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Essays On The Chinese Language (1889)
Essays On The Chinese Language (1889)
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ESSAYS
ON
'THE
CHINESE LANGUAGE;
BY
T.
WATTERS.
*^jO'>jO^
Presbyterian
Mission
1889.
Press
7/^
LF^(^
PREFACE.
The
first
It was at the suggestion than a quarter of a century ago. Bruce, then H. M/s Minister Frederick Sir of the lamented to China, that the stoiy Qf the word Tao was taken up,
same time the survey of the Chinese language It was originally intended to take in o-eneral was begun. in a number of subjects not treated of in the pages which But as the work proceeded it was found imposfollow.
and
at the
sible
original design.
Still
the author
ventures to hope that what is here given will help or interest students of the Chinese language and form a basis
for further researches.
much
pleasure to acknowledge
W.
R. Carles, Esq.,
H. M.'s Consul
task
for Chinkiang.
of correcting the
proofs
Carles and carried out by him during the whole time the work was going through the press. The Superintendent of the Mission Press also has done all in his power to These, however, diminish the number of printer s errors. the author and regrets many, that the book too still are has to appear marred by these and other errors for which
/Vniversitt
OALi
tXNIVERSITY
CONTENTS.
Chap.
I.
of
those
who
;
use
tlie
Chinese language,
little
p.
Chinese
;
known
theories
to
Western
opinions, 3
some
as to origin
;
G-olius,
Leibniz, Farrar, 4
missionaries, 7;
John
de
Webb, 5;
early
Roman
;
Catholic
Edkins,
;
Marshman, Chalmers, 8
Lacouperie, II
;
Logan,
Gr.
;
Fried. Miiller, 12
from
the morphological
point of
;
view,
Bopp,
W.
14
von Humboldt, 13
;
Schleicher,
Adam, Max
Miiller,
Grube, 16
Arayot, 16;
W.
Whitney, Renan,
17; materials for correct general judgment not yet ready, 19.
Chap.
II.
account of the
;
early use
;
21
Chow
;
period, 22
cultivaTi's
tion of the
language
23
Ch'in Shi
;
Huang
action,
26
Han
dynasty, 28
the Buddhist
Kingdoms
; ;
11
CONTENTS.
the works on the language in the Chin period, 39
;
period, 38
the T'ang
dynasty, 48
invention
of printing,* 54
Sung dynasty, 55
the
Mongol
er
Yuan
dynasty, 73
;
period,
78
treatises to teach
natives of
Chap. III.
CHINESE OPINIONS ABOUT THE ORIGIN AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE.
Chinese opinions as
to first
p.
103
man
speaks
108; sing-sing, parrot and other creatures can utter words, 109;
man
two
the Ho-t'u,
written
made according
to reason,
125
comparison
of written
India, 126.
Chap. IY.
to
the
use of
treatment of these
by grammarians and
* See Eri-ata.
128;
by native scholars in
COlfTBlfTS.
Ill
China,
129; Farrar's
135
"elements
of
articulate
;
speech," 130;
;
in
;
words or their
of
ruins,
136
;
imitations
animal
cries,
139
of involuntary
human sounds
as
coughing
peculiarities of utterance,
145;
147
Chap. V.
p.
152
the
word Tao
is
to
be
stated in this
chapter, 153
specimen of uses of a
;
word, 153
syno-
right of
way, 161
time, 166
orbit, course,
164
Tao
170
as a
numerative or
classifier,
167
in the sense of
attainments, char-
state or condition,
;
175
to lead or guide,
177
to
doctrine, religion,
rule,
180
truth,
wisdom, 181
principles,
183;
good
talk, discourse,
192;
the
Ultimate
Principle,
197;
nature
or
law
of
creatures, 201;
tion,
I'ien-tao's meanings,
206
conscience,
208
type,
emblem,
223
ideal
228
Nature, 229
Miscellaneous, 232
Mahometan, 239;
ChrisLian, 240.
IV
CONTENTS.
Chap. VI.
rich
in
245 ; words and phrases connected with Pig, 246 names for year, 249 for periods of human life, 252 terms for death, 257
;
; ;
for dying,
ill,
259; to
die,
262
to die
for ceremonies]
on behalf
of the
;
dead, 292
and its
parts,
299
the
site for
for
temporary resting
of
309; the grave and tomb, 310; the cemetery, 318; terms
for
mourning, 321.
Chap. VII.
Barbarians,
;
329
An-hsi,
Spanish
Arabic, 352
Turkish,
356
Tibetan, 375.
Chap. VIII.
in
outline, p.
Han
period
Chang Ch'ien
380;
first
Buddhism
CONTENTS.
sionaries,
V
;
381
taught
how
to
astronomy and
all
different
words relating
Buddhist religion
Indian
gods,
Brahma and
Indra, 394
Yama
hells,
;
other superna;
Chandi,
relics,
Nan-wu, 422
material and
T'o-lo-ni,
of
423
way
chanting, 424;
;
names
430
names
of minerals
and precious
stones,
names
for
;
trees, flowers
names
of animals, 442.
Chap. IX.
mode of proceeding adopted by early translators, 445 ; p. 445 names of Buddhas and P'usas, Sakyamuni, Jan-teng, KuanBuddhist yin, 446 Kei-ku-tu, 449 Lun-wang and Fa-lun, 449
;
; ;
clergy,
450
objects
trans-
wood-fish, 461
Name for
VI
CONTENTS.
terms for saluting, 462
transmigration, 464
;
monastery, 462
terms relating to
on
Buddhist religious
;
terms for
name
;
of
Buddha, 468
Mara, 471
Seng-lu, 472
to old expressions,
472
Confucianists com;
new meanings
;
474
Hao-shi, 478
Kung-te, 479
pu-shi, 4:79
life,
new mean-
Wu-ch^ang, 482
belief in
;
Karma
names
of sacred
485
la,
a year
tHen, heaven,
;
487
Gh'u, to
488
Hsiang,
Fang-pien, 489
Ju-i,
490
effects of
Buddhism
in of
illustrated
491; proverbs
which that
Kuan-yin
Karma, 495
the mani, 496
the king
universal
495
heaven and
hell,
495
sovereign, 496.
^ OF THE kiversity)
^
\
CHAPTER
I.
of
human
as
beings
of
who
its
many
down
much
less
than 400,000,000.
For even
we regard
Western
when we add
to it
still speak a dialect of their native language, we have sum which is perhaps even above the total just given. And the number of those who use the written language of China is
Provinces,
a
much
official
medium
of record
beyond China,
colloquial idiom.
each
of
which
its
own
Now
for
the
it
inhabitants
was known
to
embodied
all
The
and public
life,
institutions of China,
age, surviving
the fostering shade of the Son of Heaven, but also on the tribes
to dwell
beyond the
is
limits of the
Flowery Land.
In the history
In
its
own
sphere, which
2
however,
has
it
nations.
But we must
and
know
Still,
some
of the Semitic
and
attract
be
its
otherwise,
at
least as to
way
in
which
we
familiar
with in
other languages.
at
As Geiger
truly
observes, no one
who aims
is
mankind
actually
can omit
its
typical peculiarity,
first
and partly
because
intellectual
monuments from
until about the
B.C}
lan-
Yet
it
was not
end
of the sixteenth
century that
its
guage began
to
how
them.
One
of its
its
great charms
them
at first
seems
to
have
been found in
*'
written characters.
gross,
insomuch
as countries
and provinces,
more generally than the languages do extend; and therefore they have a vast multitude of characters, as many, I suppose, as
radical words.''
^
as
its
richness, terseness,
and
simplicity,
became subjects
of dis-
"
Bacon,
ii.
(Ellis
Vol.
iii.
3
arose
conflicting
theories
about
its
origin, kindred,
For
was
done
to bring it practically
scholars.
of
and one
Hence we
for
Manuals
learning
Chinese,
Grammars,
Dictionaries,
of others,
little
value for
But
the Science of
Language has
lately taken
up
Chinese, and
men
among
Consequently,
liberal
ways
of studying it
have
begun
to
hopeful prospects.
scholars
it
who have
discussed
this
language
opinions.
have
held
about
varying
and often
conflicting
These opinions
differ
and according
judices.
to their learning
of their pre-
They vary
in value,
result of careful
or no attempt at verification.
We
have now
to
make
short and
summary review
it
of
will
some
of these opinions
and judg-
The
of the
to its
first
and kindred
have regard
class contains
some
material contents,
its
4
ings of the people.
proceeds
according
to
the
general
value
of
languages
when
as instruments of expression.^
many and
have even
Some
great
authorities
harshly
ousted
human
'*a
"?
isolation.
Thus
man
V
of divine
ever there
was such," that "the Chinese language was not derived from the
old speech of mortals, but was constructed by the skill and genius
of
some philosopher"
'^invented
a
all at
man
It
among
the
many
we
different nations
call
who
/\/
China."
seems strange
man
like
in one
family
much
as
if
it
He
puts
it
thousand) which are not Aryan, and not Semitic, and which have
not yet been grouped together by mutual
affinities."
To
these
''
excellent, easy,
i.e.,
"Sporadic,
scattered,
and Allophylian,
family."
^
/.e.,
human
held
Very
by
many have
it
to
be a language
In direct oppop.
On
p. xiii.;
"Op.
297
et sec.
p. 376.
Some Western Opinions.
sition to
5
to
such opinions
is
makes Chinese
have
language,
and Eve talked with the Lord God and the Serpent and
other as they walked
each
among
Eden
ear.f
and
liest
One
of the
of this theory
His
this subject
is
full of
knowledge
Kirclier,
of the best
works on China up
to his time.
Martinius,
and he seems
Webb
thinks
it
possible that
his family to
which modern
''
He
it
may
be
much presumed
that
Noah
and
after the
it
flood, lived in
exists, written
China."
He
Whether
at least
their ancestor
had
settled in
China or had
not,
they had
moved eastwards
in time to
avoid the confusion of tongues, and so Chinese escaped the misfortune of being made a " confounded language." Edkins also, it
will be
first
But
makes
Ham
heresy which Kircher and others once held, as will be seen, but
Webb
completely refuted.
all
In the course
of his treatise,
Webb
Modesty
is
of Expression, Utility, of
which by
some
added Consent
of
Authors."
language
his posterity down to Noah and thence through Shem to the original Chinese. The written characters even may have been taught by one of the ante-
A^am
was transmitted
of
of
which one
?
so late as
"
The book
deny that
this description
may
has
it,
and these have an antediluvian antiquity and are, as Kircher " hieroglyphicorum in omnibus asmuli," in all respects rivals
of hieroglyphics.
As
a clinching argument
Webb
writes,
"
And
as
if
all
we may observe how forceably Nature struggles to demonstrate The very first expression we make of life, at the very so much.
instant minute of our births,
is,
as
was touched on
is
before,
first,
by
but
word Ya.
^
Which
indeed the sole and only expression that Mankind from Nature
Many
others have supposed that the Chinese people and lanof that old
first
country
name Mesopotamia.
That the
speakers of
Shem seemed
arts
it
'^
very prob-
a knowledge of
and sciences
beyond other
and was
likely that
Noah
**
would be
Ham,
the son
who was
posterite ?
a reprobate,"
peu
respectueux
thinks that
maudit dans sa
"
Kircher, indeed,
Ham
through Persia. From Bactria they may have passed into China, " the utmost nation of the habitable world, together also with
the
first
But
has been
stated, it has
As
to
Shem was
1
taught.
But Japhet,
"An
of
Language of the
1669.
Sec.
Empire
China
is
By John Webb.
pp. 62, 147, 196. > Webb's ' Historical Essay," p. 29.
of stone
and
flint
tools
to
more
skilful
appliances.
But the
children of
Chinese, were shrewd and wise, and never lost what they had
learned.
Here we
left
home
to
"unaccomplishable work'^ which Nimrod's race began was abrubtaway with them their " shovels, pickaxes,
trowels.^'
and
They took
also
Roots and the books which they had received from their fathers
written in characters which their descendants have ever since
retained.
total
These are
facts
which
absence of
stone
and
flint
Most
aries in
Roman
Catholic missionto
China and
their disciples at
home seem
have held
this
actual
immesome
scarcely
first
enough
proof,
maintained, to identify
Yao
T'ang, the
great Chinese
Em-
Shem.
Some,
of all
as has
Ham
such as
The
first
and
was De Guignes.
'^
He
on the subject,
Chinois
Scholars
Hebrew
1
some
of
217
et al.
(Ed. 1832).
them
the world.
Many,
or
also,
have
believed
that
Chinese
is
seventy-two
tongues produced by as
many
when
^*
connection of Chinese
ancient
of
Chinese and
other
languages.
common
Mesopotamian and
\ Armenian
According to Dr. Edkins^ the first Chinese " were probably Hamites ; '' but the Chinese language, '' like Mongol and Turkish, belongs to the Japhetic stock " and
;
yet
''
the ancient
still
dialects of a
Adam."
So Chinese has an
^'
'^anti-
being
itself of
the
human
speech,
we can
trace in
no later elements."
Marshman,
whose defects
of learning are
spirit,
him
of an original connection
between
Hebrew
.or
He
left
the question
Dr.
Chalmers,
to trace
He
of like
meanings
in
Hebrew,
His
Greek,
Arabic,
Tibetan,
shows
"
conditional,
If the
home
of the
human
by the
direct
43.
(Ed. 1643).
2
ii.
p.
6; " Ch.
^
Rec," Vol.
iii.
Chinese Grammar,
as
is
the earliest
and
more remote
we ought to
among
the
among
And
is
and the civilisation of China are derived from the West, and only some important inventions belong to the race." ^
Dr. Edkins dreamt of a universal kinship of languages, in
liviitg relative.
In his dream,
an
affinity
or
so-called roots
of
we
earnest by a distinguished
Dutch
In the treatise of
this latter
have the
first
scholarly
to
compare
Taking, for
pronouns
of
the
*^
unite
de race
this
Aryan languages.^
it
is
As
related to
them
"
On
more western,
in
were
existence
when
Insuperable
difficulties
from any
zation."
of the
its civili-
which he here
1
refers.
Marshman,
also, says of
the
Anam,
Laos,
" The Origin of the Chinese," pp. 36, 78, et seq. " Sinico-Aryaca ou Reoherches sur les Racines primitives dans lea Chinoises et Aryennes."
^
Langues
10
Siam, and
ever
much they may have been affected by any foreign mixture, and in that language we may expect to find the origin of that
simplicity of construction,
of inflection.
From
that of
its
nese language
may be
Schott, Whitney,
and
And
Gr.
The aim
of the
of Tibet,
Transgangetic Peninsula.
The
It
is
now
and arranged
to
kinship
frontiers.
We
assertion
made
by our great
Indianist,
W. W.
Hunter.
He
tells
us
as a language standing
linguistic alliances.
by
itself,
But
book
to Siam, Tenasserim,
Burmah,
Asia, to
many
of the
Himalayan
and
to
some
of
the
pre-Aryan peoples
It is
probable
that the above mentioned scholars would regard the old language
of China,
now dead
or lost, as the
common
parent of
all
the
title
and
of those included
under the
Indo-Chinese, so
far, at least, as
But
it
the
11
of
De La Couperie. As the result of long study and research, M. De La Couperie has been led to recognise in the an ancient member of the great Chinese spoken language known as UraUAltaic." He languages, agglutinant family of And in doing so, it may be necessary to establish a adds
Terrien
^'
:
*^
be called Amardian
division
embraces
Akkadian and
Babylon.
its dialect,
^
We are
in
it
''
:
Put
in a
will shortly
Then in another book we have the following characteristic statement by M. De La Couperie ^' China has received its language (since altered) and the elements of arts, sciences and institutions
:
of the
from Western Asia some twenty-three centuries B.C., under the conduct of men of high culture, acquainted, through their
neighbours the Susians, with the civilisation which emanated
This
favour
overwhelming."
it
to
expecting students.
his
We
look,
how-
much
light
283
"
W. W. Hunter,
1
Under the head "Turanian or Ural-Altaic (Ugro-Altaic)" Professor Sayce places two classes (1) the West Asia and (2) the Uralic Languages. In the former he has the two groups of obsolete languages, (a) Accadian or Sum:
erian,
and
(b)
Susiauian, Kosaaean,
Protomedic.
Lang., Vol.
II., p. 43.
12
" Origin
Chinese
:
Chinese Civilisation/'
and
^'
China
before
^
the
''Hair"
classification
it
of
mankind.
Corean,
His ninth
(1)
class is called
Mongolian, and
(2)
includes
the following,
(4)
Tibecan and Himalaya languages, Burmese and Lohita languages, Siamese, Annamite, Chinese, and the isolating languages of the Indothe
Monosyllabic languages,
i.e.,
Chinese Peninsula.
arrangement
of all
known languages.
Sayce, however,
it
the
of dialects
cited
above
are,
we may
of the
Chinese language
as
They
We
now proceed
to notice
some
of the opinions
And
here
we do not
diversity of opinion
among Western
scholars, although,
as will
be seen, there
is
The
first to
make
was perhaps Friedrich von Schlegel in his treatise on the language and wisdom of the Hindus. Using terms taken from
natural science he divided languages into Organic and Inorganic.
In the
latter division
he placed
(1)
and composed
of
roots
which
suffer
1 " Early History of the Ch. Civilisation," p. 19; Colquhoun's "Amongst the Shans," Int'n. pp. 29 and 40 M. De La Couperie, in ' The Academy," September, 1st, 1883.
;
' Grundriss d. Sprachwissenschaft v. Dr F. Miiller. B.I. S. 76; Sayce'a " Introduction to the Sc. of Lang." Vol. II., p. 48,
13
also
(2)
grammar
formed entirely by
suffixes
easily separated
and retain
to
some extent
own
inde-
pendent meanings.
(3) those languages
to modifications
from
by
inflections.
He
first,
or lowest class, as a
meaning
having
roots
The Chinese
;
they are
inorganic products.
W.
and
the
inflectional.
approved
of this division,
somewhat
had no
different.
In
real roots
and hence
he assigns
to
To
this class
be root
by the position
words in the
sentence.
In
the
second
class,
consonants
necessary
to
express
the
original or
primitive meaning.
of roots,
Bopp
to
also denied to
Then
we have
compare
placed
it
W.
it
with
He
along with
of
''
Semitic
with
Humboldt
Burmese
An
important
and
to the
14
He
writes
" I think I
can reduce the difference which exists between the Chinese and
other languages to the single fundamental point that, in order
to indicate
its
phrases,
it
does not
base
its
grammar on
The
part
thought.
grammars
of
other
part.
languages
have
an
etymological
and a syntactical
Chinese grammar
knows only
this latter.^
Then we have
of languages, as
ing),
division
and Inflexive
In
the
first
division
are
of invariable disjointed
Burmese."
Professor
Schleicher's
distribution
has
been
followed
by-
Max
division of languages,
splits
which, however,
a four-fold one.
Pott
classes,
class,
the Agglutinating
There are
languages from
the
that of
M. Lucien Adam.
In
low place.
Judged by
It
its
morphological
constitution, Chinese
at the
is
an
inferior language.
two poles
of the speech-world,
and
all
other languages
units, they
between them.
are not
way
as
compounds or
derivatives.
of
S.
They
according
to
his followers.
201 (3rd Ed).
(Ed.
Steinthal)
Max MuUer,
1 Bopp's "Vergleich," Gr. B. "Sprach. Phil. Werke," p. 649 Remusat, etc., pp. 2, 44. 2
et seq.
aimier,
Compendium," Part
I.,
p.
2 (Beudall's Translation); Fr
Same Western
however, treats them as
that in which
its
Opinio^is.
IS
language
is
full
^'best represented
by
ancient Chinese."
The
word Root
and incompatible.^
of the
Chinese lan-
been called
first
in question
by some.
Remusat was
apparently the
to
do
this,
living
Dr.
W.
Grube,
is
of
China out
and Monosyllabic.
He
thinks that
like
Chinese languages,
agglutinating.
The
as
classical
and
anti-classical
language of China,
Grube regards
It
composed
of monosyllables,
basis
is
which
will
apply to
all
languages.
More
fold distribution
Inflecting,
of languages,
as Isolating, Agglutinating,
and
to
of progression
founded on
it,
have led
and character
of languages.
to
on the Chinese
its
contents and
of a
The questions
and uniform
to
precise treatment
We are to enquire
to
be rich or poor
and
of
Compared
it
as
to
an instrument
do
its
seem
to
work
in a
rude or
inartistic
manner, or does
it
seem
perform
245
its
functions
Mtiller,
^ M. L. Adam in " Rev. de Linguisfcique," T. xiv., p. " Lectures Sc. Lan.," Vol. I., p. 330 (9th Ed.)
^
*'
Max
16
well
Here,
also,
we
seem
to
have been for the most part quite enchanted with the
which
it
did
its
work unaided by
suffixes or inflections.
it
Semedo
which makes
indeed equivocal
Such
flatters
is
But he
it is
very
is,
in its
and
so did
Webb.
ever
will
be found
many words
'"'
Hebrew
is
others
P. Premare,
right to speak
sinologist
and had a
is
for the
most part
has
its
free
still it
rules,
and there
is
And we
Amyot, a very accomplished scholar, who knew both Chinese and Manchoo very well. He defends Chinese from several charges which had been brought against
the language by P.
it,
and argues
as
and
full.
He
regards
it
peculiarly
adapted for
recording
and
communicating
political science.
1
" 3
Semedo's " Relazione d. Cina," Cap. vi., p. 43 (Ed. 1643). Webb's " Historical Essay," etc., p. 196. *' Lettres Edif.," T. 33 Lettre.
Some Western
Coming down
to later years,
Opinions.
17
when
manner,
we have
W.
von Humboldt, as has been seen already, giving Judging from the point
first
of
view of gramit
glance regard
of speech,
On
one-sided,
is
yet
powerful.^
Steinthal, one of the latest
of
Lowest
in the latter
else.
is
Form being
He
and in
in the
vocabulary generally.
and
modern
literature
it
and humour.
" The contrast between the means of the Chinese language and
its
productions
is,"
phenomenon
quite unique
A.nd
Having owned
all
which the
form
known languages," he goes on " The power human mind has over its instruments, and independent
is
of their imperfections,
this of speech,
strikingly illustrated
by the history
all
of
the
which has
been put to far higher and more varied uses than most of the
multitude of highly organised dialects spoken
dialects rich in flexibility, adaptiveness
1
among men
of expan331 (Ed. A.
II., S.
and power
"
Ueber
d.
Verschiedenheit
d.
Men. Sprachbaues," B.
F. Pott).
18
ision,
on Chinese,
Grabelenz, speaks of
it
and best
Chinese,
On
we
find
its
it
not seldom
poor in
it
stock of words,
of expression
is
Western
and
spiritual ideas,
high civilisation
generally.
who had
studied
there
is
Chinese
among
language poorer in
expressions.
He
and
on
letter to dilate
of speech.
No
in
such
bitter,
Though
its
this
ends as well as
does the Sanskrit, he says, '^Is not the Chinese language, with
inorganic and imperfect structure, the reflection of the aridity
of
for
manual
arts, for
is
ophy which
of
all
common
language excluded
all
philosophy,
which we understand
*
these words.
God
it
has no
name
in
it,
are expressed in
^
'^
"
**
and see
p. 367.
De L'Origine du Langage,"
p.
Compare
also p. 216.
Some Western
It
Opinions.
19
Others
and com-
but without
sufficient authorities.
The information
necessary to enable us to form correct general judgments on the Chinese language as an instrument of expression and com-
now
to
be
all
forthcoming.
we yet in a position to give a final opinion on its rank and value when compared with other languages, or on its descent and kindred. We have among us at present students who are from time to time adding new and interesting facts, which will
Nor
are
at
But much
still
rank and
settled.
In some
of the chapters
which
follow,
an attempt
will
XTNIVERSITY
CHAPTER
II.
we
hands
of natives.
To
tell this
of
would
It will be
enough here
to
language by
its
when
its
records begin.
Even such an
outline,
however, must
little interest
For the
many
to
sketch
like
the
present.
In
over which are exclusively on the art of writing and the various
were only
which are
made by
their
language,
Of such
treatises also, it
to describe
is
to be
the
way
in
the subject.
Ilie Cultivation
21
We have,
Chinese
first
apparently, no
means
of
of learning at
began
We
government
it
was employed
One
know,
is in
Shu-ching."
The
to
make
them remember
record."
^
to
serve as a
(f|
In the reign
J|)
seems
to
and
also to
have
of the
the
people.^
and
to,
it
also is
found
in the
'
" Shu-ching."
we
(^ ^)
made a
to the
writing" (f^
new
king.
return to virtue.^
in the
''
Charge
Yue "
of the
same
treatise.
Wu
But
Ting (|^
1265 that
is
to
to,
by some
Y
critics,
and there
is
some doubt
as to their geniuneness.
of the
We
Hsia and
of
them
the latter.
the
But
and
institutions
of
country
before
the
rise
of
the
Chou
III., p.
82
(+ ~
Ed. by
2 3
Yuan Yuan).
LeggQ, C. C.
Large, C. C.
III.,
iii.,
xix.
205
* ;
''
;
viii.
Legge, C. C.
pp. 250
22
scanty.
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese,
The
tablets of
these were
They were
Hence, when search was made among them, they were often
found
deficient.
Among
the
official class,
^ mon
Chou
dynasty.
They had
a,
Secretary
r|
and expenditures.
Another
was appointed
keep
foils,
census returns, and maps, and he had to examine and verify the
public returns and accounts.
There was
also
was
to record
on wooden tablets the name, sex, age and birthTutors were appointed
and one
of the subjects
to
''
the characters
seenpi
In
this the
Chou kings
to
have followed the custom of the dynasty they subverted.^ Another institution which the Chou rulers seem to have taken from their predecessors was that of State Interpreters. These had not only to translate the messages of the barbarian chiefs into
Chinese, and the
strange visitors
:
commands
of the
of the
they had
how
to
perform
sum-
moned
to court in order to
dialects
compared and
this,
the
blind musicians and the annalists of the state were collected at the
capital *'to
tion"
(M
^^^M'm)'
There were the Chi (^) for the barbarians Hsiang the of the East, (^) for those of the South, the Tih-ti the West, and the /(|f ) for those of the North. (ilt IS) for those of
at first four classes.
1
Biot's
"Le
,
Tcheou-Li," T.
I.,
^ H,
chaps,
vi.,
vii.,
xiv.
^ ^^
Introduction.
Thh GultivaUon of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
all
28
official
But
in
the
interpreters
was Ilsiang or
It
of the
Chow
and
it
be given to
In process of
came
mean
to translate generally
It will be observed that this last is the only one of the four words
of speech in the
work
of inter-
the
Chinese
at
neighbours.^
In
existed at
all
official
centres,
and
the country.
scale.
The
written characters
much
There
show
first
The
''
Urh-ya '*
has
the
of
to the
Chow Kung
his
And though
much
the work as
has come
down
to us is evidently of a
is
later period
Confucius
is
supposed to
in the
Ta
Tai's
" Li-chi.'^
The Duke Ai
:
him about
''
Confucius says
" The
'
enough
In
would
at least
'*
Urh-ya,'' and
Li,"
Biof,
"Le Tcheou
It
|G,
T.
iii.
II.,
xxxvii., xxxviii.;
chap.
(^
%\\).
24
first
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
We find
Confucius and
one
man
or one time,
made
rather
great additions.
is
This treatise
a
not,
properly speaking,
It
dictionary,
but
Thesaurus or vocabulary.
gives
the
terms and
life,
common
though
it
compilation.
to
The
a chapter.
From
that
it
at the time
it
was
composed
the
language
contained
onymous though
origin.
Many
words in
it
of use,
approaching
standard
is
is,
not in
it
critical.
view
gives
compilation,
in
its
being an
early attempt
to
order.
*'
by the translation
"
is
of
Its
much
whom
will
appear below.
It
re-
appendix to the
classic
on
Filial Piety.
Though
it is still
and quoted as an authority by native scholars. In the reign of king Hsiian (B.C. 827 to 782) the court
The Oultivation of
annalist
their
Language hy
25
This
Chow (g)
invented a
new system
Ta-chuan or Great Seal character. The term chuan (^), however, is also said to mean " record," as if ch^uan (j|f), because this kind of writing was to be capable
as the
of
became known
recording
Chow, who
is
often called
Shih-chow
{^
@),
is
said to
have written a
treatise in fifteen
chow's Fifteen
Chapters."
Wang
Mang's usurpation
six
chapters were
lost.
Chow's system
to
in
some
respects like,
of
writing {Kti-wen).
And
it
provement on
to
these,
They continued
period.
siderable
But Chow's invention had the effect of producing a connumber of new characters, and of restricting to a small
Yet growth in
is
number
said to
misuse of characters.
them
One
state
and confusion.^
the Prince of Ch*in
When
set himself to
of
in
Huang
Ti,
wished
to
make
;
* "Han-Shu," chap. xxx. Chu Fu-tzii writes to a friend chap. xv. that the " Urh-ya" was a compilation of the explanations and definitions given by the scholars of former and contemporary times made into a book, but that it has inaccuracies and cannot be regarded as old (^ 7^ d^ "i' fff
^^
^H
^^
chap,
lii,
26
the Chinese.
to
He
bury
and begin
life
But
to effect his
The check
which he gave
it
had done.
end
But
In Shi
Huang
kinds of writing, called the Pa-t'i {/\ H), were current. These were (1) the Ta-chuan i^-)^ ^) or Great Seal (2) the Hsiao'
;
chuan (>^
semblance
^)
to
(^Ij ^), Carved Ghung-shu (|| ^), Insect Writing, from its rethe traces of birds and insects (5) Mu-yin (^ fp),
or Small Seal;
(3)
the K'S-fu
for official
(7) Shii-shu
for inscriptions
on weap-
(^
Of
these,
for the
common
Ssii
pur-
So a simplified form
of
it
was devised by Li
Ti.
(^
^),
Huang
It
was
this minister
kill
who
advised the
Emperor
to
the scholars.
man
to
of learning
and
abilities.
The
style of
was developed
in a
book
(^
rH)-
(^ g), and a third composed the "Po-hsio" (ff Kao Chao ^). (|g Jg) was the author of the former treatise, and Hu Mu Ching (gg flr g^) of the latter. These three works,
which formed a
*'
treatise
''
called the
all
"San-ts'ang"
(^ ^)
or
Ts'ang-chie-pien,
were
to
The Gultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
27
But
a cumbrous, inconvenient
way
of recording.
A
is
great improvement on
by the invention
of the Pa-t'if
which
modern
invention
also
is
usually attributed to
official of
Cheng Mao
Shi
(jg
Ti.
was a distinguished
Huang
of the
Tradition
command
Emperor.
It is
which the new system was taught, released the author and
restored
him
to office.
this period of
It is
from
of the
term
tzl (if) or
or shu
only
And
it
now sounds also began to receive attention. may be mentioned in passing that the introduction of
pih (^),
for writing purposes,
is
hair-pencils,
generally as-
cribed to Shi
Huang Ti's
general,
Meng
T^ien
(^
^).
It
seems
of
own
that
is,
writing
is
(^
JJ ^).
The
tells
us that pu-luh
called pih
resolved into
elements
but
it is
name
Wu
country, that
the Soochow
Meng
28
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
name
one,
and
it
has continued to he so
down
to the present.^
To the reign
a work
is
of Shi
''
called the
is
K'ung Fu JL
Sfi))
a descendant of Confucius.
The use
of the
It is also strengthened
by the
to
Han
dynasty.
The
name
first
of this dynasty,
extending from
is
The
books of song,
and
political institutions,
and philosophy.
These
fires of Ch'in,
were brought
of
day
The
now
So
to
Hence
men
Han
scholars
acters.
knew the meaning but not the sounds of the charWith them the great object was to settle a disputed
in the old classics.
term or phrase
And
from their
tinje
down
the study of the language in China has been intimately associated with that of the early canonical literature.
*
"
Shuo.Wen," Pref.
:
^ ^, Pref. X ^ |^ ^,
;
;
chap.
iii.
Edkins, Int. to
;
| Jl
"
Urh-ya," chap.
The />
jJI
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
29
is
The
''
But
or nothing
of this
book
until
we come
to the
Chin dynasty.
Among
guage
(%
He composed
treatise
work
called the
".Fan-Chiang"
a short
which has been praised for not giving the same characThis work, published about B.C. 130,
it
Ssu-ma used
new
characters.
the " Chi-chiu-chang " (f: gg ^) by Shi in the reign of Yuan Ti (B.C. 48 to 32).
Yu (^
("j^
Jj$),
an
official
^)
of
Li
Chang (^ g).
racter,
These also were written in the Small Seal chaalso apparently based
and were
pien."
The "
Chi-chiu,'^ or
among
scholars,
and was
Shou
("^
(||
gjg
^).
and
to
have
abounded
of the use
and characters.
of the
*'
The above
Fang-yen "
made
of
and ^'Shuo-wen.^i
About
this period,
first
century B.C.,
we
is,
of Ch'i, part
;
" Shno-
wen," Pref
^ ^, chap. xxi.
Wt
fl^
^ ^> chap.
iv.
80
of
The Gultiuation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
of the characters
and
should be adopted.
It
Ch'aug (58
who
all
at
home
penciled his
wife's eyebrows,
rebellion.
He was
wards
of
Chi-chow
(^
ji\),
in Chihli.
whom
it
passed to his
(i^ ^i),
daughter's son.
it
to his son,
Tu Lin
who committed
'^
to writing
treatises
on the
(3|
Ts^ang-chie-pien."
in Shensi,
and held
all
office
^)
to 58.^
Nearly
and some
of
them
has fared
otherwise with a famous treatise supposed to have been composed about this time, the '' Fang-yen, " to wit. This work is
ascribed to
Yang Hsiung
to
(j:g
(or
^)
J|),
known
also as
Yang
lived
who
A.D.
18.
He had
" in
"Ts'ang-chie-hsuan-tsuan"
Ssu's
(^
|||
^).
In
this
Yang
made Li
work the
all
basis,
but he made
many
of a
additions and
comparison of
5,
In A.D.
above a
hundred
scholars,
Yuan Li (^
to *^).
(^
The
results of
of
" Shuo^ " Han-shu," chap, xxx.; " Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao," chap, clxxxix. wen," Pref. Some take the "Ch'i-jen" (^ A) as referring to an unknown
individual
see
Tuan
Yii-tsai's
Commentary
in
S.
1^
:fe
^,
chap. X7.
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
31
Tu Ye
{ij^
^), father
of
Ta
Lin, of
Yuan Li
the
chief
j).
among
fame
(^
his chief
came to be ascribed to him. It is not mentioned in the list of books in the " Han-shu/' nor in the life of Yang Hsiung in that
work, nor, so far as
is
of
As an
ap-
Hsin
(gij
^)
to
to this.
From
safely
we may
not published in
The
first
who
lived in the
In the preface to his famous treatise, " Feng-su-t'ung-i, " Ying makes mention of Yang as the author But though of a treatise which is evidently the " Fang-yen."
second century of our era.
letter to
name
of the treatise.
From
The
his time
down to
twelfth century there seems to have been no difference of opinion as to the authorship.
tradition
first
was
Hung
who
lived
A.D. 1123
to 1203.
have been answered by later students, and they have not shaken
the learned belief in the general tradition.
"
Fang-yen"
is
in thirteen chapters
it is
and
supposed to have
been originally in
characters.
and
to
to its sources.
The full title,^ here given in the foot-note, points During the two dynasties which immediately
officials
the
*'
light carriage
envoys"
%'
32
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese,
were
tributary to China.
different
ways
of
of speech,
and ballads
passed.
made
reports which
Han
dynasty the
most of the
was almost forgotten. them by the labours of a recluse Ssuchuan, by name Chuang {al. Yen ig) Chun-p^ng (^ ;g*
recalled to
He
Weng
made
(or
Kung ^)
(^
a summary.
came
mode
of procedure, he
adopted
it
instituted similar
himself.
For twenty-seven
his
years
he went on
as the
and arranging
to
materials,
still
and died,
unfinished.
book seems
is
number
of the terms
in different states
and
a
districts.
To some extent
meaning
simply
of certain terms,
and
giving synonyms.
From
it,
however,
we
many
first
century B. C, and
how
certain words
and phrases
words
in
of that time
it
have to be understood.
since
Many
text,
of the
have long
become
obsolete, or
have continued
as
circuit of a dialect.
The
we have
now,
is
supposed
Language hy
the Chinese.
33
of
Kuo
made
the "
Han
dynasty.^
{^^ M
chung
of
The next work to be noticed is the " Shuo-wen-chie-tsii" ^)> best known by its short title '' Shuo-wen/' The
'|^),
(^
;g),
who was
a native of Shao-ling
(Q
Honan.
He
end
of the first
be recorded.
life
He
held
office
some
and was
living
at
A.D. 121.
home when his death took place, which was apparently about The ^'Shuo-w^n'' was finished in A.D. 99, and in
But the work was
when
it
P^^
i^
i^ order
and presented
Emperor An.
The
which
m^ch
controversy.
and
difficulties
^'
HsQ composed
animadverted.
his
'^
Discussions of Variations
(5
g^
like
fg),
was with a
of this
(^ ^), He
one of
Han
compared
Shi
- edition);
m f&
clxxxix.;
34
the Chinese.
"wen
For the characters to be explained, the author of the '* Shuo" used the Small Seal kind of writing, and for the explanahe used the Li (^) writing. The work is divided into chapters (or books), and there are 10,600 characters
These are arranged under 540
classifiers, called also
tions
fourteen
explained.
the origin of
all
The
ing to Hsii Cheung, the literature of the country, heaven and earth,
demons and
nature,
spirits,
all
hills
and
his
to
have
meant
right
work
meanings
it
of cerain
regarded as canonical.
For
these
was
to
and
chie-tsii,
the
phonetic characters.
Some
mere
of
the
explanations which
gives to characters
seem
to be
trifling,
as one of great
etymoall
Nor
is
it
to
be regarded as an index to
its
the
compiling.
It leaves out
through
of
which entered
into the
names
Han
own
for,
Nor
which occur,
in
he found.
The '^Shuo-wen"
and a clue
Chinese dic-
It
is
first
The
analyses of
characters which
it
had most
to the
and
literature.
But
it
and
It
is
for
what he achieved
in these matters
scholars.
as
it
that his
The
was
preface also,
the treatise
The Cultivation of
published,
is of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
35
it
The
*'
in high esteem
among
for
native scholars,
of the
who
regard
it
While many
still
of its successors
died, the
"Shuo-wen''
lives
and has
its
old
some
whose works
have discoursed
Another
treatise
Han period is
his
the
*'
which illustrates the language of the Latter Shi-ming " (^2) or Name Explainer. This
(gij).
He
gives
name
as
Hsi
or Hsi (^),
He
now
Ch*ing-
chow
(^
*m), in Shantung,
He
The "Shi-ming"
chuan.
is
The
first
category
is
Mountains, Water, Food, Clothing, and others, the last being The " names " given under these headings
common
use,
evi-
The
But many of them are curious and The author explains /aw^ (g), a house,
is,
side,
chHug
(}||),
pure.
An island
(
tao
(^), because
a place to which
is
men
go, tao
Ji|),
for
shelter.
fatheVj/u (^),
life
;
fa
("J),
starts the
baby in
and a mother,
mu
^ if ^. ed. by Kuei Fu-hsio and Tuan Yu-tsai Mayers' Ch. R. M., No. 202; Chalmers in Ch. Rev., V., p. 296, IX., p. 297; Edkins' Int. Ch. Chars., '* Hou-han-shu," chap. Ixxix. p. 151
;
^X
36
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
Sii (f),
common,
is
(g)^),
to
common
people
wan to
Such popular
whom
The meanUnscientific
ing
is
is
wrong.
some
of those in the
of like ones at
home.
The
origin of the
word anchoress,
suit the
by an
old writer,
is
would quite
The anchoress
told
"
for thi
an ere
is
schipes borde."
to
is
The
''
to
be indebted
any
Urh-ya," which
mentioned in
by name.
It is often quoted
by
later writers,
Han
period
who made
(,g JJ) and his great disciple Ch^ng Hsiian (g(5 ^) al. Cheng Kang-ch*eng (j^ J5^). These, however, devoted themselves mainly to the old canonical literature, and
Such were
Ma Yung
it
orthodox texts
From
its literary
became a medium
social
of
expressing with
political facts
and
their
and
in existence
had
meanings defined
many new
at
down
and
^
In order
to
their religion
^ J^
xviii.
(in "
Han-Wei-tsung-shu"
j ^gW,
chap,
The Cultivation of
its
their
Language by
the Chinese.
37
language.
when com-
their books.
They accordingly
it
own
this
in teaching
to
among them
is
an
better
-QIX
than none.
This
is
the procedure
known
as Fan-ch'ie
(R
By
;
this
of a character is given
by two other
and the
as to
final.
way
by the
The
process was at
first
called fan
ch^ie
(R), and when this character was substituted but this was in
:
now
in use.
came
into
China
its
had
to
Many instances of this are given, and it is probable many more might be added. One or two examples may be
presented.
tj),
that
here
(|p),
(^
and
;
self-explaining.
So
also ho
(^)
was spelled by ho-pu (jp( /[i) and chu (g) by cM-hu (^ ^). The first marking and describing of the four tones at a later
date,
and the
classification of
to the
which the
any one
All that
we
learn
is
that they
monks from
|i^
f^
^,
chap,
iii.j
Preface.
38
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
of
We
Chinese history
known as that of the Three Kingdoms, or San-Kuo (^ @), when the country was divided into the Han, Wei, and Wu
kingdoms.
During
this short
language steadily
little
Up
to this time,
we
also
began
to be thought of
importance.
characters,
The
first,
(^
^),
who
lived
from 192
He was
North
of China. But Ts'ao Chih was a poet and a student, choosing the quite pleasures of
life,
nor
He was
The Forty-two
of
Documents
(or Tallies),
(0
-f-
^),
in
which he treated
(5|), or
About
the
Wei king-
(g
first
book
But
is
^
it is
to
be noted
Sheng
used generally,
this period
we have
also the
well-known
treatise called
"Kuang-ya'' (|f 3|) or "Po(t|)-ya." This was compiled by Chang I (g Jg), of the Wei kingdom, about the year 265. It is
a supplement to the "Urh-ya," the authorship of which work
to the
Throne, ascribes to
classified
Chow Kung.
it
The "Po-ya''
is little
vocabulary with
occasional short
comments
or descriptions.
is
As we have
now,
was
work
of
Hsien (ig
1
,^).
The pronunciation
(^
1^
is
"Li-shi^yin-chien"
ffi),
chaps,
and
ii.;
"Yun-hsio"
{^ ^);
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
39
The
now
called
tvmg (^)
It
is
given
kung (^)
in sound,
and
this helps us to
understand
why
this
was
same
editor
who
in the
dynasty.
'^P'i
In addition
name of the book changed Kuang to Po in name of the Emperor Yang of the Sui to the " Po-ya," Chang I wrote also the
ku" (H
Ts'ang" (J^ ^), in three c^wrtn; the '' San-ts^ang-hsiinfll IS)> i^ three chuan ; jxndi two other treatises, all
He is
said to
have been
is
often
quoted, but most of his writings seem to have been lost long ago.^
The
the Chin
that of
()
In
this
period the
B3),
first
name
to
be mentioned
that of
as a scholar
and commentator.
He
state
edited
adding
and
affairs
generally.^
of
(^,
*^\
This scholar
better
known
(^ ^), which he had to use on the Chin Wu-ti, who also had the name Yen. Sun was
a native of Le-an
{^
of
Shantung,
is
Han
period.
Hence he
He
was a follower
Sun, who
ch'eng,
also
who
life at his
in
Shantung.
on the old
classics.
Urh-ya-yin-i
''
(^
Jf
^ ^).
In
he seems
to
spelling,
and some
^^
(in
'^
Appendix
40
method.
the
''
Urh-ya," but
native esteem.^
The
period by
is
first
made
in this
Lii
Sh^n
(g
of
what
now
the Prefecture of
was a contemporary
but he
is
Yenchow, in Shantung. Lii Shen, who Sun Yen, was an official and a scholar,
as the compiler of the
^'
chiefly
remembered
Tzu-lin "
(^
^)
one,
or
Grove
of Characters.
six,
This
is
;
variously spoken of as in
three,
five,
or
seven chuan
to
or as in five chapters
(pienj.
It
was intended
left
These
characters were derived from various sources, but mainly from the
old tablets and those in the Great Seal writing, and they were
The "
Tzii-lin"
and
''
to
Some
The
scholars have
of
the
Shuo-wen,"
is
enrich the
Yun
Sheng
(^
^), but
little is
known
it
of
him
or his work.
The "Tzii-
been made
to the text,
but
younger brother
of Lii Shen,
also a scholar
He
compiled the
*'Yun.chi'^ (||
in five chuan.
lei
^),
five yin, or
some
of Finals, first
first
use of yun in
;
in Sun's
2
*'
" Li-ahi-yin-chien," chap. " |1^ name ; " Shang-yu-lu," chap. iv.
|fll,
is
used for
^
1. j
H ^, chap.
;g
The Cultivation of
also ascribed to its author.
in this
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
first
41
But
is
use of yun
technical sense to
Luh Chi
Luh Fa-yen.
On
this
Sung
of our era.^
(^
of
ij^)
aL
Luh
His
Shi-heng
life,
was one
worry and
distress, yet
to write
thought worthy
In one
word yun
is
found contrasted with wen, the spoken word with the written
character.
Some
writers, as
its
Luh Chi
as
the
first to
use ytm in
greatest
technical sense.
But the
period was
among
This
iWi
Kuoh P'oh (|[S JH) al. Kuo Ching-shun (;f; |jg). man, who lived from 276 to 324, was a native of Wen-hsi
^" ^^ present province of Shansi.
S)
He was
the son of an
official
But
it
was more
or a
He was
and
He
on the ancient
rests
classics,
and
the
'^
He
illustrative
many
of
the
commentary giving the sounds and explanations of This commentary was afterwards characters.
Ping of the Sung dynasty, and it is still an authority. The manuscript of the " Fang-yen " was put in order and published
by Kuo, with notes which give the sounds and meanings of rare
or difficult characters.
^
Native students
still
i.
ii. ;
^ |^
"Ku-shi,
etc.,
liv.
42
Fan-
yen^"
The
old treatise
known
Kuo and
The
known
as
the
and North
however,
this period,
to
557,
is
of
marks an epoch
in the cul-
and
is
The
century.
first
name
to
mention
is
that of
Chow
Yii (
Jg)
al.
Chow Yen-lun (^
j^)
who
is
He
was a native
but he
and held
language.
office,
remembered only
The
yun" (0
Tones.
-^J
Four
and
This
is
were
long since
of
in
lost,
and
its
contents are
known only by
subsequent writers.
told that
when Liang
Wu
scholar convinced
him
of
their existence
by
(^'c
saintly wise.
This story
is
told
also
disciple
Chow
to
(fTJc
Next
Hsiu-wen
(J^
1
al.
Shen
The
Wu-hsing
^)
**
Chin.shn," chap.
Infc-; :)^
H M)^
If ii' Pref. 2"Ku.shi, etc., Yiu-lun," hsio " ; Ma T. L., chap, clxxxix.
^
tjl
i^
^.
chap.
^S^
Sfe (i^i
vi.
ii.
;
"Yun-
The Cultivation of
in
their
Language by
to
the Chinese
48
offices,
Chekiang.
all
He
lived from
441
but
life
was
of scholars.
by him, but
fame
'^
rests chiefly
on his contributions
treatise
to
the
called
|f 1) or Record of Finals (or words) This treatise did not survive according to the Four Tones.
" Ssu-sheng-yun-pu
(0
it
it
It
on the
two
treatise
men were
Chow
is
his learning
on the
*'
four tones."
that
first to
which
he alone discoivered by
silent thought.
us that Shea
was the
and
first
to present in
finals
according to the
four tones.
He
is
said
to
to
have
have
by the rhymes
in
reading.
The
to
four tones
sometimes ascribed
it is
perhaps
due
to a later writer.
said to be sad
and even,
the sharig fierce and raised, the c7/m clear and receding, and the/w
direct
and shortened.
is
interesting to
compare
this descrip-
One
critical
that he wished to
made made
to
Wu
as the
language of China.^
That Shen
the "four
of doubt,
1
Yo was
not the
first to
the contrary
made by
" ghang.
yu-lu," chap,
Baddbism,
^% p
ii.;
p. 112.
44
him
The
distinction
first
was known
Ti,
to native
to
Wu
A.D. 483
494.
But
the discovery was not fully recognized and adopted until the
time of Liang
"Wu
Ti,
A.D. 502
to 550.
About
this
time several
contemporary of Shen
This was Liu Hsie
of
Yo
(gi]
literature.
Tung-kuan
(^ ^)
in
Liu Yen-ho
writer,
is
Wu
He
and some
of his
its
works
author
Among
(35[ i>
is,
these
one called by
Heart
of Literature, that
is
H| H), The Carved Dragon of the the finest ornaments of the best writing.
fifty
This treatise
chapters,
the last of which gives some account of the work and the origin of
the
title,
and from
is
is
it
The work
jects,
a series of essays on various literary and other subwritten in a loose, easy style.
It touches on nearly
and
every subject
known
of
and
and meaning
new
abounds
The next
is
Chiang Shi (Ji ^) al. Chiang Fa-an {f^ ^), a native of Chiyang [^ ^) in Honan. He was the author of the *'Ku-chinw^n-tzii "
("S"
"^
^ )>
i'l
614.
and
of great
'*
learning.
he made
his
It
was
to these
and reading.^
^
Collection)
1.
Shuo-w^n," ohap.
The CuUivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
45
Ku Ye-wang
^^- Ku Hsi-feng (IB ff (H ^||). This man was a native of K^uu-shau (g, jl]), in the Soochow Prefecture of Kiangsu, and lived from 519 to 581. He rose to high office under the Ch'ea
official
name
^),
most associated
is
in thirty chuan.
known
{^, 5S).
the
"Shuo-wen" and
it
The current style of writing the chiai {^) was subfor the now obsolete characters used by Hsii Sh^n.
of
It
makes use
542
classifiers
(radicals),
the fan-cJiHe
way
'^
of spelling.
Whether, however,
was
may
at least be doubted.
As
by him the
Yii-pien
''
is
omitting
in errors.
many
and abounding
Native scholars
who may bo
to
may
was not
so
access.^
To the
guished man,
part of
another distin-
Yen
in
Chih-t^ui (|g
^)
al
He
he
was born
office
to the
end
of the period.
held
is
for
(gj
is
I|),
or
Family Teaching.
we have
it
it
now,
in
chapters; and
treats of
many
among
The whole
of
"Yii-pien" with
iii.
;
Chu
JJH&^HS"^ B%
ohap.
46
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
is
the Chinese.
and
it
will
repay a reading.
From
this
book we learn
standard of appeal ;
its
Yen
to
(g
^ ^ ),
(^
5).
Yen was
a native of Laug-ye
(J||5 JjjJ),
modern
Yi-chow
in Shantung.^
this
About
Ch4 Emperors
it
did
is
much
popularity,
or
deserves
some
notice.
It
known
as TzH-chHe
{^ U)
Tzri^fan
dhist writers as
ChHe-shen
(-^J
^)i
this
all
meaning
character
of
is
self-spelling.
By
expedient
sound of a
Thus
JJl',
the
to
sound
te
tsiy
is
expressed by
"J*
is
^,
that
is,
ting
"J*
and ye
i 5)?.
make
Properly,
left
placed at the
side of
is
The
sacred books, however, used this method to some extent in transcribing Sanskrit sounds, and so
made
it
popularly known.
It
is
meaningless composition of
many
characters
is
make them
self-pronouncing.^
Much
attention
was
now
the language.
^
We
find
this
time
i^ IW (iQ Han -Wei Collection). J& "I^i-shi," &c., chap, "Kn-shi, &c., Yin-lun" ;
ii.;
%1^ H,
Vol.
I.,
p.
36.
The Cultivation of
on the
finals, called
their
Language hy
(gj
the Chinese.
47
of Ch^in
(^
1^)-
told,
But
little
notice
is
was apparently
not of
much
importance.
was added
to
the '^Ch*ie-yun" of
(g f^ "g), called also Luh Tzu-pei (f^ place in the history of the cultivation of the important has an J|), With the co-operation of Liu Chin (g|] ^) and seven language.
others, including
of appendix,
by Kuo Chih-hsiian.^
Yen
Chih-t'ui, son^e
from the north, Luh made the phonetic dictionary with which his
name
is
associated.
first
pub-
have survived
very long.
The
earliest edition
was that
hsiian
of 677.
In
this
Kuo Chih-
(|R
(pg
^)
"Ssii-sheng-ch'ie-
yun "
original text of
others
to
use
known what the Luh contained, for we are told that Kuoh and made many additions and corrections. The " Ch*ie-yun," the short title of the work, as Kuo left it, had the characiO fS)
ftve chuan.
It cannot be
ters
It
was the
dictionary apparently to do
so,
and from
it
latter
Luh and
his associates,
Yo
as their basis,
described
The aim
of
Luh and
his fellow-workers
was
to correct
made by
their predecessors,
and
to
They wished
establish
to
make and
transmit
uniform
language,
to
modern.
to
Luh
himself.
the
**
the materials which Liu Chin and the seven others had collected.
^
1.;
" Yun-hsiao."
48
The GuUivation of
to
their
Language by
the Chinese.
of reading,
^and
Kuo
to
work very
earnestly.
to the
ment
of the
206
finals is
by some attributed
to
Cliih-hsiian,
know who
first
the system or
erally
when
arose.
The
gen-
and
careful execution.
came
to
be
and
To
is
counted as
kinds
lasting from
618
to
906.
In
of the
Emperors were
now
studied
with renewed enthusiasm, but the sacred and other books of the
The
now
ability,
now wrote on
titles
by which
official
At
known by
his other
(|^
B^)?
He
was a
native of Soochow and lived at the end of the sixth and the be-
Among
is
native scholars he
is
known
for his
and
for
his
treatise
This
called
'*
Ching-tien-shi-wen"
(@
:R
M %)>
Classics.
classics,
''
Explanation of the Terms and Phrases in the Dr. Legge says of it, " This is more a dissection of the
^^
excluding Mencius,
"i*
'*
^^
Yun-hsio."
chap, clxxxix.; Legge, Ch.
(1791).
'
"T'ang-shu," chap,
cxcviii.;
;
Wen-hsien,"
CI.,
The Cultivation
of
of their
Language by
the Chinese.
49
them
single
dictioTiary.
It is valu-
is also
by
Luh
Te-ming.
is
It is the
30th and
the edition
I possess, which
The
and he lived in the sixth century (Zn S5) and the early part of the seventh. During the Sui period he had
Yangchow,
in Kiangsu,
composed several
of
treatises
his
name famous.
One
and a commentary,
of the
"Kuei-yuan-chu-tsung" (ft
of Sui
by command
ya," also,
Yang
Ti.
$S ^), which was made For the " Urh-ya" and " Kuanggiving
to
Ts'ao
wrote commentaries,
the
sounds and
meanings
of characters,
carefully edited.
Another
chih-kuei" (5C Ja If) o^* Gfuide to the Restoration of Characters, on the correct forms of the old writing. By these works
Ts'ao had
made himself an
authority on
all
matters relating to
fame
The T'ang
etiquette forbade
him
to accept
new
rulers.
less,
him when
in difficulty about a
word
or phrase.
before the
Han
best remembered.
learning of tones, and finals, and fan-chHe, had put out of fashion
the old learning taught by
Tu Lin and
his fellows.
But by
the
structure
and derivation
of characters.^
Another scholar
only by his other
i
of great learning
Yen
Chou-ch'i
(SS !&)
(g | He was
^), known
a native of
cxcviii.
50
The Oultwdtion of
?ff)
their
Lin-yi (E|
645.
in Shantung,
and
from 681
to
The
"Han-shu"
are very useful to the student of the early language apart from
their value otherwise.
for a
To him
good edition
of the old
(^
^ ^),
to
which he contributed a valuable commentary.^ In 675, as has been stated, Sun Ch'iang, another great student of the language, produced his edition of the " Yii-pien."
This
is
known
full
at present,
title
The
of the
work
'Q'
as
we have
it
now
is
is
**
Ta-kuang-i-hui-yii-pien "
{^
S|
S
of
seldom used.^
A
in the
composed
(g
"g");
and
Oh'ie-yun."
Sun Mien
(Jg ff)
" T'ang-yun."
its
The
errors,
new
editors
added
The
the
the
characters
and
all
however,
had
many
many
*'
modifications since
the date of
its first
and the
number
of
books
classics, histories,
and travels
ings of their predecessors on sounds and characters, in the preparation of their work,
perhaps, the
itsalf,
first
in
which
this
The
book
known only
by notices
of
in other treatises.
all
It has been
this
'
" T'ang-shu," chap, cxcviii. Preface to reprint of " Yii-pien." Preface to reprint of *' Kuang-yun"
The Cultivation
of tfveir
Language by
the Chinese.
51
The
(ij^
attention
(^
^)
al.
Shao-wen
Li
S)' ^^^
office
was a
held
to 780).
In philology he claimed
To
*'
this
zeal,
and he published an
text of the
left
in thirty chuan.
full of errors,
Shuofallen
or
had
and Li wished
to restore
it.
to the state in
which he supposed
Hsii
Shen had
left
'*
and
of
to the
*'Shuo-wen.''
differently
But the
critics
who came
after
him thought
and regarded
It
to
be not inferior
to
Li
Ssii.
or
forbidden
characters.
and yet
it
was destined
have only a
short-lived popularity.^
Among
those
who about
T^ang dynasty
It is not possible
Of these and their philological works few particulars are given in books
now
few
accessible,
and
it
is
in
to find
when and
where they
of the
lived.
Some
of the missionaries
The knowledge
1. ;
ft
M 1|)
etc.,
chap.
Hi.;
Ma
T. L., chap,
cxc.
52
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
We
now read
time
tzu-mu (*^
fl:), letters,
We
first
is
chu-wen-ching"
Sfitra,
(^
^ f^ g) that
(/fl
by Pu-k'ung
originally a
^), Amoghavajra.
This celebrated
monk,
But the
centuries
known some
J^), an Indian
In
great
Shen-kung
(jji^
monk
of
learning,
human
said to
speech.
His
diagrams
to
found as an appendix
the
*'
Yii pien.''
Shen-kung
is
also
have selected
initials.
TflJ)
is
also
these
To
the thirty
(^
monk
of
of a small
The system of thirty-six initials which Buddhist introduced is known in literature as the Chungon the
finals.
yin-tzHrmu (4
^ ^ #) or Standard
Sounds
of
Correct Chinese.
to
be
We
must needs
^^
Buddhist Sacred
This
of the
Trip,
by Bunyiu Nanjio,
ii. ; |rJ Si i^. c^ap. vi. ; Catalogue of Col. 444, j " Yu-pieo," vol. iii. Appx.
The Cultivation of
long been
lost.
their
Language by
the Chinese.
53
It
was
originally in twenty-five
{%
(^
Ig), a
monk who
Chang-an.
difficult
The work
is
and the
different transcriptions
also explained
and
illustrated.
The compiler
Thus he
Though
consult,
it
is
not easy to
owing
to the
arrangement.
it
It is also
pronounced
to
makes
of the
characters.
Han writers and in the sounds which it assigns to Two chapters were added some time afterwards by a
These were the work
of
subsequent editor.
another Buddhist
Hui-yuan
after
(g
|g),
monk who
lived
some time
Yuan-ying,
as a sort of
supplement
and industry
To
these
may
The
Hsiang-wen
(^ ^)
-jj)
;
a treatise on the
**
Yii-pien,"
(3!t
^p
''
was by Pao-chih
(^ (g
|g); the
-Yun-ying"
(||
'^
^)
by Ching-hung
(^
gt)
and a
Ch'ie-yun
chih
m ^y
In several respects the period
of the
an era
of great
language.
It
first
to
have
now
made them
accessible to
all.
In the
i869.
^4
the Chinese.
{^ g)
disliked
common
li
the
to
be written.
to learn,
hard
and
liable
to confusion,
The Emperor's
order
Wei Pao (^
Plays also
'gj)
and
his fellow-collegians,
soon super-
now began
to
be
written
and
little
of
everyday conversation.
These, however,
make
Hence we
find
it
them
that
arose the
Kuan-hua
empire having
been
The invention
dynasty, though
it
of printing in
is
generally ascribed to
Feng Tao
(?
^)
five
who
Wu
Tai or
short dynasties.
intro-
of printing
wooden
blocks,
and the
first
books to be thus
works of antiquity.
was
not, however,
until the next dynasty that the invention led to great results.
gives
its
name
to the
It
was
also th time in
its
supposed
to
have reached
acme, to have
become complete
sing the national
^
everything needful to
make it an effective instrument for expresmind. The invention of printing now led to a
Ivii.;
"T*ang-shu," chap.
:^
H i^
Int.;
Ma, T.
Legge,
Ch.
The Oultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
55
many new
value.
treatises, some of which were of great and permanent Old works half-forgotten or rendered obscure by corrupt
readings
were
restored to something
New
works
of a critical or historical
nature, and
some
of a speculative character
on subjects connected
The
are
first
middle and latter half of the tenth century, were natives of Kuangling
in the
modern Prefecture
of
Yang-chow, Kiangsu.
The
younger brother was Ch*ie (/^ |^) al Ch*u-chin (g ^), and he came to be known also as the Hsiao, or young Hsii, to distinguish him from his brother.
He
of learning,
to
In order
he produced the
"Shuo-wen-yun-pu"
fell
into
*^
(^ 5C SI If) ^^ ^^is treatise, which soon unmerited neglect, a phonetic arrangement of the " Shuoto
tones.''
wen
The
and
otherwise tampered with the text of his author, and the treatise " by which Hsii Ch'ie is best known is the " Shuo-wen
Hsi-chuan
(^
its
fl|),
or
Appendix
and
to the
''
Shuo-wen."
In
this
we have what
of
notes
illustrative,
the
head
over thirty chapters, and they are followed by two other chapters
to
"Shuo-wen'' proceed
in a natural
order.
To
;
categories
arranged in groups or
' It is possible, however, that they are right who say this work is erroneously ascribed to Hsii, and that " Shuo-w^n-yun-pu " stands for "Wu-yin-yun.
56
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
classes; one in
of characters are
brought
into order
discussed;
and a
The work
and
said,
is
one of great
theories
and
fanciful.
Hsii Ch^ie,
has been
wen
him
up
to that work.
His great
treatise, as it
has
many
errors
and mistakes,
of revision.
and partly
it
to the
want
A learned
scholar,
and
critical
examination of
has been
made by
a late
who has
and
his
This reviewer
in
is
Ch'i Shun-fu
(f|3 f$,
'^
uL
"5^),
work
three chuan
is
now
published as an
appendix
This
out of
was originally published, been put fashion by the edition of the " Shuo-wen " which bears the
had, soon after
it
name
ch'^n,
al.
Tingis
(^
g),
is
known
Ta
(or
(^
name
of a public
which he held.
Ch'ie,
He
was born
before
and he lived
until 991,
surviving
his
younger
like tastes
and
and
it
was
younger
which,
when
state service,
fortunate than
capital,
of his career
was clouded by
official
disgrace.
His fame also rests entirely on his labours in connection with the " Shuo-wen." These were undertaken in obedience
to
the
commands
of
the celebrated
appointed a commission to
the text of that work.
Emperor Tai Tsung, who make a new and correct edition of At the head of this was Hsii Hsiian,
of several distinguished scholars.
treatise
The
was the
known
as thu
''
Hsii
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
57
In
and innovations
of that
many
to
corrections
The new editors, however, also introduced and made many additions. The latter are
(j|f
|J^),
'*
The pronunciation
of the
head characters
given
Sun Mien
much
between the
Han
Some
tions
also
which he made
Yet
it
this
may
be regarded as
Thus
in the
Kanghi Dictionary
reprints of the
so in other
works
of authority.
