2d rash e n, Sd The (nput /)pot h e si s $e" or- %ong m a n , 1.+5d %ars enF ,ree m a n , Dd Teaching ram m a r d dd 'd CelceF 'urciad Teaching 'nglish as a &econ d $angua g e d Joston, 'A Geinle and Geinle, 1..1 2&.F 2.5d %ightbo" n, Pd, and $d Spad a d ,ocus on ,orm and Correcti/ e ,eed b a c in Com m u nic a ti/ e %angu a g e Teachin gd &tudie s in &econ d $angua g e Ac.uisition 12 D1..0E A2.F AA+d %ong, 'd The %east Secon d %angu a g e Ac1uisition Theor( $eeds to )plaind T'&O$ *uarterl) 2A D1..1E #A.F ###d Oller, d, rd Some or-ing Ideas *or %angu a g e Teachin gd dsd d Oller, rd and Pd RichardF Amatod Metho d s That #ork d Ro"le(, 'A $e"bur( Gous e, 1.+@d Pears o n, Dd Rea din g the holeF %angu a g e 'o/e m e n t d 'lem e n t ar ) &chool 0ournal .0 D1.+.E 2@1F 2A1d Ri/ers, d +om m u nic a tin g ,aturall) in a &eco n d $angua g e d Chicago ni/ersit( o* Chicago Pres s, 1.+@d Terrel, Td A $atur al Approac h to Secon d %angu a g e Ac1uisition and %earningd Modern $angua g e 0ournal #1 D1.&&E @25F @@&d dd

Tharp, Rd, and Rd allimor ed Rousing Minds to $ife: Teachin g, $earning and &chooling in &ocial +ont e 1 t d $e" or- Cambridg e ni/ersit( Press, 1.++d !erst e e g h , eed The Arabic $angua g e d $e" or- Columbi a in/ersit( Pres s, 1..&d

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