One
of the
many
work
is
that published in
(^,
Sun Hsing-yen
fff).^
that the
"Shuo-wen" was
classic,
receiving
new
also
was revived.
of this thesaurus
of
learned
men
from
At
Hsing Ping
932
(JflJ
^)
al.
Hsing Shu-ming
(^
Bfl),
who
is
lived
to 1010.
official,
At
present he
Filial Piety
(Rept.);
;
perhaps best
known by
his labours
on the Canon of
^^m^^,^? "
Sung.shi," chap.
68
yaJ*
texts
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
For
works
foundation
Kuo
Po's edition
and retained
Kuo
Po's comments.
to
Classic
and commentary,
" Urh-ya-
chu-su," that
is,
Kuo
This edition
into disrepute
later
was
among
students, but
It has been
it fell
condemned by
and
unclassical,
and
it
as careless
is
and dishonest.
But
in the
century
it
of
Shao Chin-han,
be noticed shortly.^
One
^^"
of Hsii Hsiian's
Kou Chung-cheng (^
who
life for his
+ IE
lived from
Kou was
celebrated in
the language.
assisted
is,
In addition
'*
Shuo-wen " he
the
in the
Yung-hsi
Buddhist
monk
of
name Hsing-chiin
title
''
997 a
treatise to
Lung-k'an-shou-ching''
(II ft
ffl)-
w^s a
26,400 characters.
the author, but
years after
its
it
for several
publication.
Another
of the
Meng-ying
(^
Ife
5^).
He
J
was
and
^M
ccccxxxi.
S^
(13th ed.)
"Ma
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese
59'
(^ ^)
in one chuan.
is,
The meaning
of those in the
"Source
of
Characters/' that
"Shuo-wen," the book being an attempt to explain the classifiers, The mention of Meng^ying suggests his critic of that dictionary. This learned and Kuo Chung-shu (|R f^. al. Shu-hsien 3& 5fc).
'
which he gave
the
name "
P^ei-hsi "
{%
Sf).
to
" This means " Portable Piercer be an " unraveler " of the knots of
first
Kuang-yun" published during the T'ang period, but nothing seems to be known nor, indeed, is much known of the " Yung-hsi of that work Kuang-yun." The edition which has come down to us is the The full title of this is revised and enlarged edition of 1008. " Ta Sung Ch^ung-hsiu-kuang-yun '' (ffe ||), that is fi ff '^ " The second revised Kuang-yun of the Great Sung Dynasty. This title was given to the treatise by the Emperor Chen Tsung, who had ordered it to be compiled. For this purpose he had appointed a commission, the chief members of which were Ch'en
;
We
Peng-nien
Ch^iu
(^
^), a native
of
of learning
and repute.
The names
It
of
is
is
*'
a combination of these two books, or merely a reprint of the " T'ang-yun '' or the " Ch'ie-yun." One writer states that in his time the " T'ang-yun," " Ch'ie-yun,^^ and " Kuang-yun " were
This
is
perhaps over-
and
The
*'
Kuang-yun "
206
finals
is
to the
In
this
arrangement
Ma
and
ccocxlii.
60
tones
first of
and Ju.
is
The pronunciation
of the
a group of characters
spelling.
it
"name
even
The number
is
of characters of
26,194, but
many
a value as the earliest one extant in which the sounds of characters are given systematically.
But
it
whom
as a
Dodder-garden Book, a
of
treatise dealing
affairs
low occupations.
It has, however,
republished, and
it is still
occasionally reprinted.^
was engaged
in
new
In
this
work he was
assisted
by Ch*iu
Jui
(^
^).
The
editors
But
substantially the
new
edition
of that
by Sun Chiang
^
" Ta-kuang-i-hui
Yii-pien," and
is still
"Chi-yun"
(^
]||),
was undertaken
who
"Kuang-yun"
it
faulty
with which
and supply
the defects of
predecessor.
Like
meanings
1
of
words
it
" Ch'ie-yun," and for the was chiefly indebted to the " Shuo-wen."
of
"Kuang.yun," (Reprint
etc.,
Chu
f^ Ji;
" Li-shi,"
"
chaps,
i. ii.
Phon. S,
L.,"
W.
Int.
Chu
Ma
T.
chap, clxxxix.
The Cultivation
qf their
Language hy
the Chinese.
61
The number
given
had.
tion
is
of characters of
compila|[5),
and
revision, chief
Ch^ng Ch^en
{%
g^),
(^
^
its
fj),
Ting
Tu
(T
(^
men
of
famous learning.
Their
work, the
publication as
it
was several
By some it was ranked above and by others below the " Kuang-yun.'' The
times republished with additions and corrections.
original edition, however, seems to
of print,
and the
earliest
Ssii-ma-kuang in 1067.^ While the " Kuang-yun " was being prepared another new
of the
work
ed under orders from the Throne, and was published at the same
time with the
** Kuang-yun." The name which it bore at first " was simply Yun-liao" (f| \9^), and it was compiled by Ch'i Lun
(M W)
and by
which
^^^
others.
^'
liberal
at once
found favour.
In 1038 there
Academy.
title
Li
Pu
changes has
The
careful
it
which
this dictionary
generally,
gave the sounds and meanings of only 9,590 characters, being thso
of
this
At
compendium
1
fliaoj,
" Yun-hsio."
Yin-lun," J;
Phon. S. W.
^^
" Ku-ehi,
etc.,
"Ma
62
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
know.
all
In a comparatively short
the
time,
however,
it
supplanted
previous
'^
pronouncing
dictionaries, being
much
preferred to the
*^Chi-yun/'
Pu
Yun-liao''
^)
In
this,
made, but
edition
son.
is
it
A much
more important
short title
name
of the
" Tseng-yun" (ig fj), was finished before 1160 but not published until about thirty years later. It was begun by Mao Huang (^
and finished by his son Chii-cheng (^ J), natives of ChiiIn the " Tseng-yun " above 2,650 chow jj{) in Chekiang.
^)
(^
characters were added to those given by Ting Tu, but the original
number
literary
it
of finals, 206,
^'
was retained.
Pu
Yet
and
Yun-liao
had
among the
Yuan and
substituting
for
later critics.
for
vulgar
ways
of writing
characters
those
taught by the
|g (properly i) for the old for In these two cases it will and correct |^, and of kun. be seen that by the changes in the way of writing, sense and
liable to
be confounded.
in-
men
Turning back
a Buddhist
to the eleventh
''
monk
of
Yun-tsung" (f| H), by Chien-yii (g ^), Lo-yang. The aim of this treatise, which
by Ou-yang-hsiu, was
and
to guide
to give the true
was
and
i"Wylie's Notes," p. 9; Phon. S. W. Ting-sheng; " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," chap, i ; " Ku-shi, etc., Yin-lun," J: j " Tsu-chieo " (^ j^), Pref ; ' Ma T. L.," chap. czc.
.
the Chinese.
63
learning
of
China and
in
the literature
of
his
own
Another Buddhist monk, Hsiang Ching (^g J^), with the help of other men of learning, in the year 1034 compiled the " T'ien-chu-tzu-yuan '' (5c M)- The meaning of this title is Origin of the Indiail Letters (or characters), and in the book,
^^
which was in seven chtmn, the author gave the 12 vowels and
30 consonants
instituted
of the Sanskrit alphabet in
China.
To
Wang
He was
and
celebrity.
title
*'
(^ Wang
was old
Nanking.
The
characters
author, according
to
his
makes
It
too
much
Tzu-shuo"
that
it
wen."
criticism,
and
it
it
was indexed
as
unsound.
Still
its
intrinsic
merits kept
often quoted.
to the present it is
By its bold
criticism
it it
Thus a
fresh impetus
treatises
was given
to philoligical investigations,
to
and several
teachings.
Wang's
the language which they displayed to the " Tzu-shuo*," which was
vanquished by an author
(51
*'
to
be noticed below.
Wang's
son,
P'ang
al.
Yuan-tse
the
-jf^
With
help
of
he compiled an edition
the
Urh-ya " which has been praised for the thorough and methodHe was the author ical manner in which the work was done.
also of the
''
Tzu-shu-wu-tu "
{^
^^
|I),
Faulty Reading of
Written Characters.
"
64
The Cultivation of
Contemporary with
their
Language by
the Chinese.
Wang
in
in politics
(^
fg)
al.
Nung-shi
Foo
Luh
produced a treatise
(M
manner
in
his
subject.
He
"P^i-ya" (J^
objects.
51), a
be a sort of
for
Urh - ya,"
giving the
names
common
is
Luh
'*less
careful in describing the appearance of his subjects than in The ''Shuo-wen " also discussing the meaning of their names.''
and he
new
Another contemporary
greatest opponents
of
Wang
died 1086).
much
His contribution to the study and cultivation of the language. *' Chi-yun " has been already mentioned. As companion and
supplement
to
work Ting Tu suggested and began a treatise, which when finished the name "Lei-pien" (|g ^) was given.
to that
it was and published by Ssu-ma-kuang, whose name alone it
''
The
Lei-pien "
is
dictionary
in
which, as in
the
Shuo-wen," on which
classifiers.
it is
according to
31,319.
The
treatise
is
in
to
1068) passed
while
the
it
To Ssii-ma-kuang we owe also this Garden of Names the as basis, arranged a large number
definitions
and
from the
authors.
iv.,
Prolog., p. 179.
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
65
Ssu-ma contributed
the language
is
to
as
made easy in Tables. In this we have twenty tables representing many groups of sounds which serve as finals. Each table
36 Sanskrit
initials at the
gives the
3,000 characters in
all
and other
technicalities of utterance.*
this century
(^ J$) and Chang Yu (5i ^). To the latter the Chinese owe a book for which the orthodox student retains
great admiration and almost affection.
(fS
"6"
This
is
the "Fu-ku-pien"
is,
li)j ^
the old
(^ ^)
and Chen-ching
in
(^ ^)
was a native
of
what
is
now Hu-chow
eleventh century.
His
*^
Fu-ku-pien,"
which occupied him many years, was not published until the
beginning of the next century.
The
mode
of writing.
given
the meaning,
wrong ways
The book
compounds and
of pairs of characters
was a strong opponent of "Wang " An-shi's theories about the combination meaning," and it was " chiefly to combat these that he composed the " Fu-ku-pien
mere
writing.
Chang
Yu
of
two elements,
" has been
Its
many
seem
consulted.
it
does not
have survived.^
to
(iji)
be mentioned is Cheng Ch'iao (gj 1(^) " one of the most erudite and renowned
;
Ma
Supfc. "
Ma
-tH
l #
"
Ma
66
The GuUivation of
of letters of the
their
Language hy
;
the Chinese.
men
Sung dynasty
distinguislied
by almost
Hsingto
universal knowledge."
He
was born
at P'u-t'ien in the
hua Prefecture
1162.
of
Fuhkeen, and
from 1104
The
sobriquet by which he
known
of the
in literature is
Mr.
Chia-chi
(^ Jg
^ ^), from
retreat.
the
name
mountain
in
which
he had a lonely
of this scholar
to
our sub-
in five chuan is BJ) ^^^ ^^ (7^ headed " Ch'i-yin-liao " (<t "a ^)- The former treats in a clear and copious manner of the six divisions of characters,
One
other
is
It also discusses
many
The
*'
shown the
'*
the
Ch*i-yin
It is in
Cheng compares the sounds and writing of own language with those of Sanskrit. He has been blamed
and
for
making
too
many
distinctions.
But few
hard even
to
estimate the
amount
He
ku-wen "
{^
Drums."
From
Drums
also
Cheng composed
also a
commentary on
life.
the " Urh-ya," but this does not seem to have had a long
Some
of his early
farther.
it is not necessary to refer to them The matchless learning and the great analytical powers which Cheng Ch^iao brought to his labours on the language have
made
They
are in an eminent
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
67
About
had
this
time the
*'
Yun-shu"
or
Pronouncing Dictionaries
''
Shuo-wen/'
But there
short
now appeared
popularity.
This treatise
generally quoted by
|f), the
its
title,
"Wu-yin-yun-pu" (
i|
understood to be prefixed.
Its compiler
"S*)
was Li Tao
^^^ "
(^ ^),
-
Wen
chien
"
(X
and statesman.
He
was
his
object
was
it
to
render the
"Shuo-wen"
make
'^
popular.
He
classifiers of
Luh
Fa-yen's
system of
finals in
the
*^
Ch^ie-yun."
with students and put Hsii Hsiian's work out of fashion with
them
all
for a time.
Being easy
to consult, it also
its
able period.^
Another important
tzii-lei" (^E
" Pan-ma-
,i
).
Lu
Chi
(g 1^
al
Yen-fa
old
(^ g) who
lived
from 1133
to
1211.
In
this
work the
Pan-ku
historical writings of
They
Lu
to the treatise
One
of these
Kuang-kan-lu-tzii-shu "
(^
)i^
? V)y
;
^ revised
^ " T'ung-chih" (^ ig), chaps, xxxi. to xxxvii. Mayer's Ch. E. M., No. '61 Bushell in N. C. B. R. A. S. Journal, Vol. VIII., p. 133 " Sung-shi," ohap. ccccxxxvi. Phon. S. W. Int. The Liao may be found as a separate book. They were published with the title j iS ''S' i^i 1550, and since that several new editions have appeared,
; ;
ti
chap.
^ M%
tS Pref.; "Shuo-wSn,"
68
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
of
"Kan-lu - tzu-shu"
iS)^ Sources of the
(S
Han
JC
^)
^^ *^^
T'ang period.
S ^
This
is
Han
dynasty
of the
It gives the
modern forms
Li equivalents, adding the history and explanalanguage about this time was Lo
(JgJ
Another student
y^jl}
of the
Yuan
(JK
^)
^-
Tuan-liang
g) who was
is,
died in 1184.
He
name
^M)
is
it
Wings, that
P4-ya "
of
Luh
T'ien.^
first
edition of a dictionary
to
originally compiled
Chao-chow
(^
ij\)
by Ching P'o (fj J^) al. Yen-pao (g g) of in Chih-li. Soon after publication it was
Han
Hence the
work
is
of these
Hans, by name
Hsiao-yen
(^ ^), who
much
praise
of Hsiao-
yen, by name Tao-chao (^ J^ Hg) al. Po-hui (fg 0^) published a new and improved edition, and the " Wu-yin-yun-chi " is often
He
altered
It is this edition
known, and
it is
The
basis
of the "
Wu-yin-chi-yun" was the ^' Chi-yun,'' but other treatises, and specially the " Lei-pien " of Ssu-ma-kuang were also used in
compilation.
its
In
its
present form
it
syllabic analyses of
1
"
Ma
C.
*'
Liu-shu-ka," Pref
'L.
C,
iv.,
Prolog., p. 181.
The Cultivation of
finals,
their
Language hy
the Chinese,
69
woven
The
reduced from 206 to 160, by There are 53,525 characters given, being about 27,000 more than were given in the " T'ang-yun." ^
finals.
The number
of these last is
of characters
is
is still
often quoted
a^'m
short
W)'
is
generally quoted by
title
(J
|| |g)>
It
Kin
Tartars.
was
it
The
Pien-hai/' but
Wang
rejected
some
arrangement
and
structural system.^
A
pu"
work
for
of
of this century
(lit.
was the
*^
Yunof the
(g|
Repairer).
{:jr
Wu Yii
(J^ |^)
Wu Ts'ai-lao
^), a native
Bohea
a
district in
time
(^
H^
),
a treatise in
which he gives what he thought were the correct sounds and characters for the " Shi-ching." In compiling the " Yun-pu," also,
Wu's
chief
aim was
poetry their original sounds, and to the texts those readings which
the rhymes required. The work was at first apparently only an appendix to the " Chi-ku '' ('^ ^) oi a writer named Hsia (J),
but
it
attained
fame
as a separate publication.
Wu
argued that
first
memory.
;
He
?JC
#5
e"
H tl (Reprint of 1589)
;
Wylie's Notes, p. 9.
3|g
70
were inter-
rhymes
and
that of the
Soochow region
and standard.
The
characters
given in
the
"Yun-pu^'
initials,
are
and
some say
severely
first to
He
has been
of
forced
of
and
for
wrong bracketing
But
is
subjects
ing
theories.
to
He
is
recognized,
however, as
first
distinguish
in a methodical
manner
between the old and the modern pronunciations of characters. The former he called the " Ku-yin '^ ( ^) and the latter the
"Chin-yin "
{^ ).
To support and
Wu
He had
" Shi-
Chu Foo-tzu
as guide to the
Chu
which he proposed
"Shi-ching."^
last
poem
of the
To
more
Wu
fame but
He was
^)
in
"Ku-yun"
rhyming
the differences between the old and the modern sounds of characters are said to
the writings of
Wu Yii.
of their
little
own, and they have never had much success, being, indeed,
known.
^
-^
L. Ch. C,
2
iv.,
mm m> Froleg.,
Int.;
&
4- il M. Int.; tl ^.Pref.;
:^
Ku-shi-yin-lan,"
p. 103.
0)J
;
Ku-chin-fung-yuu," the |^
^ i^ ^, chap.
i.
The Cultivation
In the
first
of their
Language by
the Chinese,
71
Wang Poh
(IE
d
W)-
1274,
compiled the
Cheng-shi-chi-yin "
4&
This
little treatise,
made up
of materials
Cheng
Ch'iao.
It has
no claim
it
to literary merit,
but
it is
valu-
Contemporary with
Wang Poh
^).
to
(or
Pai) was
latter
Wang Tsung-tao
was a native
office
d
the
JE)
^^-
Yii-wen (]^
The
1265).
of
Feng-hu
in the Prefecture of
under
His claim
to
mention
These were
the ''Ch'ie-yun-chi-hsiian-lun"
(U
in
H jf S
by the short
teng-ti-t'u"
title
^'Chi-hsiian" (or
(0
is
S^H
that
H);
^^^ chuanp-
One
of the
13th century
|g),
known
(5
which
also
its
Han
family of Chang-li.
This book in
of the page,
has a long
title,
to its history
it
and composition.
has been several
It
was
first
The
was
Wang
to
Yii-pi,
mentioned above.
The work
of compilation
seems
have been
it
was continued by
Han
other
Han
members
of the
Han
is
The
arrangement
of the
book
peculiar.
The
under
classifiers, of
initials
^m^mmm^^^Bm,
'
chap. m.
^ ^ ii ii.
cliap.
iii.
"
Ma
'
72
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
Thus the
classifier
is
Kin
(chin
^)
K initial
{kien
molar teeth.
^), the pHng tone, and is a Ya-yin^ or sound due to the Under each classifier the characters are arranged
according to the
number
of strokes as in the
Kanghsi dictionary,
the
|^),
Yuan
a native of P4ng-shui
(^
7J1C)
in
gave
liao
''
to his treatise
was in
full
(i
if
m.
% ll
m
is
The name which he ^' Jen-tzii Hsin-k'an Li Pu Yun" that is, The " Li Pu Yun-liao
Ssuchuan.
It
seems that
which Liu
Yuan
35^
his
This
man
also
was a native
of
year in which
it
was published.
to
to
have merely
to
those
have
The
Mao
He
107,
famous
to
by omitting or putting
Liu
^^
By
added 436
Pu
Yun-liao."
His
and
specially the
Kuang-yun,'^ into
Up
fashion
ars
may be said to prevail, and it is in force and now with some slight modifications. Old-fashioned scholmourn over this and complain that Liu Yuan's system passes
Shen
Yo
^^#5.t-^mra^M,
'
(Ming Reprint).
;
'* - shi - yin - chien," chap. ii. Yun -hsio " " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," Int. ; Phon. S. W., Int.
" Li
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
73
its
" Ch'ie-yun-chi-nan " (-U f| f ^), a Gruide to the correct spelling and pronunciation of characters in classical literature.
(gij
|g)
al.
Shi-ming
(i
?B)' ^ native of
It
Han
The book
*'
Wu-yin-chi-yun,"
To the
and
tables
is
of later date in
thirteen sections.
tables,
the
the
modest
name Jade-key
(^
15 PI &)j always
To
The most
for
each
tone.
(ch'i'l)
Thus wang
tone
is *^to
and
in the third
quiescent "
circle.
^), marking
He
also distinguishes
hu
(Pf), as
it
sending
To
composition a treatise of no
merit, the " Liu-shu-ku " (7^ ^), Accounts of written characters in their six classes. The
(^
j|g) al.
of
Yung-chia
Wen-chow
Prefecture of Chekiang.
Academy, and thence transferred as Archivist to T'ai-chow in his native province. Then the Mongols prevailed and Tai T'ung,
unwilling to serve them, pleaded
seclusion.
ill
home
into
of the
^MfejE^^ia^l^
74
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese,
to his father's
is
in
aC
S 5E ^)
In
it
we have
the
connection between
it
of detail
Some
is
liar,
of its statements
and some
of its theories
or absurd.
But
the essay
into English.
In the book
of
under 479
derivatives, derivatives.
classifiers,
classes. Pictorial or
designating as
many
first
categories of
(H
7{t
3!C)j
numbers
at
makes
Number.
To
this
succeed the
to
the
categories of
The author
such
exist,
by reference
early
to classical authorities.^
To
the
part of
the
rhyme-dictionary commonly
known
Yun-hui."
This was
title
"Ku-
chin-yun-hui " ("j^T t% ^)> ^^^ ^^s, according to some, the work of Hsiung Chung (J| tp or ,g,), a friend of Liu Chien. In
* The y^ 297; Ditto, X.,
^ ^, ed.
p.
1784;
"
II.,
p.
175
Ditto, IX., p.
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
76
of the above.
Huang Kung-shao
is
(^
S*
IB)>
Shao-wu
in
Fuhkeen.
more frequently
quoted as the author of the "Yun-hui" simply, the " Yun-hui-chiiyao " being assigned to Hsiung Chung. In the " Yun-hui" the
Yuan
them according
But
said to
abound
in errors,
this respect
existed is traced by
some
to the ''Yun-hui."
characters,
*'
being
previous
"Yun-hui" had
students, but
it
afterwards
utter disuse.
has been
condemned
decessors.^
much
In the early part of the 14th century appeared a notable the " Yun-fu-ch'un-yii " (t| fl^^ 2), Jewels from the Treasury of Words. This was the joint work of two brothers
treatise,
surnamed Yin
were Shi-fu
(|), natives of
Hsin-wu
in Kiangsi.
Their names
Chung.fu
^) ah Ching-hsien (gj ^) Z. Shi.yti(gf Jg), and (+ ^) al. Fu-ch'un (S[ M) ^. Yu-ta (^j^ g)- They
(flf
of etymological learning.
The
was
first
edition of the
"Yun-fu,"
success.
It
was not
Wang
Yuan-chen
(J
% J[)
^^
Meng-ch'i (3 j^).
edition,
He
and gave the spelling according to the " Li-pu-yun-liao.^' As thus published, the " Yun-f u '' is a copious dictionary of terms
1
J^; Phon,
S.
W. Ting.shdng.
76
The Cultivation of
in use
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
and phrases
classical
writings.
among literary men or derived from earlyThe compilers adopted the "P'ing-shui"
to the phrases
rhyme-finals,
a duplicate.
ture, the "
In addition
litera-
Yun-fu"
(^fg
;
^),
that
is,
quotations
in
common
to
use but of
unknown
origin
it
be of practical
utility to students,
and
continued
testifies
to
This popularity
criticisms
it
by succeeding authors.
ill-
According
of
the latter and Hsii Shen must be crying for vengeance in Hades.
The
early form
when published
of that edition.'^
in 1314.
The Ming
errors
editor supplied
many
of the defects
Another etymological
%
of
is
the
/Chung-yuan-yin-yun
(pf*
]g
|g), a
or standard language.
to
The authorship
-fg
book
is
ascribed
^^^
Chou T^-ch4ng
(jg
^), a native
to
of
Kiangsi.
of
"Chung-yuan-ya-yin''
that
is,
Elegant words
to distinguish
of China,
(+ i^
As
the work
now found
number
in shops
and
scholars of the
Ming
period.
It gives a
finals
of characters
and four
ch'il.
tones.
The
latter
This distinction of a
first
form
of the book.
It
was due
to a
scholar
not published
is
often said to
.
^^EX^M B
(ed.
'
Yun.
hsio; Phon. S.
W. Ting-sh^ng.
77
( J^
further
groups,
among
section to
also distinguishes
what
calls
pi^k'ou-ynn (Pg p ||)or "shut-mouth finals," of which there are three groups. The words of these classes in Mandarin at present
all
end
in w,
to
which
in this
work are
'^
in different^ classes.
But
at the time of
for him, as
must be remembered,
is
'^
Chung-yuan-yin-yun "
not to be taken as
to the
it
makers
was
for
and singers
of plays
and ballads
these and similar persons that the proper distribution of the short
To
this
"Lei-yun"
(^
^), a work
generally
in thirty chiian,
It is
ascribed to Li Poh-ying
(^
ffi
His father, Mei-hsien (-^ |f ), began and a Poh-ying himself spent ten brother continued the compilation.
extent the compiler.
years in preparing the book but died before
it
was printed.
The
popular use of
itself
contained
many
serious
errors,
and
it
much known.
nephew
by name W^n-chung
(^
(^
jiji),
in
mind
In
of his
hills,"
f|) or
Mirror of Characters.
this
small treatise
we have
a large
Man.
(Rept. of Minged.); "Yun-hsio;" { 'M tft chap. vi. ; Ed. " Ku-chin-t'ung-yun," chap, i.; " Li-shi-yin-chien,"
chap.
78
The Cultivation of
of characters
their
number
finals.
and
the
a short analysis.
*'
last
it
generally
follows
of Hsii Hsiian,
Kuo
is
quoted as authorities.
a
and
is
often reprinted.^
scholars
of the
ffi), of
who adorned the reign Mongols was Chou Poh-ch'i (^ fg ^) al. Poh-wen (fg
of the great
One
\/ P*o-yang in
(/^
Kiangsi.
He
was author
of the
IE W)> The
is
Of each character an
added below.
modern way
of writing is
Then we have
its
also
Characters in the
Shuo-wen." This was an earlier and more ambitious work than the " Liu-shu-cheng-o," which owed its
The
later
work
is still
occa-
The founder
of learning
of the
of all kinds
and promoted
He
also
the
"
Yun - hui
that treatise
still
remained unacceptable.
of learned
men
to
make
of
new
The
^^l!)
principal
al.
members
of this
commis-
Ching-lien (;^
(|j|
J'll),
Chin-hua and
(^ M)
^
^^ Chekiang,
Yo
Shao-feng
|g
||,),
officials
They produced
a die-
'^
ffii
^ ^ :^),
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
79
tionary which, from the style of the Emperor's reign, was called
*'Hung-wu-cheng-yun^' (gt JJ J g|), Sung Lien's preface being dated 1375. In this work the meanings and pronunciations of
more than 12,000 characters are given, and these characters are
arranged according to a new set of
finals,
only seventy-six in
to
number.
followed
have mainly
of
his son.
few
who
have
praised the
literati.
''
Cheng-yun," but
It contains
much
as the
Emperor Kanghsi
Lien seems
to
says,
it
Sung
Wu Yii.
in
He
of
In the reign of the last Emperor of the Ming dynasty there appeared the " Cheng-yun-chien " (jg " SR )}^), that is, the '^Hung-wu-cheng-yun with supplementary These notes were contributed by Yang Shi-wei (Jj^ 9$ ^) notes.
They
the Chien
()}5)
supplementary
to
yun
(section) a
number
of characters
(^ ^)
are omitted
Yang
the learned men who helped Sung Lien in compiling "Cheng-yun," was Chao Ch'ien (^ ^) better known as Chao Hui-ch*ien (Jg ^). This man, a native of Yii-yao in
Among
the
He was
In addition
also the
to his
labours on the
"Cheng-yun" he compiled
"Liu-shu-
ed. 1632; " Kii-yun.piao-chun," ; Ed. Man. Gr., p. 82; " Ku-chin. H. tS t'ung-yun," preface, et al. ; " Ku-chin-yun-liao," Int,
80
pen-i "
The Cultivation of
(yf^
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
^ ;$ ^).
This
is
others.
treatment of the
the further
Ghao,
who has
of
|!j),
two other
in one
hundred chuan}
by
The modern etymology of the language is Chang Fu {% ||) al. Tao-ch*ang (Jf %), a native
(Kadingl
(11
in
of Chia-ting
Kiangsu.
i"
He
^^
JBS)
In this book we
have twenty-one
shan
chief
yun or
finals,
Chou
and hui (Jc)^ separates mu ij^) from yii (^^J, and Under the above twenty- one finals are
" Cheng-yun."
The The
short-tone
supposed to
be a natural order.
''
much
was
also the
author of
(iS.
^ S)>
much used
of
or
known.
The fan-chHe method of denoting the pronunciation characters had now been made practically as nearly perfect
possible,
as
but
it
was
still
found inadequate
to
represent sounds
precisely.
An
attempt
this
to
made during
{'(%
period by a scholar
W^)'
-S^s
of two.
Thus
his
P^^^ required the use of three characters instead he represented the spelling of Tciai {chie ") by ki
*
(IS)-
in advance of his
it
for
" Yun-hsio."
The Cultivation
of their
Language hy
the Chinese.
81
was even
But
in
made
to
represent foreign
sounds by a
tri-syllabic spelling.^
We
may
certain Buddhist
monks
in the
the help of several brethren compiled the " Wu-yin-chi-yun," the second treatise with that name.
of great
said to be a
work
research, the
result of
investigation.
Another monk,
capital,
Chen-k'ung
(^
title
of
monastery in the
(^
ffl
K ^ ^)>
This
is
better
known by
It
its
short
Kuan-chu-chi.''
treatises
language.
was published
in
pen
of a metropolitan
is
work
praised for
The
work
In
the
however, of which
is
The
lived,
produced another
learning.
who published
new and
original
The
''
The
a
edited by
with
Yang Sh6n
Sheng-an {J\ 1^) al Yuug-hsiu (^ ^), born in 1488 (ji %) and surviving to 1559. He was a native of Hsin-tu in Ssuchuan,
and one
of
men
of the
Ming
dynasty.
In
books on philosophy
life,
ii.
'
K * ^
(Ming reprint).
"
82
the Chinese,
he composed
Yang was
a great explorer of
of the
language of
own time
his
One
of the best
known
philological
"6"
the
" Chuan-chu-ku-yin-liao
old words of the class
^)> ^
compendium on the
Yang
new pronunciation
was a follower
of
and new
meanings.
To some
is
extent he
Wu Yii,
by some regarded
Like
Wu,
rhyme-sounds"
tioned
fj) to sounds found in the miscellaneous The treatise here menliterature of comparatively late times.
is
said
to
little
criticism,
and
to
Yet students
of the
language
and
literature continue
regard
Wu
Yii
language.^
(^
b1 ti ^)> ^ methodical compendium of the rhymes in the '^Shi." The author of this treatise was P'an En (j^ [) a native of the Shanghai district and a distinguished scholar in the reigns
of Shi
Tsung (1522 to 1573). P^an adopted the "P*ing-shui" 107 finals, and his book, which is in five c/iuan,
Tsung and
His etymology
of these is largely
'*
Mu
based
the
work
of the brothers
Huang Kung-chao.
time and
it is still
used, but
It
is
condemned
and unmarked by
to be appropriated
critical discrimination.
Yet
it
printed
it
word
was
for
word
as his
own
first
published.
sold
as that of Liai^g.
]^ing.B,hi,''
chaps,
xcvi.
cxcii.
The Cultivation
of their
Language hy
the Chinese,
83
The
treatise
had a
by Shao
Chang-heng
wbich
to be noticed.
Contemporary
distinguished for
with
his
P^an
En was
in
another
scholar
also
learning
the
guage.
of of
(^ %)
al Chi-li
($
:ft),
a native
/^^/^
/
Foochow.
He
well known.
One
of these is the
" Ch'ii-
which
(J|5
treats of the
words
($|c
with the language of the latter part of the fourth 2), / The second work is the " Mao-shi-ku-yin-k'ao '^ \/ century B.C. ^)) generally quoted by its short title *'Ku-yin(^ Hf iSf
k'ao," an
examination
of old
it
(^^ j^) (II ^), and a second by the author himself. In Ch'en takes 500 characters in succession, and of each he gives
Hung
Jo
Hou
what he
first
finds to
have been
taken
its
by proofs
and
next by
collateral evidence
writings.
Ch'en Ti
teach in a thorough methodical way that the " rhymes of the Shi " represent the sounds which the characters
was the
first
to
had
These
also
in the language
seeking
of
and
historical correctness.
its
The merit
author shows
of characters.
He
fs^'
went too
Eu-^v^hsie-yin (i^
Pf ^), the ancients did not alter the sound of a character for
a special occasion.
He
when
yii
(^)
at
at the
rhyme, we are
sound
yiiy
say hu.
In after
84
times
The Oultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
men
as
ed
it
pa and pe}
first
y/
important
Tzti-hui " (^
^)
al.
Ning-kuo Foo
is
in the
a dictionary in
according to the
classifiers
number
of
under 214
classifiers.
These
are the
" Radicals " which were afterwards adopted the Kanghsi dictionary and other similar
in its original form did not give
by the compilers
treatises.
any
its
syllabic
In later
editions,
of
however,
sounds care-
and
it
But
it is
as
the
classifiers.
Emperor Kanghsi
concise.
It
the
work
errs
by being too
brief
and
was
still
to
be found
different editions of
quantity of the
original
In
its fullest
is
much
valuable
information
about the
to
it
gives for a
Thus
it
fi), kU'i as
that of
(k^ou)j
and
-^
(nii).^
' " KuPlion. S. W., Pref. l# "a #> ed. 1606; Ed. Man. Gr., p. 267 yun-piao-chun," Int.; " Liu-shu-yin-yun-piao," Pref. Some late native authors quote Cli'en Ti simply by his name Chi-li (^ i) in citing his teachings, as though these and their author were familiar to everybody.
;
&
'-^
S,
ed.
p.
82
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
85
We now
teacher
come
to
who has
who have
followed him.
Ku (H
and was
Ming dynasty
in
fell
succeeded by that
now
reigning.
He
was born
1613
at
K^un-
shan (g^ ^J), in the Prefecture of Soochow, and died in 1682. His given name was Yen-wu {% Jf), and he had the additional names Ning-jen (@ A), and T'ing-lin (^ i^). In the depart-
ment
of philology
Ku
composed
five books,
together in
Tzu-te
-^ f*) which is entirely devoted to the archaBology of the language. The first of the five books is entitled ^* Yin-lun "
Discussions on vocal sounds, and
it
(^
(!&)>
may
be regarded as
In
this
we have
extracts from
many
authors and
much
of the
interesting
information
development
Chinese language.
treatises,
previous authors,
y
of characters in early
^'
is
called
''
Shi-pen-yin
(If
;$!
and
^
/
an attempt
*'
the
Shi-ching."
reproduce the sounds of the characters as used in The third is the " Yi-pen " TfC) which does
(^
The fourth
is
the
"T'ang-yun-cheng'^
(H
f|
]) in
which the
by a
collection of evidence
is
The
fifth
book,
/
which
piao "
("i^
^).
The author
was
at the
of these
works was a
man
of
who reasoned
and
and
criticised.
He
same time an
enthusiast, specially
Ch'en Ti and
the proper
Lu Te-ming
treatment
were
the masters
whose views
as to
of the
main adopted.
This and
He
similarity of
of
toue.
86
Language hy
the Chinese.
later authors,
other doctrines of
hfe
Ku
and
g ^)
al.
Tzu-hsiang (-f
;fg),
Wu-chin
is
(^
Jg) in Kiangsu.
("[^T
the *'Ku-chin-yun-liao''
ancient
thesaurus
of
^\
thirty
years
histori-
and
critical
among
to
his
predecessors.
Then
are
follows the
work proper,
tone's
ac3ording
106
finals,
At
commonly regarded
same ending
different.
as of like ending,
to
Wu
Yii
and
Yang Shen,
the
title
for
rhyme purposes
is,
So the book
as
compendium
of old
words.
As has been
on
based
P'an
En's
but Shao
important additions.
The
of
"Kuang-yun"
or one
the
editions
at the
end
Mao
Ch'i-ling
(^
^ W)
^^-
al.
Hsi-ho
(W W)of
This latter
lived from
1623
He was
man
of great
way
Of
his
many
we
notice here
that
3l
known
generally by
its
short
;
title
" Ku-chingig
VIS
^
K
-^
if
^
ft,
"Ku-yan.piao-chun,"
Int.
chap.
IS
^^
:^ IE,
viii.
ed. 1696.
The Cultivation of
t'uDg-yun "
(iSf
their
Language by
the Chinese.
87
Press in 1684.
-^ JJ bJ), which was published at the Imperial The full title (given in a note below) is explained
:
The words
'^
the reign and the year of the reign in which the book
publish-
and
*'
is
literature.
In the introduction
history of the
modes
The
treatise
of
basis of the
''
Ku-chin-t'ung-
Mao
teaches
ch^ii tones,
a class by themselves.
often severe,
His
on
Wu
it
manner.
His book
is
not sanctioned
^
first
edition of the
*'
Cheng-tzu-t'ung
"
3ii)
compiled in the
is
seventeenth century.
This dictionary
latter
by
Liao Wen-ying
(0
Tj^
3^)
of
al.
names
Mei Ying-tsu,
to
Han
T'an
(@ ^)
The
named
is
also
sometimes referred
" Cheng-tzu-t'ung."
the
Kanghsi
it
Lexicon
specially
to
it
mistakes as
or
to
the
of
characters
their
is
classifiers
radicals.
In
latest editions,
however,
comparison of
"
88
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
its
the Chinese.
predecessor and
took
from
it
freely.^
are
still
occaquite
reprinted, but
they
may
Other works
have appeared
since, but it
has
was made
also caused a
language to be compiled.
Yin-yun-ch^an-wei
(@ ii
^)i which became the standard authority on the use The same Emperor also ento
make under
This
published, but
quotations.
usefulness
is
and
its state-
ments
verified
where
possible.
Ten years
after it
appeared a
iM
yun-f
i^ M u
SS)'
Yun-fu gleanings.
As an index
Pei-wen-
little
(8 ) This is the Ssii-yin-shi-i " (0 which gives the characters of the ^^ Pei-wen-yun-fu " according
to the
214
classifiers
The *^Ssu-yin"
explained
a
to
is
and
reference
added
'*
to
which
it is
be found in the
P'ei-wen-yun-fu."
it
This
little
dictionary
seems
to be
much
needed.
Another index
to
the
great thesaurus
is
the
tonic vocabulary
named
''
Yun-hsio-chi-nan,"
guide to the
*'
P'ei-
IE
The Cultivation of
wen."
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
89
of
Wang Ch^n
is
(3E ?^))
a native
It
numerous students
the
of that province.^
of
the Empire.
Fan
T'eng-f^ng
(^
^)
al.
Ling-hsd
(^ ^)
of
of Chihli.
In 1710
H g)
al,
Yun-kung
{%
The
this
published in a
of the
new form
edition.
in 1780,
1710
In
new
system.
finals
initials,
each of six
finals.
The
first six
and
last
These
*'
which are
heavy
and
into
indistinct."
There are
five
tones, the
to the
pHng being
divided
pHng
Chou
Te-ch*ing.
It
is
is
The 1710
is
largely
It has also
will
Yao's
and
it is
be produced.^
We
to
the
study of the
Yung (Jl ^) al. Shen-hsiu {^ ^). Chiang (Kiang) was a native of Wu-yuan in Anhui and lived from 1681 to 1762. He was a man of great learning and ability,
^ B9 I' P? .il (ed. 1843) ^liWM' My copy of the " Pei-w^n-yun-fu" a recent reprint, and is perhaps an unusually bad one.
i
is
'
iS 3l "^ 7C
Q^
(reprint)
xiv.
Ed.
Man.
Gr., p. 38.
90
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
and
'^
the Chinese,
philologist.
In
this last
Yin-hsio-pien-wei "
-gO
^), the " Ssu-sheng-ch'ie-yun-piao " (pg /J the " Ku-yun-piao-chun " ("^ f| ^). The important and the only one of the three which
( J^ f| S) and
most
last is the
is
well
known
at present.
It
was composed
in order to correct
and supplement
the teachings of
Ku
latter
was evidently
is
Chiang's master.
it
The date
1771, and
is
Jg).
The work
of finals,
under the
the author regarded this as the proper system for the sounds of
He
The
people
the
time
and in
the
places
of
their
original
was
to
The forms
and
of
of
time,
so also
published at the same time as the above and by the same editor,
is
it
uurevised and so
it
has
It presents a series of
of characters are
arranged under
four tones
the
fmuchHe
spelling
is
given,
etc.,
also the
Ang
(J^
^)
al.
Shao-hsia
^), of It was
Language hy
the Chinese.
91
increased
by
three.
The
introduction
gives
considerable
amount
the
of information
organs
writers.
The author
some
of the teachings of
P'an Lei (}f ^), who lived from 1646 to 1708 and wrote the "Lei-yin" (5|| ). Chou divides the pHng tone into yin and
After these come the shang and ch'U, the ju tone words
to
their natural
characteristic of this
work
is
attempted.
revised
it
peculiar
feature
to
modern learning on
the eighteenth and
our subject
falls
be noticed here.
In
nineteenth centuries
we
works
of antiquity.
This
shewn
in
by the
and
There
was a
^'
may
be of use
few
of the
more important
revivals
which occurred
The old-fashioned
in
little treatise
the
hand by the
illustrious scholar
^\ famed for
on the
who
shi-ming," edited by Chang Chin-wu (gg ) was published In this work we find several additions made to the old (18)4).
The learned Tai Chen (^ %) took up the old " Fang-yen '* and produced a new edition with proofs and illustrations. He
'
^tr ^m^mi^A.
Man. Gr,
p. 39.
'
^ I ^
(reprint).
92
The Cultivation of
also
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
was
who prepared
the Imperial
of
reprint of the
Kuo Po
Lu Wen-chao
edition
(S
3!C
^B);
who devoted
also
to it
two
treatises.
was studied
with
$g),
who published an
many changes
His
much
favour and his corrections of the current readings are not generally
accepted.
A better
edition
is
(:g|I
J|g),
a very learned
official
who
eenth century.
Shao gave
In preparing
he adopted
Kuo
Po's commentary.
To the
latter
others
with students.
Yuan Yuan in his thirteen Ching, which gives the commentaries of Kuo Po and Hsing Chi with comparisons of As a sort of supplement to texts and other useful information. (gfc Hung Liang-chi "TJrh-ya," the "g), who lived from 1746
brought out by
to
But most
which
it
of
phrases which
it
gives
and
for
'^
^ ^)
contributed prefaces.
*'
*'
Yii-pien" and
to be the popular
also
But none
received so
'
much
ed.
1701
The Cultivation of
their
Language hy
the Chinese.
93
almost gone out of fashion and fallen into neglect during the period
of the
Ming
it
dynasty.
But
turned to
again,
produced
of
One
of
the
first
these
was an
Chu Yun
(-^ ^).
He
reproduced
in
Pao Hsi-lu (Q
^
^)
)
al.
Fu
(;g
^ei-ku
(^ )
finished his
labours on the " Shuo-wen," though his treatise was not publish-
Kuei,
who was
to
a native of Chii-fu
(^
of
J^)
in
He
put out
all
his
new
The name
its
which he gave
to
rification of the
meanings
Shuo-wen," indicates
scope.
The
is
in large characters.
The commentary
full
and
as
With
this last
commonly received he
Shuo-wen."
probable,
however,
as
that
many
'^
of
them
not
it
are
embodied
in his
commentary
editions.
fifty
it
his views
**
of readings
found in various
published for
previous
His
Shuo-wen
it
was
more than
1870 that
years after
was
finished,
and
was not
it
until
became generally
accessible.
In that year
was
edited by Ting
Ken-shan
('J'
^)
Chang
94
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese,
appeared.
One
of
these
was by Tuan
from 1735
Yii-tsai (|5
to
iS) ^^
Jo-ying
(^ ^) who
lived
He
produced an edition
of
the
^'
is
regarded as
supplementary
to that
by Kuei Fu.
Tuan
He
gives
the
and
of
rather
to glorify himself
The
Tuan's,
(:fc f|).
title,
^'
in
many
(-^
is
by Chu Tsun-sheng
g)
al.
Yun-ch'ien
Its
and sounds
of the old
of
But instead
arrangement
The
system
is
each
are
numerous
examples
of characters omitted
or design.^
In addition
Shuo-
wen*' has been several times reprinted within these two centuries;
and in 1839
all
dictionary were
treatise.
find, in addition
Turning back
to the eighteenth
we
mX^^iS.ed.
1808.
Chalmers in 'Ch. Rev.," vol. ix. p. 297, and Lockhart Chu Tsun-sheng's worlc is known as the " Phonetic in " Ch. Rev.," xii. p. 63. " Shuo-wen and it is referred to by that name in the present work.
^
^SM
il
^ ^;
The Cultivation of
their
Language by
the Chinese.
of the
95
most
Of these one
important
is
The author
published
of this
was Tuan
Kiangsu.
Chinkiang Foo in
as
is
now
often
is
an
on the relations
modern language.
Tuan maintains
that the
be kept quite
The ck'U-sheng he
fifth
fourth or
But words, he
is
thinks,
have
been
all
another.
tions
The
''
Liu-shu-yin-chiin-piao "
prefaced by contribu-
Tung-yuan, Ch'ien
Chi-fu
(^
]g)
),
all
scholars of
Tai Chen
(^ g)
of the
al.
Tung-yuan
C^
al.
Sh^n-hsiu ('^
^) He
was a native
Hui-chow Prefecture
to
of
Anhui and
lived
from 1723
to 1777.
In addition
''
many
Sheng-yun-k'ao " (g f| ^) in four chuan, the " Sheng-lei-piao " (g ^) in ten chitan, and the
"Hsii-yen" (1^ =). Tai's studies in the language embraced the forms and sounds of characters and also their uses and history.
He had
to
by a wide
range of reading.
Of a
sceptical disposition
he always wanted
he was taught
know
of
the
how and
the
why
of the statements
to accept.
This
spirit gives
them
a value to his writings and makes interest. Thus the '' Hsii-yen "
examines the different uses made of such words as tao (J), li (g|), hsing (^) by various writers and various schools of religion
and philosophy.^
'
:^m^mm
(reprint).
'
m'^m^my'l^m,
chap,
v.-,
mm
(reprint).
96
The Cultivation of
Ch'ien Ta-hsin
their
Language hy
the Chinese,
(^
H|f) ^^-
who
lived
from 1728
ful little
to 1804,
This use-
{^
^@,)
and
first
of characters,
for
other words
way
of writing.
is of
The
which
this little
book gives
much
own
learning,
well read
not only in
all
the literature of
country but also in Western learning as taught by Ricci, Schall, and Verbiest. The " Sheng-lei " was composed very gradually,
the materials for
it
and other
treatises.
it
It
was intended
to
use
of students
and accordingly
One
of
the best
language is that by Li Ju-chen (^ ifr ^) al. Sung-shi {^ ^). This treatise, named " Li-shi-yin-chien " or Li's mirror of words,
was
first
it
editions.
own
as a
means
He
had the
pleasant
is
command of a large library and enjoyed the society of The Mirror of Words friends who had similar tastes.
In these the origin and history
finals,
initials,
mainly in the form of question and answer, contained in thirtyof the written
spelling,
three sections.
modes
of
and
manner.
on
it
'
^ ^> ed. 1852 " Kuo-ch'ao-han-hsio," ^ 15 a" ii ed. 1808 Ed. Shanghai Gr.
; ;
etc.,
chap.
111.
(2nd ed.)
p. 51, etc.
Ed. Mam.
"
The Cultivation of
described
(fff
their
Language by
the Chinese.
97
by Dr. Edkins
is
the
" Yen-hsu-ts'ao-t^ang-pi-chi
H :^ S ^
and
IB) by Pi Hua-cben
(H
$ jg).
of
it
This author
is
v/
" the
and construction
tlie
of sentences."
present writer
knows
Edkins' Grammars.^
A recent
is
treatise
which deserves
to
be better
known than
it
at present
is
The meaning
Historical
of this
title, to
itself, is
(g
^tf;
^)
of Hsi-tsun in the
same
was
Prefecture as
Amoy.
it
1879, long
the author's
an introduc-
North Formosa,
and
of the language. He was a follower of Tuan Yii-tsai, and took the " Shuo-wen " as edited by Tuan for the basis of his
work.
The
"Shuo-wen"
The
are printed at
spelling of each is
given after
Tuan
and uses
of the
of writing.
his treatise,
to
in fourteen
chuan, to
were a supplement
much
originality, but
it
of in the
The
dialects
parts
of
are from certain points of view distinct languages, and they have
their
own phonetic
dictionaries,
at
least
republished.
1
Two
p. 58.
of
have been
98
The Cultivation
oj their
Language hy
used.
to
the Chinese.
much
But
Kanghsi,
efforts
substitute
the
standard
edict
commanding the
institution of schools in
of
mands
afterwards.
of certain schools,
and in course
of time
natives of
published in 1748.
of
(g
^), a native
province.
Chang-p^u
in
the
Chang-chow Prefecture
Peking and other
cities,
of
that
Ts'ai
it
had
travelled to
to
his
business
observe
the
capital
having
first
learned
Mandarin.
When
old,
this book,
which
he
It is a classified
common
The
The sounds
of characters are
comment
or explanation
added.
Fuhkien
who had
to travel as
mandarins or merchants.
of
It has evidently
it
to be
some
use,
for
cheap and
portable.-^
standard language.
of
the short
title
which
is
composed by Chang Yii-ch'eng (5| j^) al. Ch'ang-ch^i (^ ^) of Pao-an in the Prefecture of Canton. The aim of the author
was
to
the cheng-yin
The book
is
own province
specially.
in
Mandarin terms
common
In a short introduc-
He
'
five yin,
which correspond
to
the five
99
Then he
Thus
words
This
ning.
There
is
opening the
lips/'
^'
mouth."
kind
of this
is
the
'^
Cheng-yin-tso-
./
yao " by
Kao
Ching-t'ing
it
(^
^ f).
much
of
Mandarin. Western
of it in
know
the
making
Canton, but he
and lived
first at
Peking
not
and afterwards
of
at other places
the people.
His
little
work
very
useful
but
it
is
This
Canton.
man So
I-tsun
[^
^ ^)
For the people of that city he composed the "Ch^ngyin-pien-wei " and the " Cheng-yin-tsii-hua.'^ ^ The former was
published in 1837 and the latter a few years afterwards, and both
They
used
standard
of
Mandarin
terms in
common
characters,
sound
of
each character,
the
utterances.
all
The "
these
Cheng-yin-tsii (or
chi'l)
hua "
It
not only
^ There seem to be several editions of this book (ed. 1863). H. a" with slight variations of detail or arrangement.
H^
'
*^tl.
277.
100
Language by
the Chinese.
also
between
later
treatise
than the
is
small one
named
first
in 1872.
The author
He
j^ H), of Anhui extraction but born at also aimed at ascertaining and diffusing the
{'[^
it
of all the
composition,
and history
is
The
sketch, however,
necessarily
But
is
it
study.
From
the
'*
Shuo-wen "
have been
down
texts,
up the meaning,
or
One
of
the best
by
Wang
Yin-chi
(J
This is devoted to the particles found 51 i,) published in 1798. in the ancient orthodox classics, and in some degree it performs
the part of a grammar.^
treatise,
But
there probably
is
at least of authority,
grammar.
by that term.
The language, indeed, wants what we understand Or perhaps we should say of it what Sir Philip our own language in reply to those who object of Sidney says *'Nay, truly, it hath that prayse, that it "wanteth grammar"
^ il f# ^).
vol. iv.,
The title of the book is "Ching-chuan-shi-ssu" (Jji^ Prolog, p. 178 Julien Synr. Nouvelle, etc., T. i. p. 153.
;
^^
|sl).
see L.
C C,
The Cultivation of
that
it it
their
Language hy
:
the Chinese.
101
for
Grammar
itself,
it
mighf^have, but
so
needes
not
beeiug so easie of
and
voyd
of those
cumbersome
a
Tower
man
we know from
seat
several
excellent
in
human
race,
and so their
.-
Au
p.
70 (Arbeir's reprint).
CHAPTER
III.
by
first
And
and
language
is
development
human speech
generally.
Now
must be
to us,
owned
known
degree of
as
full or
accurate thought.
Yet
it
were rash
of
to say,
some have
speech
have had on it, at times at least, decided opinions. On the one hand we know that the Chinese hold their own language in very high esteem, and on the other that they have composed, as we have seen, many works treating of the history, structure,
sound, and meaning of
at least a certain
its
written characters.
amount
And
not only
this,
scattered here
and there
in Chinese
and
any
treatise devoted
to
it
It is the
aim
bring
together a few
birth
about the
specially such as
Origin and Early History of the Language.
103
To begin at the beginning, the theory that the first human who lived on this earth were speechless does not seem The books and common to have ever prevailed in China. traditions of the country generally represent those unknown
beings
creatures as a turps, but seldom or never as a
mutum
peciis.
to
in
dens or caves,
as they arose
like the beasts for food
They were not, however, and were satisfied. among which they Hved and which they hunted
On
the contrary,
beginning,
that
speech
the world.^
Han Wen-kung,
first like
to
grow
grain,
and honour
their dead,
their superiors, to nourish their living until sages arose to teach them.^
Here we
find barbarians
of
speech.
But from
as
foreigners
little
above
the brute
creatures,
and some
the I and
is
Ti
(H
j^)
Hence we
find the
character for
Dog
to
represent the
names
of foreign tribes.
The speech
of these also
compared
the shrill scream of the shrike and the calls of other birds.
The
people of Yang-shan in
to
Kuangtung were
and the faces
In
like
said by
Han Wen-kung
and they
of birds
of barbarians,
were
him
barbarians.
manner
of foreigners
sounded
M'>
^f-
also
Sung
in
Lien's Pre-
2 Collected Works, chap. xx. This opinion is found also other authors and is based on semi^historical legends.
the works of
104
women had at one time been brought over. The speech of these was unknown to the Greeks, to whom the strangers appeared to be chattering like birds talking like doves. When the women learned to talk Greek they were said to utter human speech.
that
they
did
not use
also
cheaped
like bats.
So
"But
I,
if
she
speaking
We
are
whom
''
were
tongues."
The
purpose,
result of
why Chinese
philosophers have
What
may
and
subject
loves,
and
fears,
of his
nature.
repeat.
" That
man
is
There
nor
anything which shews that the faculty was one attained by slow
degrees and after
describes
in the
many vague
attempts.
One
native philosopher
air contained
man
as speaking
and tongue.
The
act of speaking
movements
of the
The power
of
powers, and these need food and drink for their main-
tenance.
Hence
it
night.''^
as
Str., L.
2
1.
Wang Chung
|^
105
kinds of
Two
as echo
and thunder
the clap-
two
solids
make
;
drum and
ping of hands
that
made by a fan or an arrow and the air working on a solid gives the human voice and the sounds of wind instruments.-^ Hence we find the vocal utterances of man classed with
those of other animals, with the song of the bird and the cry of
moved by outward
influences.
They
are
body
air,
of definite
call or cry of
the elemental
for
the
whistles
and
roars.*'
Hence we
find such a
term as ming
kinds of noises.
It is properly
and
But
it is
bell,
crow
the ass's
bray, the neigh of the horse, and the manifold voice of man.
There
is
difference between
lost
man and
is
by common people.
makes
But
human
first
beings
and the lower animals, that the former have a perfect and
the latter an imperfect material organisation.^
utterances of
The
vocal
man
are those
made from
instinctive feeling,
and
humanity and
living beings
nM-:k^,
t]!,*
g| f|, chap.
i. ;
cf.
Geiger Ursprung u.
Ein., p. 9.
viii.
See
^ ^^^
TtC
H i ^, chap.
and chap,
xi.j
Legge, C.
L.,
ii.,
201.
106
language.
The The
feelings
are
deficiencies
by ejaculations and
which
call for
sufficing,
move
to
and
fro.^
As
we know,
such
when
stirred.
From
developed into
In general, writes
Han Wen-kung,
when
disturbed.
mute
and
so
with water.
give sound
speech.
when
struck,
and
it
is
the same as to
man
;
with
When
he sings
tis anxiety
and weeps
proceed from his mouth are the result of his being disturbed.
Speech
is
the quintessence of
human
Chinese writers were led to the theory that their spoken language
had
its
origin in music.
By
this,
may
first
be
in
One
author, at
states
the
its
argument in
on arguments derived
that of
clear
With
it
we may compare
of
stated in his
wonted
In the "Descent
its
Man"
he writes, "I
and
aided
by
signs
and gestures,
of various natural
own
instinctive cries.
Legge, C. L.,
iv., p.
34 of Prolegomena.
' 3
the IE
#^
git,
Int.
cf.
also the 1^
^j^
f^, Int.
107
When we
we
of
in singing
we may
of the sexes,
and serving
as a challenge to
their rivals.
The
imitation by
to
words
But on
the other
also
Chinese writers
who
made
from nature.
theory which Mr. Spencer expounds and developes with his usual
power in one
of the
most interesting
of his Essays.^
it is
of
The
first
men
spoke
the
find
any conscious
effort.
The
feelings
man's mind,
Articulate utterances
tell us,
of course
no one
The
For exkong
called a river
as
good
as the other,
and each
natural law.
With
these
statements
we many compare
the
emphatic declaration
natural product.
^
of the great
Professor
Max
Vol.
i.,
p.
'
^ ^ ^, the ^
chap.
i.
i.,
108
\^
there
it is
any
man either to
produce or prevent
it.
We might think
of our blood, or
laws of speech,
or inventing
is
new words
according to our
if
own
pleasure.
As man
to
them, the poet and philosopher become the lords of language only
if
they
know
its
Chinese opinions
as
to
what
is
the
first
articulate
human
baby.
Some
tell
us that
it is
huangof
To each
the
ssH
assigned.
(|f ).
huang
Now
in man's constitu-
But
other native
is
writers
tell
us that the
or ya.
Hence the
letter called
an a element.
It
is
ei or i
Chinese,
is
human
constitution.
Our
forefathers
seem
to
distinctions
utter-
manner.
Hampole's
may
weman,
"Pricke of Con-
science "
we read that a
The author
" Whether
If
and cry."
be
known
be
man
or
For when it es born it cryes swa it be man, it says ^a, a,' That the first letter es of the nam Of our forme-fader Adam.
1 1^ Language,"
"g-
i^, chap.
i.,
vol.
p.
i. IW ^, p. 50; "Lectures on the Science of 40 C9th ed.) With Professor Miiller's teaching compare
;
by Professor Whitney
ii.
in his "
^ i^
_
M,
chap.
ii.
The character
also writen
with
109
And
if the child a woman be, When it es born, it says *e, e,' E es the first letter and the hede
know
the historical
But a
different explanation
given by
Webbe, who
it
tions.
He,
will
in
China
and he says
first
;
Noah
settled
*'
Wherefore
it is
not
yay ya,
ya
as
we should be born with his name Jah in our mouths, which name is generally ascribed to him, when some notable deliverance
that
or benefit, according to his former promise
comes
to pass, because
all, life,
he
is
things
Acts
17. v. 25
or
else,
that in our
swathling clothes
of
the Primitive
Language,
till
afterwards confounded, as
This
may
first
utterances
and
The
as other
Nor
is
man
among mortal
beings.
The
human
who
speech.
is
As
it
can speak
doubted
others,
while of those
agree to
only
when
to
it
is
drunk.
That
all
it
seems
be the opinion of
is
authorities.
a creature of
an ape.
The
last is the
is
form
in
which
^
it is
always
Essay,
etc., p. 62.
110
human
being.
Another ape-like
is
^^
It also
man
or
woman.
it
eats them.
The
of
human
The
being by
Tortoise,
ancient and mystical, which inhabits the fifth stage of the fabled
Sumeru Mountain,
speech.
to the
is
also credited
Among birds,
human known
In the country of the Tiao-chi (j^ a monstrous bird called the Chi-chio
This bird
it
ttat
is,
is
said
to
understand
is
human
first
speech but,
we
can talk.
but
its
There
talk,
is
tongue must
and
it
of great
importance that this should be done on the 5th day of the 5th
moon.
it
its
may make
"That
true,
odious libel on a
human
voice."
The
it is
gently
down
the back.^
Now
The
parrot, as one
author says, can speak but he cannot carry on a conversation, because he has only the capacity to speak, not the faculty of speech
of others
it,
As
cannot originate
intelligence.
1
new
expressions, because
It learns the
li.,
words which
man
"Pen-ts'ao," chap,
f;
IS"
chih "
that
it
we
il SE. chaps, vi. and x. In the "Poh-wuis Uke a yellow dog with a man's face, and
can speak
(
is
?H
^^
^^j
tlQ
f^ W). chap.
iii.
Another way of
writing Sing-sing
54 1&-
Ill
That
is,
and
ing.
and
Birds
They may
of
in
some
in
respects
qualities, the
germs
which are
them
at birth
filial
is
true to
mate
the fox does not forget th^ place of his birth, and the
all of its
ant helps
fox give
kin.
his
mother or a
way
to his elders ?
Do
pair,
The
may
the fitness of time and place, and so are no better than other
birds.
featherless biped,
li
may
speak,
but without
of doing
(jg) he
is
is
not man.
It
is this
what
which
lifts
man
Some
its first
words by imitating
its
mother.
But
it
human
sounds, not
human
Dante,^ which these creatures imitate, and they are not " capable
1 Huai Nan-tzu's Works, chap, xvi.; $|" On the P5 g^, chap. ii. other hand we read of men in former times who understood the langfuage of the lower animals. See, e.g., the Supplement to the " Poh-wu-chih" (j^ |^ jg), chap. iii. There are also instances on record in which the parrot is not merely an imitator but also initiates a conversation and shows tender feeling. So also a mainah when sold to a barbarian committed suicide, saying that he was a Chinese bird and would not go among barbarinns (^ Si ^Wi^^> chap, xvii.) or or "^ Some tell us that the mainah (^ "^ ^) in its wild state cannot speak, and it is only when domesticated it learns to talk, ' @^i' chaps, ccccxxi. and ccccxxxii.; "Li-chi," chap, i., and Confui^ 1^ Of the term Li (^), Gallery, an excellent authority, cian writers generally. writes as follows " Autant que possible, je I'ai traduit par le mot Eite, dont le mais il faut convenir que, suivant sens est susceptible d'un grande etendue Ceremonial, Ceremonies, les circonstances ou il est employe, il pent signifier Pratiques ceremoniales L'etiquette, Politesse, Urbanite, Courtoisie, Honnetete, Bonnes manieres, Egards, Bonne education, Bienseance, Les formes, Les convenances, Savoir vivre. Decorum, Decence, Dignite personelle, Moralite de conduite, Ordre social, Devoirs de societe, Lois sociales, Devoirs, Droit, Morale, Lois hierarchiques, Ofifrande, Usages, Coutumes.," " Li-ki," introduction, p. 16. See his " Delia Volg. Eloq.," L. i., chap. ii.
MA^M
=*
112
of
As
William Humboldt,
Man
is
Man
Other
may
parrot, these animals are also credited with the possession of other
and
it
has been
heard
to recite
supreme supernatural
intelligence
which
all
But
of
meaning
is
the property
man
only.
which makes
him man.^
vocal.
The
first
men
but their speech was only the air made music of an " oeolian flute," the free indeed, the It was,
effort,
whistling of heaven.
Still it
as
an old
philosopher says,
human
is
speech
not whistling.
He who speaks
is
nothing
chirp of a chick.^
is
the handle of the moral nature, the lord of action, the motive
of the
power
with
man
that
The
object of speech
But
it is
Thus we
"Antiquity of Man,"
p.
i.,
p. 394.
'
Ku-liang's
Commentary on the
in
(^
fjk
M^
S)B)j
chap.
ix.
'^
Chuang-tzu
See
"
i.
113
not fully represent the spoken language so this latter does not
fully express the mind.^
Speech
is
is,
as
it
not the
mouth which
speaks.
It
li
is
the spiritual
through
faculties " (^ fB
5 V)>
or, as
Legg
These
translates,
*'
The Eeverent
XJiese
and thinking.
five,
keep
them
little
right.
Without
this,
(j^),
he
is
reason, and
to lack
Thus we
who
once
did not
know language (^
rich
to
" black
slaves,
*'
much used by
This, however, probably only meant that they could not speak
Chinese.^
primeval
first
man
But even
in
its earliest
as
we now know
of the world,
muddy
source
myriad creatures
the
spiritual principle
which he
From
is
and
and much
which
common
property.
From
the mind proceeded such terms as those for Filial Piety, Man must have always had some idea Justice, Law, Humanity.
^
^ 3
S ^ ^ i^,
" Yi-cWng," the Ji ^, chap. xii. etc., chap. viii. p. 25, Commentary
vol.
iii.
H ^ ^ ^. chap.
a), chap.
i.
i.
Chinese Classics,
p.
;
(^
iv.
(^
114
But
it
was not
until the
names
the
were fabricated by
first
who
says,
taught in the
uncertain twilight of
is
human
life.
The Chinese
well expressed by
Eenan when he
"It
is
certain that
we do
exercising a certain
them and capable of imposing on others what The aristocracy of sages was the law of
ferment at
first
tined heads."
In some native treatises we find the work of " correct naming " ascribed to the semi-mythical Huang Ti, who
supposed to have lived about B.C. 2600.
is
He
is
said to
all
have
the then-
names
modes
of expression
actualities of nature
glory
is
had been
first
limited extent,
names
and the
But
it
fathers of
thought.
Hence the
" verba
view
115
improvement
moral or
1
of society.
They
political
motive prompting
But
if
speech
is
nature's gift to
it
to
vary
from place
to place ?
to
That
it
been declared
nature's,
alter,
But how
is it
in her midst
itself varies
frontiers,
from
the
district to district ?
too
we have
work
is,
of nature.
The answer is that here The " wind air " and the " soil
Then
character and conduct of the people react on the climatic conditions of a place,
a mysterious but
undoubted influence.
Thus "wind
air'' (fi
^) means
not only
moral character.
character which
make
they speak
this is the
who knew by
speech.
tells us,
human
language of this
of that, all
district is
not understood by
result
of the
local
influences
by the people.
all
The
children
of
barbarous
(5^
H),
writes another,
are infants,
^
make the same noises when they but speak differently when they grow up, and the
;
1 See ;?; "^ 3^ i^, chap. xi. and introduction !!L;i"De L'Origine du Lang.," preface, p. 25 (4th ed.)
::^
Benan,
116
of the circumstances
li
As
it is
by having
it is
(jg) that
man
is
this li
which
distin-
(g ^)
()J>
A) among
^^ *^
This
li,
J5S ?b);
Without
a language.
this
li,
or sense of
what
is
right
and becoming in
is
man
called
To invent
of the
to find out
and
fit
on the due
names
of the objects
and phenomena
of nature
and
of the feelings
and thoughts
As Hobbes
though not
invention
so
well
" But
the
most
noble
and
profitable
of all
names
or
men
and
register their
also
;
thoughts;
recall
are past;
declare
them one
to another for
utility
and conversation
without
commonwealth,
lions,
air,
and
live a vague,
uncertain
life.
They fade
and
die
from memory
like
an echo
So even in very
and
way
of perpetuating
spoken words and saving them from the fate of dark forgetfulncss.
And how
do Chinese think
\irords of
men
arrived at this ?
Let us
learning.
:
author says
1 Yuan-tsang in "Hsi-yu-chi " chap, i.; " Sacred Edict," Art. ix. Ampin.; chap, i.; " Huai-nan-tzii," chap. xi. Kang-hsi's Diet., preface; the :^ llj ^, chap, xxxiii. ; " Li-shi," etc., as above, chap. i. ; *' Li-chi," (H gg), ed. Yuan-yuan). chap.'xii. (+
^^^
'
^^,
iv.
117
The
combination of
is
visible representation.
no means
we may reasonably infer that men at first were naked and unkempt. They killed wild animals, skinned them and tore up their carcases for food and clothing. Their
origin of mankind, but
emotional natures were fierce like those of birds and beasts, and
their intellects
were undeveloped
like
those of infants.
They
to
make known
each
Then
names
to things,
and
so they
had a supply
arisen,
of
sounds for
classes
and as
cated,
men
So in
arrangement) of knotted
Then
as
to
form
At
(g
is,
tallies
or
indentures.
When
these
all
material objects were pictured and the essential features of immaterial objects were indicated.
the names of
all
objects
Thus engravings were made for material and immaterial, and thence
The author
pictorial
goes on to shew
how
the
first
writing,
be followed by other
human
few
The whole
faults, is interesting
and worthy
It
was
own, which
aiding
first
an excellent translation of the whole of this introduction. His rendering of the text from which the above passage is taken will be found at p. 5. Mr. Hopkins will see that his remarks on the rendering given in the China Review " have
'*'
led to
some
iji
118
evidence.
first
The inventor
of this
expedient
of course
tradition
points to Sui-jen-shi
past.
(^
A J6)j
Some
and some
to Fu-hsi.
attributed to Confucius,
And
poses.
in other
old books,
Manchoos, and
Miao-tzu.
of
said to exist
it
still
among some
some
tribes of the
In China
was
instituted,
purposes
Government.
expressions as
Chiesheng-cM'Cheng
(^
|5|
l|5;),
cords, to denote that purely mythical time the golden age of the
world's
life.
and
for pre-
matter of importance
(or knotted cord)
said to
have been
affair
signified
by a large knot
and a small
by a small
inventor,
one.
for
which
its
this expedient
it is
been
of society
important.^
It seems to have been for purposes of counting
and recording
matters which involved numbers that those very primitive and simple combinations called Ho-t^u
(JrT
^) and Lo-shu (^ )
of
were invented.
these accepted as
These are
to be
The Ho-tu,
or plan
^ 1^, chap. i. J " Yi.ching," the " Lun-heng," chap, xviii.; Tao-tS-ching, chap. Ixxx. wpn " (chap. xlix. in the iJ SP
Emm
fi BMi^m^V'
j
^ H Uh
119
is
an
55
circles, of
to ten,
is
both inclusive.
of
The Lo-shu,
45 dark and
or writing
an arrangement
to nine,
light circles
fifteen is
made up by
or a diagonal manner.
According
the
menon
its
to Fu-hsi,
as
models or
hints.
Setting
By
of all
all
s^
understanding.
The
figure
known
regard
it
as
the Pa-kua
is
greatly
who
and
also as a potent
Drudenfuss.
What
purpose
first
now
the
long ago.
It represents,
primitive division of
x^
illustrations of
In
its
trigrams also
the hidden
its origin.
Some
native authors
think that the combination of the two kinds of lines were meant
to represent a
system of counting.
So
line I.
of philosophic mysteries
combinations
which, as
it
of
these
lines,
Binary Arithmetic
have rediscovered some thousands of years afterwards." The " Yi-ching," which interprets the mystical meanings of the Va-
kua and
its
is
regarded by the
Wuttke Geschichte d. Schrift, etc., p. 247 Leibnitz op. vol. iv. p. 208 (ed. Dutens). With Mayers' account of the Hb-i'w and Lo-s/iw compare the statement of Tsai Yuan-ting in the introduction of the TJsi i|.
y,
chap, x.;
jg
^;
^^
120
But,
notched
of
or indented.
They
some kind
from the
earliest
The expedient was, however, a rude and simple one common to the Chinese with other tribes. Thus the chiefs of the ancient Tungus gave warrant to their commands by means of such sticks,
in
Man (^) tribes in Chinese are said to have used them making agreements. Carving in wood seems to have been practised in China from a remote period, and to have been
and the
employed
for various purposes.
projecting
beams
The use
is
no record
of its
beginning.
It too
confined to matters of
From
tallies,
some derive
the immediate origin of writing, while others regard the chH and
shu (^) as
coseval.
One
(^I|
the
was
Fa-t^ (7V
H) appointed
Ti,
^)
But
society.
carved
of a
growing
The Chinese,
ing
at
an early period
their
history
learned to
cut
and
afterwards paint, in
of objects.
wood and
beginning of writing
for
them.
pictorial representations or
rough symbols
of natural objects
and
phenomena.
an outline
of
That
an
is,
object, or
(^
i^),
'?i'
"
(also called
;
v., p.
Hon Han. shu," chap, xc; "Sui-shu," the Nan-man-chuan ; ^^.r; M Legge, 0. C, ^, etc.), chap. xv. |t ji M l3c ^> chap. iv. '^ ^ ah-liang-chuan," chap. vi. (-f* i:; ^) " Me-tzii " (^ ^), chap. 106 " Kuh
;
i.
121
call
But
it
is
scarcely
correct
to
them
much
The symbols
were called
Wen
The
covered.
by some ascribed
to Fu-hsi,
and by
some
to
Shi Huang-shi
Fu-hsi.
Of
this latter it is
the
ft R), a mythical ruler who preceded expressly recorded that he " drew " writing '' literally, " writing
tallies
(M
9)'
Here, as in previous
is
view
is
said to
to replace the
But
it is
to Tsaug-chie
(^ g)
has an
This
man
uncertain personality.
shi,
He
Huang Ti, and with others. He is also said to have been one of Huang Ti's Ministers of State, and to have had four Not only did he make the first characters, but he also, eyes.
with
according to some accounts, greatly developed the art of writing.
Thus he
is
said to
six
to have been done by Fu-hsi, the "nose-ancestor," or ner of the art of writing. But there is a glamour on
begin-
all
Chinese
writers
to
describe
the
first
origin
and early
these
The
artificer of
can never be known, but he must have been men. To him> whether Tsang-chie or another, moved by the
far above everyday
secret force of fate, appeared
Its
back was marked by lines which formed quaint devices to the wonder. He eye of the sage, and stirred his mind to think and of system writing. a devised and took the hints, as it were,
This invention was fraught with great consequences, and put the millet, ghosts wailed universe in commotion. The heavens rained
122
who
as
They think
it
man
The
nature.'^
Then
called,
These
are tzH
(^)
as
if
^,
bearers of
or as
if
-y, sons,
Hence
it
may
a natural course.^
will not
have
it
that Tsang-chie, or
who-
purely arbitrary or
\ aim and
rule
throughout.
proceeded with
heavens above
and
all their
the unvarying sun, and the endless succession of all the elemental
phenomena.
bird's flight
and
its
These he
to
with
but
how was he
symbol
ness?
for
which the
in
Not even
of the
He
cannot properly
to
be said
to
have in
man's genius.
period of writing
jI Preface
^
.
many
i.
;
were representi. ;
*E, chap. ^ t, chap. ^ Ji ^, iijg ^Mayers, B chap. 756 |^ ^j, chap. Ch. R. M., ^ |^ ^ j^, chap, the ir ~ i^ ed.) Preface to " Shuothe t^ ^ ^ gt ^ ii ^ chap. " Ho-kuan-tzu " wen;" Supplement to " Poh-wu-chih," chap, (| ^ ^),
etc.,
i.;
;
:No.
iii.
iii.
(in
v.;
123
At
first
business,
and
of
symbol.
The
chief
improvers
had
view was
It
to
make
be appealed to as evidence.
was
in matters of government,
the prince of one state invaded the. territory of another, slew the
inhabitants,
and carried
off
recorded.
in metal
It
and engraved
and stone
be inscribed on
sacrificial
information of posterity.
made
might be given
and
the stupid might be able to remember and the wise extend their
thoughts.^
The
stated, to
it
system,
In the
it
had
to pass
characters so called.
Han
dynasty (B.C.
practical-
200),
ly
we
had become
unknown.
When
Canonical and other old works were discovered, the writing was
unknown
to the people.
name
of a certain
in
some books are not unlike imitations of tadpoles and not very It is also stated that the kind of like significant characters.
1
^ ^ ^ 1, chap.
ziii*
xvi.
*'
Huai-nan.tzii," chap.
ohap.
124
writing
known
as the "
known
as the
Great
The
written
and
And
it
was
their original
Writing,
we
to
are told,
was born
of sound,
it
was
instituted to
is
Again, writing
said
is
be the woof and speaking the warp into which the former
Woven.
sound and
*^dots
visible representa*
and strokes"
as
the
lodging place of
human
speech
when bodied
Dr. Edkins also has stated that " the phonetic characters appear
to
They
among
According
to
down
language.
may
be
true,
however,
written
characters,
strictly so called.
The
which was
called
wen
(3!^), is
stated
that
wen
is
But
And
and
of
lasting influence
on the former.
The
origin
Chinese
treatise of
Wuttke on
the History of
Writing.
The
sources
i.;
"Ho
125
will
yield to
any in
their appreciation of
deified
developments.
the
and
his
supposed tomb
a place of pilgrimage
From
and a man
of culture
is
and wide
sympathies.
Writing,
says Kanghsi,
As
to great matters,
has transmitted
and
as to small matters,
it
memory cannot
;
It
can bring
to-
them to hold intercourse and by it scholars of all the world, though living far apart, may take hands and talk their minds It makes a man's good repute, and aids him in his together. profession, expands his intelligence and supplies him with
evidence.
By
it
man
speaking.^
With
it is
own language
only which and the native writing only when he speaks of writing. The Chinese, as every one knows, are very proud of their language
sj)6ken
by no means
especially
when considered
It is square
is
utterances.
and
an author already
also very
There are
use
for
many terms and expressions in common characters are known to exist, and this is
which
no
For the
d.
126
most
human
life
and thought, as
six-fold
full
and complete,
writes
wanting nothing.
In their
classification,
one
author, the written characters embrace all the topics with which
man
human
affairs,
for
little of
all
But
own
One
of the
marks whereby a
barbarian
is
known
is
When
Buddhism came into the country its missionaries taught the Chinese a new language with sages and writings which they They could not put this new language in the could not despise.
same
class
to
and improve
their
own language.
One
systems of writing.
The
by Brahma,
is
left to right
is
that
But one
is
of the
marred by a
1
spirit
etc.,
**It appears to
me,"
" Liu-shu-ku,"
127
Fan
is
{i.e.,
stress
laid
letters.
Chinese distinguish
sounds.
Hence
in
;
the language of
Fan
there
is
is
an endless
variety of sound
of
an endless variety
of
the character.
sound excite an
;
in Chinese,
distinctions.
The people
of
Fan
;
enters
by the eye."
Within the
it
in
essay,
Foreign Writing.^
* iic IfC, chap. ix. ; Morrison's Diet., Part i., vol. i., Int., p. vi. ; fl^ chap. iii. This comparison of Sanskrit and Chinese is curtailed from the 5th chap, of the " Liu-shu-liao," by Cheng Ch*iao. The passage occurs near the end of the chapter.
^^
^,
^^
The ft
#^
la.
by E^ f: ^.
CHAPTER
IV.
The
faculty of speech, as
regarded by Chinese
But
this
most
highly
endowed men
names and
and
all
life.
There
are,
however, expressive
own no law save that of use and wont. The curious note them down as he hears them from the lips of may scholar He may tell also with explanatory theory how the the people.
nature and
common
differs
But more
or,
attempt-
The
cries, calls,
mimicking
noises,
and
all
to
have
classified as Interjectional or
Emo-
It will be seen as
we proceed
some
of the involuntary
and inarticulate ejaculations are adopted into the family of words, and that mere mimicking sounds may come to be used as names
or epithets.
by grammarians and
it
is
come
to
On
The
the Interjectional
129
old writers on
these ejacula-
tions
parts of speech."
Even
Nay
more, they
human
rather of a kind with the calls and cries of the brute creation,
as
to their
shame.
and
of
having
to
some
all
will
have
it
this view, or
who
to
cannot deny
It
must
at
least
be conceded that
of the vocabulary of
most
dialects flows,
and
some
of their
forcible
is
and
in the
They
worthy
are,
however, regarded
as
of
When
is
he meets one in a
book on which he
is
commenting, he
been taught
loose
is its
He
has certain
classifications
these
natural
fitfully as
vocal expressions,
and
or imitating
phenomena.
The
130
On
we
mode
of their
Many
word with a
liberal interpretation.
functions.
of the
brief
and
some
most common
Chinese
and some
of the
is
of these
nature-sounds
Some
of the
Vocabubeen
also
laid
under contribution.
Describing the material or " elements of articulate speech,"
life
expresses
tions,
some
desire,
which
in
imitation of the
designate
as vocal gestures.
to express the
con-
sonants
are
more
the
expression
the
free
intelligence.
Interjections
sions
;
mere utterance
Long
Chinese
Grammar had
Under
this
On
the Interjectional
131
of the
kinds of occasions.
Some
of
them are
to be heard
now
Few
of vowels
ctftisonants
The
and
in
most cases
As
many
cases well
known, we need
One
with
its
that
may be heard
every day
hai-ya.
is
variations
oi^a and
This
an exclamation of
which
it is
used,
it
is
ex-
may
also be used as a
noun or
is,
verb,
when
it is
said of a
man
shouted
ai-ya, literally
ai^ya-ed.
We
Thus we have makes the sad reft]j^ Pf P^) which which a disconsolate wife mourns the departure
So
also
wa
or
wa-wa
is
a very
common exclamation
part
of the
It also forms
refrain of
some melancholy
Pf ) of the
songs,
pitiful
g Pf 1^
to represent the
sound
wa
has
seem
to
and
it is
of very old
* Farrar'8 "Language and Languages," p. 74; Endlicher'a Ch. Gr., S. 350. For much information and guidance in connection with the subject of this chapter the author is much indebted to the two works here quoted, to Lect. xiii. of Prof. Marsh's Lect. on the Eng. Lang,, and to Tylor's " Primitive Culture, Tol. i., chaps. V. and vi.
132
On
the Interjectional
like heng-heng.
And
so
which
is
moan, or
moan
An
word
who have
a
learned the
Hundred Lessons.
In one
another
how he went
to see a certain
man
about an
affair of
common friend, and describes the bad treatment which he received. At the interview, however, the horrid creature (k'o-wu-ti'tung'
hsij
was allowed
to
all
"did
official
ha) used
like SsiX^jpai-pan-tzu-mei-ko-heng-
ha, that
is,
moan
of
pain.
made,
\. which
is
expressed as
They also moan or sigh out a sound han or na^han while doing work which
This sound resembles somewhat the
of
han
is
used also
or moan, or
To
yell
in this
generally denoted by
the han or no'han (0^ J^) already mentioned. This term is also used to denote the loud shout or war-cry with which Chinese
soldiers attack an
enemy
or
make an
assault.
It is possible
soldier
and workman
the
made by
Roman
body
is
The
latter,
he
tells us,
making the
kept on the stretch, and the stroke comes with more force.
133
common interjection is
X
and yu (written pj and occasionally ^). This expresses alarm, terror, or mental anguish, and comes to mean to sigh or grieve.
It also often indicates merely displeasure or dissatisfaction, but
it
gives
is
it
frequently
use distinct
\ and
precise.
With
it,
for example,
we
now
!
tsie
ts^o or cho.
Thus Eu'tso-mingThis
(PJ @| ft /P
ife) is,
of
an emperor
it is
a mere
it
Lo
or
Ah
to call attention or
head
an utterance.
Then
distress,
So we
!
find
our wives
tsie
yuan-'
jS
**
25c)
"I
In the
line tsie-tsieshi-yu-shen
(^
^)
it
means
to sigh or
grieve for.
As an example
sake of force,
let
us take the
a celebrated
poem on the
hie-hu
Hardships
of travelling in Ssuchua.n.
PSI
The
I'hiiM'Wei'hu-haO'tsai (? PJ
perilous,
^$
i^ ^),
He
how
how high
sigh expressed in
sound
by
eij
ai,
read ai (g).
In the fortunes
word we seem
to
be able to
trace the ideal progress of language from the brute cry to the
We find
it
as a
mere exclamation, an
in-
my parents
"
Here the
repetition of the
affliction of
the person"
(g 3
!
SE
^
de-
used in the sense of a sighing, a sadness, as in the said to be i here), " Oh alas," phrase, Wu-hu-yu-ai (ti
Then
^^ ^
is sad, it is
134
On
plorable."
used
it is
As a noun, ai denotes sorrow, distress, affliction, and so One name for the staff or of very common occurrence.
rod borne by a son at a parent's funeral, as will be seen presently, And in the " Shi-ching " we find is ai-chang, the staff of sorrow.
the statement "
ai,
Our
As an
adjective, ai
means
sad,
In
this use it
sometimes
The
*'
and we find
ai-t'ai
sorry jade."
So
*g*),
of misery."
be remembered
also
that Confucius
characterised the
first
poem
who die young this word is given as a posthumous epithet by way of reverence. So used it means '^ the regretted," desideratissimi. The phrase or some such ai-tsai is sometimes simply equivalent to wo alas " exclamation. But it has also the force of to be pitied," " it is hard with" or "ill for." In the " Shi-ching " we find it
but not painful "
(^
lf5
/p
^).
To
those
Thus
off
a pitiable plight.
Then ai becomes a verb, and it is now explained as a synonym for shang (^), to be afflicted, or min (I3X to mourn for or with. So the expression jen-chie-ai-chih
(A
for him."
It is laid
down
as
that in
ai,
mourner must
meaning
and in
word
is
interpreted
in a house of
mourn-
It
in this
to
die.
way
to
death,
or
For reporting
term
is
kao-
(^
^),
to
announce mourning.
The word
is
further used in
the sense of
to pity, as
when
it is
wu'hu (}| ^), pities the innocent. It is also applied to a horse, and we read in a popular poem of a good horse pei (^) ai, neigh-
On
the Interjectional
135
ing woefully.
Then
ai
is
common
(jjj), to beseech
and
call for
mercy.
It also
Thus
and
delight.^
From
like our
we
pass on to the
vocal-gestures.
These
hallo
!
may
hush
or they
may denote
They
are often
accompanied by
facial expressions
if
There
An
angry
woman
scolding another
woman
the
modest powder.
victim, the
by the scraping
of
The
!
meaning
intended
shame
or shameless creature
is
to convey.
So
accompanies the
The
call to
belief.
It
is
often a
attention,
An
exclamation which
is
in
common
When
this
manner
it signifies
admiration or
pleasure, but
when
it is
emphasis
it
In
of public resort.
:
noun
:
L. C.
xi.
;
C,
iv.
i.,
p. 25,
C, iv., pp. 350, 520, 328, 261 " Shi-ching," chap, v., pp. Ku-shi-yuan" ("^ and " Lun-yii," chap, iii., p. 29 ;
*'
L. C.
^ jg) chape,
(X).
p. 40.
and
s. v. ai
136
or verb,
shen-^mo,
On
the Interjectionat
This phrase
common about
of it
may
constitute the
presented in books by p,
It is used, as
Premare
says,
face.
man
as
it
were to his
is
The
p'ei or p^ui of
Foochow and
other places
p 'i.
" Of
is
Foochow
all
people generally utter the p^ui with great emphasis, and some-
times
it is
fie,
for
shame."
like
swiche
Sometimes p^ui,
p%
used in the
my
is
sight!
well-known vocal-gesture
which
may mean,
Some
hear
ei
uttered,
!
hush! shame
nonsense
or,
donH, though
of these
Thus we
corruption of wei
as
an exclamation
of assent or attention is to
Chinese literature.
It
is to
It also implies
to the
call,
while no
(^)
is
Another
which was
not always
to
aw
!
But
it
it
is
employed
to
denote Yes
or Here
and often
merely serves
The
is
only the word hao, good, uttered loud and emphatically by the
audience.
But the
hist
sound, which
is
employed
It
as
is
among
like the
wheest
of provincial English.
Let us now go on
to notice
some
of the Sound-imitations in
sounds
made by inanimate
nature.
On
the Interjectional
137
Though with us
'*
may
claim to be regardlittle
ed as words.
attended to by
Western students
terms
*'
:
Words
that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious
book, they are here noticed."
is
^
In the present
treatise
mention
made
of only a
few
of the
more
of those
wind
in
Mandarin
is feng,
but older
dialects.
These seem
to point to a primi-
one of the
many
noises
made by
the wind.
There are
also several
too,
names
seem
and
be imitative in origin.
So also
blow into
is
kua (^) the common term used with feng to denote And chhii (Jf^), which means " to sound," and then " to play on any wind instrument,"
its origin.
perhaps similar in
Then
it
for the
Thus
hsi-hsi-kic-feng
(^
^ JS)
(^)
is hsi-hsi,
that
So
that of a gentle
Then hu-la-la (g| |g Jg) is the noise of a fierce sudden gale, and sa-sa is a name for a sudden storm. Again, tse-tse imitates the noise made by the breeze among the dry leaves of a
forest in
autumn, when
'^
Es
Saiiselt der
Wind
in den Blattern."
The
whistling of a gale
is
kuah'lahy given
by Edkins,
mu-mu
is
There are
several
it
descriptive of the
ways
comes down.
;
Thus we
shua-shua
sound
Shanghai Gr.
p. 137.
136
On
the Tnterjectional
and Imitative
Meirients.
on the
tiles,
made
is
by-
The term
is
ch'en-ch'enj which, as
we have
it is
seen,
used of
the
it
wind,
In each case
not so
is
much
sound that
were, of
a series, as
little
The
drizzle is
is
mSng;
mSng j
is
tien-tien
and
siao-siao expresses
heavy driving
rain.
used also to express the neighing of horses heard afar, and the
susurrus of wind
among
trees.
it is
said to
make a
great hung.
is
any
of
to
that
made by
character
for
number
waggons, and
(J|)
is
hence
of
the
that
now used
represent
it
made up
is
carriage
with two
repetitions.
a;lso
6f a
company
horsemen galloping.
Another term
for the
is
rattling,
lu-lu.
heard when he
by kung-ch'S-kuo-ye
(g i ffi ffi jt )Other sounds made by inert matter when acted on from Thus the sound witliout are also fruitful subjects for imitation.
made by
ground
the falling of a large stone or other heavy object on the
is
expressed in the
Foochow
dialect
by pong-pong. Hence
any
dull,
heavy sound
2i
is
Foochow people
same
materials
will often
simply as
pong-pong.
In like manner
p*(^?2^-p^on^, in the
noise
split.
The
used generally
made by a gun
is
^ni'
or cannon.
Hence a peng-peng-ping
peng-pSng mandarin
is
(or
soldier)
artillery-man,
and
a.
pidgin English
used
made by
A drum
On
is
the Interjectional
189
made
by the primitive
Chinese do not
name was perhaps given to represent the sound drum when beaten with a stick. The commonly say that the drum ''sounds*' or "rolls/'
or kiai-kiai, or peng-peng.
it t^ong-'t'ong,
" Bang-
whang-whang goes
the
fife is
Mo"
In Chinese
called ti (|"),
and
this
name
some
also
is
perhaps derived
from
its
sound.
to notice
of those
made
produced by
birds, beasts,
and
insects.
These,
it
formed, and
In
names
and
insects.
The old popular poetry found in the " Shi-ching " and the " Ku-shi-yuan " affords many examples of these attempts to imitate or recall in language the inarticulate utterances
used in
begins,
many cases are common literature. The firsi poem of Kuan-kuan the chii-chiu. Dr. Legge
not needed.
still
well
*'
the
rather funnily
''
go "
is
The
duck or wild
quack."
By
this
he means
to
dilly in loving
harmony.
In the same
we
made by
deer;
call of
;
huang-huang the
noise
made by a swarm
of locusts
;
We
find the
to different creatures,
including
man, and we
The songs
of birds
ears.
and In
all
England,
for
140
On
the Interjectional
some
ocyy ocy,
and
!
to
fie
by and by."
So in Chinese
denote
the
call
of
number of very different forms of expression. The magpie calls {ming 0,|) cha-cha, or, as others hear, This bird is called in Mandarin hsi-chio, which is k^ah.
preted as meaning Bird of Joy
in origin.
h'ah"
inter-
f]|),
but
it is
probably imitative
is
which
k'ah'k^ah*8.
and
so they call It
is
him lum-lum
probable that
purely colloquial,
is
ex-
nigbt hideous.
lib.,
The
oriole's
and repeated ad
(^
).
But
some reproduce
his call
by
kiao-kiao,
Bamboo
cola) cries nihua-hua, ni'hua-hua (J^ \^ ^), and from this But to the country people this bird fact it gets one of its names.
says in
ho, that
its call
is,
hing-pu-te-ko-ko (fj /P
^W
"^); hing-pu'te-hch
this
term
all
is
used as
a familiar
name
for him.
Man
he hears in
So according
mood he
finds pleasure or
But we
also
know
that
to utter distinct
and
different sounds
when
Cum
pecudes mutae, cum denique saecla ferarum Dissimilis soleant voces variasque ciere, Cum metua aut dolor est et cum jam gaudia gliscunt.
To one man,
may
To
"pipe and
trill
another, or on
it
may
chatter (tsap^tsep) as
wheels airy
an agony
of despair.
is
To
chiao'chiao or chow-chow; or
its
merely twitters
yi-yi,
and
so tells
^ Jg).
On
The
the Interjectional
is
141
cricket
called si-su
jf )
in
Mandarin, sik-sut
(or sik'tsut)
in
in the
Ningpo
dialect.
Another name
for
common
its
in
North China,
to
of
the
what we
call
chirrj
as in
the expression
"not a
is
cricket chirr'd,"
The cicada
{^)
or shan,
thus
evidently
known
din
is
as the
ki-liu,
from the
with painful
iteration the
to the
calls the
hoar
frost
past, the
autumn
going,
field
mouth
From this arose its name Zoname which seems to be given also in some places to a cicada. The cricket has also local names in several dialects, as mei'hi in that of Amoy, and these, too, are generally intended to The domestic goose has never had a character imitate its chirring.
above ground, screams la-la-la'ta.
lo'kUf a
for tact or voice,
'*
and as
to the latter,
truly,
in her gate."
represent-
we
^)
or " cackler."
The crow
kiu-kiUf but
expressed sometimes by
men
also
crow,
meau
to
hrag or hoast.
And
chir-
of the
angry.
Sounds
like
the chitter-chatter of
^^ *^^s
talk
(^
/p
T)
The crows
caw kua-kua, and hence they are called lao-kua, " old cawers."
Fond of
his
and, like
name, the crow calls it out with wearisome repetition, him, the cuckoo and and the poet each kua-kua'8 his own
name (g A
&
ffi
K 8S SS S
As we speak
of "
Chough's
142
On
the Interjectional
swallows' talk"
(^ ^) as a name
children
is
is
The
chitter-chatter
of noisy
and
chio-ts^ao
of
(^
P^)
first,
and afterwards
human bab-
a house of nuns, " Cheatereth ouwer beoden evere ase sparuwe deth
thet
is
is
alone.
When is a
it
Then we have
the word tH
little
it
(pjp),
baby.
is
But
now used
of
of the noise of
weeping.
howl
of
any
came
to
be applied to
man
and
instinctive.
in
all
many
and
and
place.
language
may
a few of them.
simplicity,
As
much
in it
of its primitive
The term
which make
inhaling air
;
for
to breathe
is
is
Of the two
syllables
term, hu
is
is
while hi
the sound
made by exhaling
it.
made by Then
all that
hu-hi
came
to
with
man's
acts
and thoughts.
The
syllable hvL
we
Ofi the Int&rjeetional
in the exclamation
mid
!
IrrCitative
Elements,
143
wu-hu, alas
Hence
So
it
came
came
to
be employed
noun denoting
pien-yen (@{
inhalation.
style of address.
also hi
to
be used as a
^ J| >r
The
noise
'M)y
<^o
smoke opium,
to take
opium by
made by breathing in air is also expressed by hsii (a), and that made by breathing out air by ch^ui (gj^). The former also means to breathe hard, and the latter, as has
been seen,
is
instruments.
The term for to cough, h^o-seh (|^ BDj), is generally acknowledged to be only an attempt to reproduce the sound made in the
act.
which was
are,
Some
of
exclamations or interjections.
ka-ka, or
expression chiefly.
Occasionally
we
(^
'
^S)-
to
From
it
Then
there
is
herself,
In the " My
me,"
hi^chH-hsiao-i
(g
^^
ti,
^).
that
is
in derision.
The
character read hi
also
pronounced
and
it is
So
is,
also
we have
p^u-chih'
ti'hsiao,
exploding in laughter.
But
may
laugh."
it
means
to smile
and then
to
144
smile
On
the Interjectional
from the expression tzii-sheng-hai-fi (-J f^ bahy*was born and could laugh and cry." For " to weep " the common term is k'u
ently of imitative origin.
(5g), a
word apparand
at
But
there are
many
other terms to
;
Thus
several
used also to
are
Then
there
Some of these, Such are huang-huang, i-i, wa^wa, hu-hu. perhaps all, are more than mere imitative noises. Thus i-ij or i
(Jg or ^) simply, is not only the puling of an infant, but also a So also wa^wa is the puling infant, properly a female baby.
crying of an infant, and hsiao'wa-wa
it is is
a small child.
who know
With us among
the Chinese
faculty.
And
common
saying, Ku-Jcu-chih-tzu'
kO'Chih-chH'ChHn (gKBKjJl
?lilft
M)>
knows
it
parents.
what we
can only represent by youngest ; it denotes a child in the first or " To sob " is expressed by yin or gpin (Pf ) crying stage of life.
and
ti-ti
or
t'i't'i,
already mentioned,
is
to
The fi-tH
compared
the words, " Ah, but those tears are pearl which thy love sheds."
Then we have
t^i^k^u,
and k^u-
Further, p^v^su-su
tears
;
is
the noise
made by
of
gushini^
flood
of
to cry as babies,
and then
to cry
Chinaman
my
acquaintance,
who
is
more than
when
suffering
from rheumatism
cries
As
the man'a
On
mother
is
the Interjectional
145
negro
and the Indian of Upper California mentioned by Mr. Tylor. " To sneeze " is in Mandarin Vi (written pj and otherwise), a
It
is
an old and
are
word, and
But there
and meaning
of
which cannot be
doubted.
Such are
to sneeze.
ha-yiy
So
also
^)
and
ta-
and
to sneeze.
There are
also
and
of local range.
of
denoted by han (ff ), the noise of breath emitted during sleep. In the rude dialects, however, and in the talk of the people
generally, this
word han
is
not very
much
used.
It
is
replaced
of the
Foochow
and k'a-ka
ta-'hu (fj
the other terms here given, are used of a loud continuous snoring,
of the
drunken
sleeper,
saidest ay,
Sampsoun, Sampsoun."
We
like
read of a
man
hou-Ju-lei-'hou
(^
Jn
IJL)*
" snoring
poems,
thunder roaring," and Han Wen-kung, in one makes a friend snore loud enough to make an frown and a stone man tremble with fear.
of his
iron
Buddha
and
For
terms.
defects
and
have appropriate
fit
Such
subjects
and even
or
for
nicknames.
mute
is
called a ya'tzu
(g
is
called a ya-tztt
who
not
utterance
a Balbus.
is
And ya
In the
for
stammering and
is
146
ki'hi.
On
the Interjeciionat
dialect
and Imitative
to
Bleftients.
But each
tih (or
seems
have
at l^ast
one or two
Foochow
Amoy.
There are
also expressions
But terms like those mentioned above are the names commonly employed both in speech and writing. The work ki (chi |^) is explained by "hesitation in speech" and
stiff
tongue."
By
the term
nak-^ah or noh-noh (written P^ p^ and fp^ f^) various kinds of impediments in speech are indicated. An early use of it is found
in the "Li-chi,"
where
it is
?)
that his
mouth "
tfi ft D)- Sere noh-noh is explained in (K "s Pft Pft ^s meaning low and slow, but it is generally understood as denot-
ing
tb
The words here quoted and one may see them used in the
Then
So
also
is
wa
These terms,
will be noticed,
So
also
are the
These terms
common may
k'o-k'o-pa'pa (j^
Jl 51
) ''he stammers,"
lit.,
in his
mouth he
they
k^o-k^o-pa-pa's.
They may
ti (ffj)
may
The
among
the
still
who cannot pronounce sh, and say sa and san for sha and shan. One man of my acquaintance could not pronounce words like pu
On
and aw and
the Interjectional
tu,
and
sii,
and
tii,
Many
To the people of Foochow their neighbours Fu-ch*ing seem to make excessive use of the gutturals and the
Fu'tsing-keh-h^eh fFu-ch^ng-ko
jg
i|[ ?
bewrays the
man
the
from that
district.
So
also
the Pekingese
make fun
of
(^
Rg
^)
or Tientsin mouthers.
of imitative expressions to
of child's
be briefly noticed
that which
is
composed
baby, but also that used to the baby by nurse and mother.
utterances in this class also
may be
very limited.
'^
if
This
truth
perhaps a
little
little
overstated,
but
it
is
recognised
their
that
But
mimicking
tendencies
may have
calls
it
language.
makes
pi-^i,
for
and
so
he
Hence
to
in
Foochow,
for the
child's
also
applied
other peeping,
This
ou-ou, and so
is
ou
(or
ngao) becomes a word for the bark of a dog, and the dog
So
makes mi-mi
or hi-hi, and hence these are baby-names for the cat and kitten.
Then
as mothers in
to
their
148
On
the Interjectional
children to save
mi-mi
a
hen
t^e-lo,
that
is,
some
places
is
child-term, not only for the cackle but also for the hen.
At
is
known
to children as the
animal which
personates
trotting.
Now
whom
the
man who
But
another at one of the State Examinations has long been called the
or horse, of the
man
for
he appears.
it is
at
Foochow
Another
a fat
by kah'kak,
to
all strangers.
Foochow
baby
is
sound like
that.
When
rounding
to a separate
mind '' he
distinguishes himself
as nu-nu,
owned that
noises."
and his seniors allow him the designation. It must be often an infant " see-saws his voice in inarticulate
finds
He
much
To
for
like his
elders,
often
as
convey no meaning.
these,
Among
name
them
is li-li-la-la,
and
used
In Man-
to
but also
One
of the first
accomplishments of a baby
is
expressed
in English
by suck,
calls
"a word
So a
Foochow mother
suck milk.
In Tientsin the
calls for
ma-ma, and
this is the
name
woman's
breasts there,
and
by whimpering pei-pei,
little
creature
The actual feeding of the baby is called pu or pu-pu, from the noise made by it during the process, and hence arose
On
the word
the Interjectional
149
pu
mean
to
feed or support.
former i-nai-pu-chih
breast.
(^
MM
^)>
The
to
child
is
munch
is
fruit.
Then
pu came
mouth.'*
well-known instance
of this use
found in the
Chou Kung,
that i-fan-san't^u^pu
tt
ffi)
^^ ^^ meal he
mouth.
In the sense
ing to be
fed.'*
#Jfi)^ "with sad whining waitThe terms tie-tie and ko-ho are perhaps originally
dada and
for father,
elder brother
respectively,
but
tie is
a recognised term
and ko
It remains to notice a
few specimens
imitative only
by metaphor.
Even
of those already
strictly
mentioned
but only
con-
there
are
several
imitative,
suggestive.
now under
by certain
They
are
Thus we speak of "the deep, deep sea" and the "red, red wine," and we have terms like pell-mell, pitThe Chinese language luxuriates in suggestive or pat, zig-zag. The ancient classical poetry is descriptive terms of this kind.
especially rich in them, but the daily talk of the people is also
largely
made up
of such material.
few examples
kind will
of the
more
our
this
suffice for
the doubling
single
Sometimes one word or sound is repeated, and made to intensify or emphasize the meaning of the word. But often the double form of the word is the only one,
is
intensity.
The
the
is
but a variation
of the
150
On
the Interjectional
One name
for these
repeated-character locutions;
compound and quasi-double words is tie-tzu-yii (g |g), and they are also known by the somewhat poetic name tzil-yen (^ BB)^ character eyes.
As our
for
first
example
^-^
one
pronounced like
(^
^).
It
This term
to
is
as of
young
millet crops.
is
But
the syllable
i of this
com-
pound
term
is
seldom,
if
ever,
"Shuo-wen"
meaning.
Another
(^
dense or abundant.
(fi
In the "Shi"
S)
ch'i-ch'i,
luxuriant."
He
which Dr. Legge translates "Its leaves" were adds in a note: " Ch'i-chH expresses *the appearThis repetition of the character
is
intensity
and vividness
to the idea.
The
compound seems
be applied
own
signification.
to various
as to clouds
when massed
In a poem of a celebrated
:
author
we
chHio-feng-yi-p^ei-'
pu'shu'shu-ming-pu'i
the autumn breezes
falling leaves
(^
tt
^H^
trees
?!
/j^
), ''Once
the
the
rustling of
Then we take
of the oriole, but
(^ ^)
This term
is
is
bird.
to each
similar
And
kiai-kiai is used Jn a
way
of
is
phoenixes.
It
On
line
the Interjectional
151
"The
Pg).
A tadpole is
which
called
by the Hakkas
is
of Chia-ying-chou, kuei'^yem^^yemy in
to indicate the
is
the *'yem-''yem
tadpole's
tail.
meant
wiggle-waggle of the
dumpling
its
some
places,
from
used.
to
^
all
po-pois
tVu
for
and
this, like
used
Hard and
constant working
:
not only in
to
common
by the term k^u-k'u ({g Jg) and hence, speech but also in literature, k^u-k'u is used
mean
toiling
i^
M ^)
(0 ^)
hair.
^^i ^^ ijoork
Such
is
san
and
The term
Vi-t'a
{i^ l^)
is
in the direction to
slip-shod (/p pj
^ @ 4&
is,
of a very
bad road,
tap-tap-lap-lap, that
ruin.
dilapidated
of
|Ig
The term
rough and
zig-zig.
jlj
" the ascent of the mountain was a rugged zig-zig/' Id) means Here we have to end our notice of the Emotional and
One department
of this has
been
of
necessity
altogether
These also
ment
of
them
is left for
fit
for the
better opportunities.
CHAPTER
THE WORD TAO
It has been seen that
different
V.
(Ji)
opinions
by-
Western
language.
scholars as
to
Some regard
its
it is,
it
to
be rich in
will
vocabulary.
But a
So
language
shew that
some respects
known
to
to us, and, as
considered
But
in the
The words
of the
field of
means
of research are
Nor can
the
and a
if
slight acquaintance
have seldom,
right course
The
is to
make
of the people, to
collect facts
respecting
means
and
spiritual conceptions,
and an attempt
is
made
to
shew the
chief of the
is
many ways
in
No
pretense
connected or related.
quire a knowledge of
To do
all
modes
of the people.
Even with
whether the
In what
is
"
153
which he
may
feel disposed
to object, or
which he
may
regard as quite
wrong.
Even
mind
of the author.
who
as to matters of fact
authorities
and mistakes as
to interpretation.
The
meanings assigned
They
nor
to this investigation,
It will be seen
is
The word
selected, tao, is
many and
of
so diifferent uses,
does
the
way
in
employ
ed
their vocabulary.
to phrases in
which
this
be attributed to
With
tao
is
^, which
is
^,
to go, a classifier
characters relating to
motion, and shou *^, meaning head or leader, but here, according
to
Chalmers and
others, phonetic.
In the old
styles
we have
^,
to
of the
above shou
and the
latter, of
the
ts'un,
an inch.
The pronunciation
of the
written symbol has varied from time to time and from place to
It
was
and
afterwards
dynasties
it
t'ao,
In the time
;
of
the T'ang
and Sung
was read
puts
it
in the ch'u;
to the
set of
with another.
154
dialects of
it is
it is
read
while in Japan
read du generally.-^
earliest
meanings
that
word
is
(^ also written ^), and lu (J^). Of and second are often met with in the classical
much used
word, and
tao-lu
is
is
it
at present.
is
Lu, however,
is
a very
common
Thus
often added to
tao as a
defining suffix.
tao'li,
a principle.
But
lu
and
is
It
is
common
tion
is
explains lu by tao.
The
difference
of the
two
in
words
is
shown
Hundred Lessons
his party
the "Tzii
Erh Chi."
went
highway
by making
inquiries as they followed the path fluj they were in, they at last
tao
is
said to be a
way
for
one
to take,
it
is
to be tao (|), or walked on ; while a lu is so called because made apparent, (lu g), by having been trodden; the former
to
it is
made
made by use. When combined, sometimes mean simply a road, and someis
''
Chou-li,"
et chemins.''
is
In
this sense of
way
or road, tao
its
by
certain words
which particularise
application.
A few
of the
(^
main road
;
to
the
Chou
{^ytao
yii-tsai's
1 '* Yu-pien" (3g, j^), Jh, chap. x. yuan-yin," J: ; " Ku-chin-yun-liao " " Shuo-wen," s. v. ^.
"Kuang-yiin," chap.iii.
P%), >*, chap.
35; "Wu-fang-
(^ <% j^
iii. ;
Tuan
**
i.
Biot,
Tcheou*
Li," T.
p. 413i
155
sometimes replaced by
highway
(^fy),
to
Lu.
In
hsing
to
highway
Chou.
Then
cliou-tao
comes
'*
to
mean any
and a poem
in the
" Shi-ching
begins,
my
distance.*'
fj)
is
highway, and
so interpreted.
There are
highway
Thus we hear
highway
(S
may
road
4b
ffi
3$
::^
JE)> a
is
for travellers
northwards and
It
southwards.
ta-tao
With
it
are
by-way or
for a
common term
highroad
huan C^ytaOf
road,
which
officials travel.-^
an open
or
objects,
and thence
it
comes
to
mean
also to
make such
It is often
and
ing
it
of obstructions caused
by brigands or otherwise.
is
A long,
called a yang-ch^ang-niao
(^ )^ or Jg t%)-tao, "Sheep's entrails bird way," that is, a mountain so bad and intricate that it is to be flown over rather
than walked along.
niao'tao or bird-way.
Such a path
is
ing
is
chii
{^ytaoj which
sloping
used
to
road.
The
passages
by
called
which
city
walls
and
like
structures
are
ascended are
ma4ao
or
"horse-way."
channel
is
^L. C.
"Li-chi," chap.
p.
al,;
iii.,
iy,
and
v.
156
ing,
perhaps used
more
commonly.
however,
is
also
name
for the
same
is
hou {^ytaOy
A jetty or landing-place is
is
is
name
for
more
correct expression.
parallel
walks or passages in
these, the middle one is
premises.
Of
always the
chief,
and
called the
is
to
mean Imperial
also
means middle
way
is
extended also
to the raised
walk
to
for
the
things imperial.
emperor
to ride or drive
and
was
Ch^in
Shi
is
Huang Ti was famous for its length. The term, however, now used simply as equivalent to chung-tao and signifies the
j
it
is
also
sometimes used
Again, the
term
lien
{^)4ao
palace inclosures,
which
are
When
harem
ment, he
This
name was,
accord-!-
is
A
The
ch'ing
is
is,
officials
and returning
157
In popular
use,
and cheng-tao
is,
in
common
highway
to
It is contrasted
;
term
is
mostly used in a
manner.
stairway
is
is
A
tao.
it
flight of steps or a
chie
The
and
latter term,
however,
is
rocks,
A suspen-
sion bridge
is
sides of a river
[^
"fi
Bj)-^ao, or chain-bridge.
Another name
is
same
is
wooden bridges
This term
^^^ (j^
is,
well
known from
^^
^ S M))
The phrase
of
Han
a determination
find ko
of.
not to go back.
As
synonym
is
we name
(^
or
a cluster of
in
Cassiopeia.
It
is
chambers
of
fu-tao.
first
The word fu
points to the
found written
;}g,
g, and ^.
Of
these, the
wooden structure
it is
of
additional and
The
third character,
which
is
by some considered
to
wadded
or lined garment,
and so a fu-tao
is
described as one
This term
is
seem
to return
and leading
to their
of
the
158
golden gates of Heaven
passage below ground
is
(^
Ji JS
^ S* :^
P).
A long,
winding
speech
common
sui-tao
yen
(5S)-ifao,
and the
latter a long
burrow or tunnel.
The term
is
also
it
loosely applied to
is
or invisible channel,
and
called a kuei
made by
this
is,
a wheel.
The
and
or was, a local
name
for
a wheel used in
of
reeling silk.
^ |^
is
temple verandahs.
^cu
(^ytao
;
is
angles
and a
cliih (|o or
^-tao
roads
properly.
common
word
road.
made by
Thus
'*
mecum
Cardinal
Wolsey,
"At
last,
In
like
manner, tao
comes
to denote a
journey or yoyage.
denote,
So we
Thus
tao-yuan
its
(S)
is
as
one of
A safe,
and
pleasant journey
expressed by p'ing
{Z!^)-tao,
name of a pair of stars which preside over roads and travellers. The phrase chung (tp)'tao now means " half-way," or, more loosely, " on the way " simply.
this is also the
*
"Han-shu," chap.
.
xlix.
;
9E), chap. xx. ; Kanghsi Diet, Kuang-shih," chap. i. ; " Liao-chai, ; s. V. ffi (^ etc., chap. i. (second story); "MaT. L.," chap. Ixxiii.; " Fang-yen" (^ ":), chap. The word fu (^) means to repeat, do again, return, and the phrase fu-tao V. is used in senses hke " return passage," "journey back." Such an expression
<'Li-chi," chap.
i.
"Shih-chi"
(^
H), chap,
is
in Chinese wu-fu-tao
(^
159
Thus chnng-tao-erh-fan
(4*
way
(or,
on the way).
5S S) is to turn back when half So "in media via" means "in the
says,
" First sweare by thy best love in earnest Thou wilt not leave me in the middle street."
Another says
" After that hapless nymph had heard her doome, As shee was led to th' rock, i' th' middle way, Perindus flying fast, calls out, stay."
as
But chung-taojlso means "to ^ake the middle when it is said of a son that when walking with
is
of the road,''
his father
he
To be on
This
a journey
expressed hj
is
yii
(^
^ ? JS)
" not
to
make
Another term
of
similar
meaning
is
of soldiers
having their
on a march
tsai'tao'jih'liang (^$
J8
or journey.
also
"
to
be on a journey."
means
to obstruct a road, as a
man may
may
do; and
it
has
In
journey
we sometimes
and
t'u
;
find
it
just as
we
find
words like
iter
is,
not in an inn.
So we
have such expressions as yii-chu'tao-pi-yii-lu (j 5E JB? JK BS)> meeting him on the journey he avoided him on the road. To go
or be on a journey
hsing {fx)'^^^) ^^^ this phrase comes to denote travelling continued from day to day. The hsmg-tao-chih"
is
jen, or
men who
are [always]
making journeys,
are the
;
common
follow
who may be
life,
fools
of
everyday
who mostly
Thus
Used
on a journey."
tHen-tzu
; :
160
(5c
while travelling
{'fl^ytao
The
expression tao-tHng
(^
so learned
is
to
is
throw
also
away.
To begin
for
a journey
for
a literary
designation
common name
is
which
is
chieri^
hsing
(g
fj).
The word
the religious
This
rare
again suggests the mention of a peculiar and perhaps use of our word.
worship," that
is,
now
"
"We
find
it
of
to offer
In the
Chou
One
dynasty,
we
find
of these
was
[ij).^
to
(^M
We
may
next notice a
few
of the
many
phrases to be found
of our
of the
meanings
are the
word which
expresto avoid
Among these
common
or
escape meeting an
especially
while on
official
or
to
Fi
is
is
worthy
of notice is
make two parallel lines with an open To build walls on each side of a lane or
also is to plant
between them.
;
street is to chia-tao
so
We
(^
1
find
in
literature
chia'tao-chiao'tzH'pien
5S
^^
L. C. C, iv., p. 52 ; " Hsing-chmg" (M M), chap. Ji ; " Li-chi," chap ii. " Lie-tzu," chaps, ii., viii.; " Faber Licius," pp. 45, 208; L. C. C, iv., p. 261, 331 ii., p. 288 ; "Meng-tzu," chap xi.; **Li chi," chaps i., ii., ix. and chap. iv. (for "to worship"); "Hou Han-shu," chap Ixiv. (jjl ^) and " Ku-shi-yuan " (-^ jg) chap. V. p. 15, where we have the line 11 ai f^ P5'
161
used of men.
But the phrase chia-tao is perhaps best known as Thus we often find such expressions as wan-Jen
is,
(M
Aychia-tao, that
way
and
lao-yu-chia-tao
(^
is,
^ 2K
When
alley.
thus used,
it is
The name
is
chia-tao
given to
{"^ytao,
way
to the capital.
This phrase
is
We
own
may
literally, to
It
commonly used
of the
in the
and
figuratively.
One occurrence
be
classical,
^'
phrase in
early literature
may
be said
to
viz.,
the expression
chih-shou-fen-taO'Ch'il
{^^ ^ M i)>
and
went
The
Chinese
make much
distinction
is
to
go before.
So
it
walk
should please
also say
path
this eve."
Thus
from another
the right of passing with troops through the territory of the latter,
was
1
Chia means
;
to borrow,
iii.
;
and chia-tao"Ku-shi-yuan,"
"Han-shu," chap.
iv. p. vii.
viii.
Yun.fa-oh'un-yu," chap.
chap.
162
yii'Yu (SJ
^) is
to borrow, that
is,
obtain,
of
It also
means
yu
to lend or grant
is
(||)-i(ao, to give
In
to
mean simply
(^
Jg
of
A^
f^)i to escape
by the back-door.^
a journey suggests that of the point
is
The
notion
of
that in
The expression
is
feng-tao-pei-lai (g, jg ^t
So
also
we
find
is,
{^
g ^ ^X
that
This
"region."
road,
word
has
the
further
meaning
in like
of
''
district
" or^
manner means a
and
So
also the
Greek
a path,
is also
We
are expressly
that
tao
is
synonym
is
of
kuo,
an important
one
to
be well
as
away
places,
and
opposite, is
to denote a
now
a near district.
The term
tao
Thus a commentator on the " Chow-li " says of the nine divisions of the kingdom there described, that they were
referred to three tao, and Biot translates this
political
all to
be
word by "zones."
In the
Han period
all
(^
were called
tao.
Thus the
Ci^rt;^^
(^-(ao was a
district. __
,
and ChHang.
1
also in
i.
many
other names of
^ ^ ^, chap.
163
of
an d
it
w as^ also
(Ji]^)-tao
the
name
a fipuntry.
The
terms nan
(^'^)-taG
and pei
and north countries, that is, outside of China. A word for " Har^rian " is generally understood before tao thus used, but
sometimes we have
(Jin
it
chih-nari'-i-'tao
5S)> ^^
The C hin
and the
(^)
called tao;
Yuen
of the
divided
and twenty-three
asu
The use
a district
word
in this
manner,
still
designation of a^cjrcuit or
subdivision of a province,
continues.
tao
is
now
more
prefectures,
and
under
the
administration
of
on mandarin,
still
a Tao-t*ai.
official
to
be found in
titles
of the censors.
These
officials
is
are
in
some
The
and
of
Manchuria and
The
chi
was
and something
of the term.
style
The whole province of Chihli is called in literary Ghing-chi'tao, and this name is applied also to the province
is
of
situated.
expression tao4i
to denote the
(^
),
that
is,
the miles
geography
and distances
and
to
each other.
But
also
distance,
li
especially
measured
distance.
Thus
tao-shih-'li is
" ten
" the distance is very great." (Jl fi fS ^) is to be used as a verb, as when Huai Nan-tzu
world's area cannot be told in miles (71 J^
Po-ya ( (There were in
^
us that the
M)-"^
pf
3S
3PI)>
chap,
iv.;
all
twenty
;
tao in the
"Han-shu," chaps iii., v., xxviii. "|C, Ivh'., Ixxix. empire under the Han dynasty, that is,
twenty frontier district magistracies. We read under this dynasty) %^Wi^i chap, vii.;
chap.
**
i. ;
|g
Huai-nan-tzii," chap.
chap. ^ ^, xx.
ii.
p.
"fi
"X^^ % chap.
?ig,
chap,
i.,
the
^ MM^, g M Poem
164
'
By
follow.
orbit,
way
or road is transferred
to the course
which
And
so tao
of
such terms as
course, channel,
of like
lio
meaning.
A river
has
its
way
hu
of a river,
its
course.
This
may become
taking a
('iJf
new
direction,
then called
its
old
channel.
When
not
preceded by any
control of
many
officials.
is
Further,
is
we can
But
see
indociles
currere
lympha
vias."
So hsia Cyyshui-tao
to
follow the
one by land;
and
it
will
Then we have
heavenly bodies.
The
sun,
moon, and
stars revolve of
kuei-tao
the paths
of their existence.
to
(^ ytao
is
the path of
ecliptic is
is
The
symbol
of
the
predominance
of
huaiig4ao,}xs^s
come
to
mean good
there
is
names
and
the
kuang (^ytao, "the bright ecliptic road." chih {^ytaOj or vermilion way; and there
The equator
is
165
The term
t'ienr-
is
pursued by
in the succession of
seasons.
Even used by
the
to
have
translates tao-ping^
hsing
(^
"jf^
and one more natural perhaps than, that adopted by Dr. Legge.
Then
in the
human
we have
hsie (jSl)-^ao,
"blood
courses."
But
this
term
its
much
literally,
the
writings
of
doctors
number
of points or
as of importance.
is,
This term
is
then
where the
vital principle is
is to
supposed to
be mortally,
fatal spots.
To be wounded
in a hsiieh-tao
thus defined
In the " Tzu-erh-chi " the term " In anatomy the space between the joints ; the
is
introduced; applied
liver,
geomancy
to the features of
is
ground."
The
which
is
the
somtimes called
term
The term
shui
(7jC)-^o,
noticed
above,
in
the body, and these are connected with the organs of sense each
i-tao.
Thir,
ad nares a sede animi perforatae," and of a curious passage in the " De Natura Deorum." The courses of a meal are also called
166
tao,
but
"a
three-course" tea.
name
and a cup
of tea,
and
is
guest.
So
some places
spoken
The notion
to
of
is
extended
many
objects.
The
is
called the
mao
{%)'tao, or hair- way, and comes to stand for our \^^rd quality.
is
i-tao-kuang
Jii
3)>
one wayis
way
of golden brightness.
So a modern poet
to the sun, is a
is
pathway
of
Buddha
is
(M
^ ^
of auspicious
brightness,
of
frequent occurrence
or current of air
is
is
when such
stream
called i-tao-ch'i
(^)
a wreath of incense
is
irtao'hsiang
(^); and
;
a bank of
cloud
i-tao-yun
(J).
The bands
are
(
called
tao
and we read
of jih-chung-yu-chmg-se-ssu-tao
4*
WW
A
),
colour.
'M)y the sun having four bands of dark fe wreath of smoke rising from a chimney or a pipe is
;
i'tao-yen (j^)
(
the
JE
ffl
^f
he went
smoke, that
is,
he quickly disapfire,
peared.
{lJf^)-tao
line of direction
it
takes.
is
Even
It
is
flavour
is
spoken of as
is,
is
some
Then
word
little
is
much
1
length and
i.
breadth.
road
vi. p.
is
represented on a
map
i.
L. C. C.
,p.
2U1
Chung.yung, chap.
26 j the
^M
flS> etc.,
chap.
167
oi a line.
Thus
to
ta (fj)'tao, literally to
their combinations in
is
The
lines of the
Pa-hua and
the " I-chiug " are often called tao, but there
generally also a
Coolies
so used.
of
other
affairs.
split or
chink in wood
called a tao.
of
row
of trees.
tao.
mei-huaox mei-kuei-hua ( J^ 't^)'tcio, row^ of red, roses, as Yirgil uses via for a row or avenue A stripe or band on clothes is also in some places a
corporals
Thus the
among our
stripes,
soldiers
called
erh (Zl)'tao, or
Two
and the
to
were
be the designation
Consular co nstable,
who was
actually in
some cases a
sergeant emeritus,
'
The word
tao
is
word time,
word
Our word " way " is used in a " always," which in old English was
In Chinese,
i/
twice" and
or
The
act is repeated
is
number
of times,
that
it is
done so many
tao.
So
also
we read
Hsiung-nu shu-tao'Ju-sai
within the frontiers
several ways."
Jg /\ ^), coming several times boundaries but the term also means *' by
(^
Then we
find this
call
functions of
what Sinologues
Thus used
with which
it
associated.
So
it is
often prefixed
to,
or
combined
168
with, the terms for wall, bridge, river, wound, eyebrow, wales on
the back,
(J5),
and
splits
in stone or timber.
is
river is i-tao-ho
i-tao-tHen-ho (^-
^ ^C^S^y
^^^^
tao
is
Proclamation, Despatch,
documents.
Thus
i-tao-chao
(U)
is
and and
lu {^)-i-tao
is to
make
is
document.
i-tao-fu-lu
(jjj
^),
sarh'taO'pei (J!^)
inscriptions.
"When
With
the
it
suggested by
Edkins
calls it a
'*
significant numerative,''
(3ij),
and regards
it
as such
a stream of light."
There
is
narrow
line
of separation
line,
ray,
stratum,
and
its
employment
as
a numerative,
or
1S)>
classifier.
The
two
expression liang-tao-chou-mei
(H
JE
literally,
lines
pair of long
bushy
eyebrows.
Here
tao,
many
instances of
a similar nature.^
Thus employed,
it
denotes the
way
in
which an object
acts,
of
which has several other meanings, is often used in the sense " the way to the attainment of kingly power," the right and
peaceful
way
to
become sovereign
of a country.
In
like
manner
that
is,
^ ^ :^)-^o,
;
a grand
way
to
become sovereign
:fi)'^^^>
and he
sheng-ts'ai-i/a-ta
(^
^^
there
is
a grand
way
Mand.
Gr., p.
sec.
iii.
169
common
shops
use,
and
it
may
all
so appropriate it
mean
if
no more by
they can.
to
make money
of the
honestly
word
tao, it is said
method.
Thus
Mencius,
pu
>&
tao
^
is
JE ^)> "^^
explained by
there a
way
to a
mind?"
fang^fa,
means or method.
of preserving life
means
and
way
of
So we read
death."
tells
in Proverbs of the
"path
his
of life"
In the Introduction
to
us that
the
the
{^
Hj^
MU M #)>
that
means which
tao is the
affords the
most material.
The phrase
chin
(^)
*
way
set
M i,
li^)
means, as in ff ;5^ Jg i^ free for him the golden way of becoming a god.^
is
With
synonym
the above
art,
word in
the sense of
of
device,
expedient.
It
is
now
said to be a
shu
{%\
originally also
common term
In the administration
government there
which tend
to
are. seven
an {$)'Shu,
"peace
arts,"
devices
;
make and
The term
to
(A)
is
be noticed below.
tao shu chih jen
(
Here
JE
yu
fiR
arts
and
In "
Lie-fczu "
we
tao'shu interchanged,
and Faber
iii.;
translates
the
latter
L. C. C.,'i., p. 242
iii.;
chap,
;^
^^
"Ta
Hsio," chap,
L.
CO.,
ii.,
p.
Int. p.
p.
lb;
"Hsin-shu"
(^ ^j
chap.
iv.
J 70
by
by " Geheimes Verfahren," or secret procedure, and tlie former '' There is often a Mittel," means, or " Geheimniss," secret.
suspicion of wickedness or impropriety about the term tao-shu,
and even
tao
by
itself in this
use
is
One
of the
meanings
of
yu {^ytao
to
have an
art, a
method,
crickets,
is
clever device
at trickery. of living;
Then
tao
comes
mean
one's occupation or
means
things,
to be of the
of living.
Some
small arts
tellers.
hsiao
(>J>) tao
such as those of
is
"Among
{^
S: i,
ching tao ye
is
(jf;
^
i
M M
1^ :k)-
explained as tao
^^ ^), teach him the art of reverence, tao (), art or means, i denoting also ability,
cleverness.-^
Loosely connected with the above is the use of our word in In the common list the sense of " abilities " or " attainments."
(jE f* fc Wi)i ^^^ ^s sometimes said to denote natural abilities. It is then said lo~tie the equivalent of ts'ai i (^ ^), genius,
natural
endowments.
So
also
the
expression
fan-yu-tao'cho
*^ JE )> "^^^ ^^^ h^LYQ tao," is interpreted to mean those {fL who have great natural abilities" (^ zj' ^), and Biot translates
*'
des
hommes
instruits."
is
not a utensil"
{:kMX>
^)>
or, as
" une grande capacite ne doit pas etre (bornee a un seul usage)
comme un
ustensile."
is
used of one
it
The term
Kanghsi's Diet. s. v. $K; " Han-fei-tzii," chap. viii. *' Han-shu," chap. Ixxv. tao-shu, however, is often used in a good sense. Thus pu chih tao shu (/fs ^n M. V0> ^s "not to know the right way," the proper means; and yu*' men of expedients," that is, men of practical abilities. tao shu cho denotes also ' Shuo-yuan" (|^ ^), chap. xvi. " Hsin-shu," chap, v.; "Lie-tzii," chap, viii.; T'aber's Lie, p. 197; chap, ii.; Faber, pp. 8, 18, 55; L. C. C, i., p. 204; " Lun-yii," chap. xix. ; " Li-chi," chap. vii. p. 22 ; chap. vi. p. 74.
;
171
The word
tao
is
two examples
with
may
suffice.
to Tzii-lu,
fall
(:g
JE
as saying,
>E
JE 1 M)- I^ another place Confucius is represented There are three attainments of the Model man (g
to
use of ^our
of
must be admitted, however, that in some of the passages in which it has been so rendered, some term like
"characteristics."
or
*'
qualities "
would perhaps
suit better.
J^l
Thus
^ ; ?
J^ 0, he
has four
of
Model man.
Model man
something to
Used
Model man
man
(^ A)
it
is
is
used
somewhat
of
the
term shan-Jen.
Then Mencius
is
j^ <&) that having a certain livelihood they have certain convictions, and without the former
they are also without the
latter.
^^
So
also
we
and respect
and " an
awe-inspiring
dignity
and
severity of
manner
they
man,"
1 "Li-chi" (13), chap, i.; "Chou-li," chap. xiv. Biofc, "Tcheou Li," T. ii. p. 28; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; Gallery's "Le-ki," p. 81 ; ** Shuo-yuan," chap. xvi. j L. C. C, i., pp. 89 and 150; " Lun," chap. ix. p. 35, and chap. xiv. p. 42.
;
p.
" Lun," chap, v.; "Shuo-yuan," chap. xvii. ; L. C. C, i., 2 L. C. C, i.. p. 42 C, ii., p. 116; ** MSng," chap. v. j "Li.ohi," chap! 107; "Lun," chap. xi. ; L.
;
172
metaphorical applications,
we
is
find
it
human
conduct.
It
even
said to be
an equivalent
is
statement
justly
condemned
as inaccurate.
We
conduct
is
fc ]^
t)*
of
This, however,
and
its
precise
meaning cannot be
The pursuit
as in
virtue
of vice are in
China,
western
is
But there
In
generally
and
for the
attractive.
sweat-producing
are
toil.
It is scarcely necessary to
many
exceptions to this
way
of teaching,
as in the
Book
of Proverbs.
moralists the
way
of virtue is
man
hand,
is is
to follow.
man
is
chou
{^ytao and
way, come
to denote the
Opposed
to these
is,
which branch
of vice,
off
as its opposite, o
also
So
significations, is
and
unselfish conduct.
The term jen-tao denotes the characteristics of a man also in a viii. p. 37. material sense, and a man genitalihus orhatus is spoken of as ^, " Chou-li," chap. xxiv. See also the " Liao-chai," &c., chap, vi., the words
^ A^
H + irUdPtS^^^A^.
173
now
way
of life as
many wrong paths into which men wander. "The highway of the upright is to depart from evil; he that keepeth Contrasted with cheng-tao are the his way preserveth his soul."
contrasted with the
is
Chinese
If
son
is to
marry and
up children
life
his father.
he
an old poet,
" Wholly abstain or wed. The bounteous Lord Allows thee choice of paths; take no byeways."
Another name
*'the primrose
for lewdness
to
is
hua {'^-taoj
or flower way,
way
This phrase,
life
when used
wanton
of
woman,
inthe gay
of
lawless love, beauty's flower never ripens to any fruit, the fair
dies like the primrose
Moral
integrity, or
often expressed by
this
said to
mean
(^
it
jfJi
^),
to
be without private
nor
flattering,
is
forward truth.
As
uprightness,
;
and
as impartiality,
opposed
of partiality.
As
blunt frank-
ness of speech
is
Tao
is
meanings
and Confucius says that the Model man cannot be pleased with
anything "not accordant with right*'
i-tao
is
{7J^
J^ ^).
Opposed
to
But
come
is
to
have a very
It
the
o^f
the Penal
Code.
In the
Han
174
individuals of one family.
little different,
The
is
but
it still
punishment.
the
Some
virtue,
And
the
phrase pu-tao
what we
call
unnatural
in the
proposal as ta-ni-pu'tao-wu-li
{:kW,^M^
The phrase
ta-ni-pTutao
an old
one, being found in the " Han-shu," and perhaps earlier, but the
emperor gave
it
new
force.
Lu
leisurely,
and Mencius
(^
"SS
# ^ ^ M))
So we find
the right
way
such expressions as
explained as ho-yu,
is right.
correct,
where tao
is
(^
"^ytao, that
is,
in accordance with
what
In
like
'^
i-yil
(^
M)'^^o,
is to
follow
what
is right,
To
way,
to
wander from
virtue
and
to return to virtue is
fan {J^ytao,
f), to
as in the expres-
sion fari'tao-tzU'hsin
(^
jg
reform.
But
The
is
what
is right,
and
o,
what
is
wrong,
well
makes
(S
JS
Then
comes
to
walk or
travel, so it
is
figuratively.
Thus tao-chung
to
1 L.O.C., ii., p. 169; " Meng," chap, vii.; "Li-chi," chap. vii. p. 34; Gallery, "Le-ki,"p. 108; L. C. C, i., pp. 165 and 195; "Lun," chap. xv. and xviii. L.C. *' Lun," chap. xiii. " Han-shu," chap. viii. " Yung-cheng Edicts," C., i., p. 137 4th y. 10m 25 L. C. C, ii., p. 247 " Meng," chap. x. ; " Li-chi," chap. i. ' Hanshu," chap. vii. ; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. vii. p. 28, Note. The phrase ta-ni-putao may be sometimes found used of a crime such as that which we understand by the name *' high treason."
;
;
175
sometimes the sense of In the " Li-chi " we are told that the
is, it
law of
social rites
*'
may
must be observed
sincerely
and thoroughly.
In
word
is
men pursuing
the due
medium
Mencius quotes
Again, to
pursue learning
Constant
is is
Mean
tao-wen-hsiao (38 3C ^^^ to w^^k in the tao-chung^yung. In these places tao is said to
mean yu[^), to go along, or hsing, to walk in, that is, to practise. The statement that " the model man is reverently attentive to
his moral nature
(^
(g '^) and pursues learning," formed the Chu Hsi and Luh Chiu-yuan, and their
of our
word
to
be noticed
is
or condition.
We now
iQvmjen {X)'ta0j
human
being,
and man's
estate, or
manhood.
The
expression yen-^ao-?i
JE A)y man's way arises, means " a human being is formed." To cap a youth and give him a name in the presence of
(A
A
as
;^ JS),
is
demon ; chHn-shou
and beasts
and
(^ "Texistence des
is
^)-chih'tao
betes
the condition of
Callery
its
brutes,"
translates.
So ^hofu ('^ytao
;
origin
in heaven
fit-fu
(^
that
is,
T^ung {"^ytao
In a family or
is
boyhood or
it is
childhood, both
and second.
village
of
up
feelings of
harmony and
also
friendship.
To
(^
^ytao,
the
is
cordial relations
1
i.,
among neighbours.
So
vi.
;
ho (ft)-^ao
j
L. C.
p. 136,
"Li-chi," chap. v.
L. C. C,
^
''
>^^^eS ^
Libr,^,^^
Cf THE
'\
176
condition of
harmony such
community.
a household^ or family.
J)
simply
is
very poor.
is
A common
is
euphemistic expres-
chia-tao'p'ing'an
(^
^), the
there
because there
is
none.
Opposed
to these are
as chia-tao-chin-tsung-yung
(^
(^ ^),
the
it
by
'^the
ways or circumstances
her household."
of a family."
woman "looketh
well to
ways
of
The
well, is
and has a
is
reputation.
To
establish a
household,
in
all
that
is
needed
harmony
"
let
if il 51 J^)> ov, as Morrison has it, husband and wife agree and then the welfare of the family
(^
W^^
we
will be secured."
So
also
is
per-
fect (well ordered) in which husband and wife observe their duties of mutual obligation (^ if Jt IE)- Again, the phrase shi {-^ytao sometimes denotes the moral state prevailing
^^^^^
at
of affairs
Faber
translates,
" Er kannte nicht den Frieden oder die Gefahr des Weltganges," but this does not seem to express the author's meaning
fully.
The phrase
feelings, or
hy Jen-chHng
is
If ); man's
human
is
affairs,
not satisfactory.
It
is
(A
&)>
Thus there
literally,
the
common
is
saying,
*&
7 &
iS Ji
H fj;
to
man's heart
way
of the age is
hard
177
plain honest
men cannot
We
shuai-wei (iS JE Wi)' ^^ morality of the world is fading away, a process through which it has been going ever since
history began.
of
meanings very
different
from
of them.
We
" qua
from some
te
gressum,"
of speech is extend-
ed to figurative applications.
of friendship
may
Adam
says to
way
Our knowledge."
All education
counsel and
tao
itself
its
is
a training in the
way we should
guide,
teach,
go,
and
has
the
meanings
of
to
lead,
From
was
in the
composition
we might
meaning
to lead,
and one of the commentators on the definition given " Shuo-wen" says that there it is read tao (^), which means
to guide or rule.
When
other cases,
suffice to
is
A few
examples will
To
army
tao-chHen
which
is
contrasted
with yung-hou (J^ ^), to press on in the rear. Again, wei (;g) tao is to take the lead, go in front, as in the saying of the people
of
will
Chu to the ruler of Cheng, translated by Dr. Legge, "If you now vent your indignation on Sung, our poor town will lead the
for
way
you "
{%
S^
Jg).
When
explained by ahih'chih'i-
chap
(H
" Hsing-li," chap.viii. ; " Li-ohi," chap. x. ; " Le-ki," p. 67; "Hsing-li," xxi.; \^ jg ^ chap. Ji; Sacred Edict, Art. 3., Amp.; " San-yu-faug-chi" - Int. H, chap. X.; " Kan.ying.pien," chap. viii. p. 41, S: " Hsing-li," chap, xxv.; "Lie-tzu," Morrison's Alphabetic Diet., s. v. ; note"; chap, vii., aud Faber, p. 165; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. viii. p. 36, note.
Ml
178
tao-Vu
(^
;i 1 Jl S)> to
*e^l
To
tao-chiin
(5)
places
Chang Ch'ien was said to lead his array (tao'chiln) to where he knew there were good grass and water. To inas
is also
troduce, as at court,
it
was the
office of
Han period,
of foreign
when we read
jft
Yu-ssu to
?.).
It
generally,.
Thus
a
to receive as
Ho
to
"convoy the
setting
sun;"
and
in
the '*Shi-chi"
we have ching {^-tao, reverently attend, welcoming and convoying. Then in the journey of
So Heaven has ordained that there should
man
is
narrow ways
men to
And
thus
we
to jjU),
customs
li-i-chih-tao ^jjil^
Again, we
is,
(^
'f
MA
HI m)* ^^^^
in
les
la parole
pour diriger
hommes
The
way
( tao-chih-i-taoj
that
is,
he takes measures
is
orthodox.
by the ordinances
government
is
personal influence.
tao
In
this
by yin-tao (5| ^), to pilot, lead in the right course; and another explains it by hua-yu {^ ^), like hua-hui above. The
sage
is
said to-be in his active life a guide ftao) to all the world,
tao-i-te ({ (g), leads
and he
men by
own
moral character.
is
The work
wisdom,
179
be thus described.
it,
mode
of instruction
may
He
he confirms
resolve but does not insist doggedly, he opens a passage but does
Used
in the sense of
is
( J||)
teach
We sometimes find
of
In the sense
occurrence.
is
of frequent
Thus Confucius
represented as telling
Tzu Kung
& IB M)> or> as Dr. Legge translates, "Faithfully admonish your friend, and speak to him kindly." Again, t'an
ing
{&
hsiao'crh'tao
(M
(
^ M JE)
So
also
is to
pleasant words.
counselled
to attack.
him
"
tried
we have the statement tao-chih-fa [^ fjg), to persuade him " in Dr. Legge's version)
The
and
is
The use
way may be
illustrated
by a quotation
Wen
saying, "
The way
is
J5 j^ S&)
lies
in
attending to what
essential."
And
to follow his
own mind
(^
#S
to
way
also
1 5E 15)- Our word is applied in the lower animals, such as horses and camels.
5it
(^
is
managed, or
Now
And
in accordance with
to teach to
the genius of
also
may
have
mean
that which
taught.
word comes
siich
significations as doctrine,
^ "Shuo-wen," by Hsii Ch'ieh (^ ^), s. v. tao (^) L. C. C, v., p. 19; "Han-shu," chap. viii. "Li-chi," chap. viii. p. 54; L. C. C, ii., Proleg., p. 82; "Li-chi," chap. ix. p. 54; "Le-ki," p. 166; "Hsiin-tzu" (-^ =f), chap, xvi.; L. 0.
;
;
C,
i., p. 10; "Lun-yii,'* chap, ii.; "Lun-yii," (13), chap, ii.; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; "Le-ki," p. 24; L. C. C, i., p. 125; "Lun-yii," chap, xii.; L. C, ii., p. 303; ** Meng-tzii," chap, xii.; L. C. C., v., p. 199; " Tso-chuan," chap, xii.; "Han-shu," chap, iv.j " Shuo-liu-hsiin " (|^ ;^ ||i|), quoted in the fft jE, chap. ii.
180
usage
it
is
which
means
is
to speak.
(5(5
^)
in
Mencius
is
and the
though
context
Legge
by
'^
perverse speakings."
The
moral and
his
tao, or
philosophy,
or
teaching,
of these doctrines to
make
their
way
in the
Mencius speaks
Legge here
certain
cases
Wen Wu
Wenis
for
antiquity
the teachings of
it to
Mencius took
be his
to repel the
invading heresies of
itself
find the
word by
says
Hsu Hsing
of the ruler of
(^
translates,
taoj
or
doctrines,
call
what we
the
Confucianism
;
or Confucianists
Fo-tao
is
is
Taoism,
Fought he full long and many a day Where many gyants he subdu'd
In honour of the Christian way."
is
often spoken
emperor
says,
way ftao). Thus a Mandarin addressing the " Our dynasty esteems Confucianism and respects
(fIJ D) fi JE ft), and the word is often so used. religion was at one- time called Christian the that us reminds This
Confucianists "
simply the
Way.
It is
so
spoken
of
181
and
St.
Paul says
to Felix,
" But
this I confess
Way
which they
In
call
God
of our fathers."
this
tao
it
may sometimes
it,
so translates
be better.
Faber in
translation of "Lie-tzu'*
sometimes
One
of the
is,
meanings
of the
term tao-jen
is
man
in religion, that
one
who
also
and
discipline.
So
men
of
(S
"name
of
in religion."
Thus
had a
(%
^ ^),
is
the
Sung
period,
name Kang-chie (^
term
is
fg),
which
called his
applied
liberally.
Now
adheres
the
is
system
religion
or
is
philosophy to which a
man
for
him orthodoxy.
It
thelvaj (tao), or the correct (JE) way, or the right-hand (:g) way. What is not his system is heterodoxy outside ways (^fi Jg), or
wrong by-ways
(f|S Jg).
The term
tso4ao,
more
fully,
tso-tao-pang-men
and
{^ Jg by modern Confucianists
But
own.
White
if
Lilies,
not Confucianist.-^
Now
as
man
he sees
or the
So we find
as truth
and wisdom.
cianists to
is
supposition
who
is
en-
gaged
and yet
is
ashamed
of
bad
not
fit
to
In
L. C.
ix.
;
and
161., et
C, ii., pp. 160, 238; i., p. 210; ii., pp. 159, 123 J' Meng," chaps, vi. "Lun," chap, xix.; "Meng," chaps, vi. and v.; Faber's Licius, pp. 4:2j Sacred Edict, Art. 7, Amp.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap. viii. p. 21. al.
;
182
man (g
?) aims at truth
distressed
(g)
about
it,
Lie-tzu says that with the very handsome and the very strong
(^
pf Jl
m S
the
&)
''
^^^^ ^^^
o<^^
Wahrheit reden."
life
is
Further,
all
wisdom necessary
**
for
the conduct of
contained in
first
Confucianism.
It
was
in
Heaven
canonical writings of
The Lord
possessed
me
From
Heaven it came at the dawn of human life to the first holy sages who in Heaven's stead taught wisdom ( ^) to men unenlight" Truth," says one philosopher, " originated in Heaven ened.
(JS
JSS 5c)>
is
affairs of life,
From
from scholar
through
all
wisdom
(tao) has
from the habitable part of " Truth," the earth nor gone quite away from the sons of men.
time. It has never ceased
says one,
:^).
*'
jg
is
It
is
sage
expounder or defender of
tao-t'ung (j^), the
is
orthodoxy.
a short treatise
of the
f|^)
Fu Hsi
Chu
Foo-tzu.
Used
in
way, tao
is
said to be
;
continued, unbroken
and
Chu Hsi
says,
'*
(O the world,
continued
but as entrusted to
(If),
man
it
is
broken
off (|g), or it is
is
and
so
its
(^)."
believed by some
find
Hence we
such expres-
and hsin-tao-pu-tu
that
is,
(7
it
M)>
^0
faith in
it,
not to be
To have
expressed by yu-fu^tsai
(^
have confidence
183
learning reads books
Further,
the lover
of
wisdom
to
(^
JIO
while the
worlding
*'
(ij>
A)
useful information/'
and
so obtain
employment.
is
So tao-hsiao
contrasted with
But
is
(S
fi JE i^
S)
a
simply,
'^
Are you,
Sir,
a disciple of Confucius
Jg), as
Again, books
or
(^
waggon
gaudy
colours.
(^
^ J|
is
Jg), that
is,
clownish
accents convey
also other
meanings.^
Now
that a
man comes
to
The
and
of others leads to
what
is
right
wrong.
These
convictions, acting
as motives
man's
sense,
principles.
And we
man's
find our
conduct
character.
settled convictions as to
how he should
and
social life.
told,
settles
his
own
principles
with
(g
"f
^ JE
E)> ^^^
or, as
que d'apres
;
(les forces)
de tout
;
le
monde."
" Lun," chap. iv. L. C. C, i., p. 167 " Lun," chap. xv. 1 L. C. C, i., p. 32 "Lie-tzu," chap, viii., and Faber's Lie, pp. 188-9 " San-yu-t'ang-wai-chi," chap, "Hsmg-li," chap, xi.; " Yang-yuan-chi " (^ iv. ^), chap. xxix. "Chu-tzii. ch'uan.shu" (^ ), chap, lii.; L. C. C, i., 203; "Lun," chap, xix.; " " San-yu-t'ang-chi," chap, Hsing-li," chap. xvi. "Fa-yen" (;^ ^), chap. i. iv. ; " Hsing-li," chap. ii. ; Memorials to Yung-cheng Emperor, chap. i. p. IQ. The phrase ju (A) -too is used to denote the beginning of wisdom the entrance into truth and i^ /?> is to get knowledge without wisdom ; ^, chap. Ji. The tao here is of course the truth of Confucianism; ef. also ju-tao *' Hsiao Hsio-chi-chie," chap. v. in
; ;
^^
A^
184
We now
shih
to
(^),
desire or
appetite,
and
to
(If,) acts of
conduct.
((p|) ^o
is to
now means
in
do the same
active
thing.
and
Yen-hui enjoying in
government,
his
all t^ung-taoy
explained to
mean they had all the same mind (^ kX> The term hsin in this explanation is used in its higlier sense, denoting the mind which judges and decides on what is right or
wrong, and, as will be seen presently,
it is
^^ 95 B)-
in this use a
synonym
the
will
for tao.
They
determining what
to pursue.
in every action
which
and statutes
kindness (t)^ ^^^^ 'Vfiih. man (A)> or what is human and erring. One of the requirements of the high morality {^ f}) is that a man
should obey principle rather than his sovereign
(^
M ^ ^ S)(||1}
The sage
|J Jg),
represses the
human and
is
follows principle
Bff
may
follow
the human.
We
who
such cases
is
which has
its
But
the
phrase i-tao
JE) is of frequent occurrence in the sense of simply acting (t The phrases j/u (:) as one thinks right, having one's own way.
tao
and
tvu (^)-tao,
now mean
respectively to have
and not
to
have good principles ; and the unprincipled (ivu-tao) are described The as those among the bad who are perverse (or rebellious).
man
bend
of solid
worth in
office
or out of
it will
not iDa7ig
(^^E)"^*^^*
his principles,
make them
It
is
well for
official
him who can hsing {ffyiao, carry out his principles in Nor is he less to be praised who can only or private life.
185
and
But
it is ill
for
go his principles,
falls
him who shih {^)-tao, misses the way, away from the high aims and good
Mencius describes the bad conse-
rules with
which he
set out.
which
and
to determine his
conduct"
is
(^
^
to
g|).
now found
But
whether good
^^
JJ),
is,
of Confucianists
Legge's translation.
So we have
also
Yang
and
to,
Mih"
of Dr. Legge).
These were to be
an end
illustrated
(^).
There are
mean
principles
(Tfi)-^ao,
the
principles
Philistines.
is
In
this
world of
continuous
deterioration there
no
stability for
good principles.
They wax
go, at times
and again " fading away " {^), or falling as in abeyance ; at one time as into disuse (^), wearing away like old clothes, or quite cast
of
So we read
them
as
now
aside as useless
(fif)>
j).
At
or flourishing
Every good man (^), or in esteem (^). he has adopted should not suffer by
life.
"In
shame
;p St
^
t te
i.,
mv
ix.
"Meng," chap.
L. C.
p. 51
156
L.
C,
ii.,
p.
211
ix.;
and
xxii.;
chap, ii; "Lun-heng," (|^ ^) chap, xi.; L. C, ii., p. 166 ; Meng," chap. vii. (here tao is explained by g, principle of rectitude); "Ch'ang-H-ch'uau-chi," chap, xv.; L. C. C, ii., p. 14u C, i., p. 76, and ii. p. 370; "Lun," chap, viii., and "Meng," chap, vi.; L. "Meng," chap. xiv. ; L. C. C. ii., pp. 134 and 159 ; "Meng," chaps, v. and vi.; "Ku-liang (13), chap, i.; " Ch'aug-li-ch'uan-chi," chap, i.
p.
C,
/h
^ M ^)
"Li-chi," chap,
16
word in
Derived from
this,
or at least
that
now
to
word with
significations
state administration.
The
of guiding
is
word tao
do this
is
used.
and
to
is
at once
and their
**
glory.
So the poet
says,
to guide nations in the way of truth saving doctrine, and from error lead To know and worship God aright, " Is yet more Kingly
But
By
than
all
to gain great
The
first
sovereigns were
holy sages
the
and
all
who bear
A king is called
wang
(3E),
to
him
ti
all
called
unity; U, emperor,
king,
is
is
and
tvangj
he who
is
thorough in virtue.
In the old
classical literature
we
The
well-known phrase tao ch'ien ch'eng chih kuo (J^ [read as ^] " to rule a country of a i, B) is translated by Dr. Legge,
; thousand chariots " and chih (^), to rule well, is given as the meaning of tao here. This latter, however, is rather the li (g|)>
so
much
good
mean
to
rule well as to
aim at ruling
well, to lead to a
^'
government.
and keeps
to
We
have
187
'^
;J^
fj),
cardinal virtues.
Then
the phrase
^ao
is
of^good anT'bad,
government,'* explained
hy commentators
As
ment
(f
people
their
This
and
with
partiality,
pa
maintenance,
;g|),
It is also
private authority
it
and in the
he
to
is
said that
the
government
the
[old]
authority of his own (Ig JE iffi jt fil ^)- "W'e read also of wang-tao'shuai (3E JE ^) royal government falling into disuse, that is, good institutions becoming neglected and ceasing to have
effect.
Here wang-tao
is
of
(5fe
;5l
JE),
and
this
of
The
" government
jen-cheng
elsewhere explained as
is,
{^
a govern-
people,
and gently
and example.
We
as
now
Chou
with
another
in
new meaning
use during
denoting
"the
system
as
of
government
the
period,*'
hsia-tao
like these
But phrases
are also used in the sense of " the political influence " or prestige
or dynasty.
by something
like
We
188
of
the
Shang dynasty
in
its
later years,
hu huo pu chih
to court to
(^
MM M ^^
its
J>
^l
as the prestige of
the Shangs had fallen away, the feudal chiefs perhaps did not go
pay homage.'*
rules, the statutes
tao.
(gj[
and precepts
this use the
official
in force in a
is
In
word
somestate
^),
commands,
Thus we
life
or peace,
and
it
is
added that
if
people
(6
S S ii A # S
to
*F),
and
if
certain
chun-tzU'chih (g -J i,)'i(^o, in addition to several other meanings, denotes " the institutions of the ruler " and these are
:
and
it
was the
(^
jlfl
I&
JS)-
^)- 1'^ same phrase lun-tao is explained (SK in another passage in a similar manner by several commentators.
"We read there
period, that
institutions
of
MS SiK
three
high
officers instituted in
the
Chou
pang (^ ^),
discuss
states.
scholars
seem
to
find
in
it
similar meaning,
while
prefer
the interpretation
given above.
In the passage
may
be taken to denote
it is
manner.
tao tsai
puh
ho
S)
is,
i^eans "the
way
of
governing
lies in
In
King Wu-ting
speaks of himself as
"in reverent
189
on the way
to rule properly
(^
^ @ 3g).
Here
tao
is
"the
and course
of
renders by
of
le secret
de gouverner en paix."
told,
These principles
grow old
^)- I* is an old maxim among Chinese fln JE (^ political writers that government should be carried on without any show
ethical
of governing, a
and
political philosophy.
various creeds of
is
expressed by
tao^mo ta
yil
wu
wei
(^
^^
:ht^
M)y
there
is
The phrase hsiao {^)-tao means, along learn the way of ruling, and chih (^^)-tao
to
know
this
way.
As
is
now
mode
It has
been
said, for
example, of
(^
^ /f ^
But one
is
of the
commonest meanings
naturaFeffects.
good
government
realTz'ed
and pro3ucing
its
TKus we
often read of a
kingdom (kuo)
yu
tao
Opposed
to this
wu (^ytcw,
or yin (^),
and confusion, a
state in
which the
teachers of virtue cease and law becomes disorder, a state like that
*'
:
Now
hath
been without the true God, and without a teaching priest, and without law." Confucius is represented as saying on one occasion,
"
would attain
to
the state of Lu, and this latter kingdom by one change for the
better
government
ftaoj ."
tao is interpreted as
tion
of
the
ancient kings,
190
thoroughly
fair.
The word
There an
official,
Chi-liang, says
the chief of Sui, *'I have heard that a small state can put
opposition to (match) a large one
(tao)y
if
itself in
government
is
What
called
''
explained as
'*
true
sympathy
Again, in the
in succession
it is
Shu-ching,"
of
who had
is,
said that
it
tao
{^
^^
:
J^), that
Here
tao
is
explained as chih-chih-
of
The effects (15; Jg ^ytao, the way of perfect government. " described The influence this are then of your government
Kingdom " CMI^^ia R)' persuade the barbarians, make the king happy, strengthen the dynasty, and leave a fair
fame and bright example
in praise of
for posterity.
WM^
Wen Wang
was not
suffering,
and looked
though
it
visibly existing.
Chinese rule
supposed by
of their
Chinese to
civilise barbarians,
mode
good
government.
Thus we
officials
of
(or
good
J^)-^
all
political
order
tao),
was not
effected'' (fe
38 I^ 1^ 5E
We
that
we
In the
Ti.'U. CTTTp. 4; 'Lun," chap, i.; " Chu-tzu-i-shu " chap, i.; (^ "Li-chi," chap, vii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 7 "Meng," chap, i.; L. C. C, iii., p. 331 ; iv., "Shih-ching" (13), chap, i.; L. C. C, ii., p. 165 ''Meng," chap, Proleg, p. 35 C, i., p. 28 9; vii.; "Li-chi" (13), chap, liv.; "Hsiin-tzu," chap, xvii.; L. " Chung.yung," chap, vi.; '' Chou-h," chap, xx vii.; Biot's " Tcheou-Li," T. ii., p. 457; L. C. C, iii., p. 527; "Shu," chap, v.; " Shu-ching" (13), chap, xviii.; "Han Fei-tzu," chap, i.; L. C C, iii., p. 250; "Shu," chap, iii.; Gallery's "Leki," p. 83; " Hsiin-tzii," chap, xviii.; L. C. C., i., p. 56; "Lun," chap, vi.; L. C. C, v., p. 47; "Tso-chuan," chap, vi.; L. C. C, iii., p. 576; " Shu," chap, " Chu-taii-i-shu," chap. viii. vi.; L. C. C, ii., p. 202; " Meug," chap, viii.; *' Han-shu," chap. Ivii.
; ; ;
^ M W*
C
191
he
is
aflfairs.
This rule
testing
(or
(^
^g
jj^
Jg),
of
law of reciprocity,
affection.
shewing
filial
and parental
As
the carpenter
make and
ment by
him.
riches
latter,
'^
Though the
seeking (praying)
i,^
is
getting depends on fate, in this case the seeking does not assist
in the getting,
and
is
external."
Legge
translates yu-tao
by "according
to
and Faber by " hat feste Eegeln." Some native scholars explain tao here as " the law of right drawing the line for me as to what
is
not to be sought"
it
(3
i:
fljg
iU
;?;
g ^ If
and others
explain
as that
which controls
(^).
(fij)
makes
this right
philosopher
ical
Mo
of
plainness
{^^^SX^I^^ Jl).
By
reference
to the
works
Mo Tzu
tao is here
used as the equivalent of fa (^) or fa'Shih (f^ ^), a rule or law. Then we have such expressions as yen yii chih tao (b* |g j^l ?S)
the law
of
conversation, that
is,
and wei
shang
term
(^
The
je7i
{\)-tao
occasionally
rendered by
yil (Jig J5&)
Gallery "
tao
la loi chez Fhomme," and he translates shun by " ob^issance complete a tout ce qui fait loi."
He
is
dutiful son
not
who for three years after the death of his father does make any change in the appointments (or arrangements) made by the latter (^ ^)- ^^^SS^ translates, Bit iSS $C *' If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father," and there are diverse interpretations of the passage. One of the meanings of ku (]5f) or ku-chih ("j^f ^ytao, is the old rule," the
^^
'*
1^2
with
a gloss
hy the Person,
of
So the prophet Jeremiah, as quoted says, " Stondeth upon the weyes,
is
to
sayn,
of old
which
is
As
sometimes said
to
(M'^
ff
^)>
the echo.
is
also
prescribed,
the
official
ivei-mao
(^
to
|^
JE
&)
This word
of
it,
as in other circumstances,
treated as a verb.
Tseng
it,
Tzii,
on
hearing of
something good
of
proceeded to do
made r rule
it" (gc
^ Jt ^V
which
also is
perhaps
guide or teach.
of
tell,
This
is
the employment of
talk,
of
How
of
how
Way,
explained by
native scholars,
silence.
who seem to have passed over the difficulty in The character tao (JJ), sometimes said to be in the ch'u-sheng in this case, has the meaning " to speak," as chiachiehy
or
borrowed
one,
meaning not
in
it
originally
or
naturally.
transition
Wuttke
word
to the ordinary
mental concepts.
of a
The road
can come
road one
says,
man
Meadows
language generally
of
from
;
speah
is
At
all
events, however,
tao
came
" Ta-hsio," chap. iii. p. 34; L. 1 L. C. C, i., p. 237 C, ii., p. 326; "Meng," chap, xiii.; Faber's "Mencius," p. 71; L. C. C, ii., p. 133; " Mdng," chap. v. p. 57; "Mo-tzii," chap vi.; " Chuang-tzii,'' chap. x. ; |g fg, chap, i.; Gallery's Le-ki," pp. 61 and 110; L. C. C, i., p. 24; " Lun," chap, iii.; L. C. C, i., p. 6; "Lan," chap, i.; " Li-chi," chap, v.; "Hsin-shu," chap, ix.; " Shuo-yuan," chap. xvii.
^g
19S
it is
n M^i r
ii
commonest
form
y iiw- r
i
signitications/'
the fact that 'to speak/ is one of its ~j-T' m ^" Advice or instruction often takes the
laii
gai o
rr- i--iyrrr-niiii
'
lJl
ii
nll ii
--^-
r-"--'-
'
v'>*m^
'
of a lecture,
we find tao used in the sense of to The king warns the Prince of K'ang that he
**
tional.
Then he adds
on them
**
who commit
is
not to
be inflicted
(E
M &tM ^)-
thus,
When
conceal anything.**
In the same
treatise
we
5^
find
-ft*),
it
recorded of a
mo ming
to lecture
(jg
declared openly
commands, proclaimed
on or discuss a subject.
Thus
we rekd
of
Men cius
tao hsing
at
shan (jg
birth.
*'
stated that
'S*
men
to
at birth
all
A ^
^^
^)
the clause,
*'
Mencius discoursed
So tao ku chin
to
(j^f
Legge
nature of man
is good.**
discourse
meaning
of to relate or report, as
when
it
is
said
that
or,
as
Legge
to
used by Hsii Hsing (Jg ^, fr i, u)- ^^ old times there was an official called Hsun-fang-shih ( J|| "fi J^)j one of whose duties
iS :$). The reports (H J5 in the and put state archives, tao came to be thus made were
used in the sense of a record, a written statement.
Thus the
194
(|j
i:
51)-
Then
T^an-jen
tao
also
means
to
describe
or
explain.
Thus the
period,
(^ Ai
Chow
is
This
stated in
{^
by " expliquer
le service
r^glementaire du go uverne-
ment.*'
When
himself, Tzii
)l^)f
Kung
{^
is,
"?
'
J8
are
You
is still
Our word
signify.
is
also
Thus
of
an expression in the
in
i^),
Shi-ching,'* ''as
it
if
pared
and
(JE
filed''
(jp
tao hsiao ye
&)>
means
or "indicates" the
Wu Kung.
is
labour of education of
^)-tao
Of another statement
(tao)
it
means
So
kingdom
he says
is
gained."
also of
it signifies
and
decree to rule.
like
some passages
those
just
quoted, and in
we
should render tao by some term like " proves " or " demonstrates."
Though yen
is
is
properly a difference.
is
hard
to talk (yen)
with a clown."
But
much
observed, and
the two words are often found in the same clause to add force
or
emphasis
to a
statement.
(iS iE JE b") Dieans frank and correct in speech; and chHao (3^) y^^i hsu (^) tao, denotes artful words and empty talking
specious sophistry.
195
But
tao also
means
to
speak
of,
talk about.
Thus Mencius
who
talked of
To
others
also
is
(A ^)j
tell
means
to give others
good advice.
man
"not
to talk
So pu-tsu
(^ jE (^
B tk)>
^^^^ ^o
rake up old
The word
is also
by " fait
plays,
I'eloge de."
In novels,
find this
relate,
of to say,
tell,
or
to shiio
(^), meaning
it
One
may
we
be mentioned.
like
and in
old literature
mentioning.
merely
making
hua Uao
a question,
chHng
(8Ji SfJ8SBt?2T)^e
But
translates thus,
is
"an
the expression
evidently
meant
to
accurate rendering.
it
must
of
to
is
maintain, do
you?"
This
last
of the idiom as
negation.
lean
i^^-tao
is,
pu kan
tao is
But
kan^tao
is
"I venture
to
argue"
maintain the
of
truth of a certain
assertion.
is
everyday language
chie-h'ou
(^
to
mouth speak."
another,
to
This means
to
put
attribute
196
or statements which he
is
may
which,
in fact, lie
Thus,
wai
{^)
chi "
it is translated,
is
as
if
an outsider."
To congratulate another
to condole
is tao-hsi is
him and
;
with another
tao-nao
as
a phrase which
tell,
is
interpreted in the
meaning "to
sorrow."
sc,
my
trouble,
The
iphrasepu-k^o
;
[^
"vjytao sometimes
is
means "cannot
''beyond power
more
described.
ij^ytaOj
(jgy^fifo,
sometimes expressed by yu-hsin (jj to say in the heart, but the more usual phrase is hsiang
is
"To think"
hsiang
meaning
to
think.
is
Here
in a
tao
adds
little
or
preceding, but
manner picturesque
to
In other cases
affix to
tao
seems
be merely
added as an euphemistic
{"^ytao
is
Thus ma
simply to scold;
wen {^^ytao
to
ask; and ho
(|lg)-^o is to shout.
This
last
to clear the
way
of
by going ahead
and shouting.
*'
In
all
these
cases,
however,
the
meaning
may
d,
261
C, iii., pp. 388 and 558 ; "Shu," chaps, iv. and their Kebellions," p. 355; L. " Meng," chap, v.; (13), chap. v. Jt; " Ch'ang-li. vi. ; L. C. C, ii., p. 110; '" Lun," chap, xvi.; " Kan-ying-pien," ch'uan.ohi," chap, xix.; L. C. C, i., p. 177; C, ii., p. 123; "Meng," chap. X., p. 29, note; " Li-chi," chap, vi., p. 63; L. chap, v.; "Chou-li," chap, xxi.; Biot's "Tcheou-li," T. ii., p. 284; L. 0. C, chap, xiv.; L. C. C, i., pp. 227, 239, 240; iv., p. 91 ; "Ta-hsio," i., p. 150; "Lun," chap, ii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 14; "Meng," chap, i.; "Ku-liang" (13), chap, ix.; Premare " Notitia," &c., pp. 62 and 135 ; " Tzii-erh-chi," Hundred Lessons, Nos.
^^
There is an interesting passage in Tso's Commentary on the "Ch'iin-ch'iu," where tao seems to be used in a pecuhar manner. The speaker says that at court, and at meetings, the chief oflBcer of the sovereign is to speak so as to be heard over a definite distance, and to fix his look on a point midway hetwen the girdle and collar of the person addressed. Tlie object of the latter, he says, ig
197
We
first
now come
seem
to
word which
at
sight
have
mentioned.
To the
new
uses are
word
as the others.
They
But
at the
which many
of the other
meanings have
and
common applications of the word. now said to be another name for the T'ai-chi Meadows has^ well translated "tJItimate (ik, &)} wKfcli'Hr.^ The term c/d denotes the ridge-pole of a house, the Principle."
they underlie the most
The word
tao is
setting of
which in
its
proper place
It
is
is
the
first
of a Chinese building.
of
materials.
all
It
is
can go in
so
it is
its
mind
in
universe.
In philosophy
it is
"Epical
circle
of its
by a parallelogram.
and
Viewed
which assumes the two forms pang and yin; the former male, and the latter female, dark, negative, bright, positive, active
;
inert.
Regarded
as immaterial,
it is
continues
tao
immanent
in this throughout
its
processes of evolution
yung mao !%) *o give expression to the deportment of his face, that shew his respectful bearing. He adds that the Shan-tzu in giving his sovereign's orders did not raise his looks above the girdle, and so mao pu tao yung, his countenance did not express becoming deportment, did not show gravity and respect. He adds farther that pu tao pu hung, where there is no expression of it there is no respectful demeanour. Dr. Legge in this passage translates tao by "fitly regulate" and "regulations," but>these renderings do not seem to give the meaninof of the text. The commentators tell us to road the character for tao as if ^, but some term like " express " or " indicate " is
is,
(M^
to
chuan "
v., p.
"Tflo-
198
and developmen
itself
.
fine
it
and
and
subtle,
spirit.
and no clear
It
is like
line
between
our fore-fathers'
" Spirits animall Whose matter, almost immateriall, Resembles heaven's matter quiatessentiall."
Now
But
it is
tao
is
"Ulti-
or as
immaterial.
when regarded
as the
is
spoken
of
as
its
equivalent.
is
So
Appendix
to the
is
" Yi-ching"
declared
is
it
taO'chih-chi, the
and highest
spiritual principle.
Properly,
tao
is
mode
of operation of the
Ultimate Principle.
Thus the
called tao.
In
1^
^ ;i
of
II JE),
is called
taou, the
Way
(or
method
of
however,
differ
it is
interpretations
is
of
this
passage, and
correct.
We also find
is
the Tai-hsii
( jj;
^)
or
Grand
as
some
teach.
;
Then
and the
after
Hence
wu (^),
it is
the
imma-
terial, as
opposed
yu
(:), the
material
and
name
H^
2)-
^^ is also stated in
is
tao or
spiritual principle.
But though
in thought tao
it
may
be contemit
has uo
The Word Tao.
separate
existence.
is
199
matter, in
its
Apart from
:
essential
two
it
aspects there
no tao
it is
And
by expressions like " spiritual principle," or "law of being,'* or " principle of action." "We are told that the T'ai-ohi is called
tao, because it is by it that all existing creatures proceed. In the passage quoted above from the " Yi-ching " " Once a Negative, once a Positive, is called tao " Chu Hsi explains tao by li (jg).
Herr Grube
him, and says that on account of " die Normj" with li, " die Vernunft/'
is
right,
To
is of ten
used as
;
synonym
for
li,
meaning law
is
but
Further, as
order or law,
it
had
beginning so
man
is
concerned.
For
far
the universe
all
all
quietly
became ship-shape.
It
tao ,the
order came
forth
from chaos
It
{M
ih
^&
!$)
may
plays in the
common works
of
it
is
we
learn
In doing
so
let
us begin with
says,
remarkable
to the right
He
existence, lies in the perception of the fact that the above fourteen
words or terms
taou'le (Ji
tae^heih
le
(^
;g),
sing ('^),
sin
(^{J),
taou,
a),
{ ^),
teen
i^yt^^n-li
X^
mean
one
and
the Ultimate
200
Principle of
my
exposition."
and dogmatic, and it needs to be amplified by native writers. One of these says, " That which spoken of as pursued is called tao,
spoken of as inscrutable
always producing
says the
is
is
called spiritual
(jjif ),
and spoken
of as
Another philosopher
is tao,
mind
most
(^jji) is
the
modern
scholar, one
who
lived
" T'ai-chi
(^ ^)
In the
the general
name
(g).
In Heaven
(fj).
it is fate
{^)y and in
is
man
heavens
it
5pJ
^); and in
man
law
the
it
is
social requirements,
call it
and wisdom.
it
O)
Way
as
mankind proceeds
(4'); as
;
it is
called
(tao)
as
much
it is
called the
mean
it is
altogether true
it is
;
and honest
it
is
{^
because
absolutely
it is
(^ ^)
and as
we
call it
the
Grand Ridge-pole
tao
;
S)-*'
and unity
are forced
is
names
for spirit
{^
H 1$
is is life
mind
it is
After
all,
be
be
tao.
We
chung
(t|),
immaterial and eternal, which gives the source and the law of
being and action to all the universe. The T'ai-chi is the "pervading spiritual law " of the universe, not to be defined or described,
the source and disposer, the distributor and maintainor of
exists.
all
that
It is
when viewed
it is
properly said to
t^ai-chi
with
their tan (j^), which in its highest sense is tao, the ultimate This tao is self-existent, alone, and unprospiritual principle.
ductive, but
it
is to
"
201
himself by the
himself of
all
man who
is selfish
is
that
Nature
in a
The
doctrine
in
of tao in this
manner
are both to
some
common
to
to
certain followers of
Lao-tzu.
when
employed
universe
and
of existence.-^
As
all
word comes
nature or
Law
In
of all objects
this sense
it
used very
says,
of
which he
doth assign unto each thing the kind, that which doth moderate
measure
{if^-tao
of
is
working,
we term
Law."
Thus shui
translate,
instincts
or, as
Ma-tao
is
is, its
and
habits.
So
is
fish to
leap
in the water
for bears
and
lions to
growl and
fight.
It
is ti
of earth, the
law
to all
that
is
below
man
tao
denotes the fixed inevitable law which created things follow from
blind irresistible impulse.
of time
The
reign of law
knows no bounds
and dispassionate
itself
or space.
all
It bears
sway inexorabk
through
Changeless
and
subject to no influence from without law exists and rules impalpable to human senses in all the changing elements of " all this
" Chu.tzu-ch'uan-shu," chap. lii. ; Yi, Pref., p. 1; " Chou-yi-hSng-ohie '-Chinese and their Kebellions," p. 374; Legge's " Yi," 'II 8?) 1*-' P- 1^5 " Yi," chap. iii. ; Yi ching," (13) chap. vii. ; " Chou-yi-h^ng-chie," chap. p. 355 " v, p. 12; " Huai-nan.tzu," chap, iii.; v.; " Chou-yi-tsim-shu
1
(^
'^
(M^^^).vol.
"Hsing-li," chaps, iv., v., vi., viii.; "Yi ching" (13), Int., chap vii., p. 32; "T'ung shu," by W. Grube, T. I., p. 9; "Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 351; "San-yiit'ang-chi," chap, i.; Esiao.sau.shv, (/> ) chap, ii.; Ch'ang-tao.chen-yen chap. f. p. 27. ff (Pg m)' i^ee also Chao.tzii-yen-hsing.lu (M J-
ME
W>
202
changing world."
but at least
it
is
only by following
its
continue to exist.
invisible tao is
As
coiitrolliug
and
sometimes called
or God.
The expression
We
manof the
it
pursued
by the heavenly
bodies.
ifold applications of
our word
we now look
is
at a
few
used.^
The
meanings.
it
will be
is
and
Heaven, and
not
now
concerned.
them.
is
It
that of
active.
What we
call
is its
heaven's law
{tHen-tao).
This phrase
seasons,
^s when we read that the natural law of yuan^ heng, li, chen {%'^ 8) is called Heaven's law. The M, S
^^
'*
Summer, Autumn, Winter. The means to take advantage of yung tHen^chih-tao expression (|B)
is,
to
make
And
this
law
phenomena through
is
('&
les
S)
se
phenomenes du
But
the
way
ordains.
In
C,
ii.
p.
319; "
i.
'*
(^
^), chap.
ghu"
p. 38; " Chuaug-tzu," chap. vii. "Hsing-li," chap. x. and chap, vi.; "Hsiao-ssuSan-yu-t'ang.chi," chap. x.
Faber Licius,"
The Word Tao.
203
The The
heaven's decrees
($
g
is
5c jS)?
^^^^
established and
way
tHen-tao
the
order which
is
law.
Thus
it
In
usage of
le
it
the phrase
is
par
ciel."
Then we
cal, social,
and domestic
life,
that
isj-
father and son, husband and wife, brothers and friends are called
When
and
anarchy then
'*
Shang Ti"
is
Heaven" (^ 5c
JID-
-^^
but
destiny.
Thus
destiny.
also
we
call fate or
gj{),
So we find
tang-jan
(^
that
to be.
to be
" tHen-tao
Without bounds
is
or parts,
its
ftHen-taoJ
uncontrolled in
violate,
it.
oppose, nor
ance,
cheat
Fate
Heaven's ordinIt
is
heaven's
all life
dashed
and
so
it
is
Then tHen
fate.
is
Thus a writer
how
only those
who
time;"
Chow Wu-wang
said "receiving
{^
MM m, ^ ^ M ^^ B ^
204
'^ ^).
Iq
is
Heaven.
of
"Law
is
due portion
It
the universe.
is this
which shapes
his death
;
all
man's
life,
and
JK
in,
so
jfi
we read
pI
called his
destiny
(^
'&)
^e
and coming
[according
live
and
to
die,
are
to] destiny''
Connected with
another
which
it
It is
found interchanged
with hsing
in the sense of
The
God "embosoms
in
Thus one
is
writer
says,
"What
;
is
called
Heaven's law
(tHen-tao) "
and
this
term
So
also
Was
explained
as
the five
cardinal virtues.
is
used
to
^^
Jfi),
dew
to bless
the land.
Again we read that the influences or operations of heaven and are brilliantly conspicuous. In its (5C JE) descend to enrich nature heaven is spiritual' and inscrutable, and its activity (tHentao) is in
making
or transforming.
The word
explained as
for
heaven
is is
So used
jij
t^ien
"the
gods" ("g
^)
or as
H ^ ^ i ^).
this
Thus
the phrase
what we
phrase
is
sometimes trans-
The Word Tao.
lated.
205
ft^ien taoj
because
he sees
to
shew
its
work
Male-
Here Gallery
is,
by
^'la
Verity
Celeste,"
that
God who
truth.
for
branche had shown before that li (S)j which is another name tHen-tao, really denoted " la Yerite Celeste," or God of
Christianity.
But tHen-tao
yu
is
The
is is
(^ ^)
We
acts
It is
way
of
Providence
ft^iefi-taoj to
and
to
abhor
It does not,
as
some
but
curse kings
desert
and
bless
peasants
as
such,
to
rewards according to
circumstances.
to
worldly
Then Providence
The
genial
is,
be served, and
be held in awe.
mercy and
shown by Providence.
man's deeds.
We
fien tao
does
M)
not
Do we
to dishonour,
some
their
memory
is
Further,
word
is
and
it
also described as
"V^isdom,
Benevolence,
Rectitude (jg (*
('{J)
^ ^).
t'ieii
The
means
from
and
tao was
every
body.
In
this
it is
place
t'leii
tao perhaps
not possible to
What is Providence
206
to the
Thus
"Wen
Ch^un-ch^iu on
account of Providence
(TC S) ^^^ ended on account of human action ( JgJ V). Here tHen-tao is shewn to be the equivalent of yin t'ien ming chih
ch'iung
(0
^^
was exhausted.
season,
i, M)^ because the destiny decreed by Heaven The ch'i lin was sent by Providence out of
its
its
As Providence,
T'ien-
all
world.
of
Pu
(|g
^)
has the
all
title
T'ien
Kuan
other
affairs
officials
as Providence has
supreme management
of
all
From
of
this
we
makes him a responsible creature. This is the t'ai-chi as lodged in man and working in him. Lie-tzu gives a quotation, found also in Chuang-tzu, in which the question is asked, ' Can
which,
'
that
is,
can a
man
lates tao.
The answer
the
is
own
universe (3^
J-jfc
;^ g),
power.
The Chung-yung
(tao),
says,
"What Heaven
man
is
which follows
this is called
is
1 " Strng-pen-shih" chap, i ; " Huai-nan-tzu," chap, iii ; " Yi," (5J$ 7|C Vol. 2 et ah; /> chap, iv; " Li-chi," chap, v., p. 17, note /5? Int., " Hsiao-ching " (13) ^., chap, iii; Ma, T. 1., chap. 129; Call. Le Ki, p. 116 j L. " " C.C. IV., p. 570; Shih, chap, viii; Shih-ching" (13), chap, xix; Chung-yung," chap, i; '* Hsing-li," chap, ix; L. C. C. iii., p. 254; Shu, chap, iii; " Lun-heng," iii., pp. 183, 294, 575; "Shu," chaps, iii, iv; "Chia-yii," chap, xxii; L. chap, vi; "Lun-heng," chap, iv; " Meng," chap, xiv, p. 61, note; " Lie-tsii," " Hsin-shu," chap, ix; " Hsing-li," chap, iii, p. 40; chap, vi and Faber p. 143, " Meng," chap, ii ; " Hsing-li," chap, iv ; Chang Heng ch'ii chi (5g |^ ^), chap, x; "Fa-yen," chap, i; "Li-chi," chap, iv, p. 65; " Yi," chap, i p,. 34; " Han-shu," chap, xxvii, _t:; "Sung pen shih," chap, "Hsing-li," chap, iii; i; "Chia-yii," chap, iii; "Lun heng," chap, xxiv; Sac. Ed. Art. 3. Amp.; L. C. C. III., p. 186; "Hsing-li," chap, v; Edicts of Kanghsi and Yung
^)
;^MMb^
^^
C C
Cheng; L. C. C. I
p.
277;
II.,
p. 179;
"Meng," chap,
vii.
vii.;
L. C. 0.
i.,
p 41;
"Lun," chap, v;
"Wen
Chung-tzii," chap.
XTKI
The Word Tao.
education."
207
gives
is
As
Heaven
to
originally
naturally
came
it
and
is
As
But
it is
more usually
due rules
(4)
and knowledge (^). For the last two chung the mean, and cheng (J) perfect, are sometimes substituted,
is,
and
alike in
all,
the same in
that
it is
in
any
Chang
or Li of to-day.
But the
and
his sur-
its
authority.
Mencius
"Man
tao
meaning
^'"an
an
this
it is
ffi),
not
the same in
It is
a hsu-wei
(^
an
empty
place,
may
says that
in man's
power
to develope his
man (A lb ?i JE |^ jg i A).
The emperor
This saying, which has received several very different interpretations, is often
Yung- cheng,
literati
uses
it
to
enforce
a lecture to the
on the
self-restraint,
and
self-respect,
(jjli
^S
is
5S)-
It is only
man who
by a good moral
and power
wise
of his
training.
But the
its
man
moral
nature
its full
He
it
guards
(ijjp) it,
follows
last
it
{f}\
and developes
or gives
expansion.
This
he
effects
208
The
is
chief element in
man's
and
to
act
contrary to this
(^
A M)>
is
to
used
by oppressive mandarins.
The habitual
exercise of charity, of
mercy and
and so we read
also
by
human
kindness.
In the
while
saint
it
this
moral nature
is
of far-
reaching greatness,
flourishes
of life; it
when
the right
man comes
in
him
of
man
By
it
he refers
all
and wrong.
Man
alone of
make
**
like that in
So we
when God
says of
Adam
And
I will
place within
them as a guide
My
Thus
tao
is
umpire conscience."
right
and wrong
(^
|^ ^^
jffi),
and
(taoj
as a mirror
mind.
But the
conscience
must
be educated, instructed by
It is expressly stated
is
by one
is
erroneous (JS
jig),
Jp
i^fi
03 Jp ^f
jE /F W)-
noticed above,
may
in
many
conscientiously.
;
And
'
1 Lie-tzii, chap. i. and Fab. Lie, p. 19 ; " Chuang tzii," chap, vii.; L. C. C, i., 247 and note Chung, chap, i., p. 10, 14; "Wang-yuan-ming-chi," chap, ii., p. " Hsing li," chap, i.j In the Yii-pien the phrase fl is given 48 Yi, chap, iv.; as a meaning of the character for tao; " Li chi," chap, x., p. 66 L. C. C, ii., p. " Hiao-hsio-chi-chie," chap, i.; L. CO., i., p. 166; Lun, 110, 127; Meng, chap, v.; " Hsing-h/^chap. ii.; Hanshu, chap, chap. XV.; Yung Cheng's Ed. ts 5y. 6m. 17; ^), chap. ~f. viii.; Chia yii, chap, iv.j Chao.tzii-yen.hsing-lu
p.
(M^m^
209
is
often
right,"
and especially
jen.hsin
(^
JE
ffi
what
is
is
is,
public spirit
natural
human
instinct.
Again
it
to
respect to an individual in
ni-men'hung'tao''pU'jung4a, means,
right will not endure him.^
as the Ultimate Principle, the
your
common
sense of what
is
When
is
it is
spiritual basis of
also
man's
hdn
word
which having
hunger.
seat in
The
hsin which
said
to
be tao
is
considered as that in
pity
Hence
the
taO'
hsin
said
The former
it,
is
sometimes
latter the
be the mind of
as
man
as
he makes
and the
same mind
a general
designation
made by Heaven. But many regard jen-hsin as name for the appetites and passions, and tao^hsin as a
for
In the Shu-ching
it is
written
jen-hsin^wei-wei tao-hsin-wei-wei
(A
i&
111
JE >&
" ^^^ man-mind is dangerously fickle, the Law-mind is 'Hi WOf dimly minute." This famous pas;sage, with the change of to
;^,
is
*^
Tao-ching.'*
Some
native
of this
scholars
as
Huang
bad
originally.
its
received
former
and the
^
latter as the
Fei-tzii,
( Jg ^JJ), unstable and unquiet, moral sense which, when enlightened, brings
i.j
mind
Han
chap,
210
stability
feelings
;
human
after
it
No
one, say
how many
to
is
it
there
are
According
one, but
man,
is
human
mind and
the due
i& jS J@
jE >&)
mind (5^ :
them
medium with
is
is best.
Some
say that
man's native
its
constitution
genesis
in external objects
the
man-mind
Others
desires
;
is jen-yii is
(A
Wi) ^^ appetite,
human
Pien-li (5J
man
as his nature.
But
as the
and
human
Law-mind
amor
fruentis.
likened to a sailing
vessel of
the helm
and the
latter is also
Premare
translates the
*^
heart of
" heart
man
is restless,
to
err;
way
is
small."
This
is
not a translation
it
of
a commentator's gloss,
and
cannot be
accepted.
Dr. Legge,
who has
"mind
of reason,"
and
this is
much
A native
scholar,
When man
TJie
Word
Tao,
211
taoj
man he
becomes a mad enthusiast (^). Another account is that the taohsin is the heart in which charity and respect for others {^ jg)
aca_maia4fmied; these raise conscience in man's mind to the
lordship,
make
often
by reason.
fine sense of
what
is
praised for
g)
In some
of the
we "find western
scholars often
tao.
But
reason and ratio also have a great variety of uses and meanings.
to
man which
and
evil
and
"sagacity and
Hsiin-tzu,
it
illation" or invention
for example,
The philosopher
scales,
judges impartially
Reason
be
orders.
Though
of
root
I "Han Fei-tzu," chaps, i. and viii.; L. 0. C, iii., p. 61'; i., p. 114, note; ii., p. 201, note; "Shu-ching" (13), chap, iv.; Shu, chap, i.; " Shu-ching-heng-chie," chap, i.; Premare's Not. Ling. Sin., p. 196; " Sun-tzii," chap, xv.; " Wang-yangming-chi," chap, ii.; ** Sau-yii-t'ang-chi," chap, iv.; Cheng. hsiao-pien (g^ S^ Jg), chap, iii.; "Chung-ynng," Pref. by ChuHsi; Chu-tzii-ch'uan-shu, chaps, xxxiii, Iii. " Hsiao-ssu-shu," chap, ii.; "Meng-tzu," chap, viii., p. 47, note. The difference; between tao-hsin and jen-hsin, as expounded by some Confucianists, is like that between will and appetite. Let us hear the Judicious Hooker on this subject. *We must have special care," he tells us, "how the will properly and strictly taken, as it is of things which are referred unto the end that man desireth, diflEereth greatly from that inferior natural desire which we call appetite. The object of appetite is whatsoever sensible good may be wished for ; the object of will is that good which reason doth lead us to seek. Affections, as joy and grief, and fear, and anger, with such like, being as it were the sundry fashions and forms of appetite, can neither rise at the conceit of a thing indifferent, nor yet choose but rise at the sight of some things. Wherefore it is not altogether in our power, whether we will be stirred with affections or no whereas actions which issue from the disposition of the will are in the power thereof to be performed or stayed. Finally, appetite is the will's solicitor, and the will is appetite's controller. What we covet according to the one, by the other we often reject neither is any other desire termed properly will, but that where reason and understanding, or the shew of reason, prescribeth the thing desired." Eccl.
:
212
and growth
in
But
it
make
it
din
all
within
is
anarchy.
Man must
This term,
" put away strong liking and disliking and empty his mind that
may become
is
(J|;
^y
taO'She,
translated by
Premare "palace
only the lodging or dwelling place, the place in which reason comes
to stop
(^
Jj^).
Premare
which accords
of nature,"
is
used in
corresponds to tao
of reason or conscience.
maxims
that
of
beyond the
is it
light of nature."
is
He
afterwards adds
How
then
man
said to
of nature
some
two
notions and conceits of virtue and vice, justice and wrong, good
and evil?
several
senses;
which
springeth
to the
from
reason,
sense, induction,
argument, according
is
earth
man
by an inward
is
estate
in
which
later sense
only he
participant of
some
light
It is of the phrase
when used
in
is
it is
Canon McClatchie
often translates
given above, and his translations are not to be trusted. Dr. Legge
also
the rendering
in
to question,
and he
also uses
In his translation of a passage in Hsiin-tzii we find the following " So that they might all go forth " in the way of moral government and in agreement with reason
:
JBut
if
we examine
the context
antithetical to that in
which
we
Some term
213
to
seems
be required here
for tao.
and
social
and moral
rules,
and enacted
all to
Then
there
a celebrated
translates
"This
Mencius,
thus
It
is
assistant of righteousness
state of starvation."
and reason.
"Without
man
is
in a
" This
too is
what the
If
it
starves."
by Bacon
it
may
perhaps be admitted.
whom
man.
*'
Law
the
natural
Law
The natural
spirits as
or shortly
hO'tao,
meaning "
The
single
is
and the phrase yen-tao (g* jg) denotes " language in agreement with reason." Sometimes man's mind
also frequently so used,
is
said to be reason,
latter is said to
be born
(>& ig
man
is
born
is
really the
law be that
^
That which law commands becomes one's duty, whether the of Nature, of Heaven, or of society. So we are in a
and compare, Bacon's Works,
xvi.; "Han Fei-tzii," chap, ii.; Premare Not Ling. Sin., p. 214, " flfj j(^ corde sic fixo, ratio et doctrina para vol. iii., p. 479 (Ellis and Spedding Ed.); L. C. C, ii.,
"Sun-tzu," chap,
p.
243,
est ;"
Proleg., p. 82.;
"San-tzu," chap, xvii.; L. 0. C, ii., p. QQ; "Meng," chap, iii.; (13), chap. iii. _t. Julien's Meng Tseu, T. 1, p. 104. ''Ipse ad /iwc talis est vitalis-spiritus. Conjuugit asquitatem cum ratione. Si corpus caroat illo,
"Meng-tzu"
(g
^M
ii;
i.
1214
manner prepared
the "stern
of duty, alike
God" who
is
whispers her
required of a person
The phrase
chih-y/'i (jg
'^-tao has
been seen to be used in the sense of application to truth. It is now found meaning " Be earnest in duty ;" or, in Dr. Legge's
translation,
In
this
dharma, as when
is
said that
it
it
is
the
dharma
of a
Thus
is
humane (t)
to
and
it is
{^ytao^
it is
In another place
said
to
ministers
be
51^)
very yielding.
to
Again,
it
is
the
sovereign's
business
affairs.
(i
One
know
of
the meanings
(9k
i,ytao
is,
is,
chih'tao
to fail in
To do
all
that
is
the functions of
the duties
a sovereign.
has,
mous
regal
title
on his father or
jen-tao-chih-chi
(A JE ) *^ extreme point which man's duty to father or son can reach, the highest service that can be
This phrase jewfao
is
rendered.
also often
used
elliptically for
the
duty of
man
as
a son.
dictum jeU'tao-mO'ta-yii'shoU'shen
?E
^ ^ JK ^
jfr);
^^^
It
is,
piety
(^
of a father to
office is
be tender-
hearted
(^
JE iS)*
used to denote a
215
rear
So
an instructor.
office of
the host
sits
But
it is
commonly used
" is ()> or bribe money. This phrase " host's office money used chiefly of the [bribes given by litigants in a mandarin's
fiction is
that the
money
owe
so given is in place of
to a feast.
Then
is
One
of these
that a
man
The duties^f
which are
sovereign
husband and
wife, brothers
and
They
may
The former
are
and the
latter
matters of expediency.
Thus
to
made.
But
On
filial
is
duty as a child
to
to serve
The
found
shang-yu-tao
is
216
The Word
Tao.,
referred to above,
means
to fulfill all
admonition
ko'chin-ch'i^tao
(#
To
^^
to
*M)} ^^^
translated
exact fulfilment
his
duty
his
parents."
So
also
chin-shih-ch'iri'chih'tao
(^
MM
as
all
thoroughly
all
Faber
The
die
when
is
is
life's
work
is
finished,
when
the appointed
journey
ended
is
chiri'chH'taO'erhrssu
(^
do this
for
whom
indeed
" Death's consummation crowns completed Or comes too early."
life
Nor
among magnificent
obligations.
phantasms
of
illusory
lies
path of duty
of
of
among the daily affairs " The observance life, the trivial round, the common task." filial piety at home and of the respect due to seniors and
is
clear
accomplished by
&c).
is
all,
of
man's duty
all
(^
^Wj
In
all
the affairs of
it is
times and in
places there
When
calamities
afflict
others, to
succour the
afflicted
and
to
who thus do their duty (fj 3^) One who might have been almost persuaded
:
soothe, and heal, and bless, Are scattered at the feet of Man, like flowers."
With
we may
i)
is
217
is
found
human
duties of Jnndred
among mankind,
And the various domestic, social, and political relations in which men come to stand to each other have in China their rights
and obligations
laid
down with
considerable precision.
In some
we
like
''relation"
or
meaning.
Thus
much
to the duties
everywhere obligatory as
to the relations
mankind everywhere.
occurred frequently,
{/i)-tao,
and brothers, and in this use of it Callery translates the phrase by " I'ordre naturel entre parents.'' One meaning of the phrase /wtzu'chih
(;3J
^)4ao
of
is
"parental and
filial
relations,"
which
'[jJ).
So one meaning
fu-fu
(^
^)-chih'tao
to the
is
"the
relation of
In an appendix
(*
:^ -&) or, in Dr. Legge's translation RT t ?i " The rule for the relation of husband and wife is that it should
^i
be long-enduring."
In a modern
treatise
we
(^
^^
husband and
man
finds repose in
We find
also
L. C.
C,
i.,
p.
"Chu-tzii.ch'aan-shu," chap,
xlvi.;
L. C. C, ii., p. 168; "Meng," chap, vii.; " Chow-li," chap, xxi.; "Han-shu," chap, i.; ' Hsun-tzu," chap, xix.; Sac. Ed., Art. 16, Ampn.; "Han-shu," chap, viii.; L. C. C, i., p. 270; "Chung yung," chap, iv.; "Meug," chap, vii., p. 55; " Li-chi," chap, viii.; ' Hsiao-hsio," &c., chap, ii.; L. C. C, i., pp. 209; ii., pp. 326, 302; " Hsin-chin^.lu," pp. 26, 49 (vol. 1); Faber's Mencius, p. 131; L. C, ii., pp. 191, 178; "Meng," chap, vii.; L. C. C, i., p. 257; "Chung yung," chap, iii.; <' Huching.chai.chi" (^9 if %), chap, i.; L. C. C, v., pp. 160, 217 j " Tso Chuan," ohapa. z, xiv.; " Liao- chai," &c., chap. ii.
218
it is
With
(A
?E ) which Gallery
translates,
Here tao
is
explained by
that
is,
(A
fft i,)'^<^o,
the
is
the term
it
commonly used
found in
this
is
Strictly
lun
is
and tao the duty resulting therefrom, but each word is used The occasionally to denote both relation and duty attached.
sage kings of primeval times instituted marriage iWt
which
is
the source of
all
relations of kindred
(-^J
The
relations
:^ Jf ;^ jI^). of duty
''
now
under consideration.
With
reference to the
first
year of
Chuang
Kung, Confucius records that ^'in the third moon the wife withdrew to Ch'i." The wife here was the widow of Huan Kung,
father of Chuang, and she
plicity in the
had been
murder
of
her husband.
The mention
of her in this
to
peculiar
Ku-liang,
man
with respect to
Heaven
speech;
off,
receives
commands through
human
men he
is
receives
commands through
one does not accord with these duties Heaven cuts him
cut off by
men" {A
'^
3c4tmsrSA&iUgS^;j;ei5m^5cM
4;TiSiS's^Al&-t4)a particular application, otherwise
render the word tao in
it it
219
what
is
right in
man.
But
among the
given;
are
first
Thus one
in
that marriages
made
Heaven
fii'/wchih'tao-mmg'pe
{^
Mi M^
matrimony,
is
&)> the
relation of
husband and
decreed
by Providence.^
of our
word
to
which we advert
is
that in the
or
The
to
^'What
;
virtue
Here
is t^ai^
"What
(^
^^
is,
J^).
Native commentators
differ as to
it
Some
explain
to
by
hi'fou
(I^S-
BK), that
the course
others think
or
it is
be taken
of
means
the
rest
The
without
which a coat
comes
tao
to
on the wearer.
So kang4ing
mean
may be
rendered, "
The sum
of the
Great Learning.'!
We
and
for
his people
The term
kings.
words
]lfc
:^ ^H
^^^
says that an
official scholar
course of state education " can refine the people and reform their
who
1 Gallery "Le-ki," pp. 72, 73; "Li-chi," chap, vi.; " Haing-H," chap, vi.; *Yi," chap, iv.; Legge's "Yi-king," p. 436; "Hu-tzu-chih-yen" (] =^ ^p ^), chao. i.; "1-li," (13), chap, xxx.; p. 7. note; " Lie-tzii," chap, vii.; " i'aber's Lie," " (13), chap, v,; L. C. C, v., p. 72. pp. 167, 181 ; " Ku.liang
220
who
this is the
is
sum
of the
great learning."
The
is
amplified thus,
" This
teaches
is
what
called
the
sum
of
men "(^0?li :k
Some
expositors,
^-~
however,
or method.
In another work
rehellion
it
is
filial
impiety, including
is
against
the
the
essence of great
anarchy (:^ fl -^
:
Then Mencius
is
says, in
"
The
nothing else
ffe
but
to
seek for
*E^
the
lost
mind"
(#1
P^g
Jt
**
^ iK
the
E.
^)ch'ieh
^^^
yao
sense
of
{^ ^),
is
main element)
of learning is
'^
^ JE)
soil,
denotes the main constituents of clothing and food, the raw materials
grow up
the
by the use
is
of energy.
One
of
maxims
expressed in a formula
like chih'tHcn-hsia-chih'tao'tsai'yu-yung-jen ({ 5c
<^ JS
'iS
J^
A)) that
empire
is,
of the
lies in
Again
officials
are
told
by the Emperor
that
T> IS
the
And
in another
mode
of expression
altered
thus
*^
Of the important
is
(}& 5c
T 1 m ^ ii
it
We
in
which
1
In some instances
its
use in this
L. C.
C,
g, chap, ^ "Hsiao-ching"
xi.;
;2l
p. 220; "Ta.hsio," chap, i.; "Li-chi" (13), chap. Ix.; :^ " Li-chi," chap, vi., pp. 72, 7i; Gallery "Le-Ki," p. 76;
(13), chap, vi.; L. C. C, ii., p. 200 and note; "M^ng-tzu," chap Sac. Ed., Art. 4, Paraphrase and Amplification, Compare the statement " tlu^i nau.fzu." chap, ix.; " Yung-ch^ug Edicts," at il^ :^^ i^ ff ^.
5th
y.,
221
way may have been derived from the sense of ruling. Thus the Hang (||)-^ao, or *' Grain Intendant," is the " Chief Comptroller of the Provincial Revenue from the grain tax, whether collected
in
money
or in kind."
of
character and
In
other cases
jurisdiction
seems
to
have
has
Thus a Tao
t'ai
So he
is
(^
officials
together as k'o-tao
{^
Jg).
The former
offices of
Boards in Peking.
with the scrutiny of
The
Censors
who
are charged
affairs
hence their
title.
Then
system
of
tao is
used
to
belief
is
evidently
Thus Han
*^^*
Wen Kung
"My
teacher
is
the
Truth"
6SB
*&)'
^s,
Law was
of
Then we read
pang (^)-to,
and
tsun'hsien
There
is also
the well-known
insult
it,
expression
(S
| Jg ^),
to
de la raison et de la vertu."
the use of our
These two
word
in
is
who
seeks after or
it
possesses wisdom.
to us again
This
will occur
when we come
Buddhism.
222
It
is
and
anthropists.^
It
is
perhaps _^from_thjB^.jiSa.j3f^^..in.^
its
of
''
hy." or
"from'' that
reason,
of this
is
derived.
The occurrence
with ho
of the
word with
significations
literature,
In answer
is
(fpl),
how was
it
that ? this
word
often introduced.
{M
fjl^)'tao,
in reply to
is,
than
One meaning
cause,"
(1
^ytao
also
is
"from what
told,
h^u-yu^erh (5g
^ Zl)'tao,
it is
that
is,
affections of the
is
love
is
other
it
One of these when there is an internal feeling of helplessnss, and the fear when there is the feeling of being thwarted. Again
produced.
relatives, yet
is
said that though every one loves, has regard for himself
this
jfi)-
similar
(^
j ?3 SI -^ -^
is
It is added th^t
of
;j3t
the permanence
harmonious
JK)/*
filial
piety,
brotherly
name and
was
this
sha-lu-peng
(;^
^ ^), the
down).
Why
recorded ?
(%
M M W MV
it
was a
it
hill,
Sha
hill to
cause
to burst open.
it
he
had about him servants who were traitors and ready to burst in On the other hand when Confucius records the fact rebellion.
that the roof of the family temple
fell
'
1 Mayers' Ch. Govt., Nos. 278, 280: *'Ch*aiig.li-ch'uan.chi," Shuo-yuan," chap, xvi.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap, iv., p. 34.
223
there was a reason for the ruin (W jE *&) The temple had been shamefully neglected^ and Cunfuciu.s intended to give a severe
reproof to those
who were
in fault.
^ i,)'taOy
Again
a
burst
when Confucius
that
that
mount Liang
"high
fell
with
(^
llj
^),Ku-liang adds
so falling (Jg
#^
they should
fall,
4^ JE '(fc); " there is a natural reason why and Confucius records the fact of the Liang
it
course. So also we read of the source or origin of a book, as when it is said that yi-tag-shen (^ JE S)> ^^^ source of the " Yi chiug^'^is deep, that is, its history goes far back; three
sages
in
three
different
ages
having been
employed
in
its
composition.^
P?lili?L*Si-^^^^^ ^^^'^ ^s tb^tin Jihe sense of type, emblem^ Qr symbol. This meaning of the word does not seem to
'^
it is
apparently
in
noticed.
various
treatises in
be equally
of the
suitable.
In the Yi-ching
yang-hiia
li
(^*|),
tui
{^), that
is,
~, ~>
The former
So
(^
A)-
symbols of a
Again we
Legge's version, " The movements which take place in the six
places (of the
(i.e.,
of the three
extremes
of the three
"
{-/^
^^
x,
xiii.;
SHi
^
?E
&)
^^ consideration
chap,
i.;
of this
sentence in conii.;
ch'uan-ohi"
" Hsiang-shanxi,
viii,
":
224
and
it
this,
ideal perfection."
as the
The san^chi
commentary
manipulation
li (i||),
of heaven, earth
is
and
man, that
them.
is,
inherent in
divining
In
the
the
hexagram
and
for
purposes the lowest and second lines stand for ideal earth, the
third and fourth for ideal
fifth
last for
ideal
heaven.
In
another place
we
find
the statement
Vung-jen-
-^^ yU'tsung-lin-tao-ye (|^ JE ^), which Dr. Legge expands into " (The representative of) the union of men appears
^^
is,
the path
to regret."
It
to translate the
words thus
men
is
in the clan,
ching
Turning
to other
the
**
we find instances of a similar use of the word.. Thus, in_ Shuo wen," under the character san (^), it is stated that this
is
character
t^ien-ti-jen-chih-tao, that
is,
were performed the religious services due This figure was called ch'ung (J;), preparatory to interment.
it
duplicate,
and
it
was regarded
as
of the
for a person
that
mie-wang-chih-tao
is
So
also
Heaven
and Earth
as their
(5c
'S
-fc
Si
slight variations
i'Yi," chap,
1; 4). This phrase is found repeated with by numerous authors orthodox and otherwise.^
"Chou Yi"
284; "Yi,"
(14
iii., p. 20; Legge's "Yi-king," pp. 388, 351; ' Yi," chap, iif.; (13), chap, vii.; " Yi," chap, i.; s. v. [^ Legge's " Yi-king," p.' chap, iv.; " Li-chi," chap, ii.; " Ku-liang," chap, xv.j "
A;
Ho-Kuau^tzii
-J")f
chap,
i.,
sec. 6
(commentary).
225
We now
vague and
to
We
have seen
th at
goodness which
opposed
to
It
also
absolute and
whether in the
The commom
expression
Yao Shun-
of
Mencius, already
"
When
by which he examines his administration,'^ Faber The perfect virtue, however, is not a renders tao by " Ideal.''
principles
It
may
be acquired by a
life
and it may be lost by continuance in wickedness. " They who do good," says an old author, " obtain Virtue, and
they
who do
evil lose
it
m ^^%
^
^)-
'M attainment of
^ ^ ^ Sk M)'' A
li
(jg[)
li is
includes
^^t
this
word
life
here used
way
to
systematically
by reason.
And
is
so
we
find
it
is Zt,
As
kindness,
applied to
though
in
may be
te
is
((*),
which
it
is
and tao
said to be Virtue, as
it
exists
acquired by
an individual.
perfection.
The more
of
it
were
five principles of
conduct by
kingdoms
in
good government.
(fi|),
One
of these was,
because
Gallery
J^).
226
that
it is
is,
Truth which
is
God.
Again
In
this
which the
first
was,
'^ (^ tS ^)' t These words, which are very often quoted accurately and inaccur-
ately, are
c'est la
But by
the
''
tao
is
is
state of absolute
spiritual
nature.
Some regard
denoting the attainment of the " perfect mean," and this was to
all
conduct was
is
a general designation
and passive
summed up under
respectively
(i[#t|ffi;tiit
wisdom, the possession of
This perfect wisdom which
is,
t SI Then
my
tao
is
perfect knowledge,
reach
But
often the
word used
in this
manner has
{^ A)
denotes originally a
powers.
of
recluses
who
talk
with
their
*
;
own
souls
Sometimes
pp. 166, 377 ; Fab.'s Mencius, pp. 77, 272; " Shuo-yuan," chap. chap. viii. " Li-chi" (13), chap, vi.; "Li-chi," chaps, ii,, ix.; Hsing-li," chaps, ii., ix.; Gallery "Le-ki," p. 118. Ina note Gallery adds ** D'apres les philosophes chinois on entend par le mot Toe (^tej Ge que I'homme a obtenu par ses propres efforts, ou la vertu acquise et par le mot Tao Ge h quoi tous les hommes doivent tendre, Ge qui est Convenable, Ce qui est dans Or, il n'y a, selon moi, que le Vrai I'ordre, ou la vertu dans le seus abstrait. qui I'eunisse ces conditions, car, selon la philosophic chretienne, Dieu lui meme est la Verite !; Je prefere done traduire Tao par Verite, que d'adopter la traduc" Chou-li," chap, ix.; tion de Voie, dont le moindre defaut est de ne rien dire." ' Do. (13), chap, xiv.; Biot's ' Tcheou-li," i., p. 292. Hu-tzu-chih yen,"
L. C.
ii.,
xvi.
"Wen
C Chnng-tzu,"
ohap.
i.
The Word Tao.
it
227
is
said
it is
wisdom
ta-tao
cannot
be acquired,
that
it
that
a heavenly
but the
be attained.
chiseled, so
learns.
As
can
it is
unless
man
does not
in
know
mind
study.
(pu-chih-taoj unless he
It
must be
his
but
it
its is
excellence
cannot be
known without
Sometimes
apparently
made
is
above.
But
its
principles
which are of
universal application.
As such Truth
itself
ftaoj
without antagonism in
and without
bound
place.
mind which
death
(M
it to
is
when
are told,
^odyiMm^mmwi&mAm
To
those
^m^^m^ mm)ftao)
who
wisdom
unusual
inflexible,
and
A)
he had the
who has
nature
;
subjection.
He
of the secrets of
can
where springs
of sweet
water
He
can read
we
are
man who
By
(^ytao means to be profound in wisdom, that is, the "high wisdom" which slowly grows by patient study, quiet meditation; and long communing with Nature. It is often used of certain celebrated hermits who are supposed to
jpif).
The phrase
t'mi
secrets of Nature,
and
to
have
228
But
attainment of this
is
always of
advantage in some way to its possessor; and so there is the saying, " obtain truth (or wisdom tao) in yourself and you obtain praise
with men."
When we
it
come
Buddhism
considthis ideal
it
*|#
on Chinese
now under
In
Bodhi
of the Buddhists.
has
no show
of acting
f
and no
i^
visible manifestation
(^
?E
io IK >S IR ?^)
session
;
^y
it is
self-existent
and
to
eternal,
supernatural beings
which
and
it
knows no conditions
of space or time.
is
like the
Wisdom
*'
of
princes rule, and nobles, even all the judges of the earth," and
tells
us that she
was
set
up from
everlasting,
master who
of all
only their
in perfection.
Hence
and
it is
said of
his
(*
^
of
moral qualities mate Heaven and Earth (JL T^^s ideal wisdom, when turned 55 ifi)-
?
to
JE
^ ]&
account,
becomes, as
we know,
and wrests
to
words
pure doctrine.^
tao is also used to denote
Then
of the
whole world, a
virtue.
Such, according
some
this
writers,
was that
empire
and
it is
in the
pessimist
philosophers.
Yet
men
that
at recalling the
ways
" Li-chi," chap, vi., p. 72; Gallery's 1 * Chu-tzu-ch'uan-shu," cliap. lix.; " Le-ki," p. 75. Callei-y here translates the words pn-chih-tao {^^ ^Q simply by " ne poasede auciin savoir." " Chia-yii," chap. iii. " Han Shu," chap. Ixxv. " Sii-wen.chung-kung-shi-chi" .'i'. -S" ^), chap. xlvi. : " Shno-yuan,"
^)
(jj^
ohap. xvi.
vi.
229
or foundation of order,
treatise,
the
title
of
chapter in a
denotes
the
among mankind.
that
(|jg),
is,
We
1^1
*&
M M M)^
the
The common
expression tao-shu
is
which
denote
to
sometimes used
to
way
beyond
Still it is possible to
perfection'-
(K
!i 5f
state
^g
of
to
An
universe,
ideal
is
^)perfection, whether in 51
man
or in the
supposed
we now proceed to consider our word as used in the sense of Nature. But this term is not to be taken in any of the common meanings in which it is usually understood among Western peoples. It is not the nature which is the omney the " sum of all phenomena," "the universality
the nature which
is
of
all
that
is
and ever
will be
" nor
It is the
inner force, the moving and regulating power, the law of order
which
is
a necessary ingredient in
It is
all
universe.
and
at
the
them keep
rifcu
procedifc et
omnes
It
is
matter.
In many respects
taoy as
Ti,
often to
mean what we
of these.
call
law
and
it
is
(^
ffi
/J*
i^
)."
230
Here T'ien Ti
translates this
Chu Hsi
to
by
*'
right reason,"
seem
T'ien Ti are,
said,
spoken of here
The government
is
is
instituted
Nature,
ever,
how-
craftsman
an imitation
paper-mulberry tree in
imitation leaf was perfect in every respect and could not be dis-
it
was a three
So Lie
tzii
says
if
Nature
;
making
the
3^5).
of a leaf there
conse-
man trusts to Nature's creative power and not to cleverness of human wisdom {fj^ A i^ *M HlM "^ ^ ^ Faber translates these words, "Der Heilige vertrant daher
und Geschicklichkeit."
*'
But the
contrast
arts
apparently between
to imitate.
human
cunning only
is,
visible nature
are the makers of the world, but that they are themselves the
So
^^S
is
ffl)
the root of heaven and earth, which in their turn are the root
But the use of this word in some of our senses of nature is also found, as when it is said that to eat when hungry and drink when thirsty is nature {tao). So also we read that tzU-jan-chihwei'tao
It
is
;S fi 5E)> ^^^^ which is natural is called tao. also natural to put into song the joys and sorrows of the
(
heart.
So
it
was said
of
the philosopher
to
Mo who
wanted
to
nature"
man
such
man
to musical tones.
But even
is
in
modes
to the
present
mind
of the Chinese.
231
thought of as
to its
own
essence
it is
one,
But
wu-tui 5 M); it always has the alternations of opposites It fills like good and bad, bright and dark, right and wrong.
matter
^^
(^
all
and
earth.
it
(^
]]\
^ i, 7K)
By
nature goes on
way
in
The
river
the mountain
in procedure can
make (or transform) (JE J[ ffi jg S5: ft ^), and individual endowments (fg) by pure acts can bring eminence. To all creatures, animate and inanimate, nature is the law of
and
action.
their being
or
*'
Ultimate Principle"
another
is
name
for
tao.
So one
.philosopher says,
Principle, this
exists
is
When
said of
nature (tao)
it
law
of all that
(S
m ^ * S *B
5C
mm^
of
in the guiding
and perfecting
man
consummation.
their origin
it
man
among men
For though
his benefit
who can
teaches.
shine for
him higher
for
They, like
solemn silence
and patterns
it
man
said,
and conditions
of
life.
Hence
was well
of nature,
moon hung
out, the stars sown, the sexes divided, the four seasons established,
and the
first
five
all
were
sages
who
name Nature
An
old
232
metaphysician
tells
nothing
selfish in
Nature
hence Nature
act
and
^ S: M ^ ^ ^'
We
iS
is
old and
is
common
to
of this
word
to a close,
it is
We
it
used
to
We
have now
employed
as
when
instead of animus^ so
we
find the
in a similar
spirits,
is
manner.
{%^)'tao,
nature of
spirits
min {^)-tao
is
often merely
Jen {J^ytao
is
The
is
A
expression sheng
translated
<Hsia.yu"
(^
S:
JE) ^^ ^^ Li-chi
peuple,"
though
this
is
" Haa-shu," chaps, xxii., xxx. ; '* Hou Han(^ Bhu," chap, xxix.; L. C. C, i., p. 290 ; " Chung-yang," chap, vi ; " Lie-tzu," chap, "Hsing-li," chap. _iv., p. 56 ; " Chu-tzu-ch'uan. viii. ; Faber's Licius, p. 190; " Yang-yuanshu," chap. xlix. ; *' Hu-tzu-chih-yen " (^ ^- $P H)> chap. iii. chi," chap. xxix. ; "Chu-tzu-ch'uan-shu," chap. xlvi. ; " Sun-tzii," chap, xiv.;
;
"Meng-tzii," chap, vii., p. 15, note; "Shuo-yuau," chap, xvi.; " Hsin-shu," chap, " Han-shu," chap. Ixxv.; " Chuang-tzu," chap. viii. ; "Hsing-li," chaps, iv., v. ; The followiug passage from Hooker is pure Conf acianisin, illustrating tao as nature. " Now if nature should intermit her course, and leave altogether, though it were but for a while, the observation of her own laws ; if those principal and mother elements of the world, whereof all things in this lower world are made, should lose the qualities which now they have; if the frame of that heavenly arch erected over our heads should loosen and dissolve itself; if celestial spheres should forget their wonted motions, and by irregular volubility turn themselves any way as it might happen ; if the prince of the lights of heaven, which now as a giant doth run his unwearied course, should as it were through a languishing f aintness begin to stand and to rest himself ; if the moon should wander from her beaten way, the times and seasons of the year blend themselves by disordered and confused mixture, the winds breathe out their last gasp, the clouds yield no rain, the earth be defeated of heavenly influence, the fruits of the earth pine away as children at the withered breasts of their mother no longer able to yield them relief ; what would become of man himself whom these things now do all serve ? See we not plainly that obedience of creatures unto the law of nature is the stay of the whole world?" Keel. I'ol,
ix.
B. i.,yeo. lil.
233
In
said to be an
^'
empty"
(or
to the
itself
it
meaning
of
is
In some
it
cases,
however, where
seems
be an idle character
it
icular
term
The phrase
of
it
tao-lij
is
used instead
in this
to
manner
off
in popular speech
merely
round
an expression or gentence.
is
Further
like that in
this
word ^ao
manner
affair, business.
some places
to
be an equivalent of
shih (^),
meaning "
affairs "
or business.
In a passage
of
the
He
then adds,
all
three
H M ^) use what
moyens de rendre
is
au dehors
les
du Sage."
tfc
"^
O*
is
now
lost.
In an appendix
to the
or this
find
it
custom
stated that
knowledge
of the course of
all
other connected
tao
is
phenomena)"
Sage
(51
^8S
(^)
or
^)-
explained by shih
is
ku
and the
them.
life
spirits,
is
supposed to
have pierced
related or connected.
Greek
also
sometimes used in
loose
manner.
Thus
in our
XV.,
In
v. 6),
we have
and in the
Chinese Jg
meaning.
this
234
it
is
common
to
tao-li
In
some
of the native
and other native treatises. Thus it is said to denote " straight " or " straightness " (]![), and " great " or ^' greatness
(Jt)-
Examples
of the
are,
however, rare,
if
It is also
-g*
vaguely said
to
be "
things
''
(^
Jj?
:^ ^),
and
to
^H
wide
fS i,
M ^)) ^^^^
of
^^'
moral
states.
These are
sufiiciently
varieties
meaning,
special, technical,
in use
of ordinary occurrence
which have
The account
confined to
its
of
the orthodox.
But
in order to understand
it
properly
is
we should
employed
ways
in
by the various
bouddhistes et
sects.
M.
un
Julien says of
les
Tao-sse font un
the statement.
But
and
much
made
philosophers.
common
property, but in
these
received from
Taoists and
Then new
to
"Le-ki," pp. 97, 128; "Li-chi," chap, viii., p. 58; '< Wen Chung-tzu," " Yi," chap, iii.; p. 5; ' Chou-yi-tsun-shu," iii.; Legge's "Yi-king," p. 354 j vol. v., p. 11; "Yi" (13), chap. vii. We may translate tao by event or occurrence Death as an event is single and cannot be repeated in such statements as this Sun.tzii," chap. xiii.
chap,
:
mJ^m--'^X-'^3nm^)>''
2
"Kuang.yun,"
s.v.
^;
t'i
In this particular
humanity
(jen)
and
The Word Tao.
235
perhaps not very numerous; but the orthodox uses of tao are
alfio
of
Some
of
the^special^jises
made,
of it
by tke
found in another
word regarded
as peculiar to Taoists.
Mo
tt^hich
forms so import-
As
to
what
there
is
Some
the
way
of
regard
it
as
Of Western expositions
known.
''
The Library
the
translation
MS.
of
with an elaborate
a
commontary
says, "
to a
portion.
The
translator,
Roman
Catholic
What,
therefore,
is
tao in
its
In some places
movement
it
and
some places he
is,
treats
pious and learned translator took eleven " Tao-te-ching " for special illustration, as by chapters of the
that
God.
The
these
it is
the Chinese
nation.^^
The beginning of the book (Jf Pf JE i^ JE) is thus rendered by him, " The Reason which can be comprehended by reasoning As we read this and ,the " Parais not the eternal Reason."
phrasis which follows
" Insane
we
is he who hopeth that our reason Can traverse the illimitable way Which the one Substance in three Persons
follows
!"
The
labgii^gei" It
something
and ever
present everywhere.
We
may
render
it
by Nature, or
Law
of
"UNIVEKSITT/
OF THE
236
Lao-tzu.^
In the teachings
mystic meaning.
the end of the
^
word has
still its
high
So
men who
lived before
Han
note by Gallery on this subject is here transcribed, " Si on compare que Confucius donne au Tao aveo ceux que Lao-tze reconuatfc egalement au Tao dans les chapitres 4, 14, 32, et 51 du Tao-toe-kin, on acquiert la conviction que ces deux peres de la philosophie chinoise avaient, sur cet etre Mais, plus on medite leurs mysterieux, des idees a peu pres semblables. definitions, et plus on se demande si par le mot Tao il ne faut vraiment pas entendre la Verite, 6ternelle, la Raison divine, I'essence de Dieu lui-meme car, nous y trouvons I'eternite, I'imaiensite, la toute -puissance, I'invisibilite, I'immaterialite, I'incomprehensibilite, le principe de la vie, du mouvement et de la lumiere, en un mot, la plupart des attributs propres a I'Etre supreme, sauf ceux qui ne sont conaus que par la revelation, tels que la Bonte, la Misericorde, la Justice, &c.
les attributs
;
Pour les philosophes de la Chine qui n'avaient pas des ideas bien arretees sur la nature de Dieu, on congioit qu'il y euc irapossibilito k denommer, d'une mani^re adequate, un etre auquel leur langue n'avait pas encore donne de nom, et que, pour se tirer d'embarras, ils aient adopte le mot vague et obscur de Tao. Mais pour nous qui avoas, sur la cause premiere de toutes choses, des notions assez precises se r6sumant dans le mot Dieu, je ne vois pas pourquoi nous traduirions litteralement Tao par " Voie," expression qui, dans I'espece, ne signifie absolument rien, par la raison qu'elle signifie tout ce qu'on veut.
Je sais bien qu'on m'opposera certains passages du Tao-tce-kin (chap, liii.) Tao est decrit comme ayant les qualites d'une grande voie, d'un chemin Mais comme dans vingt autres passages les attributs oil Ton pent marcher. surnaturels du Tao excluent toute idee, meme eloignee de chemin, on doit tout simplement conclure qu'en pr6sence du Grand Principe universel qu'ils voulaient denommer, les philosophes chinois ont eu recours k des images et a des comparaisons differentes, tantot en harmonie avec le sens litteral du nom par eux adopte, tantot en desaccord, mais tendant toutes k rendre la meme idee. L'Ecriture sainte, elle meme, offre une foule d'exemples de ce genre dans les denominations diverses qu'elle applique k Dieu, et parmi lesquelles on trouve car, quoique la Divinite se resume dans une idee simple, aussi celle de Voie dans I'attribut de I'asseite, d'oii tous les autres attributs decoulent necessairO' ment, I'intelligence bornee de I'homme n'est pas moins obligee de I'envisager sous des aspects et avec des attributs differents, si elle veut se faire une idee relative des divers niodes d'action ou de manifestation de la divinite dans I'ordre de I'esprit ou dans I'ordre de la matiere.
oil le
;
Ainsi, on a vu page 118, que j'ai traduit le mot Tao par "V6rit6." Cette expression pent logiquement etre admise par tout ou elle se rapporte a I'Etre "eternel et sans nom, anterieur a toutes choses," dont parle Lao-tze: neanmois, dans la definition donnee ici par Confucius, et oil j'ai conserve I'expression de Verite celeste, on pourrait dire tout aussi bien L'Immensite eternelle, et Le Pouvoir createur qui donne a tous les etres I'existence et la forme.
En resume, je crois que le mot Tao des anciens philosophes chinois ne pent, au fond, s'appliquer qu'^ Dieu, mais qu'on pent le traduire de plusieurs manieres pref6rablement k Voie, suivant I'attribut ou le mode d'action sous lequel on envisage la divinite, sans que, pour cela, nous entendions accorder aux theologues de la Chine une connaissance du vrai Dieu plus etendue que leurs expressions
ne
le
comportent."
"Li-ki," p. 142.
237
Tao represents a p;rand th ough vague mental couceptioDL^^ Asjn the " rao-te-ching " it denotes the idea of a power or cause which
throughout
all
rest,
works
without speech,
tzii,'^
In "Lie
for example, is a
beginning,
ever-living
Nature"
(^
^
also
flu
S^ ^
is
4)
ill
Was
Keinen
die Natur").
Here
Nature
With
the word has also acquired a peculiar technical use, and denotes the
life
Supreme Art
indefinitely, of
or wisdom, that
is,
becoming a hsien
in "
sir,
or Immortal.
As an
says to
its
Chuang
tzii.''
One worthy
"
You
are old,
is
of a child.
How
and yet you have the complexion that ?" The old man replies, " I have learned
the art"
(^
prolonging
life.
JE ^), that is, as the context shows, the art of This art was at first a spiritual process consisting
of self-conquest
and
self-purification,
but
it
compounding
prolonging
professed
originally.
of elixirs
The
use of tao in the sense of magic art and specially the art of
life
or acquiring immortality
:
is
Taoists
but
it
is
regarded as
and
clever
(^
^)
is
a clever
means and
art of
it is
of
always
As denoting
is
it is
human
and
intelligible.
tao
matter
but
238
name
air
we
breathe.
Moreover,
though many
tao are also found in the writings of Taoists, yet in these latter
new meaning
is
frequently imported.
This
is
tao-hsin
and
jen-hsin.
the
yang
air,
that of metal
fire.
the yin
air,
that of
is
wood and
(5|),
A
literally
tao^in
meaning
of
of tao-yin-chih-shi (ig ^1
j^
^)
or Professors of Breath-suppressing.
the famous
The course which Chang Liang (Mayer's Ch. R. M., No. 26) took in
abstain from cereals,
his
and make
body
light.
The
'^),
common
to
life.
We
to desig-
sun
From
day.
perhaps comes
its
use in
common
chi'jih
( 0)
so
or huang-tao-jih-tzu,
is
denote
lucky
day
styled
fortunate by divine
arrangement and in
The mode
to all
of
speech
is
it
is
common
it to
Chinese.
is
The
huang-tao in a way
which
perhaps peculiar
They employ
knowledge
of
good and
of a
evil;
and
it is
sometimes restricted
to the
moral character
babe unborn.
generally apply the term also to men, and a huang -tao-jen man whose honesty and goodness are inborn and thorough.^
1 Julien's " Le Livre de la Voie," &c., Inh, p. 10 inscriptus, iu I^atinuin idioina versus," by Jos. de
;
239
which Tao
is
few except Taoist adepts and curious students we need not refer
to
them
farther.
of the
word
tao,
some-
in its
peculiar to themselves.
common senses, but often in ways Thus we find it used by them in the
is
is,
man's
duty
to
God.
The wu-kung
(jB. Jft)
or "Five Foundations of
to
Mecca
by Heaven.
So jen-tao, or
man's
duties,
man
fellows, duties of
human
to
appointment.
recorded
Then
by him
to
tao
is
the
in the
Law,
in the Psalms,
set forth in
Mahomet and
But wai
;
the Koran.
that
is,
So cheng QjQ'tao
is
the term
is
also
it is
who
Thus
used of Mussulmans
who drink
commandments.
Again, tao
is
the law of
God
The world H'J)mena gives but an imperfect view of this law, and only among men can attain to its perfect understanding.
8^^^
pheno-
the saint
" Paraplirasis " for the fuller understanding of the translation says of the first sentence, "Ratio quaBCunque quam humane ratiocinio possumus assequi, et totaliter comprehendere, non est aeterna ilia Eatio, quam prime, et per se refert, et describit caracter Tao." The phrase Tien-tao (_^ ^) is translated by "Coelestis sapientia"; and in one place tao is rendered by "doctrina de divine Tao." The old Father was a learned man and a good Chinese scholar, but he had theories and expanded the dark sentences of the Tao-U-ching in " Lie-tzu," chap, iv.; Faber's " Licius," p. 91; accordance with his theories. " Chuang-tzu," chaps, iii., vi.; " Lun-heng," chap, ii.; '-'Hui-hsin-chi" {^ *[!> ^) IT, p. 19 ; " Shih-chi," chap, vii.; " Kan-ying-pien," chap, i.; p. I7i note. See Ho Kuan-tzii's works for various uses of the word Tao, some of which seem to be peculiar, while others are common. So also the '* Ch'ang-tao-chen-yen" a^) ill which Tao is the secret of long life, employs the word also ("i in several other senses.
^R
>
240
Then
Iman or Faith, that is, the internal As the flint must be struck by man in
Mussulman
which
is
its
faith (tao)
may
be illustrated by figures
and parables.
Some, writing in the
spirit of Sufiism,
to
^^
fl^
;i
IpJ
^).
It
is
ability,
and
also
sometimes used
It
is
also
an ideal
state of
to seek,
it to
reduce
it
to action in their
own
lives.
The
and
stand the
Mahometan
it.
writers
make
of this
word
their treatment of
evidently did not consider that tao was regarded as a deity, for
is
Buddha
yuan-tao (]g Jg) in the original Confucian application. Thus yuan-tao is the original sense, but with a new
employ expressions
orthodox Mussulmans.^
tao
As a further appendix to the account here given of the word we may add a few observations on the use made of it in
of
In the sense
occurs
way
or road, literal
and
figurative, this
it
word
used,
often in
In that work
is
five
all
may
1
See the
T. P.
Hughes (2ad
^ ^ ^ |, chap, 101
ed.), p.
iv.;
i.;
:;^
^ 31, chap,
?g
U ia
IE
^ ^
chap.
ix.
241
many
which tao
by
this
is
ever, rendered
word
the
In the
New
way
is
not very
common;
seem
to
effect.
Thus
Thomas,
'^
am
life.'^
For the
first
clause of this
^Wt-^M^>
am
just a road, or I
am
road.
Here and
So
also
in
better.
to the
"And
still
tao-lu to
as, e.g.,
render "
way "
In other passages^
26 the word
is
"way"
in the expression
"the way
of the
Lord"
correctly
rendered by tao. ^' This word serves also to translate the Greek logos, singular
and
the beginning
(or
in
the
^ : jg),
" Speech
is
This appears a
is
little
God "
John
rather
Aryan than
that which
Semitic.
Then
begins, "
we have heard,
which we
eyes,
that
Word
").
The Chinese
"the doctrine
(^
'fi^
j^ jg) which
we
Here
also,
one edition, we
is
may
substitute yen
faulty.
The word
logos
is
often
In the
Hebrews
(chap,
vi., v. 1),
discussion,
logon)
of
242
"We
(tao-li).
we
of righteousness,
"without experience
SiH'aLoavv'qQ).
of the
word
of righteous-
ness"
{d'^eipoQ
Xoyov
take milk
of the 8th
tao-li,
John "
my
word"
(logos)
is
and in
43
of the
same chapter
and
it is
tao; and in the 23rd and 24th verses of the 14th chapter of the
this
word used
used
to
to express logon
logons.
p^/ua,
also
translate the
Greek
in so
and
plural,
meaning word or
saying.
It
is
the
Romans,
in
which
is
is
In the 8th verse we read that of faith " says, "The word is nigh
is
ro
prjfj>a,
used.
in
the
Epistle
versions.
The
is
writer of the
Epistle proceeds
explain that
now
Then
in
the loth
verse
we have the
restricted to
meaning
In the next
"report."
Septuagint,
Here the
the
Epistle
quotes from
the
Hebrew
Then the
writer adds,
" So belief
from hearing and hearing by word [dLa prffiarog) of Christ." In the Chinese we have, " Thus believing truth ftaoj comes from
243
of
as faithful.
Do
The word
tao
is
also
used to
my
1
It
is
also
Thus
Paul writes
end
Timothy
(1st
Tim.,
and
faith unfeigned
The Chinese
J^).
version for
is
(^
to
This word
also
by the translators
fill
up the sense or
writes to
to define
Thus Paul
Paul
Timothy,
woman
is
to teach,
So a
woman
;
to get
it to
herself
As
Truth.
is
of course
tao, or
now
the
The claim
with
for
to
is
put
forward
unscrupulous
by some missionaries.
Thus
them
iM
misrepresented
of
in
manner.
Not only
the
tao
of of the
Confucius
and
predecessors
some
of the
characteristic
these
of
Confucianists. ' These, it was true, had not the term " shoulder-knots " totidem verbis, nor even totidem ftyllahis, but
it
manner.
The
ways"
in
China are
chiefly
to the
Taoists
and Buddhists,
They
also
phrase
244
THen
way."
employing
it
to
denote
is
Christianity,
the
''
Celestial,
translated by
Shen-tao a name
also applied to
if it
Theology generally.
We
also
Second Person
of the Trinity in
(^
jg
J^), Father,
''the
Spirit.^
word tao
meaning given
the
number
it is
But
in
modify
this opinion.
The
own reading
several renderings
been mentioned in
examination;
We must
remember that
the character tao is a very comprehensive one (JJ J^ ^^ that it is a name for all fine things, and that it is always everywhere
in
all
things.
In their use
of
this
political teachers
an accurately defined
They have rather in their minds a group of associations bound up with the word and memories of its earlier occurrences.
meaning.
Hence
the
in
many
cases, as
we have
seen,
the word
is
susceptible
some extent
correct as reflecting,
mind
^ The^ Chinese version of the New Testament quoted from or referred to in the text is the ''Hsin-yao-ch'uan-shu" (^jr t^ ^)) ^^ Mandarin, printed at Peking in 1872. Among other books used are the " T''ie?i-c/iM-s/ii-i" and the These two are by ^' ShSng.ching-tse-yao-hsiang-lun" (|^ W' tra)* Koman Cathohc missionaries but several of the illustrations'in the text are from works by Protestant missionaries. See Dr. Edkins in Chi. Rec, vol. xviii., p. 352.
^ M W ^
^
2 Of modern native books the M- ^J Mj is one which may be consulted with profit for information about the meanings of Tao.
CHAPTER n.
TERMS RELATING TO DEATH AND BURIAL.
In the
having
to
last
of
serve
many
uses,
and
it
Now
in
names
for particular
mental
it
may
The
deficiency
may be taken
those
who
But a
its
A language
and terms
differences
may have
in
many
cases several
names
to represent
among resembling
store of
and
of
it
may
also
have a rich
knowledge.
Yet
it
may
objects
Now
Western
store
of available materials
some
critics,
to
be
As
is
to its
formal destitution,
its
utter
want
of inflections,
is
there
no doubt or dispute.
But whether
its
stock of words
That Chinese
vocabulary
is
is
at once granted.
God
for
as one, nor so
many names
there are
many
it
expressions in
which
Chinese equiva-
lents.
who
say that
it is
in phrases for
moral
246
and
it
Terms Relating
spiritual concepts
to
that Chinese
specially
wanting while
is
and and
an unimaginative poetry.
bears at
first
The
air of
sight
is
In some degree
also
it
is
command
of
many
natives
to
who have
Western
strangers,
and partly
the slight acquaintance which the latter have with the resources
of the language.
man
Thus the
latter
much
Any
M.
of
France with
Take, for
the world.
It has been
known
it
earliest times of
the will of
human
master.^
for the hog, the
tame and
wild,
is
shih (^).
nally written, was intended to suggest the legs, bristles, and tail
of the animal, while the
word shik
itself
had reference
to the
way
to
in
which
its
tail
is
Some, however,
it
an allusion
when
is
domesticated.
classical
name
for
swine
have been
also a popular
term in what
its
it
now Honan.
legs, and,
It was,
hind
In Mencius' time
v., p.
seems
to
have
Cf,
213.
: ;
Terms Relating
to
247
been used in the latter sense, though he uses chihy and mu-chih,
brood-sows, as well.^
is
among
is
common word
it
for pig
is
everywhere pronounced
that written
^.
This, in the
Mandarin language,
stands for
is
dialects of this
chiij
it
name
that
means numerous,
as the
corresto procreate.
of the pig,
traced to a root
meaning
From chu
tives,
as primitive are
of
is
some
which
in
will
now be
A
among
chu ku
boar
or
But
the people
(!j4),
we
chu-kung
stis
(^
mas.
mu
name
is
sow
end.
She
it
is
go back to
to the
a special
also used as
an adjective
meaning "
to a
lascivious."
of
famous lady
known from its application very immoral character who was a conThis lady committed incest with her
Chief of Wei.
temporary of Confucius.
The
latter,
and kept him there. When the heir of Wei was through Sung the people sang to him, " Since you have settled your wanton sow [Wi {'^^ %) W) ^^^7 ^ot
to his court
travelling
(^
^ ^ 3J
is
|Pi) ?
"
M%
the latter being also in some places used for pigs generally
s.v, ^^ "Hsiao-shuo" (/> |^) L.C C. \y., p. 422; Shih, chap, where we find mention of shih (^ ^ ^) with white feet. Other book names for the pig are chien (|pf ), a full grown pig, one three years' old tsung {^), a small pig, a yearling, L. C. C, iv., pp. 230, 36. Kanghsi gives
*
''
;
v.,
p. 81.
several other terms, but they are scarcely known even iu literature. urh-ya," p. 6; " Fang-yen," chap, viii. ; *' Pen-tsao," chap. 1.: L. C. C, and 337'
ii..
" Hsiao nn 7
248
but in
Terms Relating
to
common language
one like
barrow
is
in classical
language called /^ri (U), but the peasant knows no other name for it than yen {^)-chu, castrated boar. There are also in books
special
names
when
and
old,
some
at all in request
or
known among
who
for pigs
is
it
has no
The former
called chu-j'oUy
Among
in
Amoy
of pigs.
The
(^
$J),
literally
"flesh nails."
is
To
sell
common
among
you
cheat
sell
people,
mai-joUf
sell
meat.
me
(^
^M
S.
me though we
A ham,
^)/^ ^^^^
i^
Y^^
is
when
cured,
huo-Vui or " fired leg," but otherwise it is only a chu-t^ui, or " Dans le cochon tout est bon," and pettitoes are a pig's leg.
dainty.
is
The
technical
to
name
for
them
is
not
known
the people.
They speak
chu-t%
(JjJ),
pig's
feet,
when
cooked, ch'ien-li-hsiang
(^
), a thousand
li
aroma.
when The
Thence
came
to
have the
killing.
animal for
feasting a
It is
man
^; Douglas'
Diet.,
Amoy
Dial., p.
490; Cf. Marsh's Leetures on the English Language, First Series, p. 248 (4th Ed.) For "roast pork" an old classical name is mao-pao (^ j^), a contraction for
mao'pao-chih-tun, a young pig scraped and roasted. L, C. C,
chap,
viii.j
iv., p.
625 j Shih,
p. 25.; L. C.
C,
v., p.
825
"
xlviii.
Terms Relating
to
249
well sup-
we may
notice
how
has also
is
its
(H
^).
Then
it
each month
known
mark
is
its
place in a season.
of
February in 1886
month, and
it is
in the
first
called san-yang
(H ^)>
(^
(S S)
or
first
month
of Spring.
The
the
first
A very old
one
is
chi
(^)
to
of the sun, or
round year."
It
is
be presently
noticed,
which
is
is
when a
month
ch'i
intercalated.
The word
chi
is
by some
identified with
(^)
many
quite distinct.
The
latter
to that of a year.
common
mourning.
(^
Here chH
often pronounced
of ch'i as above.
last
word has
hundred years
of age,"
an instance
of
which
very early
name
2350
is,
It is explained as
meaning
Spring
the recommencement of
life in
(^
^M
ia)-
^o
to
die in
and hence
as year, is
is
also
explained
mean
complete (j^).
Another name
sui
{-^),
250
Terms Relating
to
that
it
indicates
The
is,
character
is
said to be
pu ^,
if
a planet,
and
phonetic,
that
Another
interpretation
is
that a year
so called as
because
it is
of the seasons.
ssu
iWt)
came
This word,
at
the end
of the year.
In the time of the Chou dynasty the word which was chiefly
used as
name
for a year
This character
is
said to
be properly
that
is,
merely a
for the
it
harvest
(^
^).
common term
tsai
has
continued such
down
to the present.
The words
to
though the
latter
has become
some extent
life.
to the sense of a
year of one's
In ''Mo
tzu" we
h-e
find
it
Thus
|)5J),
{^
^^^
and
that
Faber
translates the
two expressions simply by "sind die Zeiten gut" and " sind die Zeiten schlecht." In Mencius we find the two words
treated as
lo-sui
(151
as in the expressions
;
^)
and he
We
and
life.
it
are told that one term for year in the Hsia period in
(Jff,).
This
is
also an old
word
for harvest,
In
now found
chiefly in poetry
and elegant
The word
solstice,"
la (J^) originally,
tcinter, is also
" the
winter
and hence
life,
employed
in literature to
denote
a year of one's
especially tbe
is
us low.
Huang
and Burial.
251
The Buddhists,
word.
make
In
common
be said of a person la-ta-hao (J^ -J^ J^), his winters are very many, but it is not usual to apply the word la to
old.
is
may
In speaking
of a
cun we sometimes
so used
life
find ch'ing
(^) employed
in this
manner,
and
chHng points
to the fresh
days of
An
old
when one is green in affections and judgment. synonym for sui in the ^ense of a year of life
is
ling
(g^) from the word for teeth with ling as phonetic. does not seem to be very common at present, and it
little
This word
is
perhaps a
antiquated.
It
is
(+
f^
;ft -p),
a boy
of
of age.
The primitive
the
word chih
employed
of life.
Thus
So
also
ch'ih-shii
number
of one's years,
life.
and shu-jen-chih-chHh,
the phrase
i
{]^)-ch^ih
"as
to age," or
"in years."
hiio
The word
ancient local
(>^),
al.
hui,
meaning
to
fire, is said to
be an
name
for a year,
and
term in Hainanese.
called Hi,
months
is
and a year
Hui
(like
hei in
Amoy).
of
The years
to
is
This
is
supposed to be only an
way
i
of writing the
word
ssii (jjjj),
ako read
Another name
the sense of "
which
also
means the
is
i-chi
|Q)
used in
now
* "Urh-ya," chap, vi.; " Poh-wa-t'ung," chap. iv. Wade in Transactions, Ethnl. Soc, vol. vii. (new ser.), p. 210; '' Ta-tuan" (> if), p. 7; " Mo-tzu," chaps, i and xii.; Faber's Micius, p. 43; L. C. C, ii., p. 21; "Meug," chap. i. L. C. C, ii., p. 8; " Meng," chap. i. "Yu-hsio," &c., chap, i.; " Ch'ang.li-ahiChi-chu " (^ |g if l). chap, X.; p. 3,
;
252
Terms Relating
to
The
has
it
ricliness of this
may be
it
human
life.
names corresponding
man.
old
these, for
For
it
the
common term
one
breast.
ying or ying-er
(U
is
Speaking precisely er
term
strictly confined to
its
it
When
mother
with a laugh,
it is called
makes
in attempting to laugh.
until
it
Some think
is
becomes interesting
of as a hai-t'i-chih-t'ung
name
baby
is
formally presented to
him and he
is
is
pleased to give
a name.
distinguished as nii-hai-tz-i,
is
while a boy
is
simply hai-tzu.
used of children
for
Another name
an
ju
(]||),
and bones
The
which
called tao
is
('l!^),
word
also
means
to pity.
The name
of this special
name from
is
when he
does what
wrong
be treated
Some
hide
of
is,
if t^ao (3^), because his impulse is to run away and when he has been naughty. For a boy of nine or ten years age the proper term is yu {Q}), which means "few," that
yu
is
Another
originally
meng (^).
This
is
Terms Relating
the
to
253
name
the
attaches
itself.
a child
'ind
dark,
shrouded
in
ignorance
(^
Ifff
U),
The use
of the
term
meng
or
meng-Vung
is
to
is still
common,
found in the
*'
Yi-ching."
This word
Vung (^)
of fifteen
:
but
is
and bullocks.
To look
on a lamb (g^ ;^
^)
is
an
When
is
it
applied
fact that
he
uncapped and
denotes,
of a
maiden
full age.
The character,
of
chHen (^) and chung (J;) for a phonetic purpose. The word chHen means a crime or offence, and the t^ung was a male condemned
to servitude as a judicial
punishment.
It
is still
of slave, concubine,
of humiliation.
is
At
time he
caled a jen
man.
This
is
But
for
is
(H).
yielding,
to be
young man
He
is
nien-chHng
>J>),
in years, or nien-chi-gu-hsiao
of
{^
^^
is,
(^
M),
light
them.
When
to
of thirty
is
he
fit
is
called
chuang
as
(Jii),
able-bodied.
to
serve
soldier
and
When
forty years
;
old a
man
is
but
the word
is
head
of a family.
For a man
the
term
is
ai (3^),
mixture of white and black hairs gives the head a greyish appearance like that
name
of the
Artemisia Moxa.
At
254
Terms Relating
to
But some
think
it is
however, not
man
generally
if
at sixty years of
is
^) or a man
that
wise.
and
He
now
of
also counsel
lao (^),
son
may
of unlimited application.
In popular
(^
|^
-y),
man
well up in years.
An
incident which
to
the
reigning
specially
Emperor.
if
he
is
advanced in years.
A classical phrase
is
for one
pan-pai'cho
{^
who
^
is
^).
This indicates a
man whose
hair
is
turning grey,
ts'ang-t'ou
(^
gf
)>
little
too old.
The word
pan
or streaked,
is to
among
inter-
on the temples.
pai-shou
{^
Some
of
properly applied to a
man
is
seventy years, but the special designation for one of that age
old hair, gray and venerable.
mac (^),
denote a
This word
is
also said to
man
and
it is
perhaps only a
"Shi-chiug" where
it is
applied to a
man
of ninety-five years,
who,
Terms Relating
however, also
calls to
255
himself
''little
boy"
the
()J>
^).
For a man
and dark
like iron
This word
is
technical, however,
''
known
at present.
It occurs in the
'^
Shi-ching
'*
a passage
If
now we do
we
are octogenarians."
t'ai-pei (|]^
The man
fish
^), globeof
back.
This
name
all
is
on account of the
on the back
this
discoloured which
an
man.
does not
is
As
used
to
word
for globe-fish, it
perhaps better
to
take the
term
t'ai-pei as
meaning gibbous.
We
speak of old
men
being
bent with age, as veterans show curvata senio rnemhra, but the
Chinese seem
to
The
and he
cJiH-i
is
is
He
is
also called
(^ ^),
Some think
to that
human
to
life.
When
hundred years he
supposed
have lived
to the
end
of the
for
hiiang-fa
(^
^),
men
in
The Chinese
out and are
men
fall
replaced by others of a yellow colour, and that their teeth drop out
Hence
of
good
classical
authority.
itself
is
also
used in the
sense of doting
this last does not
man, being
elliptical for
huajig-fa.
But
256
Terms Relating
the state
to
necessarily denote
of
often
denotes simply the very old, as in the statement " the prince bows
to the
aged"
venerable.
as
it
(S "? jC S)^ ^^^^ is, he reverences the aged and Then we have kou {^)yiao, dirty and old, begrimed,
with a very long
life.
were,
is also
used
is
also
throat.
But hu-kou
also
used to denote
who have
is
Comforts and
should enjoy,
we
aromatic herbs
(^
tK S^
Si
!^),
also
An
old
man
may
be spoken of as a tung-li (J^ ^) or "frost pear," because his face like that fruit is speckled with dark spots.
literary
is
Another
ancient classics
first
page
of
Mencius.
come
may
I presume that
to profit
my kingdom
"
We
may
also
Patriarch, old
man
In addition
to the
Some
Such
erh-shun (Jp )g), ear obedient, from the statement of ^ Confucius that at sixty his " ear was an obedient organ."
is
But
vocabulary
we should study
to learn,
it
We
ought
for
example, what
supply of terms to
1 Children under seven years for girls, and eight for boys, are for legal purposes sometimes called by the old name wei-ch'Sn-cho (^ L ^), that is, See Han Shu, chap, xxiii. individuals who have not lost their milk teeth. " Shih-ming," chap, ii.; *' Li-chi," chaps, i, v. ; L. C. C, ii., pp. 1, 332; Meng, " Shih," chaps, vii., viii. ; *' Yi-ohing," chap, xiii.; L. CO., iv., pp. 516,627; L. C. C, i., p. 11. chap, i., p. 16; " Yu-hsio," chap. ii.
;
Terms Relating
to
257
is
to all
which occurs
at death is
the individual
who
dies,
A review
richness,
of
some
of the
ways
of speaking
It will also
show us some
modes
of
some
of these
those which
us
itself.
we ask
is
death ? he
may
life
put
us
off
know
we
cannot
know
it
death.
this
Or he may
tell
and say
is
the
Jj*
and the
is,
(^
|^).
creature
is
^), the thin etherial matter which waxes and wanes within the body as this grows and decays. When the supply is exhausted
there results death, which
of the vital spirits
is
the cutting
off,
coming
to
an end,
Or it is said that when a man dies which had come to him from the common stock
(^
|g).
is
consequently a dispersion
(^
^).
We
oflife(<l:^|i^).
There have been who held that death
is
a peaceful rest
In life all is toil and worry, and it is only death which {{^ ,gj. But only of the perfectly good man can gives peace and repose.
it
is
resting
(,[),
from
(jrJJ),
and work.
To
the
a suppression /i*
is life
It
that
man
258
likes
Terms Relating
and death he
to
Kuug
long ago.
of
The name
of the
direct
mention
anything which
their ordinary
letters,
by the Chinese in
intercourse.
Hence we
and
and
attend-
ant circumstances.
for death is
ssii,
but
11
home
is
only that of
unsweet."
Death
is
{^
fJcX
the great
affair,
important matter.
It
is
properly applied.
Thus
in
Mencius
we have Duke
(-^
Wen
Ift
of
4^ ^
alas ? this
"Now,
So
also
"means
it is
in
mourning
but
it
may
also
The decease
of a parent is
important
affair."
is
"great limif
[^
It
Pfi)>
the bourn which parts irrevocably the quick and the dead.
is
also called in
all
is
common language
it
(^ ^),
because in
that relates to
white
This term
1400,
Yin period
when white was adopted instead of black as the mourning Another name is ta-ch'i {^ l^ff), the "great casting colour. off," the quitting hold of life. The Shuo-wen calls this a com-
mon
it is
1 L.C.C, i., p. 105 ; " Chu.tzu.yu-lei " (^ If |g), chap. i. ; " Chuang-tzu," chap. vii. ; " Pi-ya," chap, viii.; " Lie-tzu," chap. i. ; Faber's Lies., p. 13; Hsiao Urh Ya, p. 4; L. C. C, ii., p. Ill ; " Meng," chap, v., p. 8; "Chou-li," chap, vii., p. 26; " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 6; " Shuo-wen," chap, xi., p. 21.
Terms Relating
to
259
We
to those
go on
now
to notice
some
which denote
These
friends
who breathe
their last
among
and
relatives, or at
least pass
When
friends
accompany
few
Let us take
A fatal malady,
called
a sickness which
is
is
yen
i^^)^
of a
wall threatening to
We
also
find
ping (^), a
and he
IS)is
disease,
same sense
as a fatal malady.
When the
seen to be
dying, he
is
said to be mi-liu-chih-chi
{M
^&
^^
origin
of the expression is to
" The
it
king
said.
Oh
my
will soon
In
this
Chinese
J|g
B
it
&i
M ^ ping-jih-chin-chi-mi'liu.
fatal
The
meaning
it is
of
is
to a crisis,
it
has taken
at
any moment.
to be a
chung-chih-Jih (;i
lin-chung (E ^), approaching death, near the end H) is nearly our "dying day."
is
and
lin-
A literary
ming-yu-chung-shih (-^
is
^
is
flf )>
^^ ^i^
when
is
about to end.
There
(H
is
^)> ^^ sand of
more
life.
This phrase
departed.
Then, as tuan-hun
to cut
ojff
260
Terms Relating
(g|(
to
be about to do
so,
to
be approaching dissolution.
meaning
is
There
is
also
among people
is
being waited
(^
Jg
f,g).
When
It
recalls a
was
custom
to
hold a thread or a
little floss to
mouth
when breathing
ceased.
Hence
to
indicates that the last breath is being waited for (J^ ||| i
^).
The dying
life.
of
Tseng
tzu,
verge of
It
is
death-bed and
sleeping
when
his
of order.
He
caused
it to
Hence
It
yi-tso
(^ ^)
change
it is
mat became a
scholars's phrase,
and
in use
it is
among
the educated.
of
whom
his
and that he
prepared for
end which is near at hand. In the "unfenced regions of society " people talk of a man as yao-ssu, being about to die, and
one
and
an unhappy dying.
spirit is at
Such a one
is
which
is
is
empty.
This
man
of
whom
it
is
said
dying of starvation.
The good when dying speak words of virtue and wisdom, but who have led bad lives are seen to quake and shudder
their
when
end
is
if
demon-
possessed.
become confused, is used specifically to denote the mental wandering noticed in some persons when on a death-bed, and thus to signify the state of dying. The very bad sometimes before death see the
grim demon
the
Satelles Orci
who
is
Terms Relating
to
261
(B
S ^
51 jS
is
agony.
distress,
There
but
jl) is to say that he is dying in terror and a special word, ku (J^) to denote such fear and
it is
not very
much
used.
Many
is
as a man's
what
to befal
"flj)
him
after the
change.
This
is
is
or fore-showing,
spoken of the virtuous. They, specially when dying " on a sick bed, " through the chinks df the sickness, broken body
when
it
when
This opinion,
however,
is
of Buddhistic
to the
origin,
which refer
life
hereafter.
official at
We
may
When
an
near he pleads
the country.
It is counted a great
man
to
among
by
his forefathers.
" There
is
One
of their
back to his
village, the
hare goes
to the
back to her burrow, the fox dies with his head turned
hillock of his birth, the water-fowl soars
The period
home
and death
ching
the wan-
(^ ^)
is
or
mu
(^
A synonym
sang-yu
|^), mulberries
some
the short and uncertain but soft and peaceful wavering between
life
day
But
it
is
also a
262
Terms Relating
to
For the
large
number
and
laid
to notice
some
of these
their applications.
find
it
down
when mentioning
his decease is
peng (^).
The
character
is
Thus we
find
it
;
applied to the
fall of
of the earth
Jfe
world
is
and
earth.
The word
and
is
it is
is
also
a rebellion,
last
applied to a murrain
among
sheep.
In
this
use
it
:
explained as chun-chi-ye
it is
(^
^ ^),
a disease of a ruin or
the flock
and
mean
The
loss or
decay of
is
also
Wo
says that
if
go to ruin.
of
must fall into decay {M d^ M)} oiusic must In the " Shu ching " we find Wen Wang saying
to
their horns
were
jo-peng-chile-chio
(g
^
as
]^
^)
in this passage
some regarded
bowing
their
of
meaning
*'as
if
The occurrence
is
not
it
once in
p. 546; " Shu," chap. vi. ; " Shu," chap, the following used of a Buddhist monk wasted by disease and at death's door ju-san-Tceng-yU'Chin-ti-teng (^ | yft *' " Chin^i^6 ^ lamp at the third watch with the oil exhausted." 6^ ^). ku-ch'i" (<^ -^ ^), chap, x.j "I-li," chap. xl. (13); "Li-chi," chap, ii.j " Huai-nan-tzu," chap. xvii.
Hsiao
Urh
ya, p. 4; L. C.
C,
iii.,
xviii.
(13):
Like King'lou-i'Chen
is
Terms Relating
to
263
only used
Mencius
it is
Wen Wang.
it
Some
is
it
tell
us that
sovereign
word
high
down
from
his
Another way
he chH't*ien'hsia
empire, the world.
it is
Emperor
away
(^
5c T)
thriTws
is
or
renounces the
is alive,
The Emperor
officially
,|X
godded while he
and
find
only
fit
he should go
to the gods
when he
dies.
So we
that
his departure is
lung-yil-shang-pin
to
is
be a guest.
Jt ^)> the dragon-rider has gone aloft This form of speech, sometimes varied a little,
(H
and other
state documents.
reigning
Emperor
went
father speaks of
his father
them
as occurring pin-t'ien-hou
(^
55
^)
after
as guest to heaven.
all
for
known
that
it
At Rome it was even of the gods.^' was by the Appian Road " divum Augustum et
isse.''
^
The dying
i(^'^9
of
an Emperor
is also
(S)
flg),
is
on high.
nouncing
sovereign.
date,
to
Emperor Huang
Ti.
In
this
i.,
" Lie-tzii," chap. i. ; L. C. C, i., p. 173 iv., p. 309 i., p. 52 356; iii., pp. 293 and 549; ii., p. 58; "Lun," chap. xvi. "Shi," chap, v.; "Shu," chap. iv. " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. ; "Kuug-yang" (13), chap, ii. ; "Ku-liang" (13), chap. i.
Li-chi," chap,
ii.,
; ;
p.
191;
p.
*'
Han-shu," chap.
Ixviii.
Ixii.;
A.
C. Lyall
in Conty.
Review for
Sept., 1875.
264
Terms Relating
to
we
They
tell
us that to the
West
is,
the
called I-chu
(^
^), that
to
is,
perhaps,
With
this people it
up
of the
was
for the
In
this use
ilf is
explained by peng,
to heaven.
is
by sheng (^), to ascend, that In a well-known passage of the " Shu-ching " this
correctly
more
word
used
of the
The words
are
wurshi'tsai-chih-fang-nai'Ssu (jS
Legge
translates,
*'
^"^ ^^*
The
"fifty
meaning
of
In another
just died, is
spoken
or in Dr.
Legge's version,
is
and
(^
||), to
mount
in peace,
is
also
used
But
it is
scene in
(U
Kg).
Another
is
classical
and
literary
term
to
tsu-lao (55
^)>
compound
of
to pass
in the "
away, and lao to fall as a faded leaf. Shu ching " with reference to the
written
;{|,
to
go or travel.
We
ii.,
v.
Yungi.
L. C.
i. j
Terms Relating
points
to the
to
265
down
Some understand by
happiness, prosperity.
tsu4ao,
Others
as the
life,
we often yun {^), which means to fall or drop down. Thus of the Emperors Fu Hsi and Shen Nung, who lived beyond the span of
dead leaf
find
falls
from the
tree in
autumn.
Instead of tsu
mortal
life
is
old- age.
;
The term
it
tsu-lao
is
may now
be used of
it
is
who
"come
his season."
In announcing or making
official
is
ol a
word hung
(|g).
This latter
is,
defined as
"the death
of
Duke
or Marquis," that
of
pendent State.
The
made up
purpose.
falling
less
of
ssit,
to die,
is
and a contraction
of
meng
for a phonetic
The word
and smashing, or as an expression for a degree of ruin than that denoted by peng, or as a going into obscurity.
In early times hung was used even of the sovereign, and Confucius
speaks of chiin-hung
(;*
In
Mencius
it is
Duke
Ting,
We find
it
reference
is
made
to the departure of
ch'iu" we find
(^
-p
K ^)-
as
Fan Ning
points
who was
chief of Lu.
* L. C. C, iii., p. 565; and Shu, chap, vi.; L. C. C, iii., p. 40; and Shu, chap, " Hsi-yii-chi," chap. ii. ; "Feng, L. C. C, ii., p. 228; and "M6ng,"chap. ix. su-t'ung, " chap. ii.
i.;
266
which
is
Terms Relating
to
extended
to distinguished
of the State
by
high
official is tsu.
written
2{
and
pf.,
correct form.
In
by chung
finish.
{^^) or ching
{%)
or ^^^^ (^)>
meaning
to
end or
It
is
properly
fire of
manly vigour
in a public
tsu
is
official career.
The word
It
is
which a
filial
die
when
term
of respect generally
official,
and
in
historians apply
office,
it
for the
to
had been
It is used of so
high a dignitary as Chou Kung, who had been regent and practically In the " Tso chuan " we find the decease sovereign for a time.
of a consort of
Duke Hui
(3 ?
$)
had no claim
to
away
but
in death.
This
word hai
means
to die,
it is
not
much used
We
often find
it
recorded of a zealous
official
passed away
sitting, a
When
a child de-
stroys his
1
;
own
life in
"Shuo-wen," chap, xi.; p. 22; " Feng-su-tu'ng," chap, ii.; L. C. C, i., p. and " Lun,*' chap, xiv.; " Shih-ming," chap, iv.; " Kang-yang " (13), chap. Pai-hu-t*ung," chap. iv. L. C. C, ii., p. Ill; " Li-pu-tee-li," chap. clix. j ii.} chap, i.; L. C. C., v., p. 8; "Han-shu," chap. Ix. ' Chun.ch'iu,"
165
;
"Shuo-w^n," chap.
i.;
xi. J p.
iv.;
"Kuang
and
Shih-ming,"
L. C.
ohap.
C,
v.,
14; "Kung-yang," chap, ii.; " Shih-ming," chap, chap, ii.; " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. j ' Tso. chuan," p. 1; "Han-shu," chap. Ixii,
^<C^LIF
Terms Relating
mourning
to
267
The word
to
show respect
her memory.^
To
his post.
by ch'u'ch'ui
go out of
({ij
^), the
vacate
to
office, to
a post.
may
be used of any
official
(0
|fj
are very
common.
prescribed by the
The term
Chou dynasty
:
to express the
dying of a private individual was ssu ( JE) and this has long been the word in general use to denote all that we comprise under the term " to die." The character, according to the " Shuo wen,"
is
made up
is
of
ngo or
it
gaJc
{^),
fleshless
{W a man, and
It
explained in the
ssu
^,
and we
is to
find
"Shuo wen" and many succeeding books by the character also written JJj. The meaning
is
of ssu
to
(^)
life.
merely
or the forces
ssil,
make
By some
to die, is restricted to
it is
wishes to dishonour.
But
die
in
common
base or unworthy.
To
is
away
(^
0>
life.
spiritum lahi, or
it is
to begin
There are
five
from
incurable
The
three former
latter.
may
When
as the equivalent of
chung (U) or tcang {^), which mean to die a natural death, whether from old age or sickness. But the word
*
This word shi is also used on special occasions of the death of a friend. funeral, for example, the deceased is addressed in set forms of expression, one of which is Vsung-tzu-shi (iJJ^ jtt ^), "here you leave us."
At a
268
is
TeYms Relating
to
not one which the Chinese like to use, and in their ordinaryit
always jen-so-U
it
(A
J5?
il)> ^^^^
from which
all
keep
aloof.
Yet
and honourable
A common
end or
finish,
for to die is
chung
(^<),
to
mentioned above.
appointed time,
when
the
numbered years
ended
(^
^)'
When
his administration
destiny
(^
^^ Bc
-^^^ ^^ ^"^^
i^
keeping
men
who
are
{^
^ ^^ ^ ^ ^),
man"
But
it
is
the "superior
that chung can be properly applied, for this word denotes the
^
is
chung
is
an expression
for the
accomplishment
of
the cultivation of
and good-
to others.
Who
Hence
it is
chung, ends his work and stops, and of the latter that he
runs out leaving nothing behind
fortunate
all
(^
|S #,)
man
relatives.
He
is
(g)a
The
man had
happy
and according
life
to rules is shou-
ehung-cheng-chin
1
{%
^ JE MX ^is long
'*
"Shuo-wen," chap,
"Sun-tzu,'' chap,
xi., p.
Tiii.j
xiii.j
Pai-hu-fang," chap,
Terms Relating
chamber.
is
to
269
When
man
is
found
room
or to his
placed
well,
to the east.
He who
as
and we must
call
him happy
has brought to
woman
own
and shou-
{% | p^ jg), to end her life in the inner chamand happiest death an old woman can enjoy.^
written in two othep- ways,
To
die
is
The
also
'*
character
it is
pronounced
mu
;
and mei.
it
Of the word
the
water (shen gt) hence it came to mean ruin and to be ruined. In the " Tso chuan" there is an official letter from Tzii ch^an, in
Here mo-mo
is
Jg *{fc)/' explained by
shen-mie (gt g^), to sink and be annihilated, to be drowned in perdition, and Dr. Legge translates, ''In what a fatal course are
you proceeding."
But
life.
the
common meaning
Shuo wen "
it
of
mo
is
is
to die a
(J^)
explained by
chung, to finish
find the
In some passages
of
we
in
It
is
march
From
the finishing of
literature.
life's
is
word may have come that now under notice, journey, which also is found in the early
recorded, and, as will be remembered, he
This
disciple
Tseng
tzii
way
per-
also
we
find
Shu-chan
Chu
3E
(^
S^
5^ ^){7{s
-^
pu'^muhy pu-i'shou'chung
]^
% ^),
ix.
In one of
;
"
Shuo-yuan," chap,
p. 7, notej
*'
xvi.;
"Han-shu," chaps,
ii.;
'*
andxxiii.
iv.
"Lun.yu,"
chap,
viii.,
Li-chi," chap,
Shih-ming," chap.
270
Terms Relating
letters
to
he uses
mo
it
of
and in modern
to
is
literature
seems
is
be occasionally
as
employed
This idea
of disease.
denote a
death which
regarded
untimely.
mo-shiy to
world,
is
may
(^
for
^ji
j& i, ^);
this
life.-^
literary
sheng.
word
" to die"
In the
explained by wang, to be
lost,
to disappear
(C
/p
pj*
^)-
In a passage
of the
word
is
explained
to die in
by wang as above.
early
life,
The phrase
tsao
{^ysang means
according to
the
but
it
^
may
also
signify,
context,
just been
is
seen
that
synonym
for
sang in the
sense of to die
the word
this character as
the composition of
the original mean-
an equivalent of
sstt,
(^
who
who
is
died
faithful
widow
is,
a wei-
wang-jen
(^
AX
^^^
^^^ ^^^
one who
is
This
an
first
used by a famous
Kuo
di\Q \q
period.
Another
which means
classical
and
literary
term
for to
hua {^)
to melt, transform.
1 " Shuo-wen," chaps, xi. and xxxiv.; L. C. C, v., p. 505 ; and " Tso-chuan," chap. XXX.; iv., p. 422; and v., p. 182; " Yang-Yuan-chi," chap. ix. 2 " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap, iv.; L. C. C, iii 175; and ii., p. 4; ' Shu-ching," , p. chap. iii. ; " Liao-chai," &o., chap, viii., p. 65.
Terms Relating
to
271
it
also to be noticed.
For the
is
enough
to
death.
It
is
passing away.^
use,
A
is
word
for to die,
ku
(JK).
We may
say that a
.
man
Of
soldiers
who
fall in
it
the course of
in battle or otherwise,
is
often recorded
of date.
wu-ku
{%
merely equivalent
It
is
said to
have
arisen in the
Han
period,
and
camof
to
and
soldiers
many
died.
$^^
It is sometimes
is,
;
yu
to fall
The word ku
it is to die.^
it
gives
no hint
as to
of praise or blame,
and
it
what
But there
Thus one
of the
common
to cut
tuen-ch'i (Hf
the breath of
life.*'
Like
it is
The word
found by
itself in
for chiieh-chH.
Thus the
parent's death they should chi-chueh-nai-k^u (@E 18 75 55)^ on the instant life ceases weep aloud.^ Then there is the phrase
tuan'hun
(^
2^1),
to
die,
and meaning
Chuang-tzu/* chap. iii. "Liao-ohai," chap. xvi. "Shih-ming," chap, iv.; "Han-ahu," chaps. 54, 57,
'<
272
Terms Relating
to
or
of whither.
ch^ii
a))
Of
^^ go,
and
ch'u-liao,
like
he has gone,
is
common euphemism
(jft
meaning
huo-shen
^),
is
Then
there
home.
([b]
Like
it is
^),
to return
home.
This phrase
is
(^), master, but the expression " return to the A vague and master's home " seems to divine a deeper meaning.
word chu
euphemistic expression
to go to be
is
hsien-yu
(\}^
^),
is
to
ramble an immortal,
the calm summits
among
who haunt
(|X t|),
of cloud-shrouded mountains.
This
to soar to the
Utopia of immortality.
is
Another euphemism
go to
Peng-lai,
of
t'u-peng-laij
to
the
in
the
set
from
is
may
be argued.
But
far as
much at least is certain that to die is to leave this world so human senses can discern. And the knowledge of this fact is seen in many of the expressions for death in Chinese as in He who dies disappears, and the common other languages.
term k'o-Jan(\^ ^), used in the sense of originally merely to disappear suddenly.
die,
seems
to
have meant
in the
It is
employed
use
is
its best
known
is
in the sense
signification is
yen-hu
given as a definition of
dust in a whirlwind
this latter is rather
To
die suddenly
to
go
off like
yen-hU'jo-pHaO'ch'en (^6 iS
S S &)many
^^t
popular phrases.
Thus
we find
ch^ii'Shih
(^
iJ), to
Terms Relating
of to die, as chHi-shih ([ij jH)
to
273
is to
come
There are
to pass
out
who
find
uo
charm
in life
in death,
in this
also phrases
which seem
otherwise,
pleases,
to
when he
that death
to
We
it,
have
hsie
{^yshih,
to leave
to decline
the festivities of
life
There
it
is
also
ch^i
{^)'shihf
cast off
the
is
world,
to
throw
away
the
as
something
unvalued.
This
a phrase
held in
decease of a parent.
Another one
is,
of like
meaning
is
tz'u-yang
light
(^
life
to leave the
world of
and
With
these
we may
to reject
chH-yang
(^
^),
hsien-chun-chH-yang
(5fe
S S ^) ^y father died.
is
That the
to shut
act of dying
to
is
also
(^
them
to
It has been seen that the phrase yun-lao is used in the sense
of to die,
manner.
It
;
is
same
fatal
it
or a leaf loosened
from a
tree
one dying
yun we sometimes
to
yun-ming,
The word
and
to
(Jf )
is
die
ssii,
put to death.
In the "Shuo-wen"
defined by
it is
to die,
and
in a
Chuan
" where
used of
us that
the slaughter of an
army
it is
also so explained.
Some
tell
274
Terms Relating
to
off at once,
ITo
?E)j to
But
also explained as
seems generally to
In the speech
to lose or be
lost,
of the people
we
word
be dead.
loss of some dear friend or beloved some " Fair creature kill'd too soon
by death's sharp
application
is
sting.''
Another phrase
of like
meaning and
everyday
mo
(or mei)-t6
(^
is
or cease to exist.
life,
This also
common
and
is
away
in youth's early
promise.
There
are,
a fate which
fixes
the bounds of
is
not
sense of loss and the sorrow for a friend or relative, specially for
one who
a career,
is
taken away in youth or what seemed the beginning of make man think of some agency which seems to thwart
Providence.
of envious or
angry beings
It is
which
lie
in wait to steal
young
lives is
perhaps universal.
not they
whom
who
are
slit
As
felt
it
is
know
The
pu-lu {'^
first
which suggests
itself is
j^),
which denotes
phrase
active
employment.
The use
of
of this
is
is
which
very satisfactory.
The word
andpu-lu
is
lu is here said
'^
to
mean
is,
good reputation
to survive death.
Then
the
Terms Relating
phrase
is
to
275
and
also said to
" not
ment
use,
ical
The phrase
some baseness
and
is
common
class-
the
official
and
term
state-supported
or
recognised
official.
man
of
learning not in
service as a responsible
salary
flu),
draw
salary.
In
former times the phrase was also applied to the decease of a prince
or noble, but only
up
to the
time of burial.
It
is
still
used
dying when
it
reward
To
(]g),
and
"prematurely"
manhood (^ j^
is
A) and
if it
while
still
The word
explained as
cause distress, to
wound
is
or be wounded.
perhaps present
is
when
the word
is
used.
The thought
developed
from a private
letter of
one friend
is
very
distressing"
k'o-tao).
Here we may
notice, in passing, is a
use of the word tao different from that mentioned above and also
from one
to
be noticed presently.
Of shang
as a general
term
The lowest
between
the shia
of a child
the next
is
shang
and the
highest,
is
that of a youth
from sixteen
of the decease of
any young
man
one who dies between betrothal and the date fixed for marriage.
Kuang-shih-ming," chap.
ii.
ii.
p.
lii. ;
chap
iii.
"Shuo-wen," chap,
S.V. j|.
276
Terms Relating
to
said of a
of the dead,
of this
wedding
The use
word always
usually,
unhappy, undesired,
and,
and mother.
Thus
we read
the
left
first
of a
man
yu-erh-yii'tzu'shang (:
H ;^ -f
On
The death
of a son
unmarried
sad and dreadful not only for the father but also
As
up
own
spirit
may have
to
wander about
shang comes
to
mean
man who
and
it is
i^
honour shown.
of
it
(Jg)
is
"to die without leaving any posterity" (JE ^)- Then also comes to denote a lonely ghost, one which wanders about
In
this sense,
WM
however,
it
will
come before us
[to leave]
again.^
As
(Jp. -(J),
we have
tsao-shih
of
life.
So we
^ -g)
as Dr.
"he has
And we
pu-hsing
find the
{7(^
^)'tsaO'Shih.
same meaning expressed by such statements But the phrase tsao-shih may also
for
Another expression
literally, short, to
dying prematurely
This
is
is
tuan (@n,
be short.
or,
according to another
In the
p.
797
Shiio-wen," chap, xt., p. 15; " Shili -miner," chap. " Hsiao Urh ya," p. 4.
iv.
Terms Relating
to
277
"Shu Ching"
the
first
of the
^) which Dr.
life.'*
But the
three
names
hsiung being
to die before
In the
have a
brief destiny.
''
We find
is
phrase tuan-ming
to
when
reference
made
young persons,
(/}>
^^^@
jijf.
^), unfortunately
my
also written
It is
of the
meaning
any
of age,
and simply as
use,
to
have one's
is
life
cut short.
Of much
more common
however,
^ and ^,
it is
the former meaning properly "young," and the latter "to die
young,'' but the second form
dies
is
not popular.
Of a maiden who
said
wei-chia-erh-yao
married.
(^
(^
^
Jit
Iffi
dies prematurely
un-
is
meaning
is
to die in the
vigour of youth
W 5E
^)-
It
Thus yao-wang
which
is
to
to
end a
naturally.
So
long expression jSn-i-yao-shih (jg fa M)> ^ my time under the influence of mental agony.^
^^
^j'^^g before
also
means
and
It is said to be u'ei-mingy
The word
is
also written
and
is
There are
who
1
Such
is
the word
C,
iii.,
;
p. 343 ; and " Shu-ching," chap, iv., p. 30 ; and "Shu-ching" " Pi-ya," chap, viii.; " Yang-yuan-chi," chap. xv.
iv.
j
ii
and
viii.
278
tao
(|^ )
Terms Relating
to
death of a
child,
to
acknowledged
to
weep
^^
ut si Filiiis
immaturus
of a child
obisset^^
real
and deep
who
reproach.
jen (ll
A)
that he
came
and
seemed about
says that her
debts.
Or the mother
^), called in his It was his due from a previous existence to be born in
Jj"
son
who
this world,
also
and as soon
as
left.
This phrase
is
children
who
is
To
by
^ven or
wo
(|g),
but the
character
not
much
meaning given
in the "
Shuo
tu
wen
"
is
disputed.
is
The
term
(
womb is
which
explained by fai-pai
J^ U), the spoiling of the But the ways are many in which " that fell
carries us
away
willy nilly.
It
is
not
only exulting youth which provokes him and makes him " quick The mother proud of the to clasp his shivering prey at noon." son she has brought forth also makes
him
jealous
and
all
who
misuse fortune's favours or break the laws of Heaven also provoke death which is regarded as untimely is also considered him.
to
it is
generally undesired.
The kinds
of
death
be sad, but they are not necessarily bad and The child or youth may have " a sweet removal on his terrible. mother's breast," soothed by love and tended with skill and tenderHere death comes too soon, indeed, but he does his work ness.
just mentioned
may
There are, however, gently without harshness and without terror. other kinds in which death comes with horrors and shows its
unmitigated
repulsiveness.
to
notice
some
premature deaths.
Terms Relating
to
279
but
a bad life with pain and anguish at home is ill enough, much worse to be left to perish in the street or by the road-side. The phrase ch^i-shih (^ fp), to be abandoned in the
To end
it is
market, or simply
sliih
in the sense
all
of to
Chinese dread.
It is
an old
market''
(^
^ ;^
?E JK
rft)
man
himself
who thus
against Heaven.
To
means
die of starvation
is
mentioned below.
;
The word
to (J^)
also
death
to the
This
well-known from
its
use by
erh-
manner
be
among
the people
We also
find p'iao
emphasized by
(^
^ ^ ^),
is
of hunger.
Here p^iao
is to
explained by
die
of hunger,
and o-pHao
be hungered to starvation.^
(;fL).
To
used
is
This word so
explained by
i-ssil
(^
is,
),to die of
an epidemic; or by
that
large
number ;
or
by yao
{^)ssi1,,
which
is
euphemistic mean-
is
composed
of pi, bad,
and
It
ssu, to die,
is
somewhat vague
by
lightning,
application.
of
said of one
who
is
is
and
one
who
dies
other calamity.
to
But
commit
suicide,
h, C.
C,
ii.,
pp. 8, 9, 367;
i.
280
Terms Relating
to
To
die
:
by drowning
is 7ii
death
is
shew (j^)
To perish
chiang (Jg).
The phonetic
out hard and
to
part of the character denotes a boundary line, and the word de-
notes a
straight.
To
die in
child-birth
is is
chan-nan
in
(^ ^),
use
have
the
parturition trouble.
This phrase
common
among
is
people and
is
To
judgment
is
k'ao-
ching'{^
This
death of one undergoingpunishment in jail, but the proper expression for the latter
is
fu-fien-hsing
(flg
5^
Jpj),
to
bear Heaven's
for a
punishment.
it is
right or
becoming
for
man
to
meet
martyr
duty or principle,
or even to deal
doom
to himself
with his
own hand.
In such
cir-
and
it
may
The
soldier
who
falls in
who
chooses
are to be praised,
So the phrases
in use
among
sometimes expressed hy 2nng (^), a word which simply means to be a soldier. Another term for death in
die in battle
is
To
also to fear
and
to
is
put
to death.
for
which there
no mourning,
and the first of these is wei, a death in a fight or battle. But some regard the word in this connection as meaning cowardice in the field, though others regard it as simply meaning the death of But the common phrase for being slain in a soldier (^ JE *fc).
battle is ch'en-wang
fighting.
(^
t^), to
be
lost
to fall
This
is
Throne and
in state
documents generally.
is
Another phrase
(JJ
is
for
hsiln-nan
gi),
to
go
This
a phrase of
in battle
honour, and
men dying
Terms Relating
against rebels or euemies,
to
281
but
those
who commit
In like
her into
hands
of the
is,
enemy.
to follow
manner hsun-mu
the other world.
is to
filial
not
to
said to hsun-mu,
is
filial
devotion.
to die
So
we
find the
(^
^ ^),
When
an
in so doing
he
is
is
said to chuan-chit
(^
|g), to offer
up
his body.
This phrase
and does
so
at the cost
of his
life.
from the
rise of the
means
to
To do
(0
this is well
Jfe) to
as ts'img-yung-i/in-chue
51
to
The sharp
is
it
hard
of
will
through a term
for
is
tzU-chin (
g
it
put an end
to
oneself,
The use
of this
:
may
own
act,
^),
by
commit self-slaughter;
tzu-tco
tzu'4
(g
j^),
commit
suicide
hanging;
(
(g
^l]j,
to cut one's
life,
own
W^), to
a correct language,
When
to use is
;
down
succumb
1
death.
ii.,
But
p- 11;
it
common
to
"Li-chi," chap,
xii.
" Yang-yuan-chi,"
chap.
282
Terms Relating
to
animals ssu and the other terms which are used of man.
find such statements as that a deer chimg-ch'ishow {^^
^),
ended
its
natural
life.
humorous
expressions for dying, as the Chinese like others jest with this
To
commit
suicide, is
mo
po-tzu,
common
To
to
die
is
teng-Vui
(^
|jg), to
{^),
dry up;
Among
is
sea-faring people to be
drowned or
at the
many
of
others, I
in Chinese literature or
heard from
expression
which are
of Buddhistic origin.
The
latter will
come
under our notice presently, but the other words and phrases must
be
left
some
of the terms
and phrases
to
those
who have
language
meanings
the words
already mentioned
with
other
The
word
and
ssu,
for example,
may
to die,
and
it
may
be employed
we saunter through life by many ways " only one beaten track by which we hasten to death (^
^), the
*'
is
leti."
of the people
jl)
In like
Li-chi," chap,
i.,
p. 52.
Terms Relating
deceased.
to
283
Thus Tseng
tzu's advice,
"Be
^ Jg jg),
explained as
perform
all
to offer the
a long period.^
There
are,
when we
ancients,
we
explained as a
aiivis
modern
writers
who
But
the
common term
or
to
body
it
of
one
who has just died is shih custom when a man was seen from his bed and place him on
^).
In old times
was the
lift
him
the ground.
him the
It
chance of recovery.
left
As
soon as
it
name
sliih.
came the name shih which properly but not always denotes a
corpse while laid out preparatory to burial.
The word
is inter-
preted by some to
to
But another
is
that a corpse
called shih as
is
not restricted
to
shu (f ), flaccid, relaxed. The use of the word to dead bodies laid out on a bed, nor is it properly
which are buried or
coffined.
extended
use
is
those
Its
common
(^ JJ : SE W)y ^^^ li^i"g people became floating corpses. Then there is also the classical word i {\%) with the same meaning as shih,
and the two are sometimes found combined in the sense
of a corpse.
But
by
itself is
is
There
a special
is
name
(^)
1
and a skeleton
called ko (gg).
" Chang.li.shi-chi-chu" (^ r^SII), chap, i., pp. !5, 19; ii., " Lun-yii," chap. i. ; p. 31. i., p. 4; and 2 " Shih-ming," chap, iv., p. 21; " Li-chi," chap, i., p. 52; shi chi," chap, ii., p. 4 ; " I-li," chap, xxxvi. (13).
L.CC.
'
284
Terms Relating
to
known
to
on a
field of
of a plague.
(}|), that
is
A
is,
chuan
put in a coffin
will
receives a
word which
'^
meet us
is
now
if
to
have a
from change
is,
chiu
(^)
long, that
for ever.
The word
is
also explained
by another
chiu (^), which means ended or completed; because nothing more can be done for the defunct, or because everything is now
tou-tzu
(^
is
from a name
for a coffin
which
to
will be
found below.
This
A
*'
be pu-tsai
{/f, :^),
not
Rachel wept
is
they are
not.'^
Or
of
a friend's death
is
where
is
he
So Job
says,
Man
answer,
''gone
for ever."
We
to die.
or
-^ X), an ancient, one put out of date, one who has become a fact. Hence for "he is dead" there is the common expression tso-liao
(fit
man
defunct.
also called
wu-hua
(if^
tHen-hsing (5c fj)) heaven-worker, spontaneous agent during and makes him a ivu-hua, a creature life, but death stops him
a
changed or metamorphosed.
His body
is
" Shuo-wen,"
chap,
xi.,
p.
28, s.v.,
.;
"Shih-ming," chap,
''
iv.,
A mutilated corpse is known by a special name, tzu (fJt), and this is also applied Thus to the buried body undergoing corruption. yin-ch'ung-shihJi^u-tzu" " ^^ the darkness of the grave tlie worms eat his rotting ife M) is (^
p. 21.
^^
carcase."
Terms Relating
changed, that
is,
to
285
" Quod
(^
mutatur enim
to
In a well-known passage of Mencius, for example, we read, " Is it not, moreover, perfect pleasure to a man on behalf of his
to
bodies ?
'^
Then
the
phrase
hua-cho comes
to
be used
in
immortals,
who
changes of accident.^
We
This
is
is
kuei (|).
The word
is
her
home
an
official
going back
to
end his days at his birth place, and of the sojourner abroad
It has also other uses, as
of
returning home.
below.
will
appear a
little
( j^),
In the sense
dead
it
is
returned to the ground, spoken of the body which came from the
earth.
We
;
gone
to the
kuei-shih
(-Jg),
;
gone from
the world
kuei-Jen, a
man
and kuei-
tHen, gone
home
to
who
rule in
China
to
many
The
and
it is
observed in
many
and buried.
No
him while
This word
or
name
is
called
means
superstition,
^
is
" Chuang-tzu," chap, vi.; " Huai-nan-tzii," chap, vii.; L. C. C, ii., p. 98; M6ng-tzu," chap, iv., p. 20. Another phrase of similar meaning with This may be hua-cho is i-wu 4^), a strange substance, a different thing. used of men and animals, and /ma-tuei ('ffj ^)-i-iyi*. "by transformation to become something difEereut," may be applied to a faded flower.
and
"
(^
286
Terms Relating
of
it.
to
making use
When
man
and
relatives
name
for
sometime either
The
lit.
great journey,
of
is
given to
name
is
assigned.
Hence
Huang
Ti, the
^'His recently
are explained as
is
no return."
Of
(5fe :k,
his
A),
may
be
But
if
the father
own
him hsien-tzu
The phrase
''
hsien-chiin (5),
may
On
tomb-stones
{^),
meaning ch'eng
(j^), perfected
or finished.
It is also said
to
life
verewigt.
Before the word k'ao, we generally find hsien (Ig), illustrious. Up to the Yuan period the common phrase was huang {^yjc'ao, " the imperial defunct," but the second Emperor of that dynasty
ordered the use of huang in this way to be discontinued and that
of hsien substituted.
At
present
it
is
kao (fg) in the same sense. This is a word borrowed from the farm and denotes grain in the ear ripe and dry.
mother
as
hsien-tzu
(jg),
my
is
On
tombstones
and in obituary
(^
iJt)-
As
the father
life,
becomes
mate
j:t)
husband
in virtues,
posthumous honours.
In old
Terms Relating
to
287
times these words h'ao and pi were used alike of the living and
dead, aud fu-pi (Jf i|t), for example meant simply mother, and fu-h'ao, was ''my father-in-law/'
my
wife's
A
father.
widow
calls
lord, the
But
''
at
present the
common
expression for
"my
late
hushsLud
is
p'i OY hsien-p'i
(^
Jg^
),
"my
So
deceased
also the
lord,'* p'i,
like chiin
term for a
chief
departed wife
pin
(jg), a
The
social distinctions
up
commonly
notice the
gives promotion.
As
we may
term ju-jen
to
(^
to
and subject
A)^ the dependent person, the woman attached a husband. This was in old times the prescribed
official,
title for
and
it
is still
the
official
now extended to the wife of a tradesman or any other private subject when she is dead, and it is very common on tomb-stones. The wife of a man when buried beside
rank down.
But
it
is
him
is
(^^),
or simply fa,
and she
is
so
common
first
grave.
The term
or principal wife,
It
is
first
wife of his
life,
taken by him
when
love and
realities to both.-^
Most
regarded as corpses,
as the bodies
defunct
few seem
death
may
life
be only a passage
to a
that,
new
in
life,
process of change (1 i^ 5E
"^
ffc)-
There are
life
however,
go on at
to
many
may
have become a
1
certainty.
The
living
we
see are
chap. chap,
" Fang-yen," chap, xii.; "Urh-ya," chap, iv.; " Knang-ya,"; "Fang-yen," vi. ;" Li-chi," chap, i., p. 46; L. C. C, iv., p. 44 (3fe ^); "Shih-ming,"
iv.,
p. 21.
288
of flesh
Terms Relating
and bone and
to
spirit,
we do not
see
are
spirit only.
They
are ghosts
huei (j^)
which
now being
and darkly wreak their wrath on those who wronged them while
ghost
is
called huei,
is,
say
to
it
some, because
its
it
is
original state
of
formless
Before doing
so,
however,
The
ghost of one
who has
it
is
for the
One name
mentioned above,
is
(
pu-shu
(7 ^),
;^ /p
jen'SsU'Wei-chih-pu-shu
(or,
A ^ pi
Some,
?!{)>
unfortunate).
however,
tell
who do
'^
In one
we
find
it
woman
lot
(jS
Ai
/P
Six
perhaps rather,
(or,
She
suffers the
my
means
husband from famine). Then the word yang 0^), which originally a plague, disaster, or calamity, comes to denote
Thus when
he
is
man
is
choosing
a site
for
warned
pi-yang
(jg y^), to
keep out
of the
way
of,
that
is,
avoid offending
ap-
Thus the
@).
of
living
of as the
sheng-ling
(^
The word
efficaciousness
a miraculous
way, and
it is
connected with
the deceased.^
" the dead of old " 1 " Urh-ya," chap, iv,, p. 14. The hu-Tcuei (j^ ^) are " Tso-chuan," those long deceased, and hsin (^)-^itei are " the modern dead." chap. XV., p. 8; and L.C.C.,v., p. 234; Jih-chih-lu ( H ^11 il). chap, xxxii.; L.C.O., " Shi-ching," chap, ii., p. 40; " Wu-hsio-lu" (^ ^), chap. xix. iv., p. 117; and
Terms Relating
to
289
is
A
But
huang-ch' iian
(^ ^), which
would seem
is
to
mean
in this expression
huang
ground
at
which water
is
reached
or
it is
the depth of
soil
its
life
goes through
to
meeting of
alive
soil
and water.
seat,
Thus
meeting
and water."
when when dSad he is buried " below the To be dead and buried is ju (yjj.)
it is
huang^ch^iian, to have entered soil and water; and huang-ch^iianlu (8J), the road of earth-springs is the region of the shades.
So
also i'Sang
is
to
those
who
One
of
of the
most interesting
oc-
"Tso-chuan."
We
Duke Chuang
vowed
(^R^^^^g.^lfc);
till
I have
[z.e,
am
low earth]."
piety.
him by a high official " If you," said the clever adviser, " scoop
was found
for
make
who
you vowed
? "
The
son acted on this advice and had a happy meeting with his mother,
thus keeping his
vow and
In the above
4*
M)y the
in
earth,
and fursee
the
huang-ch^iianj
human
beings.
one who
(^
^S^
-^
f4^
i)>
i^ ^^^
huang-
We
290
tion
Terms Relating
to
oijang (^) for huang. The word jang also means soil or earth, and is used as an equivalent of huang in this sense. The
expression i-huang
()[
^)-ch'mn-ja)ig, means *^to shed glory on and sometimes " to glorify my deceased
So
also the
off
her
put
it
by the
act
and
spirits
knew
him
the cuan-jang}
to
is literally
tombs.
now under consideration they are names for the tomb or As such specifically they will come before us again, and for the present we notice them only in the expressions which A common phrase for this is denote *' the place of the dead."
chiu^yuan
tombs.
(or ch^iian) chih-hsia
{JtW^
(^^
:^) -^
Thus Liu
to
Mi
(lit. nine springs, JL T)> ^^^ kung ?" the murdered Kuan Yii whom you
^^
shall I face
Kuanalso
deserted.
So
''
K'ung-ming says
to
to the
Wang
Lang,
You
are
go
home
(lit.
nine springs),
?" In a
Han Emperors
pleads with his relative to be fair and kind to his two nephews,
to
the tomb,"
is,
iM
K^
U\
While there
1 L. C. C, v., p. 2; and "Tso-ohuan," chap, i., Cf. " Han-shu," chap, xxi., p. 3 " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. The uses of the phrase huang-ch'uan may be further from a beautiful old poem. Of the wedded couple it illustrated by quotations is said huang -ch'uan-kung-ivei-yu (^^%^ J^ M)i lovers to death." Then the faithful husband says ivu-tu-hsiang-huang.ch'uan, I go alone to the other wife answers, Jniang-ch'uan-hsia-hsiang-chien (^ A^ "F world;" and the true " I iiieet you in tho next world,'' " Ku-ahi-yuan," chap iv., 1st poem, ti^ ^)i
*' *'
Terms Relating
to
291
not shut his eyes, and hence the term in the above expression
is
In
this last
The phrase
chiu-
ch'uan
says to
used in the same manner, as when T'sao P*ei's mother him, " "When I go to the grave (chiu cuan), moreover,
{^
"^ JL
iJf
JSlV
is
explained by
ti-hsia,
is
often
used
"How
lit.
could
we
other world?"
below ground
{^
MB^
"J^
"^
^ Mf)-
Hence dead
bodies are placed and kept with the head towards the north, and
the term pei-shou (4t 'M')^ bead turned to north, means deceased.
It
is
come
out to cry and peep their woes and wrongs and scare dreaming
mortals
in the
whom
shade,
death's shade.
This word
yti,
refers
region in which the ghosts wander, as does also yin ([^), a word
of similar
meaning.
To
these are
(03)
life.
and yang (j^), which denote clear light, the bright day of Another term for the place of the dead is t^a-hsiao-chih-chai
(:JC
*^
of the
'*
grand night.
They who
are in
t^aiis,
this, to wit,
(^
unending) night.
The dead
have gone
to
f^), court of
is
Thus
a person deceased
said to
To be dead
* " San-kuo-chih," chap. xlv. and chap, xhi.; " Yang-yuan-chi," chap, xv.; " San-kuo-chih," chap. xl. For chiu-ch^iian we sometimes find ch^ung-ch^iian (fi ^)> "the many springs," and the dead are ch'ung-ch'iian-hsia or simply ch'uan-hsia, below the springs.
292
and buried,
Terms Relating
to
(g
^), the
passage to the gloomy halls of the king of the lower world, the
tristes
nearly said,
sorts
a place
much
like Peking,
is
where
''
there are
all
of people
undone,
and there
Offices,
little
or no fun
done."
dead"
is
teng-kuei-lu
(^
^ $^),
to be entered
register,
to
dwellers below.
Another expression
to
of a like nature
is
ju-kueito
be
also kuei-kuaiiy
bailiffs,
and kuei-tshi
ghost turnkeys or
and
to encounter these is to be
There
is
literary
It
is
dead,
1$^
which
may
be
mentioned here.
Yii-yuan."
is
ju-yii-yuan
(A.
iS),
"to go into
at this place,
is
and death
is
" he
dead."
Of a teacher
scribed
may
be de-
(^
of a libation."
it is
The phrase
to die,
or
my
end
is
at
hand,"
and
to
which we who
little
us wait for a
spirit.
There
is
a crowd
performed to or on account
And
the
first to
^),
to
it
sumhas
mon
just
the
left.
spirit, to call
the members, taking the clothes lately worn by the deceased, went
" Yuan-chien-lei-han," chap, ccxlvi., p. 23 ; *' Li-chi," chap ii. (;jig J:) ming-tien. The eK-pression pai.jih-ju-yu-yuan (^ H t^) is said to '* in manhood," to set the or day time. youth It in seems to have mean die other meanings, however, and it is not very common. " Ku-shi-yuan " (~^
1
for
A^
^), chap.
vi.
Terms Relating
to the roof of the house.
to
293
to the north,
This ceremony
is still
woman
is
for a
son or husband.
The
classical
name
for the
ceremony
fu(f^),
come,
No
spirit will
mind
of the
bereaved mourner.
is
that
(^
i^), to
which
is
all
arm bared, and attended by the chief among his relatives, goes For this purpose, having provided himself to "buy water."
with a bowl and two copper cash^ he proceeds
spring at some distance, and outside the city
at the
if
to
a stream or
possible.
Arrived
his bowl.
it
and
fills
Weeping
On
his arrival at
home he
to
it is
wash
of the deceased.
are necessary,
the water
is
were, from
so
it
cannot be
This custom
it
very
is
not even
Chinese history,
is
indicated by the
The meaning of this word is to hold or put in the pg-, and J^). mouth, or to put a gem or jewel in the mouth, to wit, of a deIn old times a piece of jade, or silver, or a pearl, ceased person.
or a few cowries
and grains
of rice
were put
in the
mouth
and
of one
about
to
be buried.
called ha7i,
this
term
(^
P),
to
fill
or stop the
mouth, or
294
to
Terms Relating
to
do so with jade, that is, a precious stone (J 31 CDMorrison says, " This observance was considered an expression of
personal attachment, accompanying the deceased to the
grave.
is,
for
related, to take
some
particles of
the
mouth
*
which
''
observance
commonly
called shih-k^howj
mouth.'
mouth
rice
The phrase thus used means to place something substantial in the The jade or cowries and that it may not go away empty.
were not considered necessary for the deceased, nor were
mouth
to
him with nourishment, but they were placed who could not
This word han denotes at
bear to see
him empty-mouthed.
present the putting of a gold or silver pill (or both) into the
of an individual dead and about to be shrouded.
mouth
rich
pill
and
but
many
or use imitations.
The
to
enable
The
old
meaning
of han,
however,
is still
retained, as
we
the
by such expressions
send a present
mouth
of
a deceased friend.
And
importance attached to the service of " stopping the mouth " may be inferred from the current expression han-lien, " to stuff the
to observe all
the formalities
A
making
lamps
duty which
is
the
For
this
purpose paper
of a particular
of the house,
observation.
also
The
When
Terms Relating
or to the T'u-ti temple.
to
295
He
The common
tell
the
or
k^ou
{\i}f)-chungj
tell
to
strike
the bell;
is,
or pao-ti-t'ou
(fg Jl gg), to
The
made
regarded as of the
The death
of a parent or other
near relative
This
is
is
also
made known
called fu.
to friends in a special
manner.
This word
is
is
and
jKj,
in this use
to
antiquated or pedantic.
The
full
expression
is
is
fu-ming,
usually omitted.
The
to hasten, is
in the sense of
announcing a death
'H^ ?E H
&)
Thus when
Wei country,
expressed by
ment
of a death,
and
Thus a
if
son,
whose
mother
is
living,
when
he
is
reporting his
is alive,
if
he
calls
himself ai (^)-
and
is
ku-ai'tzii}
Eeturning
to the corpse,
after
body
This
is
done usually on the day after the death, technically called the
of the death].
was an
ii.,
he
is
manner
of
p.
15.
y'^^Je^S^^^AH^^
Xtniversity;
Death and Burial.
if
296
an
official of
Terms Relating
the
;
to
or
The dressing of the corpse ^), the minor shrouding, and the
{^
we
^); longevity
find
clothes,
to
i,
clothes.
the
huan-kuo-i-chHn (t& ^J ^)) the inner and outer coffins, the The chH7i is a large robe or sheet put on clothes and coverlet.
outside the clothes^ and
is
We have also
(^
^), the shrouding business, to denote the The word hsi here is explained by chou-tsa
;
(M
[g), to
wrap round
the act
known by
name
chiao-chin
to
wrap
in court
folds of cotton,
part, hiding
In some places
it
were a living
or
but this
old
custom.
Another term
to
is
chuang-huo
(^ ^),
to dress
is,
him
in
winding
sheets.
This
it
is
also
from the
mere
dressing
hsiao-lien
mentioned above.
death, the
may not be seen again. On this third day the body is placed in the
of the deceased
is
coffin,
surrounded
folds
and many
and
The
coffining
is
also
called ta-lien,
but the
to
be
denote
all
of interment
it is
It
means
and place
this
on a pile of wood
Behind
Terms Relating
this a curtain
to
297
From
this
still
woman
crying over a
lost father or
husband, wei-pin
(^ ^),
literally, to curtain
the
shrouded corpse.
burial,
pin
is
of frequent
is
modern.
dies,
It
a friend
and there
( jjS
of the
body devolves
for burial."
" yii-wo-pin
^ ^),
for
me
to prepare
him
of
shrouding and
(I[j^
J^), to
adjust the
body properly,
is
importance
One
die
of the
worst the
to
is,
another
is
ti-pao-shou-ni,
may you
pauper and
an
outcast.-^
of
some
to themselves,
indicate specially acts done for the deceased or his relatives before
burial.
One
is
of
the
first
of these ceremonies in
order and in
importance
the
"Shuo-wen"
of
is
to
That work
also presents
the character as
made up
the
characters for
**man" and
were not coffined and buried, but were merely carried out into
the country, laid on the ground, and covered with branches of
trees
and
grass.
In order
for a time
to
relatives
watched
So
also
when
1
his
bow
and
L. C. C, ii., p. 54; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xvi., p. 8; L. C. C, i., p. 99; and " Luu-yii," chap, x., p. 29 ; " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 36; " Shih-ming," chap. i\r.
298
'tet^ms
Relating
to
him
to drive
away the
and
birds
and
to
Hence
word
came
of assisting at a death,
of expressing
It
is
now used of
is
the condol-
On the other
is
This word
used
when
applied correctly.
It
may
dom, but it is especially used of the sympathy mourning a deceased parent, " to console a filial
the death of a parent
It
is
for the
orphan
is,
son, that
on
Pf
).^
moreover,
to contribute
something material
friend.
Thus
as a
token of respect to him, and this service was called feng (|g).
But
this
word
lost its
technical signification,
and came
dead
;
be a general
it is
name
for all
honorary presents
(11 9E)^ ^^
to the
and
so
explained by kuei-ssu
is
There
{M)>
to
(^
including
all
is
fu
(|J|).
At
send only money, and there are various euphemisms for the
Commonly they
Another name
M)>
iiicense etiquette.
for
them
is
chu
(J^)'i,
made
tree.
A general
term in
common
of a
all
death
tsu-wei
J^).
The
it is
literal
meaning
of this phrase is
"
and
"Shuo-wen." chap,
ii.,
xxiv., p.
i.,
"Kung-yang," chap,
p.
p.
(^^ i^$M^),
i.,
chap.
iii.
p.
ii;
*'
Li-chi,"
chap,
62; chap,
i.,
p. 25.
Terms Relating
to
299
a special
Coming now
vocabulary.
to
to
the
coffin
we
find
for
it
also
The Chinese,
as all
to
be
interred,
of a coffin is a
matter of great
concern to
to
interested.
as
make
coffins
part of
in
kind of employment.
The mechanic
the
or tradesman so engaged,
title
however,
carpenter.
as
is
called
by some euphemistic
like
artisan
or
custom for
we
find
carpenter,
in Mencius the word chiang (g), a craftsman or used in the special sense of coffiin-maker; and in
the same
artisan's
work we
business,
employed
with
the
meaning
of
coffin-making.
universally understood
name
for a coffin is
ts'aiy
or kuan-ts'ai (| i^).
In literature
is
this
word
which
The
character for
:
kuan
it
is
made up
of
and so
was devised
after
But even
so
when jnade of other substances a coffin is stiU called a kuany and we have a tea (^)-/;wrt?i, or tile coffin, and a shi {^ykuan, one made of stone. The word is explained as if it were kuan (||),
because a
as
if
coffin
or
it
were
it
wan (^),
different
because
it
makes an end
of the body,
putting
are
Then
as, for
is
known by
names,
restricted to officials
coffin, is
from the
occasionally
^f|5),
to
which the
coffin
The
is
custom
continued
prevail
for
if it
many
were
centuries.
name kuo
explained by some as
meaning capacious
or a spacious inclosure.
300
Terms Relating
to
As we
all
thy friends
(A
7^)
is to
life
The
coffin
name shou-pan
(^
^), long
boards,
given to the
The proper number of these boards or pieces of wood is six, and a coffin made of so many is called a ch'uan-ch'eng (^ J^), a perfect
city-wall, that
this
is,
In some places
but
it
name
is
given
when
is
then
improperly
other
life is
applied.
Among
people
common
mentioned or described.
{ji% ;fg),
all
Such are
i-chia
kuan
The
i,
chia and
first
p%
are
trees
valuable
timber,
and the
was
specially
coffins in
employed
as impervious to water in
of a sovereign
making one
of the
was interred.
(K), or sui-tu, these
a chest or box.
A small
cases in
The
of
is
and the
word
used also for the case in which a dead animal, for example a
horse,
is
buried.
also special
There are
occupied.
names
to designate
is
a coffin which
is
hard and
The term means the palace of lasting. The word chiu (;jg),
a valuable wood,
is
noticed above,
often
We
tomb, and
tion of one
efficacy, is
(H
7f\
^).
The
epithet ling,
of
supernatural
may be
used
for
to
denote
all
expressed by chin.
tenanted
coffin are
pm
Terms
ch'tn {^).
Relatiiig to
is
301
that which
But
in
modern works
'^
set
cJi'en
its
empty
occupant.
One
says expressly,
classical
an empty
There
is
an old
which
The phrase
coffin
is
yii-ch^en
(H
^), once
draw,
now
bear a
ready
to
receive a
particular body.
with a corpse.
Thus
in the
pressions like
(^
J^
^^
^),
And
again
we read
in the
same book that in the spring of the ninth year of Duke Ch'eng " the Earl of Chi came to meet the coffin (H) of the Duke's
third daughter to take
it
home."
may perhaps
in
Further we have
to note
a term which
doctors.
common
use
among
This
chin-tou
(^
used to
buried.
(ft
But
to
^S ^
^) ^^y
also
that
good
site
for a grave.
There are
coffin.
many names
for
the different
parts
of
But these
Thus the lid and bottom are sometimes called by the common terms " upper and lower (lit.
'^
{JUSLM
WO-
'-^'^ley
are also
known
is
respectively as sun and moon, and the former has the further
(^
Ep),
turtle's shell.
its
This
last
it
terra
a coffin with
occurrence.
contents, but
does not
seem
and
to
be of
common
The
sometimes called jen (|^), a word which properly denotes the meeting of two edges of a garment. Used in the
its lid is
sense
now under
notice
it is
common
302
Terms Relating
to
lid
is
called
hsiao-ijao
H),
the
Han
dynasty.
is
Another name
{M)> which
In very
coffin
was
time came
to
be re-
hemp
strings
by pegs fixed
and
coffin,
and hence
now under
we
notice.-^
Coming next
interesting nature.
to the funeral
it
and cere-
furnish
Of these a
of a curious or
specimens, and
and the customs of the people. When the body duly swathed and surrounded with
nailed
all
that
is
down on
the latter.
This act
is
expressed by the
to
(^
rest or peace.
to burial there
is
ch'u-piu
^^),
to
go out to
also in general
to bury.
In
omen
euphemism
means
In
to
go into
last
office, to
this
use
the phrase
hillfi,
1
to
and
opposed
;
to
tsaishan
(^
which means
iv., p.
to
be
18 ; '* Li-ohi," chap, ii., p. 6; " Shuo-wen," chap, xvii., p. 63; " Pai-hu-t'ung," chap. iv. ; " Yii-pien," s.v. |g ; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xvi.; "Han-shu," chap. i. ~f chap. *' Shuo-w^n," chap, xvii.; Phon. S.W., vol. iv., p. 92 ; " Li-chi," chap, i., X., p. 4 ; " " Hsiao-urh-ya," Li-chi,'' chap, ii., p. 44 ; p. 4 ; "Tso-chuan," chap, ix.; p. 25 chap, ii., p. 40; L. C. C, v., pp. 69, 132, 268, 368; and " Ch'un-ch'iu," chap, xv., 3. p. 12 ; chap, xx., p. The lid of a coffin is also called liu (;^), properly "a willow ;" but in some As to places this name is given to the sides while the lid is called kuang (^). ch'in the meaning of " coffin with body " is still retained in the phrase chungch'H CS ^)> ^^^ heavy coffin.
L.C.C.,
p. 76;
; ;
pp. 80, 96
Terms Relating
in
to
303
the hills,
that
is,
Another
fa-yin
(g ^D
which, however,
The
and
it
origin-
meaning
of the phrase is
*'
keeps
up the
memory
of
an old state
In early times a
place,
last resting
and
yin.
ropes
called
Hence
came
meant
to
begin a funeral
procession.
to
In those times
it
was required
of the friends
who
and help
chih-yin
The
rule
was tiao-yu-tsang-cho-pi-
(^
S^
^^
to
name yin
continues.
But
friends
advances.
cloth, is
(^
,^ )has a history
but
like
that of
The word fu
is
often found as a
;
synonym
it
for yin in
is
also
used
to
is
taking place.
;iJ
chih'fu (Id
^#
While doing
by
We
of the
word
''
in the
with several variants). This word is explained Shuo wen " by sang-ch^e, funeral carriage. It was once a
name
called
for a hearse,
as
if i
(5
is,
ears or handles.
Such
fish-like
304
" ears " are
funerals.
Terms Relating
still
to
The name
chia-i (j||
mount on
a hearse.
In
like
liu
once denoted a hearse, a tsai-chiu-ch'e (ft ;JS ^), a vehicle for carrying a coffin. But it also now denotes a bier, the successor
of
the hearse or
its substitute.
It is not in
common
use
among
(or
all
the learned.
(^
;j^), literally
" merit
It
relic of antiquity.
was once
made
and with
still
it
from time
coffin.
The custom
all
is
is
often only an
empty
that
form.
is
to carry in front
of
white
Even
by the old
to
name kung-pu.
The
correct
;
And
this
the bier.
name
and
for this
it
other object
ming-ching
of
(^
;g|),
inscribed flag
denotes a scroll
titles of
commonly
red
silk inscribed
the deceased.
In the
may
a
also
man
triangular shape.
called
fan
(^
applied
also to
funeral has on
is
then
borne by a relative.
When
it is
Omito
Fo it
is
carried
still is)
by a Buddhist monk.
perhaps
1 "Shih-ming," chap, iv., p. 23; " Li-chi," chap, viii., p. 24 chap, ii., p. 44 ; " Yii-pien," chap. 1^, s.v. and ^. At chap, i., p. 25 ; " Yu-hsio," chap. iii. the present time we still find the bier designated i-hsien (written f^) and sometimes Mnsr-i (^ ^), the carriage (or hearse) of the dead. "Shuo-wen," s.v. ^. At a modern funeral the coffin is usually preceded immediately by a This is either quite empty or contains only a tablet or sheet of sedan-chair. paper inscribed with the names of the deceased. It is called in common language hun.yii the spirit's carriage. " Ch'ung-ting-wen-hsiian-chi "
;
^ ^),
(g
ITXyim),chap.vii.
Terms Relating
to
305
grave
As
lifetime.
must be determined
To obtain
a good site
much on account of the dead as for the interests of the living. The poor who cannot fee the Yin-yang Professors, bury their dead on any slope or down to which they have access. And in old
so
site
soil was deep and free from stones and In the " Hsiao-ching," Classic of Filial Piety, it is indeed
filial
The words
ia i,)-
are piL-ch'i-tse-
chao-erh'an-tshi-chih
^^
M^
Here
tsS
and
mean
respect-
of the grave.
first
Because the
choice of a site
is
one in which to
make
a parent's grave.
lie in
But
a
site for
of a
With
The
many new
special applications.
(^ ^\
it
a focus
little
below.
This phrase
generally
but in
common
is
speech
feng-shui
ancestral worship
(hao) feng-shui
is
A good
So
is
make
chan {j^yfeng-shui,
spoil the
to seize (or
to
its
good luck
of a grave, interfere
influences,
an offence which
may
be
made
Magistrate's Court.
j^)
is
mean
used to
306
Terms Relating
site for
to
denote a fortunate
a grave.
The
expression k'ao
(^)-
site, to find
by inspection
for burial-^
illustrate the
kind of
site
of
who has
calm
come from an
of the
somewhat
In the time
{JJ) of
man
T'ao-k'au
(^
small
came
to pass that
after
he
also lost a
As T^ao was
To him T'ao
cow
told the
man
on a terrace
if
of
which he would
sleeping, adding
that
rise to
the highest
lost
cow on
He
afterwards
of
much
and
lasting blessing.
proverbial,
and
it still
When
One
(that
grave determined
remains
to clear the
is
k'ai-ying-yii (f^
is
jfc^),
to
open
all
This
plants,
order to hide in
local
1
his corrupting
"Hsiao-ching," chap. ix. (13); " Hsiug-li-ta-ch'uan," chap xx. chap. xvi. See the "Ch'^n-chien.t'ao-chi"
(M^^^),
Terms Relating
ts'u-hoU't'u
(jp"3
to
307
rite
i),
as
the
which
It
means
"
at
to
common
there are
grave
many
which one
The
it is
synonym
for
have denoted
the scratching
away
of earth as
soil
it
came
denote any
made
to receive a
dead body.
To
make
a grave
is
commonly expressed
in
euphemism
earth,
J^X to break and chan-ts^ao (If j), to cut grass. An old term for measuring and preparing the ground for a grave is mu (JJl).
of a like character qxq 'p^o-t'u ({JJ
same
This character
is
also read
wu and
but
it
common
When
to express
(),
to
raise,
with chiu
luh
The
is
by
Han
is
Wen Kung;
is
chin-k'uang
{^
J^), to
process of burying
generally expressed by the word tsang (fj or g), which was per-
to hide or store
away
either in the
ground
whiot.
And
it
synonym
for tsang is
mai (g),
means
of a
to
put away in the earth, but when used for the putting
away
dead body
it
was
308
Terms Relating
It
is
to
done irregularly.
dog, for
also the
The words
may
to
bury."
Here
importance
is
any other
For we
find the
word tsang
and the
employed by
a parent,
So
an-tsang
(^
J:g
^),
to
''
refers first
and
chiefly to a son's
Further,
tsang came to
in
mean simply
also the
pressions like
''
bury by
fire," hiio-tsang, to
though there
fire,
phrase
huo-hua
{^
{j^),
transform by
is
used
to
denote
cremation.
kuo {\^)-fsang, to
coffin
and
it
ornament
ugly change.
Opposed
to this is
hou
(J[^)-
tsang, which
means
to give
sumptuously furnished.
The
''naked burying"
is
Chou
period.
To have
a false burial
chia (^)'tsang,
artifice of
When
husband
and wife are buried in the same tomb they are said to be ho
tsang, joined in burial, and the phrase applies only, by
{^y
itself, to
These during
life
were t'ung-shi
^^^
^^ is
meet that
The old and literary expression for J^), be in the same grave. burying husband and wife together is fu (Iff), that is, to reunite
them by
religious rites.
that the two coffins fkuanj were put in one case (kuo), either
close together or wifh a partition.
But
terms
occasion-
Terms Relating
ally find the old
to
309
word
still
of to bury.
i-yii,
It
survives in
is,
(^), wliich was once used in the sense some literary phrases, such as
the jade-stone tree buried in the
for a buried friend.
is
i
earth, an elegant
euphemism
Another old
is
word, not
in
much used
as
side.^
at present,
which
explained
or inter
it
some books
meaning simply
to lay a corpse
down
by the road
When
the earth
is
and a mound
is
raised.
For
this
word there
also
used
mound
thus raised.
country this
may
it
usually they do
reasons.
Sometimes
it is
because a
man
is
native place and his relatives are too poor or otherwise unable
to take the
remains home.
Often
it
and
so delay the
burial; and very frequently the sons are ambitious and will not
it
in
an imposing manner.
is
it
is
political writers,
and
it is
a bad custom
is
is
unknown
at present
find express-
(^
/p
^),
to
is,
to
criminal offence.
Where
this is
done the
coffin is
usually carried
in
some places
it is
in the
"Hsiao Urh Ya," p. 4; "Li-chi," chap. xii. Instead of saying that during life husband and wife were t^ung-shi, housed togpfcher, we have " while hving we may have to occupy different apartments (|5 HlJ ^)." L. C. C, iv., p 121. For kuo (written properly ^).tsang, see *' Shuo-yuan," chap, xx., p. 12; " Jih-chih-lu," chap. xv. " Tso-chuan," chap, xxi., p. 11; and L. C. C, v., p. 341 "Li-chi." chnp. ii., p, 81; and Commentary, chap, ii., p. 76. (:|| used with
310
Terms Relating
to
fs'o ()),
word which
to
also denotes a
house
in rest, is often
it
in
tHng
(^)'ts'o,
fu
which means
house.
This
very damp.
One
of
One
of the phrases in
ceremony
is
interment hereafter
ch'uan
of
temporary circumstances.
There are
and maintained by
(^
or
^),
a free dead-house
of this description
(^ ^).
to the place of
Coming now
parts and adjuncts.
common
our subject.
universal
as
if it
And
the
first
to claim
our notice
Some
(^), to think of with sad longing or regret, because the tombs of his parents are to a dutiful son subjects of
were
thoughtful anxiety (^g ^).
the earth and
deposited.
mu
up
was
So the word
mu
it is
so defined in the
'^
Fang-yen."
another
explained by ch'iu (^), a hillock, work by chung (^) with the same meaning,
to
without a mound.
According
to
first
;
who
his
marked the
heap
of earth
and
Terms Relating
action in so doing
fo
31
custom
became general.
But
this
tradition
is
at variance
with other
statements, and the raising of a heap of earth over the grave seems
to date
of the sage.
(jt^)*
word which
In the
denoted
it is
merely a heap or
pile
of
earth.
"Fang-yen"
long been in
is
it
has
'*
common
it
^d
we
term
feri'mUf x^f*^
in constant use
everywhere
to denote a
The heap
of earth
over the burial place of his parents was four feet high, but there
does not seem to have ever been any rule of law or custom as to
the size of the fen.
laid out
A sheng-fen (^
is
is
a place
and prepared
body
of a person
still living.
for a
tomb
is
chung
(^
or ;^),
mound or hillock. The word is applied to any grave which is made conspicuous by a ridge or heap of earth, tumulus, and it is also used of a tomb of any kind. One or two phrases in which this word occurs may claim a passing notice. The
expression fa-chung
(g
means
corpse.
to
In common speech
it is
of a grave
by the relatives
removed
ion
i
to a better locality.
structures
made
and purporting
history two
In Chinese
men
One
of unblessed
memory
made
false
these i'chung in the vain hope of saving their bones from being
disturbed.
of these
of T'su,
who had
Yun, whose father and brother had been murdered by the prince. But "Wu came and
tombs made
to baffle the
Wu
found the real grave, and exhumed the Prince's skeleton, which
312
Terms Relating
fo
he lashed with his whip, thereby satisfying his own mind and
appeasing the sullen shades of his father and brother.
The
other
to
made
to
inscribed
In
this
seemed
hated bones.
When
(H
i^
maiden
and
yen-wo-chung
pair of swallows
the
which
is
the nest of a
also
suggrundarium.
It
muse be stated
that this word ckung has moreover the sense of " a grave-yard,"
as in phrases like i-chung
(^
A
grave.
grave
is
dug
[^
J^ J^),
in
old times supposed to take hold of the ropes for lowering the
coffin
(^
If).
is
also
and k'uang-chHen-chi
(^ 15
S5)> ^^
worship before
hsfie (5^), a
hole
'^
or
pit,
is
also
the
^) mean
But
in
common
Thus
^ j^)
is
to select a
is
lucky
situation,
site,
that
is,
for burying.
So
a good
are concentrated.
J^ and read
site as
tao).
determined
by
priest or expert.
It
to
devoted to
or to one's ancestors.
in
By
itself yii
means a
district or country
but
it
is
Terms Relating
burial, as in the
to
313
words
of
The convolvulus
spreads
all
name
for a
tomb
is
fan
Mencius.
That philosopher
man
of Ch'i,
who
with
repre-
great
to follow
him
and
how he
who came
She did
so
make
offerings at the
tombs
their
(^
|R JJ f^
i.^M)'
Hence "
of
to
to be applied to
an appearance
still
But
The word
ling (^), a
hill,
is
tomb,
In books
it
is
often in this
life),
or yuaji (garden).
But
it is
members
of
Thus there
Imperial
Tombs
of the
Ming
Tung
is
Ling, East
Tombs
to ling
The word
It
ch'in
when used
often joined
sleepof the
is
ing,
A common
name
for an imperial
is
tomb
called
yuan-
garden sleeping-place.
first
its
or ffi)
was
a hill
Like ling the word ch'iu (J or hillock and then came to be applied to a
This latter use of the word
is
grave with
mound.
very old,
though
it
grave or a cemetery
the
''
in
common
use.
In
other books
place.
It is
as
ti ( J5,)
^^
We
in dictionaries
now
or
314
Terms Relating
to
who
affect
we proceed
to take note of a few of the more distinctly euphemistic designaThe use of words like fihan, a hill, and yuan, a garden, tions.
in the sense of
A
in
name
often found
on
tomb-stones
and
in
books
is
chia-
ch'eng
(^ ^),
The
coffin is
the house
which the dead one abides, and the tomb is the walled city, which keeps the house safe, and to disturb the buried bones is
"
to
Other designations of open the excellent city" (13 -g J|). the city of long life {%)-clVGng, this kind for the tomb are s/wu
;
(g Ig), the store-house of long life; and shou-yii (J^), This last is in common use, and is often the land of longevity.
shoti-tsang
taken
by literary
men
as a
name.
Strict purists
among
for
the
to places
graves,
and prepared.
{^
!g), the
J)
or
night
terrace, because
it
the
But
of darkness,
the
tomb
of night.
its
The
still
spirit,
body,
where the
name
JJ).
way, or
For
is
also the
North
Then
it
came
poet
to
mean mu-tao,
itself.
used by the
Tu Fu and by
The use
new
or fresh
tomb.
of this
word
literati
his
mother
Tuau-
Terms Relating
to
316
is
Kang
{iWi>
Ch'ien.
Another name
for the
pathway
to a
grave
yen
piece of
There
is
also
the
made
to
In old
de-
The word
is still
its
old
now
pathway leading
to a grave.
for the
tomb
dark shed.
but only
among
the educated.
is
to
the
to
Feug-shui
rules.
Thus
its
east
Further, as a
man
well buried
g),
the
The House
the
of the Eldest,
because
it is
the mansion, as
it
were, of
all
to the eldest
In
right
(properly
left)
side of the
are^ the homes of the fortunes of The mound which forms the tumulus
called
^
lung
(i|), a
of earth,
;
such
" Shuo-w^n," tang.yen," chap, xiii., last page (with commentary) *' Li-chi," chap, ii.; " Kuaug-tuug-hsin-yii," chap, xix. ; chap, xliv., p. 36 " Urh-ya," chap. iii. " Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 44; " Shuo-wen," chap. xHv., p. 29 ; L. C. C, ii., p. 217 and " Meug," chap. viii. L. 0. C, iv., p. 186 and " Shi-chiug," An old Hue lialf-iiuddhist runs kii-hun-hsiang-ku-yU (JJ i^ chap, iii., p. 31. " the place of the dead," *' the bereaved spirit i^ i^) and here Icu-yii means hovers over the grave " is the meaning of the sentence. " Ku-shi-yuan," chap,
"
;
;
v., p.
21.
SI
as is
it is
Terms Relating
to
made by
more
a plough.
bank
is
of a
horse-shoe
all
shape by which in
many
places the
mound
surrounded on
is
In some
districts
ex-
also
an old use of
is
known
as the ma-Ue-chih-feng
Ki
horse's
^)' ^^ horse-mane tumiclus, or shortly as ma-lie^ mane, that is, neck. This name dates at least from the
it
in
some parts
to
of the
kingdom.
kind of tumulus
mound
is
still
required more
in use,
This
name ma-lie
but as
mound has long since passed out of fashion, applied now to the common round tumulus. This, the term is which is now general over most of the empire, is also known in some places by the name fu-ting (g ^), or inverted caldron, because the appearance of the mound is like that of a pot turned The pit or grave proper is called by over to cover something.
various names, such as ch'ih
pit.
(Jj^),
a
in
pond or
lake,
and k^an
(J^), a
The use
of
of the latter
word
from a long
for
laying
the
making
ch'uan
grave
{%
^^
^M
It
:^);
is
not to
Other names
hollow receptacle of
are k'uang
(^ ^),
in
which have
as
also
known,
chiefly
literature,
(^
^),
the darkness
liter-
and
this
phrase
and
figuratively.
of
The space
it is
known by
mu'ch'eng
This
is
is
and
the
them) made
of stone.
Here
sons,
and
in
and Burial.
317
tomb
generally
titles
of
names
of the relatives
is
who
set
up
This stone
called
by
vari-
( ^),
also
known
as chie
memorial stone
;
rounded form, and as chih-shi{^ ^), but pei (or mn'pei) is the only term in comof a
mon
use at present.
The
literary
men
are often
marked by round
wang-chu (H ^),
pillars of
beholding,
is
or hiia-
(^ ^), elegant indicators, a name which commemorative arches erected at the tombs
chaste
of brave
is
men and
taken to
women.
at the top
the deceased.
to the
By
tomb
of a sovereign
often adorned
by
numbers each
side.
The
history and
Mayers,
to
is
the subject.
The
figures are
sheng
of
(^g"
men
are distinguished as
as weng-chnng)
^), stone images of living creatures. The statues shi-jen, stone men, but they are
also
known
ff{i),
the
By
his deeds of
at
"When
to
the
set
Emperor caused
up outside
be
made
of
him and
When
it
the Hsiung-nu
came and
this
and
The name
it
of
hero
(iji),
and from
came the
literary
318
Terms Relating
for the statues,
to
name
Most
burial
of the terms
of
few
like
chung
may
ts'ung-chung
(^ ^),
crowded tombs,
to denote a collection of
and i-ytian
(^ H)
is
a grave-yard
for the
the government.
;[^),
Another name
in
for a
cemetery
chiu-yuan
{jj\j
an expression
of
posthumous
existence.
Here we
It
notice
it
tomb or rather
what
place of tombs.
is
was
originally the
name
of a hill near
now Chiang-chow (^ i\\) in Shansi. In the latter part of the Chow period when China was divided into small kingdoms that of Chin () had its capital near this. The Chiu-yuan hill was a
little to
it
of the
'*
of the
In the
Li-
we
a place of burial.
by a natural death
(]() is
to
his
ancestors in
Chiu ching.
kuan-hu- chiu-yuan
A* W^)) contemplating chiu-yuan. This statement is ex(US plained as meaning that they were visiting the tombs of former
statesmen on the above
^
hill,
is
borne out by
;
" Li-chi," |^ 72 {^)', L. C. C, in Journal of N. C. B. of v., p. R. A. S., vol. xii., arfc. i.; " Shang-yu-lu," cliap. xv., p. 54; " Wu-hsio-lu," chap, There is some diversity of opinion among the learned as to the origin and xvii. meaning of the pillars to be found at certain tombs. Instead of stone columns wooden poles, painted, red, are occasionally erected. Also in some parts of China sepulchral columns of any kind are scarcely known, while in other districts they seem to be of frequent occurrence. The addition of stone figures of men and animals to tombs seems to be rarely made at present, and the custom is perhaps passing away.
lung'), s.v.,
p.
chap,
" Wu-hsio-lu," chap, xix.; " Feng-su-t'un^" (for chap, iii.; "Li-chi," chap, ii., p. 86; "Yu-hsio," 458 ; " Tso-ohuan," chap, xxxvii., p. 9 Mayers
;
Terms Relating
the context.
to
319
This passage
is
times with the substitution of ching for yuan, and the story
referred to a different original.
From
the
name
hill
of the
above
hill
of chiu-i/uaii, to
denote any
occupied by graves,
the origin of the
to be
When
name was
lost 7juan
used
^), nine
(j^), however,
it
is
is
word ching
is
by some said
is
the Nine
is
Tomb-mounds.
is
its
Some have
earth
special signification of
But
of a
in
tomb
condemned
after-life
life
and a
possibility
may
rise
again to
in this world.
They
to
or
tell
A
it
*^
all
chin yuan'*
(^
i,
Wjy
Su Tung-p'o
had a
careless faith
to
words than
of or
above phrases as holding the hint of another world, the counterpart of this but
much
better regulated.-^
1 "Li-chi," chap, ii., pp. 76, 79; Gallery's Leki, p. 12; " Li-chi," chap. x. (13 ed.) ; " Ffing-su-t'ung," chap, x.; " Jih-chih-lu," chap, xxxi.; "Han-shu,"
(^ ^),
p. 6.
320
Terms Relating
to
One hears
at a
Chinese funeral
now
only the
ee,
aw
of the
of the
female mourners.
But
it
and
is
"m memoriam^^
an interesting history.
We
are
commonly
told that
in the reign of
Han
Kao-tsu:
That sovereign,
in the beginning
of his reign,
summoned
to court T^ien
summons
followers.
capital,
and 500
place,
he resolved not
cessary for his followers to present the body of their chief to the
Emperor, and
as they
brought
it to
From
as the
men were
bearing
drawing) a
coffin it
this
became a name
of singing or
for
But the
dirges
custom
the
Han
dynasty,
and the
name
to
for such
was
perhaps o (|g), a
word which
o
survives.
As
The
latter
which mourn a
uncertain in
name was then given to lost friend and tell how life
except that
it
and
short,
all respects,
is
must end
in death
by a law
no escape.
But
T4en Huug's
is
not likely
ever to perish.
It tells
is
how though
the
dew which
to-night falls
still
on the shallots
the
dew
so,
life is
not
for once
it
goes
it
(^
comes again no more. Now of this song @), literally " shallot dew," came to be
may
Terms Relatiag
be quoted among literary
to
321
men
back
The
fune-
word
lei (IJ^)
also points
It signifies
to a
ratlier a
poem
or prose writing,
ral oration as it is
supposed
It has to
deceased friend
character being
that
it
or acquaintance.
some extent an
official
we read
was
Kung
We
rites of
mourn-
Many
The
observances by which
is
of
At
it
ceremonies
had made
into
law
many
cen-
In matters
of detail long
have
meaning.
changes, and
altered
many
modes have
now only
word
titles
realities.
One
still
official
in use.
It denoted originally,
we
up whether
make a garment, a tree, or a sacrificial victim. Then it came to mean to regulate^ and a law or decree, especially one made by the sovereign. Thus the statement shi-ssu-chih ( j; 5E means '' the inferior officer dies at the command of the ruler,'' ^J)
cloth to
that
is,
in
sovereign.
from
word that
its
use to denote
officials
mourning comes,
observed by
on
fixed
by law.
is
appointed by law.
ch^eng-fii (jig
^
This
flR),
is
-^J
JSj;
"Li-chi," chap,
ii.,
p. 8.
322
Terms Relating
to
(]g)
mean
respectively
the
Officials
name on
their visit-
mourning
of
to
is
fii
(JK)j
^^^
^^^
word
meanings.
Among
to,
these are to be
clothing.
dependent^
is
submit
and
The
latter,
when
and
it
is
distinguished
from hsiung
dress, is
{\^)-fu.
This
that
for
deceased
Confucius,
so
we
attired
bowed
his
meaning
the dire
to
of
also fu has this mourning costume, and ch'cng {j^-fi^ is to assume garb on the third day after a death, and generally
to
head
the cvoss-bar.
By
itself
put on mourning
attire,
and yu {^)'fu
is
to
he in
is
mourning.
(P
flg),
which
used on the
Then
as
there
mourning representing
territory over
many
fu
or
degrees of kinship.
which the
dependencies as we
may
call
them.
Of these the
first
and centre
to
one was held under the sovereign immediately, the one next
it
was held by
chiefs
who
of
the sovereign.
Something
analogous
mourning
which
is
of kinship
among relations having the same surname.^ The first of the five, used by a son for
cJicm-ts'iii ((If
parent,
is
called
cha7i
^)
or
^)
or simply
chan or
tshci.
The word
commonly
i.,
"
Shuo-weu," chap,
i.,
xii.,
p.
13
L.C.C.,
iv., p.
235
p. 41.
L. C. C,
p.
100
x., p. 30.
Terms Relating
to
323
This
term chan-ts'id
is
and the
formalities which
includes
now
are
much
when
By
who had
to
times the hair was set free and then fastened up loosely in a
coarse net by a large hair-pin as part of the mourning.
This
rite
(^
^), and
to
it
is
still
performed by women.
to
be appropriated
This expression
of
is still
common
use
become hard
to observe.
of
the
are
man
in
various names.
The cap
is
of
worn 1200
a
it
string.
also
a cap
proper with
sang-kuan or cap of
(^
^ ^ |^),
(i^ or ^).
head
is
called technically
a bridge
liang
Before the time of the Chou dynasty this band in caps for ordinary wear was a strip of cloth in three folds lengthwise.
the
in
During
Chou period the folds were made across and were indefinite number, the mourning cap retaining " the bridge '' apparently.
earlier style is
still to
The
is
The
is
(H
is
^ ^)^
^^^^
three-fold plaiting.
the head
common speech huan, a circle. In the tufts of cotton at the ears we may perhaps see a memory of the Hen (Jj) or ear-ornaments which adorned the cap in and before the Chou period. The
tufts of cotton are called
mien-Jui or mien-t'uan
(^^g
g org), and
324
Terms Relating
to
they are used one for each parent according to rule, but the rule
seems
to
vary in different
districts.
We
coarsest
come next
to the
mourning
called
robe,
which
is
made
of the
ma-i or ma-san
(Jft
or
;^^),
the
hemp garment.
fu-^an {^^
The
skirt of this is
On
the back
is
the record-
is
name
is
of the deceased.
This
as
if
it is
so
named
ts'ui
(fSi because
er's heart.
fillet
it is
symbol
tie
The word
(g)
his
head and
ts'ui-tie
for the
hempen
be used
is
girdle with
for
Hence
and
came
to
li-ts'ui-tie
(g
^ S)
to
manage the mourning arrangements. Then there are the mourning sandals which
These sandals, ts'ao-li {'^ 1$, ^), sandals of the chien grass. which are now made of rice-straw or auy coarse dry grass, are
also called ts'ao-hsie (]^
^), grass
slippers,
or fei (|p),
an old
(^ jg),
The last of the outward signs of which we have to notice is the stick or
often deposited at the grave.
at
This
is
borne by
is
now
and
staff
borne
( J[ j^),
But
chii-c/iang is
a general name.
of weeping,
The
ai
and
{"^ychang, the
known
or
as the hsiao
filial
{^ychang,
It
is
in
Foochow ha
paper.
or {ha-ch^iytiongy
the staff of
piety.
now
was a
real staff
day;s' fasting
and
Terms Relating
mourning leaned
to
to
325
The
sorrow to advantage.
Now
is
of
mourning
is
that
called It
is
tzii-ts'ui
(^
as
^),
or even, that
is,
also
known
it is
hsi {^)-ts'ui to
calendered.
is
There
the chang-ch'i''{-^
^)
or
^^
staff
year"
in
which a
is
staff is
lasts for
one year.
There
staff.
Then
there
is
months' deep
The
merit.
This
name
is
is that called ta-kung [i^'Sf)^^ great explained as meaning coarse work, the is made being coarse and But the explanation is not
robe
made with
and
is
little
art.
satisfactory
perhaps wrong.
of
is
is
hsiao
(>J>)-
hung
work
"silk
or little merit.
is fine
This
some
to
mean
that the
The
material,
fifth
that
thread hemp."
known as ssu-ma (|jg f^), literally The robe is made of properly woven
is
of a season.
There
recognised
is
mourning which
First
is
all
we
There
the
Then
This
is
there
is
the
chia
{ijuyfu
or
"added mourning."
performed by an individual.
superintend the services
to his
Thus
if
326
years'
is
Terms Belating
mourning and not that
to
The
all
fourth class
This
is
a term of
common
occurrence,
and
is
used in
cases
where
Thus
a married daughter
own
mourning
for
one year.
An
has the
place
in
a Chinaman's
thoughts
is
is
ch'uan-hsiao
(^ ^),
to
wear
for
filial
piety.
The phrase
it
mourning
generally.
a parent,
but
is
also
extended
mourning
A peculiar
a shoulder
phrase in
common
use
is
tan-wen
(:JJ.
^),
to bare
of
white
cloth.
Mourning
The arm
not bared
now but the white band is worn as in the Then we have sang (^), a character
in
is
character
present
is
made up
u,
the
may
be regarded as the
a parent of a
first
meaning
of the word.-^
When
man
law and
social
and go home.
He
then
g).
Here
ting
is
is
interpreted as
meaning "
be in sorrow."
to
The
ting-mu-yu are
be in retirement from
on account of the
A similar expression is
for a deceased parent.
for a father,
be in distress, that
is,
Wai
(^y)-chien,
external distress,"
is
is
mourning
"home
clxvi.
;
distress,"
mourning
for
a mother.
'^ Hi #, chaps, i. and vi.; " Li-puii.; " Yu-hsio." chap, iii.; " Li-clii," chap, ii., p. 1 " Tso-chuan," vi., p. 35, (fee; " Hsiao-ching," chap. ix. (13) ; L.C.C., v., p. 475 and chap, xxviii.j " I-li," cliap. xxviii. (13) ; " Liao-chai," &c., chaps, ii, vi.
" Ta-chMng-lii-li-hui-chi," chap,
tse-li"
(H
flij
M)* chap,
Terms Relating
It
to
327
to
would be easy
to
produce
many more
terms used
denote
of a son
But
this
chapter has
ah'eady exceeded
its
must be
left untold.
So
also
numerous and
honoured.
terms in
interesting words
in designating
the rites and ceremonies of worship with which the dead are
It
would
fill
In
thi&-
many
many
explanations
may
be
But
he knows
have been
left
CHAPTER
VII.
The
cabulary.
Chinese language
its
vo-
may
be
number
of
words in
this
not native
is
Indeed
to
if
may
find
few or no
great poets nor study the books of history, geography and the
natural sciences without meeting here and there with words and
It is true,
foreign.^
But
is
not by a
to
find
is
The
poets especially
seem
to indulge
in this
and
And
us that
a word he uses
is
seldom
is
cor-
Nor
is it
ethnographical distribu-
was
of
and
fanciful.
of the canonical
In the Middle scriptures which none had called in question. " " Kingdom lived the people blessed with the arts of civilisation and inheritors of high wisdom handed down without interruption
from immemorial antiquity.
*
Outside the
2.
hills
Chinesische Spraohlehre. S.
329
" barbarian "
to
marked
tribes.
I,
the
They painted
made
it,
On
the Jung, with hair unkempt, clothed with skins, and not always
On
who
wore hair and feathers for clothing, lived in caves, and did not
depend on grain
of the
Chou
dynasty.
It
is
probably
who do
not
know
In the course
The names
of
these,
Some
of
into
names
of certain foreign
Such a term
is
hu
It
(iSg),
which
at first
common Chinese
word.
was
West
of
China
its
nomad tribes between China and India.^ It became nearly a synonym for Mongol, while India and the countries adjacent became the hsi-yii or West Lands. But the old use of hu survives in the names of several products Thus we have onions from derived from various countries.
by learned and careful writers
to the
Kashgar
called
called
Hu
onions
hu'chiao.
to foreign flax
and
The term hu-may Hu hemp, is loosely applied The cucumber has as one of its to sesamun.
carrot
is
Iiu-lo-po, the
Hu
turnip.
to
As new
to
countries yielding
new commodities
^
the
names
chap.
P ^ H Fan-yi-ming-i,
330
were obtained.
Foreign
Words
in Chinese.
named
to
An-hsi, and so
got the
name
an^ksi-hsiang
(^
,g,
ff ),
be the designation of
all
name
to several articles
of
com-
Western land
of
Of examples
The kingdom
plied
of
Chiam-pi
(part of
Cambodia)
quality and with " water-rice " also better than that grown in
China.
The people
tIv),
of
this
foreign rice
chien-ahi (i5
is
still
Chiampi
And
this
But the
origin
of
the
The
is
(^
the
name by which
latter
became known
came
extend
called
name
it
to
is
Europeans generally.
Thus sodawater
wherever
also
known
in
So
ho-lan-shu, the
in
some
Dutch
peas.
of
In the history
China we seem
to
of the
In the
first
war
or peace with
the
also
Hiung-nu
extended
the
on
its
frontiers.
The Chinese
restless
hordes on the North, and the rich lands beyond the Ling-
nam.
ed with India and the countries beyond, and also with the Ma-
present dynasty
331
and
also
treaties
and
Her
subjects
have travelled
Some
of
of foreign other
than
Indian terms
to
The examples
what
is
to be given
Some
of them, it will be
observed, have been for a long time treated not as aliens but as
citizens,
ters
from abroad.
among
must
also be
only
occasional
They
are
an indolent amateur.
Honouring, as
Greece and
surprise us,
is
meet,
Rome we
however,
find
expressions
into
from
these
languages seem
have found
way
Chinese.
Even the names of the countries seem to have been scarcely known in the Midlde Kingdom until a comparatively modern
period.
Among
wo
find a
name Latin.
This word
is
transcribed
la-t'i-na (Ji fl Jfl) and Za-^''i-7io (Pjj iiff ), and it occurs now and then in the writings of scholars who profess to describe European
countries.
It
find,
is
We
seem
to
have at
least
Foreign Words in Chinese.
origin
332
a
common
common name
lo-
po
all
(^ ^).
known by
In China the
this
beet, carrot
name with
of
correct
Canton
in the
is
loh-pdk.
the
'*Shuo-wen" and
{^
"^"g).
There
no
it
Eapa and
'^
ts^ao
an
given in the
'^
Urh-ya."
But
lo-po
Then there is a well-known drug which has long been in use among the Chinese and which is said to have been derived from Its name is lu-hui, written Persia or some other foreign country.
^ 'J,
of
this
and
it
may
stand for
merely a conjecture,
One
of the
many good
results of the
the old Jesuit missionaries taught the Chinese was that the latter
learned to
make maps.
They
also
adopted the
mappa, which they transcribe ma-pa (JJ /\), and they occasionally to distinguish a map from a native plan or
Let us pass on
to take
use
it
chart.
into Chinese
have become
America.
Europe and
which have
of great im-
become
This
is
xiv.;
Foreign
Words
in Chinese.
333
SPANISH.
The Spanish and Portuguese were among the earliest Eurowith whom the Chinese became acquainted. But though the Portuguese have long been living among the Chinese and been much mixed up with the people of the Canton province we do not find many Portuguese words even in the diapean foreigners
lect
of that province.
There
are,
Mandarin.
But
among
mon
to
of
China
sionaries of the
Roman
Catholic Church.
pronounced
prt-Zj
or pa-lei,
and
is
These
as,
by native
this
Christians,
it
al-
is
perhaps meaningless,
suggests some-
From
The
husked
cochineal of commerce
(Pj-
is
known
in
ya-lan-mi
H
last
tK).
denotes
rice,
and ya-lan
ga-lan)
is
represent a foreign
word.
for co-
They
which
the Spanish
is
name
chineal.
is
This
word, as
a
is
well known,
originally
grain or
name
for
is
purple dye
obtained.
known
in
The carmine obtained from the cochineal insect is also China by its Spanish name carmin, which becomes
hia-erh-min
(J
3J |^).
It
is
also
The word
chia
;
is
and
it is
ijen (tobacco).
to the
Chinese by
Western
nations.
is
334
other transcriptions).
The
ko-ko-tza {^^) or
was probably through the English and not from the Spaniards immediately that the Chinese got the word chocococoa seeds.
It
late,
j;^
"^ |^ and
otherwise.
From Western
its
medicine came
^ i| ^^ chin-chi-na^ that
first
is,
Idn-ki-
of
quinine, as sold
by
druggists, the
common
denotes
name
is
This
last character
hoar-frost,
to the
Neither
The
at least one
be noticed.
Within the
maker.
last
them
by the name
lii'pu,
of the
Of these
has
official
ffi
it
sanction.
It
some
risk of
Krupp
before
synonym
for
p'ao or cannon.
the Chinese a few words but
of
Being
technical character,
among
natives
who have
intercourse
with Europeans. One of these words is metre, which the Chinese square have adopted to some extent calling it mi-t'u {^^ ^).
metre
is
''
Of French money a frank is known and designated by its name These characters have been which becomes fo-lang (\% %).
well selected, for they are often used in writing to express the
word France.
for
enamel
is
fa4an
(or lang),
written fj J^, and this is apparently, as is commonly But there seems to be some doubt supposed, the word Frank.
^^
as to the identification.
335
Of
barians "
all
the
peoples
whom
and the
pursuit.
But
many
of
between China
and England, by
this
beco*h3e, to
some extent
at least,
And
so
have learned
number
of
names
of
com-
The Chinese
of
have
also
grammar
to
also.
They
of
crease.
But they
The compilers
of
these guides
to
at pains
distinguish
to
which
the
to
exists
latter
learn
other languages.
Malay
or whatever
may
In taking notice
of
some
from the English language we may begin with the old and famiThe earliest form in which this term was liar " Company."
transcribed
is
perhaps kan-pa-ni
of
g*
(
2*
JSt))
^^
Cantonese hum-
pa-ni.
writing the
336
the best
yn.
known and
(S
$IBE
or
^),
In
Chinese
as another
name
for
kung-ssu
native
(2^
which
The
Company
" having
But
ments
of it still
language.
as well the
The
the
first
intimately acquainted.
When
Company.
were regarded
as
much
Hence
was wont
word Company
it
an epithet
of his
to
make
known
to
But the
or
three characters in
and awkward
write,
and
so it
two
of
them
at
Thus we
find
pan-pu
^), Company's cloth, to denote the best calico; kung-pan (or more usually kung only) with t'u or yen added (^
(^
or
^ ^ i or
is
^'
jtH)
this sense
is still in
common
With
is
written
/fct
native phrase
translate
''
has been
in
intro-
insure,"
is
and
consequence
not widely
known and
who
dealt
with foreign-
found
it
They pronounce
like ngan-chik
is,
cMk
(writing
(^
JlJ),
one cheque.
337
has been
A
seems
to
specially
is
English,
derived by the
Consul.
it
This word
will
perhaps soon
official
is
pression ling'shih'hiian.
foreign term
and made
their own.
The latter is the favourite way of writing Jl E)the word, and the Chinese are fain to read a meaning into it, the
sun
(^
<^^'
'^
seeming
so
common
is
is
this
name
The Consul
embarrassment
to the uninitiated.
to a less extent,
English
to the
and in some cases their names have been received into the
Chinese language.
or p^ong, or
as the
^ or ^ usually,
it
well
known
in
name
But
also acquires a
new meaning
Chinese and
of weighing,
weighing by kuo-j^^ang (Jg ^), to pass the pound, to put through Sometimes we even find the single the process of weighing.
in this sense,
weigh
(literally, to pound)
the goods.
When the
Chinese have
to express a
pound
sterling they
known
of
also use the words for a pound But this use of the word is rare, English money among the people of China.
We
find
it,
In
like
manner we meet
occasionally
The former
is
it is
now
338
sin-lin
is
pen^iiei
($
^ ^).
^),
for
used.
On
(^ i)
well
known
to
those Chinese
who have
Going back
addition to the
we observe
that in
name
pound
(B^^
or i^
or otherwise).
The
port charges,
known
now commonly
not, however,
it
called
tun-ch^ao {\^
sha, or on-sa
fj^) or ton-money.
(^
fp) in Cantonese.
much
of
may
be found
Of names
The
(jig
leLtter
yin-chih
{\Si
M)
ways
of writing the
words
in
use
among
the
mai-lu (j ^). These represent the word mile, but they were probably chosen to do so
because they seemed to contain a meaning something like
long road or journey.'*
^'
we sometimes
to like the
word dozen,
common in )f^ who have dealings with Western peoples, but it is not common in books. Among the native shop-keepers and tradesmen generally the term is now so
which they pronounce ta-sun and write
the talk and correspondence of those
g.
It is
it is
ta
(2
^)}
dozen.
five JL :h)} The English word quarter has also been adopted by the
It
is
heard as ko or hok or
as
glj
huat and
latter
is written in various
ways (such
and ^).
The
used
way
of writing
seems
to prevail
at present
and
it
is
for a quarter of
an hour or a quarter of a
its
dollar.
It has also,
339
somewhat
or the
sum
of ten cents.
Thus expressions
It
like
yang-wu-kok
iW
3l
ft) ^^^^
somewhat remarkable
foreign name.
This
its
i (or
is
Ht)-
There
are,
we
or sin
It is written
^,
and
this character
word
shilling.
Many
to
When
flannel
to
had no name
for
it,
made
many
This
is
many
name with
this
the
commodity.
in
They
call it'p'in or
pin
word
making compounds.
the
is
Amoy
district
call a
foreign.
The name
rifle
form lai-fu
is
(^
^ or ^ or jg).
chHang
it
A musket
(|t),
or
gun
of
any kind
Chinese
and using
this the
rifle.
lai-fii-ch'iang to denote a
They
found
jg^
or gj.
They apply
not only to
rifle
and cannon
balls,
Among
ma-yu
we
down
is
as
pa-
(V^ Rg f^).
This
name
is
dammar.
The pa-ma
perhaps a
(E
RS) or
340
erh'Sa-ma-yu, that
articles of tribute
perhaps,
oil of
of the
In some
a gig
is
of
known among certain classes of natives by its English name. The character used to express this word is 5> which in the Swatow and Amoy dialects has a sound like gig {ngig or gek).
In mandarin the
denotes a fair
i^hv&.se yil-jen
{^
\),
literally
"jade man/'
moral or immoral.
But
in
the
Swatow
to
designate a coolie
who
And
reading
the Consul
who found
the characters in a
called
petition
and,
them
it
yu-jen,
before
title
Jg^),
him
experienced,
is
The
IJH
captain,
{^
tji
j^ ^^^
iJJ
The word
is
English but also European, and some native writers explain the
as being the equivalent of Che-hsien.
It
is
and
to the
to
masters of vessels
an ambassador.
In
Straits Settlements
it
is
applied to the
Chinaman
who
is
particular district.
also
a peculiar manner.
or
P,g P,J,
They say
or
it
in several
to brokers
ways
As
the ma-chin
is
is
always
know
English,
if
someyouth
times described as
who
is
becoming a
is,
compradore,
called
The use
foreigners.
its
of the
to
Chinese
word found
"a
r1
way
(^
341
is
The Chinese were quick to adopt this useful invention and with it the name which they pronounce te-lu-feng (f* The marine measure "knot" Jg,). ft S) or tie-li'feng (^
MALAY.
We
we
number
of use-
ful terms.
This circumstance
is
not to be wondered at
when we
many centuries
of the
them came
Western Ocean.
The
to these
marts the
silks
country and carried back to China cargoes of foreign merThis trade intercourse gradually produced the
chandise.
common
use of certain
Many
or
of
these
seem
to
so regarded.
of
this
language
sources,
largely
composed
of contributions
is
ourselves
in
is
found
as
to
a dictionary
that language.
if it
has
of
ways
is
Malay word.
Hence we
find
names
of
simply, just
by a few examples.
Among
before direct
sahalat.
the
their
way
is
into Chinese
one Saklat or
is
to
"Hai-kuo-fu-chih" (f^
^ t^
&c.
342
the
In these
it
occurs in at least
two ways
(^
^M)'
I^
is
word suklat or
is
pos-
among
the Chinese
had
application.^
Tobacco seems
first to
have been
first
brought
to
China
at
some
time about the end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th
century. That
it
to the
Chinese
may name
*'
(^
to the
final cause of tobacco, and this before long drove out the foreign
name.
a
The latter, however, is supposed to lead a maimed life in name given to cigarettes, ma for baj-hu-yen {ff jg), a term in very common use among the Cantonese and Fuhkeenese at the
Ports.
From
first
is
the
But sago
not a
Malay word
language
the
originally,
tree is
name was
originally derived.
Papuan word
in India,
and sagu
in
Malay.
write sha-ku
**
(^ ^),
(||"
tlie
sei
We
Western
countries,
though
hsi-kuo
rice, is
was perhaps
often found
added
^ "
to
Suclat.
Foreign Words
the short
in Ghinese.
343
if
translated,
" Western
It
"^
first
the
fruit of the
tree itself
were
is
(^
J^ or
There
is
when prepared
But
the foreign
name has
Chinese in origin.
is
The
fruit,
^nown
to English people as
betel-nut,
among
among the
in a
natives of
some
of the
Malay Islands
hospitality.
When
And when
Chinese
tell
^
the
man.
Swatow
written,
or
Amoy
traders,
Another name
is
for the
{f;^
betel-nut
jen-pin
^\
or
which
ever,
is
is
name jambi.
and
it
is
not
much known
Again, from the Malays the Chinese got the name for the
Jack
fruit
also.
is
name
is
nang-chia-chie
(^
j^),
which
reproduce Nangka.
But
of
this
shown
to
chtikka or tsjaka).
In the island
abounds,
it
has another
name
p'o4o-mi
which
Sago.
will
come under
fruit of
'
s.v.
vol.
iii.,
p.
133j
344
regarded as native.
is
The
latter
in the
Amoy
is
dialect suai"^,
pronounced meng-J^ or
it
Jw.
This
"
with
H added).
may
have been
tions.
is
at first significant
mangga,
But
this
a Cantonese transcription of
is
mangga
is
man-kao {^^
and
The name
mentioned above,
is
and the
place.^
Amoy
traders
the
name
The
people,
terra-japonica of
known
at least in
some
districts of
China by
its
who
names assigned
grown
to it specially
is
not
gambier known
tree Goesalpinia
is
sappan, largely
to
well
known
them by
su-pangymu (^ ^^ TfC). It is also called shortly by business people sy^mu and su-pan. The word su-fang or su-pang is intended to represent the Malay name for the wood, which is sapang. This is the name by which the sappan-wood first became known to the Chinese, and they still retain it, although the wood is now imported into the country from several remote
(or
regions.^
name su-fang
"We often
(that
is,
find
mention
of a fragrant
wood
called chia-nan
ka-lam)'hsiang
(^
pg
Crawfurd's Diet.
Crawfurd's Diet.
s.v.
Mango; Hob-Job,
p. 423.
2).
s.v.
345
evidently not the Agila or Eagle wood, which has a distinct and
well
known
designation.
It
(Calampac), the
name both
of a region in
Siam which
itself.
yields a
wood and
of the
wood
But the
from the
to the
name gaharu
is
or gahru, derived
Sanskrit.^
Though Camphor
it
There are
in the East, as is
which yield
this
Borneo and
is
Sumatra
into
its
chiefly.
imported
China
direct
is
known by
There
as sold
(IS
is
M S)'
^^
also in
camphor
its
medicinal
and sold
as a
medicine.'*
The
to
port in
Sumatra from
which the camphor was formerly shipped was named Barus, and
this
word came
to
be added to kfipur
But the name kapur-barus or Baroos-camphor has now a much wider application. The Chinese also know this foreign camphor
as po-lil-hsiang
(^
is
stuff
it is
from Barus.
perhaps applied
as distinguished
all
ya)'pHen (f^ with local varieties like a-^in and a-pien. These all
(or
over China
represent the
Malay word
first
But the
Malay word
the Malays.
1
Finlayson, Mission to Siam, p. 260; Crawford's Diet, s.v. Agila. *' Pen-ts'ao," chap, ^xxiv., Crawfurd's Diet. s.v. Camphor,
346
Foreign
Words
in Chinese.
We find
it
But
ha-pan-tsun {1^
|g)
is
Coromandel
who had
may
after
all
be
It
is
supposed
to point to the
vessels,
between other
For
in
some extent
often use a
find the
name
like
sa-pun or sa-hun.
like sap-hun,
word pronounced
of these
syllables are
represented in writing by
3!^,
hsueh'wen in Mandarin.
name
is
not
is,
the
This last
In addition
name
the
or
to be
found
to
in
thatching houses
Malay.
it
The
kao-jang
(^
for
W)'
^^^ ^^^y ^^
^^
writing purposes.
The
becomes sa-lang
(^ ^)
s.v.
in Chinese.
(J|} 'g),
is
explained as
p.
Crawfurd's Diet,
501.
347
official."
(^
and pa-lieh
(Jg, |),
hadik.
a sword
as a native word,
affix.^
head, as a distinctive
PERSIAN.
From
the notice of
Malay words
in Chinese
first
we
is
pass natu-
of
the former.
As
used in a
it
include
West
of the
Middle
Kingdom.
different
Hence we
find vegetable
all
of several
Western countries
of the loose
As an example
way
is
used
let
us
take the expression p^o-ts'ai (J| or 3S)> more inWy p^o-ling-ts^ai S)- According to Dr. F. P. Smith this name is applied (K
to the
spinach.
table,"
to
mean only
*'
and
to a
The explanation
and
it
of the
name, moreover,
is
may
The vocabulary
tions.
language
is
taining Aryan, Semitic and Turkish elements in different proporIt has directly or indirectly yielded a considerable
of objects
number
of
names
to
is
made
for
to refer
them
to their origin.
A Persian
out as such,
is
word
the
in Chinese,
name
known
in
commerce
^
as Litharge.
Groeneveldt's Notes on the Malay Archipelago, pp. 40, 46 ; Hob- Job, p. " Ming-shih," chap, cccxxv. 2 " Hai-kuo-t'u-chi," chap. xxii. ; Ch. Mat. Med., p. 71 ; Notes and Queries, vol. iv., No. 69.
107
348
(^
\^))
to
be an attempt to represent
Persian
name
for
the com-
For the
saffron
now imported
that
is,
from
fan-hung-hua
{%
:j!g),
foreign
safEower.
But they
in other
za'
know
la7i
it
also
differently as tsa-fu-
(pg
^)
(^
f^
g|5)
and perhaps
Persian
this
ways.
reproduce
the
name
It
product was
The
saffron
flower
{Grocits
Cashmere.
is
From
it
skyes).
it
sent
direct
still
remembered
as a Persian
product, though
Tibet."2
in
name which
(A
^ or
[o
_g^)
and perhaps
j^).
as suggested
(|2.
But they have mixed up the foreign almond with their The name of the latter is hsing (), and the native apricot.
kernels of
its fruit,
is
when
(^
^).
This name
almonds as im-
some extent
On
the other
hand
name
P^a-tin^ that
is,
Badan
or almond, to
when
fresh or
Chinese have a
mixed name,
they know
1 2
Pa~tan-hsing, that
its
is,
almond-apricot.
But
their
it
by
Persian
;
Endlicher Ch.
Gi'., p.
22 (Note)
Cli.
iii.,
222
Foreign Words in Chinese.
authors write in at least three different ways
349
hil-mang
(^
^),
is
k'u-lu-ma
(^
Jft)
%)}
of
The importation
there
is
a description given of
said,
it
them and
is
he did not
know what
or
ij^^)
or ma-t'u-tse
<^i'
(ft
^ ^)
(^
mo
(or miiyshi'tzil
(M
'^^^
{mu)-shi'tzu
They
is
are supposed
to represent the
word
name
for galls
The kind
and
as
pa-lu {:^ Jg) ov pu-lu (^ ]J). Adding their native word tzU Chinese make pa-lu-tzU as a name for the (-f), seed, to this the
acorns which the oak
its
is
supposed
to
fruits
For
this last,
a-chu (or
tsii),
written
fpj |fl.
we should
name
word
is
@)
^
Chinese druggists
sell
^)
;
Dr. Bretschneider in Chi. Rec, v., p. 198 and iii., p. 265; " Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxix. ; Ch. Notes and Queries, vol. iii., p. 149. Another way of writing Badan "Ming-shih," chap, cccxxvi. The Persian word in Chinese is pa-tan (Jg J|g.). Badan is said to be a corruption of a Sanskrit word " vatfimra," from vdta, wind,
Diet., p.
;
363
s. v.
Ba-dam.
p. 20.
(second part)
and Queries,
OP THE
ITNIVEB?
350
what
is
known
is
in
commerce
as Sal
Ammoniac
tended at
By
commonly found
in
the former of the two ways here given, the Chinese probably infirst to
is
the Persian
name
which
for Sal
is
Ammoniac
name
China
is
is
is
shi (|5(),
name
Persia
They have
also
other names for the lion, some of which are to be noticed hereafter,
modern
It is
commonly written sha-erh {fp fj) and translated by ch'eng (JjJ) with the same meaning. We find it ocurring chiefly in the
names
of certain places,
city.
such as Ying-chi-sha-erh,
new
city,
and
Khara-shar, black
A
ers
flu
at least
as Persian is that
pronounced
or
j4.
ti-ya-Ica,
This
Theriake, which denoted the cure for the bite of a wild beast.
But with
came
to
mean
One
afyiin.
of the
to
The
of
may have
pills,''
use
opium
antidotes,
be ever used
^ ** Pen-ts'ao," chap, xi.; Ch. Mat. Med., p. 190 ; Hanbury, Science Papers, pp. 217, 276. Hirth's Romn. Ort., p. 277 ; ' Pfen-ts*ao," chap. 1. (2nd part); Ogilby's Persia, pt 53.
'^
351
In some
of
the
people the days which are our Sundays are indicated by the char-
The character mi here, peris, mi day. mih or mit, is declared by some investigators But it is probably rather the to be the Ouigour name for the sun. old Persian mihr, which was a name of the sun or sun god
acters mi-jih
to
(^
H), that
haps
be pronounced
(Mithras).
This word
is still
gives
mi
as the
Ouigour name
of
is
(^
is
^ ^)
We
as
its
p'O'Ssu
or
Persian
equivalent.
Now
the
in
Tablet in
above word.
{-J^ )!8
wen-jih^^
'^
^^
)?
the
Persian
But while
it is
'^
is
certain that
yao-sen-wan" stand
yakshamba.
It is to be
ta, great,
noted
is
important word
left
difficulty.
It
may
be used
among
The
Then
days are
Coreans,
yao-jih,
or Sundays.
it
may
" seven
luminaries"
to the
common Chinese
*'
seven regulators."
sen-ican/* or
*^
'^
sSn^hun^^*
may
The
Hebrew name
for
a week.
Persian, Shamba), and this word was thence used to denote a week.
vol, iv.,
No. 27
p. 368.
362
St.
'^
Now
late
on the Sabfirst of
began
to
dawn toward
'^
the
the
week (sabbaton)."
garding
s/^,e?^-^y^?^
Now
as a
word meaning
''
of the
moon being
week/'i
One
shui,
is
ham-
also denotes
as
(^
7j<),
commonly applied
women who
That the Persians and Cantonese should have the same sounds
to denote similar objects is in this case
pos-
however, that we
may have
which
(g
J^).
name
Firuzah.
Lastly
we have
is
as one of its
names a-yu
(fnj J^),
which
Angudan
or Angiizeh, the
gum
ARABIC.
The
to the
known
that
is,
U),
language of
apparently
is
For
this
name
hui-hui, which
is
China
for various
is
as ta-shih (;^
^)
1
also
known among
the scholars of
mo-
From
vol. iv.,
vol. iv.,
WylieinCh. Rec,
Nos, 1 aud
353
able
number
of vocables.
other dialects,
such as the Malay and Persian, and thence passed into Chinese,
Those
Mus-
language required.
are com-
paratively
little
known, even
Chinese literature.
in books
Mahometan
of
native
Mahometans
in
Chinese
mu-shih
(or ssu)'lin
i ^)-
"^^is
term
is
well
the religion of
often in native
or
J[
The word Imam, which occurs Mussulman literature, becomes i-ma-mu (|^ Rg
" resignation."
JS @).
by Chinese Mahome-
They
it
know
book
the
f^ /E).
Another name
Furqan, and
it
this also is
who
transcribe
fu-erh-k^o-ni
(J^W^U JSt)-
True
faith, defined
of the
mouth,"
is
Imam
call it
in Arabian.
i-ma-na
(^ ^ j^). They
it
as of
God
to
The man
who
^
possesses
3^
3i&
imam
knows
to appreciate at
iv.,
arts.
^ H ^ M ^ c^^P
^'J
and
Que., vol.
354
and
its
is,
to
regard
them
world
as vile
is
Judged from
this point of
view the
called
adopted, writing
tun-ya
(^
chen-shih
(^
Mussulman
wasSaht (Sabbath)
in Arabian.
this
Chinese writers,
Ma-
commonly se-pu4H
(-g,
\\
^).^
Proceeding now
And
first let
common
to
Mahometan
In Chinese
form
ig).
it is
countries in general,
literature
it is
of frequent occurrence,
and in
its full
(^
^
as
But
is
written
^ J5
^^^
S S-
equivalent.^
One
literature
of the earliest
is
Arabian words
to
be found in Chinese
of
Yasmin
(our Jasmine).
ye-hsi-ming (JP ^^)The flower and the name were introduced into China apparently
about 1600 years ago.
common one
hsing-hua
(^
^jfg),
known by
It
is to
be distinguished
languages and
The Arabic word Harak or Ariik, now common to several known as Arrack, was introduced into China about
It
is
found as ho-la-ki
(ppf Jl]
), a-lek
(PjJ \\j})
See
e.g.
IE
|fe
'
See
^ ^ TC ^
^, chap, I; ig ^, chap,
^
i.;
~^ m.
H,
&c. as above.
193.
Ch. Rec,
vol. v., p.
ii.,
355
They regard
it
as a sort of shao'Chiu
like their
own
to
intercourse with
It is generally
ka-fei,
but
^|i,
it is
written
many ways
slightly different as
^%
3Jl 5lt-
The
of a
chia-fei,
cup
of chia-fei'ch'a, that
is,
call ha'fei-ch'a.
tell
us
is
a product of
known
in
{'^)'yao, different
is
China by the names mo-yao (J^ ^) and mei varieties of the same name. The syllable mo
it
also
was perhaps
originally phonetic.
By mo
or
common
to the
In Chinese accounts
find
mention
of
an animal called
to
j^ and otherwise).
is
one
names
in
Arabian
This animal
is
some-
to
woollens."^
this
An
Arabian word
for wool
and
was
write the
word
so-fic
(^^
jjg
or
ijjg)
or shu-(suj-fu
{^
ijig).
known
li'le
in Chinese medicine
of
which
is
ha-
(fpf
^).
This
is
name
for
1
Myrobalans.^
"Peu-ts'ao," chap. xxv. " Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxiv.;
Hanbury
'
* Ch. liev., vol. V. pp, 123, 1G9; "Ming-shih," Veg. Mat. Med., p. 318.
Dy mock's
356
TURKISH.
From an
frontiers.
fierce wars,
down
to the present
With some
and she has
in several
damage.
also
if
many
of these
have
lost
and assumed
a native appearance.
of the
to the discovery in it of
many Turkish
also that
less disguised.
It
two languages, not borrowed by one from the other but both derived from an older language. " The
of these
to the
some
were common
is
means
of
explaining the
apparently inexplicable.
to at times,
But
it
is
and
it
may
afford the
How
that character
literature.
well
known
language and
now
noticed.
In the records
of the
Han
we
Tangri or Tingri.
is
the
Hiung-nu
God
or
Heaven.
sometimes interpreted as
meaning tHen
(5^),
Heaven, and
One
of the old
;
ways
(@ %)
and in the
we
SlI
is
^).
and
357
(i.e.,
ways
of
kij-li
iM i: S) the sense of
From
and
(^
in
J^
nj|).
It is
still
current with
dialects.^
God
or
Heaven
common
is
use
among
native
usually written
/c'o-
han (pf ff ), and this form occasionallly used by writers who wish to be precise. But generally we now find only one character
used to express
it,
viz.,
han
This name
to
Khan
not
it
countries
Turkish,
applied
and, like
many
is
somewhat
indiscriminately.
called the
chag*an-khan
(^
ff or
)
The Emperor
China
also
has
Khan
Magnus.
is
The
also other
said
by Chinese
There are
{^ ^)
this
ways
which
is
Khatun
those
or
Khatun.
it
But
word now
at least denotes
among
it
who
use
to
perhaps always
The Chinese do
of
not seem
to
know
or use
khrm.
become
years.
Beg or Bek, which when first used was commonly represented by the two characters pai-k'o or '' peh-k'eh^^
the
title
(fS ])
I^
^s
peh
(fg),
A Beg is properly
least in
some
cases,
own kuan
or
official.
Mr. Mayers
tells
us that the
title
Beg
*'
universally in use
among
is
read ch'eng.
358
medans
of
Turkestan
Hami
as
a generic
all
;
the people of
in an old
China
little
for a
ho-shang
(^
f^)
and now
used
(^
who
first
^). The sounds given to these characters hy used them in this manner were perhaps something
It is
hua-ja or hua-je.
for a
word
Khvaja
or Khoja.
This,
which
is
also
Persian,
is
used in
first
Turkestan as a term
introduced the word
in
Monsieur. "When
Hoshang was perhaps employed by the Chinese a way somewhat like that in which we use such terms as They
it
applied
it
not only to
all
who
of a
and they
apply
Among
(H
or
H ^).
it is
Sinologist Dr.
Hsun-lu denotes,
in
same meaning.
One may be
as the
We
find hsiin
name
of
represented as
It
is,
is
According
Glossary of Anglo-Indian
weiglit of silver.
ijn),
Words
1
it is
In Chinese
2
'^
t'eng-ho (J^
^)
or t'ang-ka
(^
and
it is
con-
Mayer's Ch. Gov., No. 563. Ei. Handbook Ch, B., p. 155; Shaw's Turki Vocabulary, p. 107. China and Rom. Ort., p. 266; "Pen-ts'ao," chap, xxxiv.; Kaughsi s.v. f^.
359
of
Among
the
Mahometans
in
Sungaria
it
Turkestan
was,
money
is
of account consisting of
25
This tanga
In Chinese
this
word
became
(^
^).
2^iil
cash, but
coin
;'^
now
in Turkestan
merely an "imaginary
We
Chinese books of an
article
of
commerce called Vou-shih (|^ ^)." In some places these two characters make one word, and in other places shih is apparently
the Chinese word for stone.
passes sometimes as native,
represents
Julien tran-
in
various ways.
The
of
as a stone
is
for
stone,
it
may
be remarked,
In books
treat of
Mahometan
sit.
West
su,
of
China we
(j^)
is
water. water.
Thus employed
It occurs in
it
the Turkish
like
(ppf
word
which means
is
compounds
Aksu, which
sometimes
^ |^),
that
is,
Ak-su, and
sometimes by the name pai-shui (|Q 7J1C), white water, ak in Turkish meaning white. In like manner the Turkish word yer,
which denotes a
employed by
Chinese writers.
part of
in this
They make
like
compounds
word
is
ye-erh
also
said
to
in
but
it
has
it is
Certain
j
Soc,
p.
69
''
;
s.v.
Tanga
Shaw's
360
It
is
such as fu-mcn
(^
The word
Persian origin.
for butter in
Turkestan
Maskah, which
ydgli,
oil
is
of
Turki word
in the
{^
^^
^ ^), that
lan-
butter
oil,
for
oil.
From
chHu
Manchoo
guage the Chinese obtained the word which they write ngeSrh-
(^
j;j5).
which,
however,
only
a modification
of the
Turkish
is
Ilchi,
an envoy or ambassador. by
its
best
known
manner
fossil
Hiung-nu terms
Some
of
Han
period,
and
they are found, though less often, also in the later literature.
of the
is
One
which
be
written |^
(or san)-yu.
We
may
certain,
characters which
like
Sanok or Tsathe
nak.
of
khan
or
supreme chief
was Teng-ri-ku-t^u
Shan-yu (}^ 3^ 51
^H
T'),
that
Son-of-Heaven Shan-yii.
were also called Shan-yii
interpreted as
to
But
meaning grand
or magnificent,
also said
have been
originally a proper
name.
Shan-yii as a
find
it,
title for
and we
for
example,
861
Khau
of the
Khitan
Sung
dynasty.
The
Shan-yii-t'ai or
Khan's Terrace
celebrated in
Han
Wu
is
Ti had a grand
The Queen
tioned in
Chinese literature by a
is
which
modern
pronunciation
ngo-shi or
ti
(||
^ or
J^).
Some commentators,
however,
in this
tell
yen
(or
yeiuchih.
We
way
of
writing the
word yen-chih (jg j^), and that they correspond to modern literature is usually written yen-chih
is
This last
the
name
is
of a cosmetic
safflower,
and
it
also apparently
was used
as
designation for
the safflower
itself,
which
said to
chih'shan.
The Queen
of
the
Hiung-nu was
Fairest
is
This,
it
however,
is
not improbable
safflower
was
at
first
a proper name.
The
was
are
West by Chang
in
Ch'ien,
we
but
it is
not
known
to be a native of
any country.
It has
which
not unlike
^.^
met with
in
Another
old
Hiung-nu
is
fossil
occasionally
Chinese literature
^).
like
tu-hH or
or
It
is
said to
mean
Duke
It
Doge)
and
to
was used
in titles
among
Khan was
"
Ch'ien
' "
Ch'ien
Han Han
vi.
viii.
Ch. R. Mau., No. 588. " Hou Han Shu," chap. xciv.
*'
Shi-chi,"
chap. cz.
362
Foreign
Words
in Chinese.
The Chinese
grandees and
officials
among
may
and
have a philological
at present.
interest.
of these can be
quoted
Certain high
officials
{^ ^),
were interchangeable.
here represented.
the
The word
tomb
in
in
use,
for
example among
Kalmaks
One name
tu)'lo (jg
was tou
(or
^), and Mr. J. Taylor compares this word with the tul, which also denotes a grave-mound.^ Etruscan
the Turkish
Heaven.
Heaven
is
^), but
said to be proits
nounced
like si-lin.
This
is
known
chiefly
from
frequent
occurrence as the
name
of the
shan
or
Heaven Mountain,
in
Barkul.
precise
were intended
is
to express.
called
che-lo-han
^ ^)-sha7ij
is
for
It
we have an attempt
viz.,
to
render
Esrun or
(fpf
^ j^).
survives
in
Mongolian,
is
also
found as a designation
mountains.^
MANCHU.
Coming next
it
also
additions
Manchu language we find that from have been made to the Chinese vocabulary.
to
the
Manchu dynasty
years.
1 2
But
Han
it
Proc. Or. Congress in 1874, p. 171. Shu," chaps, vi. and viii.j " Shi-chi," chap. cix.
3^3
On
Chinese.
And
new and
own language by an
ed from the Chinese
They adoptgenius of
own
and
language.
in use
These well-meant
efforts to
keep Manchu
200 years.
It has
officials
among
the
Manchu
and
not
literati it
avail
to
a living language.
la
The reviewer
of
M.
the
Adam's
"
Grammaire de
Chinese
still
Manchu
its
*^
is
employment
among
at
the people
is
we must
documents
remember that
it is
medium
it
;
in
which most
official
is
that
is
Peking
is
in the language."
up
their
of China.
much
Ahoms
in
Assam
its
who
less
give
''
and nationality
of the
conquered, and outwardly become merged into them.'' But' this can scarcely be called a '^singular spectacle " and comes rather
under a general
clear cient
rule.
This
is
given by Mr.
'*
Marsh
in
his
usual
of
Languages,
an-
and
may
of physical
power
as to be able
to
marked
superiority in point
364
of intellect
and culture, in
short,
own
some
on that
of China.
This
effect,
which
is
not very
great, is
latter, especially in
some are
In taking note
of
some
of the
it
into Chinese
to
immediately
government.
Among
chio'lo,
"Kioh-Lo" of Mr. Mayers (ft S)- This forms name Aisin Gioro, of the "legendary progenitor" of Manchu reigning family. The Chinese translate it by slii ( Jg)
and
this is its original
is
meaning.
But
chio'lo has
now
used only of
the family which gave the line of Emperors forming the dynasty
now on a name
Where
it
name
is
descended
properly
And
Emperor and
or
Ti.^
A
which
Manchu term
in Chinese
for
kingdom
A;w-Z?^72/
or country
is
Gurun
Kurun,
becomes
fj|).
We
(@
!&
S- i),
the designation of
is
the daughter of an
Emperor by
his
Retnusat's Reoherches sur les Lang. Tar., pp. 12J, 134 ; Ch. Rec, vol. v., p. 229; Forbes' Langs, of Further India, p. 13; Marsh, Lectures ou Eug. Lang., p. 139. The Chinese also use the word chio-lo as the equivalent of shih (^) in
'^
the sense of
surname."
365
is
When
called ku-
or eldest.
all
(or Grhosho)
is
familiar to
readers of the
Jj(J?),
now
^,
Hoso and Hosheh). This Manchu word has many uses and meanings. Thus it denotes a corner, a district of land, an
read also
intermediate point of the compass as N.E. or S.W., the end of a
ridge, of a mountain,
at least a division
of a Banner.
Mr. Mayers
Ho-sheh
(originally signifying a
army
or State."
to
denote
Emperor
confers at least on
Among
tribes
^ JS 3E)
But
and
and Mahometan
he
is
to
an Empress
titles to-lo
chun-wang
(^ iH JP
3E) and
pei-Uh
(^
jU),
Manchu
sovereigns.
To-lo here
is
the
its
pei-leh, the
Manchu
word
is
perhaps not
Manchu
that
is,
in origin.
Next
to the pei-le
comes
the pei-tzn
(^ ^),
is
pei-se.
This
Manchu word
denotes a
Prince
who
here in
a pei-lehJ*
is
called
becomes fu-chin
(jpg -gp) in
is
Chinese.
Then
called Efu,
366
a term which also means simply brother-iu-law. word, transferred to Chinese, becomes
(neyh)-fii
Manchu
^), and
(^
we
find
it
often in
titles like
Imperial Princess.
Manchu
to
designates
five
one of the
high degrees.
in
which
it
appears as ke-ke
{^ ^).
The
a
sons of an
as
Emperor
{fv^
of the
a-ko
for
^).
Manchu
agii,
term
brother,
denoted
use
''
elder brother."
The
expression a-ko
a respectful
is
in
of
common
among
the Chinese as
mode
address.
Chinese
Hafan.
This
often found in
literature in the
form ha-fan (B^ ), and it occurs in compounds Bg-) ha-fan. like ataha (pj This term is interpreted as meaning "hereditary official," but it is also said to denote an
"assistant officer."
to
The
title
ataha hafan
is
given by the
as
Emperor
for
non-Chinese
officials
a reward
distinguished merit.
is
is
than hafan.
($
a
7(C)
title
other high
officials
the Chinese
to the
Government serving
North-west and
in Tibet,
West of
is
China.
The Amban
is
Manchus
Chinese.
written
in the district in
title of office
which
is
he
resides.
There
also the
in
well-known
which
styled chang-ching
of
'*
(^ ^)
This
also
is
a reproduction
the
" changuin,"
the
It is the designation
of
and
also of a
promoted
Baunermau Thus at
367
chang-ching}
Another Manchu
title
of
is
office,
which may be
said
to
the pl-fie-shih
is
(^
ifj
^).
The
word
in
Manchu
is
Bithese, which
the designation of
Mayers
translates
"
official
writer/'
and describes
it
as
'^
the
title
of
official
rank) attached to
But pro-
among
to
the"
Man ch us
of the shih
the Chinese.
Then
came
denote the
officer in
office.
describe
him
as a hsic-tzu-ti
is,
{^
g^f)
of characters."
with slight
lan-
modifications,
common
to
it
Manchu and
several other
guages.
In Mongolian
(^
J[
^) and pi -she'chHh
We
(or
Manchu
Patom).
now much
the empire.
coveted,
all
and the name is known and used over The Chinese pronounce and write the word
pa-t'u-lu
^), and they regard it as having the same meaning as their word yiing (^), brave. But in Manchu the word Baturu means a hero, " one who does that which seemed
(Ej
In Mongolian we find
it
in the
firm.
man
or hero,
is
a coris,
meaning "brave."
There
i.
and
vi.;
Ynng-clieng Edicts;
;
E9
;
1^ 7^
ill.
^,
iv.
chap.
viii.
'&*
^'
chaps,
and
;
Amyot's Man.
Diet. s.v.
"Pithese"
Bretschneider in
ti68
and
is
When
the
title
or epithet
Baturu
is
is
conferred
it is
often preceded by
a qualify-
As
is
well
known
of
Eight Banners.
These
known in China by their Chinese name pa-ch'l (/V "j^), but the Manchu word for Banner is also used in certain circumstances. This word is Kusa (or Kusha), and the Chinese adopt it in the form hu-shan (@ jlj). A Manchu or Mongol not enrolled under a Banner or a Bannerman *^at large, without position or pay " is said to be sula. This term, which is common to Manchu
are
and Mongolian,
(S i^)It
is
also
means
free,
The Chinese
is,
sometimes translate
official.
it
by san-chih
is
(^ ^),
that
title
unattached
But
this
term
also
used in the
of
an honorary
office
(^
it
|^
-j^
g).
(R^ pff
P,g
or
^)
also
Manchu.
In that language
said
to
have
Peking
as
an
article of food.
*'
In Amyot's Dictionary
is
de-
degrillon.
II a
des
serres
comme
les
ecrevisses
il
vient dans
le
au bord.
II
gout du
cancre, et
grillon."
il
But
to the
game and
in ha-pa-kou (B^ ,
for the
Jpj),
name
for certain
Manchu
is
means
In
Manchu
the
name
kahari
legs
and small
bodies.
also written,
369
it
to
be a native
Mancbu
somewhat
and cheh.
and
it
to our Sir
or Yes, Sir
is
is
c/m,
also
pronounced ja
The sound
is
Manchu
je or che.
This
is
used
by an
inferior to
pki-ases in
been apparently taken from the Manchu, but they need not be
given here.
Some
It
of
them
will be
to
ally
be
Manchu
which are not such any more than they are Chinese.
MONGOLIAN.
From
golian.
the
Manchu language we
or
Monof a
large
families
consequently we find
three languages.
many forms
of expression
common
is
to the
also to
some
Each
of these
seems
its
to
have been
felt to
of
is
in
and most
has had
much
The
their origin, as
in a
the
common
source for
And
thorough
of
for example,
1
same parent
origin.
vol.
xii.,
See especially the Notes contributed by " J. M." to the " China Review," vol. xv., p. 5-1 et al. vol. xiii., p. 227 p. 437 ct al.
;
;
370
to
Mongolian
dialects
which
In bringing some
to distinguish
of these
made
among
the
Mongolian
dialects,
nor
is
into consideration.
Here
as is meet,
words relating
to religion, that
Buddhism known
The
Dalai.
to the
first
as
Lamaism.
is
word we notice
that
known
to
Europeans
it is
as
common
The
and transcribed
Bj|||)
it
in various ways, of
which ta-lai
(^
and
|^ or 1^
is
the best
word are
(^ H)
is
the word
known
Lama
Pan-
the well-known
title,
The other
Pontiff
''
is
shan
correctly the
This becomes in
($SE
title
11
Sm fi
is
M)-
C)f
the three
panshan
Erdeni
and
is
Mongolian word
ecclesiastical
title
which
in
Another Lamaist
written
common
use
is
that
Khuduktu
or
'' ''
Hut'ukht'u."
Mayers
translates the
word
marked and
form
of
IJuddhism.
in
interpreted
Chinese as signifying
again,
an Avater
the
(H^ A),
i-e-,
might
who express
it
in
371
Si
Ml
(iS5
^^n (or
Jcuyt'u-k'o-t'u
(P?p
or ]$
^^^'^
^^^
^^^-
thtk'-Vii
syllable.
i ^
S)^
^^^ ^'^^
is
^^^
^'^
The H'utuklit'u
word
word by
fii
The
title
H'utukht'u
may be conferred on laymen, and it was the Ming Tsung Emperor of the Yuan
of the
given posthumously to
dynasty.
The
Pontiffs
Avalokitesvara (Kuan-yin)
Manjusri.
The H'utukht'u
immediate
up without interruption.
The avatara
(al.
a spiritual being,
is
the adoption by
him
of
a material body
actually living
Chubilgan
This term
same pronunciation).
{^
^), a created or metamorphosed body. But Chinese writers also use often the original word which they express in different ways,
as hU'pi-le-hcm
{^ gkM
lay
ff).^
The Mongolian
Sanskrit
Nomun-khan, corresponding
of the
to
the
of
is,
Buddhism.
by/a-
wang
(fj 3E) with the same meaning, but more usually they
retain the
transcribe
^). We find it often mentioned in Mongolian affairs as a title given to Princes and
deserved well of the Lamaist Church.
who have
In Tibet the
"nome
khan
''
or "
to various accounts,
to be a sort of
the Dalai
Lama
(al.
under Chinese
superintendence.^
master or teacher
This
is
is
called
Baghshi
Bafcshi or Bacsi)
in Mongolian.
shih (7\
1
5) and pa-k'o-shih {^
xii.;
and others. It
i.j
<=
is
employed
cb.
"Ta-ch'ing-hui-tien,
f^, chap,
Ta-ching-i-fung-chib,"
p. 84.
372
as a term of respect
when
it is
sometimes
by shih
a teacher.
titles
official
in
use
among
the
to
Most
of these
official
with in
is
and
historical writings.
One
of the best
"),
and Taischi).
it
This
the
is
largely used
of
and
the chief
is
magistrate of a
district.
title
Noian
(Noyen
who
express
by no- or na-
yen (p or J5
No-yon.
'>i'
f^
58)-
It
is
compound
(U )
is
(^
is
or excellent.
common The
to
title
is
sometimes hereditary.
also,
on
tribes
The
also
been adopted by
It occurs frequently,
and
WO
^%). A
the
Sassak
Banner
in a tribe, but
or
head
of a
tribe
is
called in
by ta-lu-ho-chi
Tliey explain
is,
iM^^M
officer
^)
0^'
tci'lu'hua-chih
tells
(^
us,
iE
#)
by chang-yin, that
an
who
is
The
Darughatsi
the
official chief of
a tribe,
responsible governor
or superintendent.^
A
and
^
military distinction
is
much
soldiers
Ch.
Gov.,
4JC
the
xi.
title
;
Darkhan
?^ H * Ch. Hec,
5
Yang-cheng Edicts
g.
9fcli
m. 11th clay);
viii.
373
those
given only to
exempts from
all
future service,
privileges
posterity.
several degrees
of
iJlJ
In Chinese the word assumes the forms tar-Ztan (jj and ta-la-han {^ #1] ^)}
regiment or a battalion of soldiers
is
A
Tsala,
called
by the Mongols
is
Manchu
is,
also.
by the
it
are called
Karon
(or
Karun).
useful
to
This
is
still
common way
of writing
the word.
find
it
In
official
km
(311
-jr
fjft"),
to violate
our frontiers.
The
abound
in
Wall
are
known
of
chiefly
by their
Obo.
This
term
mark
up
for
any
purpose.
the
word, but
they use
They
o-po
express
(f|5
o-pu (f^
|>
or
fpf
/j>)
An
old
tS) and nao-pao (fg Q). Mongolian name for a house used as a halting place
is
Nabo.
it,
Pal-
name
the
Kin adopted
also long
and
it
It
was
ago adopted
H:).
by the Chinese,
*
2
in
whose language
it
" Ta-ch'ing Hui-tien," chap. Ixxix.; Ch. Rec, v., p. 245. " Ssu-tM-ho-pi," chap, iii.; Journal N.-C. B. of R. A. Soc, vol, x.,
p. 85.
Ixxix.
374
Khan's palace
or hunting lodge
is
is
Chinese, and
written
in
(%
M ^)-^
is
for
water
usu,
and
this also
we
find
Thus there
(^
)i|i]
J^
Another way
usu
in Chinese is
u-su
(%
^), but
this is not
much
to
used at present.
The word
in
known
the
This in Mongolian
is
Chinese write
it
m)
and
for white
also
known
among
the Chinese.
The former
Chaghan or Cha-
gan, and in
Chinese ch'a-han
(^
^).
the
White Khan.
It
this the
^).
The word for black in Mongolian is Kara, and Chinese make into k'o-la or k'a-la (1 P|j or B^ PJJ or -jr is known best from its occurrence in the term k'a'la-ni,
in the shops.
A name
Ula.
in
Mongolian
for a Post
and
u-la
(%
the
^V* The
ofiicial in
charge of a Post-station
or U'lu-chih
is
called
^,).
tJlatsi, in
Chinese u-la-chi
|'g
{^^^)
(%
(in
ig.
The
iC'la-t'e-ma (,^ Ji
is
a bad Post-horse
tna-liu 311
tSi)
Maghu
Chinese
it
ula.
has
been seen
to
be a
Manchu word
noticed.
as well.
is to
for
^).
Journal N.-C.
15.,
vol. x., p.
25
v.,
p. 183.
376
The word
is
common
It
to
it
found
in different .forms as
tamgha,
and
it is
When
an
official seal
gjg)
and shih-lu-su
(^
i^)
and sha-lu-
(^
,g).
These
all
or Siloksu, the
this
name
of a
The
fifth
fur of
it
animal
robes
is
in
official
is restricted
by law
to
rank.
in
Mongolian
call
the Chinese
who
the
(g
^).
TIBETAN.
With
relations,
superintending
also
its
domestic no
less
than
its
foreign
for
policy.
She has
many centuries, indeed since the period of the great T'ang dynasty. But the Tibetan language is poor and mixed, and the Chinese have not felt the need of taking from it many words or forms of The name by which the country is known to the expression.
Chinese at present
This word
is is
properly the
name
of a
is
In literature the
language
-^
or
The
religion,
may
as
be said to be
its
Buddhism known
Lamaism.
is
But
the
student of
Lamaism soon
largely
drawn
be noticed
Lama
376
criminately to
all
Fan
(^
But
it is
meaning wu-shang
{^
_t),
supreme, and
monk
in a monastery.
of
The Chinese
Buddhism
Religion.
of
Buddhism
is
Tibet and
Mongolia as the
Lama
Chiao or
Lama
Religion,
while
or
the
Fo-chiao
Buddha
The abbot of a Lamasery is called in Tibetan Mk^an-po, the goompa and hempu of some English writers. This word has been
explain
adopted by the Chinese, who express it by k^an-pu (^ :flj). They also as meaning " great master," and describe the it
as a
K'anpo
" great
Lama who
of
Lamaism.^
Another
Lama
is
is
(^
or
^^
It is not
what
characters represent.
for the
They
name
Monk who
regulates
of the district
to the revenues.
Lamasery
''
Mdz6d-pa
of these
or
Phyag-mdzod
to
seems
"
be like the
Nor can this last be the Shang Chodpa i|^ ) (g Mr. Mayers, the ch'ang-tso-t'e-pa (1^ 2E iS E) ^^ others. These are laymen. Councillors of the Treasury, but the Ts^angof
chu-pa
is
Lama, and
there
is
The
is
Majordomo
affairs use
of a Dalai
Lama
freely,
of various
European
writers.
this
word
sometimes transcribing
or
ti-pa
1^ Ej). They also apply it any Lama, the man who manages the secular
1
Ch. Gov., No. 588; Jaescbke's Tib. Diet., p. 53*. Ch. Gov., No 570; Jaeschke's Tib. Diet., p. 463;
ccclii.;
*'
Ta-eh'iug I-t'ung-ehih,"
chap,
ji^
|^
^>
vols. 1
aud
2.
377
They sometimes
word
country.^
also treat
it
as
meaning
Then we have
Kalon.
transcribe
lu7i
the Bka-blon,
commonly
written Kablon or
also,
and they
shortly by ko-lung
(|r|
[^)
and more
fully
by ko-pu-
(Kg
^
to
f^).
There are
of
six
Kalons
in Tibet,
the general
is
management
Government business."
official
used
State " or Prime Minister, but also any high civil authority.*
A General
is
called in Tibet
transferred this
iff),
word
tai-pen (f^
tai-peng
tai
dSJJ"^
and tai-pu-mu
f^).
Mr. Mayers
in all."
translates
Among
articles
among
This
the Chinese
is
we
?^)-
and Lamas,
for images.
in arranging betrothals,
and
as
ornamental offerings
is
It is chiefly in
this
last
it
They put
in the
a small red
the heads of
human
peculiar occasions.
(^
the
|g
-J).
By
word
of a
common
use, a Tibetan
is
Bo-de,
we
are told,
is
represented
and Bo-de
"name
this
But
word
itself
may
^ Ch. Gov., No. 578; Koppen's Lamaische Hierarchic JBBSchke's Tib. Diet., p. 295'-'. * Ch. No. 567 ; Jaeschke's Tib. Diet., p. 18.' Ch. Gov., No. 579 ; Jaesohke, p. 328.
nnd Kirche,
p.
133;
378
The
least
lu,
two
of the native of a
names
One
of these is
pu'
the
name
kind
of woollen stuff,
hecome p'u-lu
(^
^\
It
of
is
used for
Lamas and
The wool
term
is
called
(^
^ ^), pu-lu
But the
is
Chinese word
hulu.
The
which denotes
a kind of
a flannel-like fabric."
comes
applied.^
as
''
is
called
(^
or
jS^B oi'
^ )-
^y
these
kind
of
salt
''
This substance
Tibet and
is
is
much prized by the Chinese. P'eng-sha is also Chinese name for Borax which is imported into China in an im-
With
Chinese language.
Among
the
They
are
given for
and growth
of the language.
And
of the
now we proceed
exercised
by a short notice
on
the language
of
Buddhism.
1
"
chih,"
xi.;
vol.
ii.,
p.
Ming
Shi,"
p. 217.
Jaeschke, p. .363;
CHAPTER
YIII.
of the effects
into
China and
And
here also
it
pretended
to
be
given.
The student
to
will
be able to add
examples and
illustrations,
correct errors
is
made here
The reader
is,
of necessity,
supposed
to
have access
to
Buddhism
learning
as
it
has grown
up
the
in China.
We
first
of
the
reign of
Ch'in Shi
Huang
arrived
Ti (B. C. 221
at
to
the
Chinese
little
seem
to
have had
making any
impression.
Nor
is
the
story
of
about India
from natives
of
is
of that or a
the
first
There
the
U ^
Buddha
the
before
Han, that
is.
Buddhism was
in
China before
Han
dynasty.
Some
of
have been
Chow
their
Kings.
to say that
countrymen
first
of
380
But
this
who
half of the second century B.C., did not reach India, nor did he
It
was not
for
after his
began.
Emperor Ming
of
of the
a golden
Buddhist missionaries
in
at
Chang-an
what
is
now
the
of their sacred
books
written in their native language and the books were soon translat-
ed into Chinese.
spread.
in course
The new
religion
of
on their language
only what
we are
led
of other religions.
life
Thus Christianity
and meaning to old
people.
words wherever
it
became the
great
faith
of
So also
of
Mahometanism made
countries in
changes in
the languages
the
which
it
came
example, in Persian
lasting
to
effect
Before
it
came
native
to old
new
applications
and meanings.
of the
it
enlarged
as their religion.
of
We
But
volume could
lu the
first
place
381
have seen, a new language, one very unlike any of the barbarian
tongues with which they had been hitherto acquainted.
The
language and grammar, and the Chinese have never been attracted
to
to Sanskrit.
Its
division into
vowels
and consonants,
its
The
sounds like
hu,
hum was
evil
spirits that
work unseen.
Then
them.
new
know
at first
how
to treat
They were
modulations."
to
and
to
denote them or
Thus we
find
means "side**
or
of,
"place."
The Instrumental
is
on account of: the Dative by yu (^), to or with; the Locative by chiing (4), in, within. The Genitive is sometimes denoted by the particle chih {^), but frequently it and the Ablative are be inferred from the context without any distinguishing
In verbs the Conditional mood
is
left to
addition.
represented by jo
(g),
if;
by
i (g,);
When
the Chinese
^ The inflecfciona are explained and examples given in those technical treatises of which the ChH-chiu-yu-Uao (4j Jl ^) ^^ ^^ example. The inflections given in the text are taken from Chinese translations for the translations of Sanskrit books in the course of a comparison of original and (and Chinese In Japanese) books on Sanskrit Grammar OhH-chiu translation. {-\j it) uieau Nouns and Verbs, the former being so called from the number of their oases, and the latter from the number of biieir moods and teases.
382
the Chinese
Language.
to enlarged
its
about
We
may
names
of
In a previous
@^
of the
name Fan-yu-ch'ien-tzu-wen (^
Thousand Character Text.
student though the editions
or
errors
is
=f
^
is
^I) that
of
a Sanskrit
to
This book
some value
the
now
current abound in
faults,
misprints
of
transcription
and other
work
I-ching,
who was
also
much about
later authors in
Then we have
also a
(
monk
a
I-hsing
lu
T'ang period.
^)
of all the
which he had
access.
Under
the
Sung dynasty
^^-
we
find
the
compiled about A. D.
p?
(S
2 ^
^^
meaning
'^
of this
in
collection of the
meanings
names translated
(into Chinese)."
The book
is
is
rather
a classified collection of
terms,
Bunyin
" This
in the
As Mr.
names both
Sanskrit and
is
required."
it
who
uses the
work
will find in
oaufI
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language. 383
we have
it
seen, to
their
own languto
properly.
have
in
men
of parts
was the
learning of grammar.
tainly the
India was perhaps the birth-place, but cerat a time far off in the past. Little
away from
their mothers,
were sent
subtleties.
and
who
has
sway down
Now
the scholars
means
But
accustomed
to
study
subsidiary to
And, accordingly,
to
it
in
to
that land
how
to
how
classify the
words
and generally
to
and spoken on
its
own
account.
grammar
the
learning already
known
in
found
in
of this chapter
We
are
to
Chinese learning
Buddhism produced on
Before proceed-
384
the Chinese
in
Language.
certain circumstances
them
an important manner
effects are consider-
and which
ed.
should be borne in
first
In the
who brought
all
Province or
Kingdom
of India, nor
that country.
of countries
On
the contrary
some
of
them
of the
Han
we
in the
same way, and that some among them apparently did not
Long
had ceased
to be
colloquial idiom,
''
From
Aryan people
of
India spoke
missionaries
popular
The Buddhist
the
West
into
is,
Chinese writers hu
(jg),
that
But, as
writers
up
to the period
T'ang dynasty.
Yenthe
Fan became
name
to
to
be given
to the nations
West
of that range
and specially
name
Hu
and
to others
who
But some
districts
of the foreign
knew
it
as their literary
medium.
perhaps
Their
knowledge
that
language,
however,
was
dialects.
We
ecclesiastics
the Chinese
Language.
385
of Tibetans
of
circumstances
"We
Ti
of
Han Ming
the end
of the great
it
Sung dynasty extends over twelve centuthis period that nearly all
ries.
Now
was during
the transla-
tions
from Sanskrit writings were made, and that the travels and
Chinese pilgrims were accom-
Now
constantly
undergoing.
by considerable
lars
varieties of dialect.
And
translators,
which
in
many
by local peculia-
language.
to
Remembering
these circumstances
we should
words and
be prepared
tions
of
find
some considerable
Sanskrit sounds
As we
in
many
some cases
sible that a
slightly
and
It is posit
thorough survey
Chinese language as
of the people
has
would enable
make
first,
The
ful,
Indian origin
There seem
to
by satisfactory evidence.
The second
class
386
the Chinef^e
Language.
first
and second
of transcribing introduced
who
lived at the
The fourth
class
would contain
which belong
(Hiuen-tsang).
to the
But
must be borne
in
and translators
of the third
down from
Not
phrases are
An
more accurately
is
In
this
an
But
So
far
it
is
it
to
has
our
among
the learned.
as
Ta-yun-lun-chHug^yu-ching}
In treating
of the influence
first
Chinese language we
troduced into and
made
to take
translations
from Sanskrit
and then
of
new phrases
Next we
to notice
are to consider
some instances
of
we
are
Common
A^
MM
>i^2-
On
387
Wo
and teachings.
Of
such words and phrases the most important and interesting are
those which are intimately connected with the religion.
give these the precedence and take
first
So we
names
of beings
who
Among
these
beings the
Buddhas
and the
first
Sanskrit word
we have to notice as introduced into Chinese is Buddha. The Chinese word which has long been known and commonly used as representing the Sanskrit Buddha is Fo or Fu
i^).
This sound in the above usage
is
special character
jg which analysed
signifies
is
Man
of
the
West Country.
But the
is
latter character
of constant occurrence.
not in
its
present use.
-gjj
as having the
meaning
now
written
^fo.
at least twice.
In one passage
(^
"g*),
he screws round
The second
jS & ft) the disciples)
of the
(S
(i.e.,
word Buddha.
In
this use
it is
(^ pg).
Fu-t'ii
word was
(?? H)' ^^^ ^^^s ^^^^ ^^^ other meanings, and is to meet us again. find, moreover, the following given as transcriptions for the
We
Mu
{i.e.,
Bu)-'o
in
(#
Ife),
Mo
(Bo)-^'o
Q^ )f (^ K).
),
present differences
name among
monks
of the
*'
dialects.
388
the Chinese
Language.
much
as
native and
it
tion.
it
When
word
or
had
Buh
Vuh.
dialect
In mandarin
it is
it
has become
;
Fo
or
The word Hut or Hwut and in Buddha is interpreted as meaning Ghih-cho (^ ^), he who
viz.,
the
Amoy
knows,
It
is
who
is
enlightener; and
is
also
rendered Ching-chio
(^
of
^), he who
The personal name by which the Buddha distinguished from other Buddhas is best known
is
history
as
to the
5S0
Chinese
in
its
i.e.,
Shi-ka-mcn (j^
^) and
Shi-chia-mou-ni
M^
JSi)-
l^hese repre-
sent
the
Instead of the
find only
full
form
of expressstill
we
often
Shi-chia, and
more
word
The Chinese
find a
meaning
in the
(|g), able, or
by neng-jen
The
(^)-
latter
interpreted by
some
as
meaning a
and by others
The
actual
name
of the
but this term has never been very popular with the Chinese.
has, however, been recognised by
ni,
them
as the
Gh'ii
name
of
Sakyamu-
and
it
was transcribed
fGuJ-t^an
(^ ^)
fl.).
or
Godam
Gautama.
In Yuan-chuang's
fGioJ-ta-mo
(^
;|i)
s. v.
i.,
and compare Legge's " Li-chi " in Sac. Books of tlie (This work East, vol. xxvii., p. 84; and xxviii., p. 86; " Fan-i-ming-i," chap. and the I-chHe-ching-]jin-i have been much consulted in the preparation of this them given to generally.) chapter, and reference is not
p. 21
and chap,
vi.,
p. 76;
the Chinese
Language.
389
Gautama
as
a surname or
for
the Buddha.
that term
religion.
Some,
prefer to
use
the
the
expressions as
Oh^u-tan'she-chHit
chiao'tsui'chiu
(%
S ^ K Hc
ft
A)
was very
Gautama
This
name has
it
heen wrongly explained by the Chinese in several ways, and has come
is,
to
a Buddhist monk.^
One
of the
A-mi-t'e-fo
(fpf
5i P ft)-
These
all
sounds are
empire.
to
the
By
is
which
names
of
the
Buddha who presides over the Western Paradise, the Pure Land, the Kingdom of Extreme Delight. The name Amitabhas
means " unmeasured brightness,"
(|R ft 5E)'
in
Chinese wii-liang-kuang
life,"
^^^ Amitayus
is
'^
unmeasured
wu-liang-shou
(^
is
ft %)' But these translations are not much used as there magic in the name A-mi-t'e and even in one or two of its
syllables.
No
bad
sprite or goblin
will
for A-mi-t'e
Fo
And
name
in the
in faith
life
peace
hereafter.
styles
monk Ho-shang
pre latter
and
common
fu-kan-tang, that
is,
am unworthy.
of a
is
trinity of
Buddhas,
to
Akshobya.
This
the
Buddha
whom
The
|^) or
Land
of Rejoicing.
(ppj
name
is
commonly shortened
to
is
A-ch^u with
it
Fo
to
added.
supposed
1
The
(the
(^
390
the Chinese
Language.
it
is
some-
(M
if
{M
full
]5)
Another
''fictitious
Buddha"
title
the Liu-li
(^ ^)
is
Fo, as
Vaidiirya Buddha.
His
in
Sanskrit
Bhaishajyais
guru Yaidfirya-prabhasa
raja, that
is,
the Doctor
is
who
King
of
This
Buddha
sometimes called
of
and he
is
largely
sometimes styled Yao-shi-wang (| gij J), the Physician King, and sometimes Liu-li-wang the Lapis-lazuli
is
,
He
King.
But
in
these two
names seem
the
to
objects of worship.*
Next
rank
to
Buddhas proper
An
name made
it
mean
Ku
Fo
is
or Ancient
The
also explained by
(^ ^),
one existence
Nidanas.
as
some
say,
he who
is
is
enlightened as to the
Another interpretation
tu-chio
(^
enlightened by himself,
alone.
who
attains salvation by
This last
is
pratyeka
means
singly,
by
one,
alone.
The Chinese
of
know
in
a Pratyeka
Buddha
this
In the early
used
and
(i. e.,
other
works
the
transcriptions
were
Pei'chi'chia
Pei-ti-ka
M.^
it
M^^ ^^
These transcriptions,
Sanskrit.
will
(ti) -ye-chia- (ka) (H j^ have ti by mistake apparently). books some |g JIH, Of all these ways of writing the word the only one which has This is still held its place is Pi-ti in modern Mandarin Pi~chi.
^
in
common
^
use and
a. v.
is
See Kanghsi
^.
p. 235.
the Chinese
Language.
391
Next
esteem
is
to a
Buddha and
word
often supplanting
its
him
in
popular
the Bodhisattva in
of this
The
old
still
transcription
in
recognised
cut
is
P'u-Vi-sa^to
(^
Jg
^ ]^.
But
this
down
to its first
common
is
Bodhisattva
pro-
or a saint
who aiming
fictitious
to
And in China
and good works.
the
it is
for piety
It is also
local
to
and
gods.
in
names
we
notice
here
only
two,
Manjusri
The former is commonly called Weii-chu (^^ ^) P'u-sa, but in books his name is written in various other ways. Thus he is Manyu (J^ -J, this character tzil having here the sound yii), and But the full name is expressed by Wenalso Man-ju (J^ JH).
(i. e.y
MinJ'Chu-shih-li
(^
6iS
M)
i^ ^^^
works
of
Kumjirajiva
translators,
and by Man-chu'shi-U
the
Wu T'ai
Shan.
(3JC
native Wen-ch'ang
He is often ^) or God
The
and Learning,
who
is
his foreign
name
is
Maitreya who
known
all
over China as
Mi'leh (3g :U) P*u-sa or sometimes Mi-leh Fo. These sounds Mi-leh probably indicate another dialectical variation from the
Sanskrit,
which
is
Metteyyo.
fuller
ways
of writing Maitreya,
such as the Mei-ta-li-ya (i^ tB fI5) of Yuan-chuang, but except in Buddhist books. This is the P'usa they are not used
fat
paunch
392
as
now
in the
Tushita
will
and
all
goodness an happiness.
We
is
disciples of
these
by canonical
right
as
that of Siiriputra.
calls himself,
Buddha "
ftj
he
(^
^),
inter-
preted as meaning
of Sariputra,
Son
of
Mainah." This
is
name
Sari,
ness and beauty of her eyes, and Sariputra was the son of his
mother.
He was
whom
he
of
in the saving
knowledge
what
to believe
and how
to
first of all
name
in Chinese, but he
is
best
known simply
^^
as She-li-fu.
of the right
As
left."
Sariputra
hand," so Moginlin
Disciple of the
Maha Maudgalyayana
is,
Ta-mn-gin-
5fj|
3^).
is
Here
for
ta
is
great,
and Mu-chien-lien
of the disciple.
Maudgalyayana, Mogellano in
the
name
the
latter to
may
word
in China.
Maudgalyayana the
degree,
a remarkable
and
the Master had on several occasions to restrain his miracle- workBut the Chinese do not know Mii-Lien simply in cr propensities.
or specially as the wonder-worker.
as the pious son
revere
him
This
all
on the stage,
and
is
the
Yil-lan
Hui
^
be noticed presently.^
(@ ii
^ # t& # E).
393
Two more
commonly
of
is
of
the disciples
to
may
Chinese generally.
Fo, the middle one of the three sitting images in the Hero's Hall
a Buddhist temple.
that of Ananda, in
to the left of
the
is
Buddha
(pl
g).
He
the young
disciple
who
'^
On
image
of
''anatomy."
His name
Ghia-(ka)-ye
often called
Ta
Great,
($Sg
^),
Maha
Kasyapa,
to
distinguish
him from
same name.
Passing over the names of
missionaries which, though
not in the
left
common
It
speech
is
we come
of
unnoticed.
of
the
Western and
the
Eastern Patriarchs of
in
Buddhist Church.
(*
Chinese F^u-ti'ta-mo
ti
JPj'
to
^^^
^^^s
shortened
Ta-mo.
he proceeded
to
to
Loyang.
To
the
Ta-mo
is
a very familiar
great Buddhist
name.
The former know it as that of Patriarch and reformer, who came teaching
Hence
the
in books,
own
heart.
Bodhidharma
literally,
is
jt
set
up written characters."
chih-
chih-Jen-Iisin
\M
ia
A >&);
;
man's mind,"
that
is,
as
Buddha
Buddha.
The
know much
But
to
of
Ta-mo
as
them no
less
394
fJic
Chiiipso Lanf/nagp.
is
who by
will,
torrent of the
bamboo
it,
twig, or of a reed, as
some
tell,
and
Ta^mo-i-wei-tU'chiang
crossed the River.
is
(M
"^
is
MM
This feat
of houses,
tea-pot.
It
is
often
Ta-mo meeting
yun
On
that occasion
Ta-mo was
his
to the
Western Paradise.
Hence sometimes
coffin
we
see
Ta-mo
it
shoe,
and
finding in
likeness to
Thomas, and
this
likeness that
saint,
Thomas
China
of
arose.
The
as
we
know, was
To-mo, and
ianity
identified
it
by some
to
the early
missionaries
with
pleased them
think of
him teaching
Ta-mo, who
Christin
often
many
by
He
is
name
a
is
often obscured
find
and writing.
in
Thus we
Amoy
these
name Ta-mo
the
above but
with
characters
(^
j9|),
Turning next
to the
became known
instances
to the
One
or two of the
more conspicuous
deities
of
may
be
cited.
is
Among
the
higher
India
Brahma
especially
name has
The commonest
Tlie expressiou "He rejected Kuaiig-tuug-fc'aug-chih,'' chap, cccxxviii. Bodhidharma's saying, which is j^ tJt i^ JL^ >0- " he I'ejected Scripfcureaud trausmitted miud by miud." ' Chih-yue-hi"
(^&
H mi
chap.
iv.
TJir TnfIf"}i('H of
Buddhism on
the,
Chinese LiDiguage.
is
395
form of
this
name
is
it
was made by
word Brahma.
syllable of the
n^'
"We
find
it
only the
first
transcription
which
is
properly Fan-lan-ino
(^
^).
There
are also two or three other ways of expressing the Sanskrit word,
much used. In Buddhist and non-Buddhist writings alike the common term is Fan simply, though we find also Ta Fan, that is, Maha-Brahma, Great Brahma, and Fan T'ien, Brahma-Deva. Some authors tell us that the character had originally a sound like pen or peng^ hut for a long time the probut they are not
nunciation attached to
it is
it
the god
Brahma
figures
as
a
is,
attendant on Buddha.
special
He
however,
the Chinese in a
is
of India,
used
Thus we
common
express-
ions as the
that
is,
India; Fan-yen
letters
But
was supposed
to
The Buddhist writings often represent Indra as associated with Brahma in ministrations to or attendance on Buddha. Indra is best known in Chinese literature by his name Sakra, Sakka in Pali, which is transcribed Sld^ka (g jjg). The second syllable, however, is commonly omitted, and he is usually styled Ti-shi
(j^
S)' ^^^^
^^'
all
the Devas.
names
books
confined to Buddhist
But no Indian
deity
is
better
known
in
God
by
M)
be seen
396
the Chinese
Language.
meaning.
But
this transcription
form Yen-lo
is
for
raja.
Lo-she (|| f^), that is, YamaJ^), But the original use of the character read lo has long been
Yen-mo
(^ {^
wang King
added.
Here yen
and
lo for
forgotten,
for king.
for
Yama
is
also styled
Yam a,
and
he
is
at once
god, judge
and king.
Yama
wang
is
also often
found
written Yen-mo
(^
(3E) added.
China
is
Mo-lo
(Jg
J^), but
it is
usually
down
to
the
simple Mo.
To
this the
word knei,
This
in the sense of
wicked
spirit, is
Mo
is
by the
Emperor known
of our era.
as
Liang
Wu
who
One
of the
synonyms
for Miira
among
the Buddhists
^ 'S)*
'^^^^
^^'^
^^
interpreted as
meaning '^wicked" or
form for
common word
God
P'O'Siin
{^
^).
But
this latter is
Yama,
the
of the dead.
tran-
Mo Wang,
Mararaja, who
In the
cal beings,
train of
Buddhism came
of
mythi-
to those just
mentioned.
Some
these
popular belief in China, and their names passed into the language.
When
nection
first
to
all
their characters
Among
these strange '^ Twilight-rovers" are the Eakshas or Rakshasas, " demons and fiends who haunt cemeteries, disturb
1 See Ch. Rec, vol. v., p. 43, note. Ifc seems doubtful whctlier the character Mo, given in the text, is not older than Liang Wu ti.
for
the Chinese
Language.
397
harass
devout
men,
afflict
devour
human
beings,
mankind
Lo-ch'a
(^
^|J).
To
word
is
kiiei,
demon,
is
often added,
and we are
told that
Lo-ch*a
a general
name for
all
malignant demons.
of
The Yakshas
in Indian
they are neither very good nor very bad, but are simply attendants
of the
acter in
God of Wealth. But the Buddhists gave them a bad charmany cases, and this has clung to them in China. Here
Old transcriptions
5|^|J
the Yakshas tear open graves and devour corpses, and generally
of the
name Yaksha
and |^ ^), for which Yuan-chuang (^ substituted Yao {yah)-ch'a (| ^). But we seldom meet with this
ya)-ch'a
last transcription, the first
to the present.
is
word
demons
of the night,
and haunters
of
disguises,
and they
kill
They
up a whole monastery
are often represented
monks on one
The Yakshas
as being dwarfish
faces.
ghost-face Yakshas"
(^
"B
^).
Then
In
denizens of an upper
H |^), Kien
^^
It is explained
by Usiang-shcu
^
jjj^),
Gods
of smell,
The terms sheii (^) and Jcuei-sheii (^ jfi$) are used occasionally to translate "Yakshas." This is seen, e.g., in the Miao-fa-lien-hiia-ching (^ fife jI?) " or Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi." The quotations from the Sanskrit text of this work are from a Nepalese MS. in the author's possession.
398
tioii
the Chinese
Language.
known
to the
But
hear
Buddha
to
his teaching.
commonly written
in
(^
These
and con-
*'
What
kind
of
man?"
or, as it is
explained,
gathered
the congregations
the Kinnaras by
their horse-like
heads,
to
be described also
as having horns.
The Garuda
is
I in the jS)' ^^^ ^ of Sanskrit having as usual become This is the old way of writing pronunciation of a dialect, Garula.
(SB M
new way
the
giving
t'e
instead of
lo.
The Chinese
seem
to identify
their
own Fengcorrectly as
more
the
peng
told,
(5H|)
of their
own
Chuang Tzu.
It
is
to
the
Buddhists,
we
are
that
the
horrible
of the
monsters called
old
Kumbhandas owe
this
is
their existence.
One
ways
ftS
of
transcribing
^ ^^^6r one
name
is
Ghiii
{ku)'p'an~t'ii
(41
^)} ^^^
Chin
{lcam)''p^an Ve
(^
$ pg).
other
other
Tu Fu and
but
it
is
perhaps not so
popular as the
transcription.
visible
The Kumbhandas
Better
Asuras.
j^),
common
transcription of this
name
is
A-hsiu-lo
(Pq( jig-
often
shortened to Hsiu-lo
all
or A-hsiu.
spirits.
wicked
some are
399
They
live in a
or
of
They
light against
moon
in
eclipse.
in
Hence the
to
be used
Chinese literature
denote an eclipse.
A
it
chief
among
is
the King.
is
Lo-hou (jg
@||),
and
common term
is
In astronomy, Indian
Chinese
Chi
^)
is
the descending
node
or Dragon's Tail.
But
in
hou
is
the
moon
and
stops the
star
way
He
to
wont
also
births
of great designs.
action
way
that,
name
is
of Rfihula, sou
and
Buddha, was
to a
Chinese of
all sects
pay worship
T^ieu
Hou
of
Queen
of
Heaven, a
is
others,
'Tou-mu
(^
Sg
Dame
is
To
goddess
the
Jjj.
(^
^ij
Marichi
is
identified
also
with
She
is
now
Chinese transcription Chun-ti (i^ ^), commonly called Chundi. The Chinese also regard this goddess as
in
Chandi,
a re-incarnation
of
the
*'
(^
of
^),
great
of
Huang
childhood
China.
here given, would tend to show that the introduction of the words
^ Fan'yuaiuGhi.\>.lin 212. 344.
{^^H^ Us),
chap,
v.,
p.
pi).
"
400
was
(he Chinese
Language.
tlie
date,
or
at
least
early
history of
Buddhism
in China.
This Marlchi
is
is
spirits.
the Buddhaapparently.
Magical
Wisdom
under the
name
them
of Chun-t'i
by the Chinese
is
in
as a
We
world.
occurrence in their
common
is
most familiar
a
the
term
Tao-li
Tao-li-Vien
is
("j'JJ
5c)
^^ ^^^ designation of
Heaven.
Trayastrinsa, which
this
means
^'
thirty-three."
Indra
is
the Lord of
established.
thirty-two Brother
Devas
to
The word
asteries in
name
the
*'
Buddhist mon-
China.
Pictures
also
of
Beautiful Palace
in this
Heaven
and
is
in this
Heaven
that Mi-
now
coming
to this earth
and
in
the
way
to
final
bliss to
him
in
happy
expectation.
transcribed in Chinese
is
Tou-sii-t'e
(^
is
p).
shi-to
This
Tu-
(^
^).
But the
of
last syllable of
each
is
usually omit-
ted in
common
often found as
'
names
Buddhist temples.
p. 208.
the Chinese
Language.
401
(fpj JJg
p or
^)
or
otherwise.
Akais
nishta, which
means "
eldest,
highest, greatest."
is
This name
used
to
Heaven.
direction
As
it
is
A-ka-ni-ta, shortened to
the farthest
Buddhism has
as
it is
its hells,
Only one
This
Chinese literature.
and known
in Chinese
^ p),
is
commonly shortened
is
to A-pi.
To
is
gloss.
so called because in
there
is
" no intermission."
The wretches
howling in
who
suffer in
it
man
to the incessant
to notice
some
of the
Indian words in
Buddhism.
we
them
is
into
shuni or monks and nuns, and Upasaka and Upasika or male and female lay adherents.
In Pali Bhikshu
is
Chinese transcription,
is
which
or
is
the one
(Jjj
in
common
use,
is
Pi'ch'iu, that
in Pali
is,
Pi-kHu
ku
or ^).
The nun
Bhikkuni
and
in Chinese
Pi-kHu-ni (Jt
suffix.
^),
is
the ni
In Buddhism,
properly
The terms
402
the Chinese
Language.
Pi-ch4u
monk may
style himself a
M)
^^
Sanskrit
word Bhikshu.
it
scholar because
was supposed
name
of a
never turned
of those
back
to the sun.
So
it
who
left all to
wards Buddha.
But
Bhiksu and
of the
forms
is
and serious
literature.
syllable used.
Thus Seng-Ni
is
nuns
^),
seh
in expressions like Seng-ni-fing-le-huei-sii (ff" jg 1^ " he obliged monks and nuns to return to common life."
Upfisikfi are in
Chinese commonly
YiL-^p'o-
(^
In the
latter
all
the termination
or ni.
These lay
members
of the
Han
dynasty, and
we
find
them mentioned
in the
in other treatises as
I-pu simply.
a
{^
I4an-pu {^
Brothers.-^
^ ff
),
name
(g
much used by
the Upasakas
making presents
to the
ff ), a vegetable mendicant
A
8hc4i
monk
in
China
is
m^^
is
or
^).
here represented
,
a spiritual preceptor, or he
five
kinds distinguished.
One
is
these
is
the Shou-chie
(^
J^)
Achfirya,
discipline.
^
who
is
Such a Brother
of
Karma
(|g
^)
A-she-
Buddhism,
p. 156. (As it is taken for granted that Dr. Eitel's books on Buddhism they are not
xlii.
Hou-Hau-Shu," chap,
the Chinese
Language.
403
and
The
characters
here given
as
long ago
condemned
derived,
it
was
said,
people of Khoten.
extent.
This gave A-chc-li-ye (f^ ^[g flj :jg or JR). The new transcription, however, is known only to the learned, and is seldom used, while
the old She-li
is still
monks
A
writing
common name
is
members
of a
Buddhist
fraternity in
style themselves in
is for
Shi-sha-men
of
is
(^
f^).
Shi-tzu
(^), Son
Sha-men
Sramana, an
ascetic.
It is said to be
is
by express
command
Sha-men.
of the
thus prefixed to
S^amana may be
a Buddhist or a
Brahman, and
name
of their founder.
is
often
monks
word
is
Sang-men
(^
f^),
Samano than
The
or at least adopted
by Yuan-chuang,
Sho-lo-vio-na
of
(-^
is
jg|
^).
sang
Sang-men
repre-
And
is
monk
speaks of himself
K'ung-sang-tzu
(^
-f),
interpreted to
mean
^^the orphan
The
novice,
the
Deacon,
and
all
unordained
Buddhist
ecclesiastics
There
is
a complete transcription of
common
404
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
the short form Sha-mi (3? 5S), a term of frequent occurrence, both in speech and writing. The Sha-mi is said to be one who
has cut
off
loosely applied
by the people
to
who having
ecclesiastical tonsure
ordained.
of spiritual attainments to
to pass.
The
first
and lowest
The
old
Hsii-t'e-yuan (p[ pg
-Jg),
Su-to-van,
j{^,
that
is,
huan
or van.
the converted
is
man who
rendering
better explained by
Chu-ju-sheng-Uu
(IjJ
B S6X
0116 '^bo
Buddhahood.
as
usual, reproduced ths Sanskrit rather than the Pali form of the
expression.
is
the Sakridagamin,
in daily use
is
(^
p ^).
is
Ways "
to
i-wang-lai
he can attain perfection. The third way is that of the Anagamin, who " does not return," that is, who has
not to come back to
character.
return.
life
^) before
in this
of a like
This saint when he dies jpu-huan (;p jj) does not The popular transcription for the Indian term is A-na-
han (P^
JI5
of writing the
^), A-na-gan probably. This and the common ways names of the other " ways " as given here date from
Buddhism
in China.
The
ways
is
is
Arab an.
The Chinese
is
transcription
always
cut
down
to Lo-han.
is
the
ChineM Language.
;
405
it
is
a title of the
Buddhas and'
perfection.
of
all
those
who have
and
But
in
used in a loose
way
There are from old time the Five Hundred Lo-han, Indians, who
still sit
by statue
in council as
And
known than
originally
all or
as
it still is
in
some places
sixteen,
nearly
are
all disciples
of
the historical
Budbut
not in
all
places
the
same,
seem
be popular additions.
But few
have them
is
who
the
why
to
which
supposed to be understood by
for
Buddhist monks
is
of
in Chinese
Tou-Ve (BJ
P)-
is
be
Dhuta
is,
or
"shaken
off,
cast
away," that
having shaken
or one
who
The term
who
He
f3|.
is
flg;)
so
called
Chinese tou-su
the dust
But
into a monastery,
though he generally
lives apart
and
often
some
or
all of
which he
is
bound
to observe.
him
^^
who
hsing4/oU't'e{fj'
is
W P6)
near the
406
a pure
of self-restraint,
in
Chinese hsiu-chih-ch'ing-hsing
T'ou-t'e
is used in Chinese to (^ f^ denote as well the unattached Buddhist saint as the life of self-
^7).
it
seems
be often treated
as
native term,
apparently forgotten.-^
Then we have the word Seng for the Buddhist clerg}^ in general. The whole body of ecclesiastics constituting the Buddhist Church, or any congregation of ordained
monks
is
called in
(J[^
Sanskrit a Sangha.
This in Chinese
is
Seng-chia or ga
^,
which which
is
common
may
monks.
We have
a Buddhist monk,
among
it
origin.
The
'Jffi
or U-p'o-t'e-ye (fg
:gg).
These are
all
^)
M M
of
acknow-
is
is
very
mentioned in
corruption of
latter
countries about.
who came
but
to India, the
Brahmans.
To
to
be
men
&c.,
of
strict in
Samprajna-paramita ching
(^
^ ^),
chap
end.;
the Chinese
Language.
407
They were
sprung
of
Brahma
(^
^ 5c
^.)
(^
S iS
form
The
old
P'o-lo-merh
(Jg^
it is
sometimes interchanged,
j^ P^)used in
a book
is
Indian writing.
to
of
the
first
it is
we take
is
Oh' a
(jjfij),
is
current.
But
The
first
native
the character
is
explained
But one
for
this
to
pagoda.
Now
the Sanskrit
name
parasol
is
Ch'attra
word which
it
also denotes
is
dominion or sovereignty.
Then we
flagstaff
find
a Sanskrit term
It
is is
which means a
word
tell
for
it
Others
us
the
first
syllable of
Ch'a-mo
(in
Pali
the earth.
The character
It
is,
is
also
said to be for
that
is,
accord-
which denotes
field,
This
apparently some-
many
which
*'
is
So
Fo-ch'a
presides
is
which he
though
In
word
Buddhism on
408
The
Infl^iience
of
we
often find
t'lc,
earth,
added as a gloss
(^
%\\ j^),
the spheres
Buddhas.
But
in
for a long
word
common
wood with thatch of reeds and situated in a But the restriction is not observed, solitude. remote hamlet or a and the name is applied to any Buddhist temple. So we often find
mention
of
hu
Hych^a
or old
shrine,
still
is,
a term frequently
applied to a
deserted shrine
which
that
is
retains
some
virtue.
Indian shrine, a
Buddhist temple.
it
This last
also called
the
common one
villages.
jg
^) used
is
to designate a
The
with certainty.
Some think
represents the
it is
But
it is
due
to the
learned author of the note which contains this statement to say that
the whole note ought to be carefully expunged. In the T'ung-chien-
kang-mu,
in the account of
T'ang
Wn Tsung's
reign,
we
find
it
was
Tu
(or
these characters
we
For the first of Che)-tou-t'Uhe (^5 [^ |f). find in other places chao ( fg ), which is said to
have been substituted wrongly, but the two characters were read
at the time
is
The former would Ssu'fang-seng-wu (pg jf 1W f$ or i^). mean ''Monks and Buddhas of the four regions," and the latter would mean " the effects of the monks of the four regions," or
as
to
them."
the
four
quarters
iv-,
or
regions.
And
"
they
s.
were
Ti
X^
p.
12; "
T'ung-chieu.kang-mu
Liang
Wu
the Chinese
Language.
409
House or Property
of the
Buddhist clergy.
practice,
Then
the
of brevity, according to a
common
first
and third
name by which
These were at
first
And
so there
is,
monks.
except
In course
word
for temple or
by
home
or shelter
use in the
fifth
it
Wei
that
dynasty,
may
Sanskrit is Sangharama,
Fraternity.
length in several ways, but the form which has passed into the
language
is
Seng-ga (chia)-lan
is
(ff*
^ ^).
In common speech
Kayian
is
original
meaning
So we do not
often incorrect
wonder
manner.
to find
Ka-lan used
see
it
in
a vague and
Thus we
also to the
and
grounds attached.
Buddhist or
*^
(fllD
at least it is
T^^'
being
forest."
By
chiefly a pious
monk who
lives as
a hermit
* Ch. Rev., vol. ii., p. 61 ; " Tung-chien," etc., "T'ang Wu Tsung" ^, 5th " Ka-lan-chi," chap. iii. In Japan we find a Buddhist temple called year T'ang Chao.t'i.s8u (If JS ^). In the "Ka-lan-chi" we find mention of official Chao.Vi (*b* IS JS), chap. iv.
410
the Chinese
Language.
in a forest.
which the
this
way
observe.
written A-lan-yo
H^
or JJJ or
g)
or in other ways.
Of these
first
A-lan-yo
is
syllable is cut
for
a a
Buddhist monastery.
Buddhist monastery in a
loose manner.
forest,
it
in a very
the words arana and aranya, the former meaning " without noise This is seen in the varyor fighting,'* and the latter " a forest."
by
ssil
The
is
not very
uncommon.
Then the term Lan-yo is pious monk who has left the world and
aspiring.
also
monk
is
least in literature.^
One
of the
the Park of Prince Jeta, which was situated near the town of
Sravasti.
was known as the Jetavana-vihara or Monastery When the sacred books were translated into of the Jeta Park. Chinese the word vihara in this compound was usually replaced
It
by a Chinese rendering.
lated.
Jffi
retained
also
was in a few
is
cases trans-
A full transcription
An
in
815)^
Shi-to-p'o-na (jg these all are rarely similar, but others ^^^ *^^^ ^^
in
Chinese
employed.
shu
1
older
way
of expressing the
(iB;
),
which chi
is for
trees,
i.
(M
II) et
p.
17; "Liao-cliai,"
chap.
for Jetavana
Ghi-huan
hif^an (IK ?1) for Chi't'e-huan-na Qg or vam). Models of the Jetavana-vihara seem to have been carried
is
yuun
to
be read here as
into
it
seem
to
have
to be applied
Even
of
so far
back as the
century
lost,
also
for
we we have a Buddhist
find that the
meaning
Chi'huan-lin
(^
-j^g
:^),
where
is
liny
a wood,
is
redundant.
is
now
reis
But, as
Indian Pagoda.
Pali, and Top "
This
is
is
called
N.
W.
Punjaub, where
is
ancient
monuments
kind
occur.*'
The
Stiipa
a monu-
ment
built over a
or erected to or
connected with a
Buddha
Buddhist
or a
mark the
monk
Brahman
are interred.
In Chinese we
^)
name
of the
monument
sense, for
Ekottaragama Sutra,
a native of
Gautama-Saiighadeva,
But
this
known, and the common name pagoda in China is T^d. This is short for
is little
form
used
for
Va was invented
it
to give the
which
represents.
(^
i^
for
Jg),
used.
most Chinese
as
often explained
if
of
native formation.
or )g)
also
is
We have
word Fu-Vu
(J:J
It is
employed
Buddhism
in China.
In
literature of
412
The Influence
it
of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
to
Language.
so used
down
Han
Wen
of
Kung,
of the
Buddha, Buddhism, and a Buddhist monk has it also in the relic. The pagoda in
it
China,
will be
to
be merely a
commemorative
structure.
it
And
the
the
private and social virtues as being better than to build, for ex-
word Fu-t'u
numerative or
is
^ M)'
(JS/f),
When
the
its
a place, as
classifier,
San-tseng-fu-t^u-i'so
"" It may be ^)i one pagoda of three storeys. t? added here that this word Fu-t'u is also used in the sense of an
(H
image of Buddha, as in phrases like Yii (3) Fu-t% a jade Buddha.i We now turn again to the Buddhist monk and note some of
the terms expressing his external and material apparatus which
And
of the
outward and
equipments of an ordained
ecclesiastic the
The
often
and Patto
In Chinese
Po-to-lo (1^
^
is
j^),
but
this is not
found.
The
first
syllable alone,
Po
it is
bowl
of other beggars.
The
character
word
of similar
monk must
bowl
to
in the hand.
(%
s.
^ 1^
Tope
;
;2l
^)>
to
<iis-
xi.
Hob-job
ii.,
v.
(.Tap.
Reprint).
p. 20.
(^ft
|| |^ |g), chap
the Chinese
is
Language,
413
of the
Buddhist monk
called
Kashaya in
*'
"When
Ka-sha
first
(H
^).
These characters were changed for Ko Hung in the "Tzii-yuan " (i^ ^).
^ ^ with
As
in
The
latter
tinued in use
treated as
way of writing Ka-sha or Ka-sa (Chia-sha) has condown to the present, and the word is no longer a foreigner. AH Buddhist monks are supposed to
dyed robe, and hence
Buddhist
wear
this
"a man
of the
Ka-sa "
is
synonym
for a
ecclesiastic.
described by an
Emperor
is
Tan'-fu-chia-sha-chih-jen
M ^ ^ ;S
(ga)'li or ti
men
of the Ka-sa.^
is
article of a
monk's dress
the Samghati,
^^
of
or 3g)
ghati
to
:^ j^ in
some
mean monk.
The
name
head
is to
Over
monk when
full in
is
sometimes
Chinese, but
is
often shortened
down to TJ-to-lo'shig (pg ft)The food which the Buddhist monk obtained by begging in
morning rounds was
that
is,
^^
his
thrown
(or fallen),
became Pin-t^u-p^O'to (^J 5), but as thus transcribed it almost unknown. The old form, which is that still in use,
Fen^oei
^^
is
is
(^
^), fen
in
But fen-wei
is also is
used to
a literal
m,
9th day.
414
the Chinese
Language.
is
(g ^),
to
beg
Chinese characters now read fen-wei have changed since the time when they were taken to represent this expression. Hence native
authors are fain to treat them as Chinese and to find a meaning
in each, the phrase being taken to denote the food begged for
division (fen)
to preserve (wei)
may
"divide the streets," which is impossible, and Mr. Bunyio Nanjio says truly the term " may literally be rendered " by " to divide
an outpost or
inadmissible.
(ITos. 610,
frontier
this
is
clearly
In the
611) pindaya
it is
fen-wei, as
also in his
is
No
is
patron of a
monk
or a monastery or
who
Whea
this
into Chinese
{^ ^).
dan
;
transcription
or they
may
represent
pa
in dana-pati.
But
this Sanskrit
word
the
Now
who com-
monly regard
as a Sanskrit
it
as half foreign
and half
to give
and
it
is
explained by Shih-chu (J ;^), master of alms or lord of charity. This word Tan-yue is still used both in speech and writing, and is
often found in the light literature.
It
is
sometimes regarded as
Buddhist community.
^ In addition to the " Fan-i-ming-i " and " I-ch^e-ching," &c., see Bunyio N.'a Cat., No. 611 and No. 16; M, V- 1 Childer's Pa. Diet. s.v. Pindapatoand Pindoi " SUi-shih-yao-iau " chap. J;.
BM^^
C^^g^),
415
The alms
or a monastery
monk
This
the
because
"word
is
it
is
received
in
in
the
right
hand (dakshina).
use
found
written
known and
common
is
Ta-ch'en (g| |g or
first
and we
The
word dakshina
is
translated
by
ts'ai-shih
(^ JjJ),
that
is,
property
given in alms or for religious purposes, and this native word shih
is
Thus we
jg), that
(^
^ |g
all
monk] had
meaning
some
of
By
monk
bound
and he
is
also
him
spiritual advice
or instruction.
Hence we
accepts.
jifc
of religious teaching
or clothing he
tzu-ta-ch'en
(^
To
is
an
a
act of a
Buddhist
monk done
religious offerings.
Instead of
we
often
find
another
ch^eri'shih'
kung-chu
all
(||g
M^
^)
^),
to
monks with them all they need: and we even give money in charity.^
as the characters are read now. This
She-wei
(g ^),
So
Buddhist monk.
term
*
conjecture.
J|;,
Yuan-
tTKlVERSITY;
416
These
word
The two
repre-
and
local pronunciation,
may have
Jhapetva,
performed."
with
it,
we sometimes
(^
may have
(Kshapayati in Sanskrit),
to
burn or cremate.
The poet Su
monk,
in the
@ ff
(^
gfc
),
But when
this
expression
(^)
instead of ch'a.
tSft
sM-wei we have
and wei-hsie
she-jpi
(g
^)
(hsie
may
be for ya).
(HP
|[j)
and ching-hsiin
(g
^\
(H
:Sl
given as
all
the bonds of
life
coming
of
It appears as
Ni-yuan (wan
5)> ^^^
still
or van) (3 \W) or
as
in
common
use.
The
is
light.
But
in
Buddhism
it
Thus
it is
of sin
by extinction
means
Julien Voyages, Ac, T. ii., p. 342; and iii., p. 518.; " Shi-shih-yao-lan,'* ~|C. The character hsie (J)^) in the text should be pronounced ya or in some similar manner ; and the character was read tsa or cha in the T'ang This character and that for ch^a are very often interchanged. See period. " T"ang-yun-cheng," chap. iv. s.v. ^.
chap.
77if
Influence of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
of the
417
in this
life,
and the
bliss of
is
Paradise.
The use
term in
an end
to all
coming into
and dying.
the
prison of
life
Nie-p'an."
is
Hence
the Chinese,
it
who sometimes
made
word
not
native, explain
as being
(^ ^),
may
(^ ^).
relics.
is
When
f}
)
Such
weil
(^
known
to readers of
Chinese
the old
literature
and
to those
who
visit
Buddhist temples.
It
is
transcription of
ways
of
this old
is it
way
is
still
followed.
A Saria
A-
^
''
denotes rather a
relic,
of course
Chinese, and so
we
ShS-li'ku (-^ ^J
a relic bone.
it
word
known
is
The
Then Chaitya,
chita
in Pali
relic-
The Chinese
^^^^
transcriptions
mix up
and chaitya,
or
(B|f
^ or
-JiJ
/) or Chi-to
(^ ^)
or
Chi-fi
This
(i
to
^)j ^^^
term
chi-b'i is
pagoda often
It is given
also to the
mound
monk
or
nun are
and
interred.
life
belief of
Buddhism
p. 6.
See the "Ch'eng-tao-chi" (^ jf gg) near the end; "Ka-lan-chi," chap, iv., " Ch'ang-tao-chen-yen " (ngag ^), chap, ii.; "Miao-fa Lien-hua-ching," ohap. i> et al. The SauBkrit text has dhatu, and the Chinese trantilatea bj She-li,
;
418
the Chinese
Language.
and strangers.
We
have now
to notice
a few of these
religious terms
of the
is
cabulary.
is
One
'iffi
R^
in all
The
is old,
but
it is also,
it
has become in a
the last
manner
consecrated.
syllable is
it
the term
complete.
is
the
spiritual
It
is
called in
Chinese Fo-fnu,
them. The P'o-lo-mi-to, Paramita, is explained as meaning " conveying to the other bank'* or '^ arriving at the other bank.''
spiritual
to
which leads
Nir-
be noticed presently.
the
attainment and
must
all
be
by the pious
aspirant.
ing Buddhist
monks
to
ance of the
some parts
have
of
! six P'o-lo-mi (JK 5^ Jffi i& :ft ??) China, moreover, both Pan-yo and Pan-yo P'o-lo-mi
use and acquired a popular one in the
S^^
Bodhi,
which
is
In Chinese the
no other transcrip-
(^
J|),
To
the Chinese
TJiP Tnfliience of
Bnddfdsm on
the Chinese
Language.
of the
419
canon
Buddhists iiud
to
Bodhi
of the
moral philosophy
of
Hence
this
untranslated.
is
it
this class to
be noticed
is
that which in
transcrip-
Sanskrit
tion
is
is
Dhyfma, and
in
Pali Jhfina.
The Chinese
Shan-na (jg 815) always shortened in practice to shan, and sometimes mentioned as Shan P^o-lo-ui, the Dhyiina-Paramita.
This
term Dhyfina
is
in
for
the
is
pious enthusiasts.
At one time
{j^
gjf),
Buddhists,
the Shan-shi
and
spiritual standing
the Shan-shi
brethren
who made
little
of the law,
and
spiritual
self-development.
is
now
practically to
may
be simply a Buddhist
monk
is
as
Shan-men
(f^)
is
There
This
is
known
as
Yoga.
is
Yii-chia, that
Yu-ga
(Ji;
^)
in
chiefly
applied to a course of
spiritual exercise
accompanied by
definite
movements
control.
of the hands,
The monk
or
who
practises this
harmonious cooperation
in
of
is
called a Yogficharya,
Chinese
is
Yu-ga-shih
(gj), a
master in Yoga.
is
But the
terra
Yoga
not so
common
in
the
name
This
of another kind of
latter
meditation or contemplation,
Samudhi.
denotes
when
successfully
iiutl., p.
carried
out
in
sort
vii.
of
unconscious
Edkius, Ch.
420
the Chinese
Language.
rapture.
also the
power
In Chinese
we are told, is San-mo-ti (^ 0. Jj^), other ways of writing it, such as San-mo-t'i
common and
best
known
it
is
San-mei"ii
(H
Jfe)j
Various degrees of
are noted by
But
and non-Buddhists
prolonged devotion
San-raei
is
to spiritual
The
expression
p8
6S)j
which we
It
is
one
Maha-Parishat, in
Chinese Wn-nien-ta-hui
(^
i\ ^), the
At
and
especially
it
it
and
discipline.
Because
it
could give
an erring
was
Maha-Parishad.
the transcription
first
This word
used for
now read Wii-che Jg ^), but at the time it was Moksha perhaps read Mu-cha. The conference is
JFw (Muj-che-ta-hui, that
is,
thus
known
as the
the Great
is
Assem-
In
this
phrase
Moksha
used in a
its
of sins as
an act
Karma,
in
mo
(|
0).
We have
word
in
When
"JJ
is
retained
it is
Buddha.
We
word
in this sense is
literally,
it
to
make
religion,
meaning
Karma
as denoting a
421
service
or function
performed by a congregation of
Buddhist
ecclesiastics.^
We
little
is
explanation.
so popular
Of
more
all
known
as the
YdThis
lan-hui, or
is
correctly Yd-lan-p^hi-hui
its
{^
M ^ '&)
hung up
chief
is
On
and
" hungry
at doors
lit
and
sent floating
down
by the
historical
rivers. The feast is said to have been instituted Buddha and on this wise. His great disciple
of his
dead
among
went down
ment
until he
He
she tried to eat the rice this changed into ashes, and Mu-lien
went back
to
Buddha and
to
Buddha
there-
upon explained
disciples not
only
how
but also
how
back could be delivered from places of torture for sins done in the flesh. The 15th day of the 7th moon was appointed for the
yearly celebration of the feast, and
its
name was
called, in the
^^^)'
Jg), to
to be a
is
used to hold
is
p'o-na means
or the
suspense
'*
or rather "deliverance"
state.
means
of deliverance
all
from such a
Messrs. Edkins,
what
^
is
regarded as their
ii.,
422
the Chinese
Language.
which
this
head downwards.
remain
in
The term
is
Bats do
may hope
be promoted to be a
man
or one of
Ulamba
seem
to
as
be
such a word.
The phrase
tao-hsiiayi is
'^
to
be
a
The U-hm-p'o-na
all
is
higher condition.
the feast
is
It
is
whom
held are
among
hungry ghosts."
and the
Some
may be merely
feast will
The Chinese
word Ullambhana as
their original,
and
this
extrication, or deliverance.
The important
part of the
(^
g),
instrument of deliverance.^
Another
written
very
(f^
common
|tt)
religious
term
is
that
usually
Nan-wu
Tbis
word
is
in constant use
all
(Namo in
of the
Pali),
which means
Instead
they
are
little
used
Thus
to
it is
sometimes
^),
worship or adore, or
as
Kung-ching
1
(^ ^),
',
to reverence,
and sometimes
Knei-ming
Bunyio
Oriental, Nov. 6, 1875 1^ yao-lau," chap. 1^, wliere the meaning is expressly given as to be Cliinese but wrongly. slated or acknowledged is
l
B^M ^ M
^ BM
B^ ^M^ j^ and
fij
p'^n
the Chinese
Language.
423
iW "v^X
and we
to trust or
put faith
in.
Often the
(J^
first
syllable is omitted,
to
find
^),
worship, or to
Fa, Na-mo-seng
in
(^
|tt
f^,
^M
on behalf of others
drive
away
evil
and
so
hum
doing
it
own
piety.
While
they are
said
KohC'ch'aiig-nan'WU (na-mo)
(P
Pg
Ja|), to
The mention
for spells
ni,
name
and
religious
is
This
is
Dhara-
and there
viz.,
T'o'lo-ni (P or fg jg jg).
This
is
chou
mean
is,
^), able
to hold, that
There are
known and
The
T'o-lo-ni
But
The word
and
it is
itself
is
not supposed
of
of the essence
a T'o-
lo-ni that
it
that
Padme Hum,
that
;
is,
Aum,
the sacred
;
Padme,
in the lotus
it
Om
In Chinese
P/A
becomes An-Dia-ni-pa-'me-hung
is
^ gg
PS
Pt)>
^^^ there
little
variation in the
Each
with
its
common
use.
We now
or
as Sutras, Hsiu'to-lo
(^
jg)j
Viuaya or Pi-nai-ye
(Ijlfc
HP)
424
and Abhidarma or A-pi-tan (fg fjj; ^). But these technical terms are little known beyond the circle of
or shortly Pi-ni
jg);
those
who
An
common
term, however,
that read
Ghieh, that
Kieh or
KH (^g).
which
in
Buddhism
the
name
many
more
transcription
of
the Sanskrit
word
is
KH-ye
(jBE ffi)>
b^^ ^bis has never supplanted the old form given above.
The
is
been used as
if it
it
even used
translate the
means a song
Sanskrit texts
to the
or a verse composition.
is
in the
also
known
(^
|J).
The
So
may be described as containing i-ch'ien-k'i, a thousand sentences. It may be noticed in passing that the Chinese word chie, that is,
kai or kiai
{jg})
verse or sentence.
Then
k*i
f^ jg)
The
to
sacred
is
well
first
known,
brought
Palm
in India.
When
is
curiosity.
called in Sanskrit
is
Tala-pattam).
(^
^
we
S)
find
ill
Pei-to-lo Ching.
it
But
is
not
much
its
*'
used, and
Then
abbreviaFo-kuo-chi,"
Kang-hsis.v. g?j
ohap. zzzvi.
the Chinese
Language,
425
came
to
be regarded as the
name
of the tree
whose leaves
uch ex-
were used
pressions
SLS
We
find, accordingly,
pei-y^
(^ ^),
that
is,
To read aloud the prayers, charms or other sacred texts of Buddhism is often expressed by pai (pg), which is the Sanskrit path, to read aloud or recite. Then pei is also used as a noun,
patha, and
Ko Fan-pai
(gft
^ Pgj
is
to
And
this
in the air,
made by unseen beings, sweet and long drawn out.^ these we pass to ootioe a few words which though still connected with sacred learning are rather terms of the common
From
They belong
to
to
The
the
own language and taught its principles to their Chinese converts. Hence we find some of the technical terms of Sanskrit grammar in the Chinese
of their
knw
grammar
(or GttrMH)-lo
iJ
it
or
]||), is
Gram-
mar.
In this sense
a word or sentence.
To
word
grammar
and henoe
it
which seemed
to
way
to resolve a
But
is
also
known more
chi'lun
(S^
Shhig-ming^
2
for
or 05
|i|),
Treatise
on Etymology.
The
and
loosely
narratives connected
in this sense the
with
is
Gautama's
career.
When
1
emph)yed
is,
word
often transcribed
Ro^
chia-na, that
See
''
Va-ka {or^(^a)-na
(fti
05),
an old transcription.
Liao-ohai," &o., chap, iii., p. 10 aud glossary (^ ^) ; Ma T, L., oh. The Fan. pai is also called Fan yin (^ -^j, aud it is used ia cxxvii. (% Pi). the seuse of sougs or hymns of praise. Sae the quocabious g.veii iu Kanglisi s.v.
" '>hi-shih.yao-lau," eh. PM _t. where the Sauskrit word (bS S)> ^^^ different interpretation is given.
;
is
giveu aa poi-A*
426
the Chinese
Language.
Then we have the word Lanza or Ranja, which is the designation of a peculiar way of writing Sanskrit practised in
Nepaul and
Tibet.
From
known
as
Lan
When
of a
Aum
Hanja
chang
or
any
syllable
it is
magic formula,
written in the
Indian manner
characters.
is
Hsi-tan-
(^
:^),
the
name
of
a treatise or
treatises
on the
Sanskrit alphabet.
perhaps originally
accepted
or
But we
or Si-tan is for a
that which
is
produced by the
^), and that chang is Chinese and denotes (^ ,^ a chapter. The Si-tan Chang for Chinese are primers which teach
the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, their phonetic values, and
their simplest combinations.^
made up
it
of
The Buddhist
Shi-
who
transcribed
It is explained by them also as lu'ka (^ S& flip) and otherwise. a metre of the Buddhist sacred books, which is made up of 32
characters,
also
tztt
(?}:).
But
word
is
used in a
less restricted
manner.
beyond
the
Flowery
Land,
and
novel theories
about
the
of
Thus names
their
way
into
Chinese.
ticated
1
and
much
i.,
Others while
165 ii., p. 127 ; Kang-hsi Dicty. Teng-yun, p. 20. properly and originally the translation of SabdaThis is only a part of the vidya, the understanding (explanation) of sounds. See treatise or course of instruction called Vy-akarana. chap. iy.
Jnlien Voyages, T.
p.
But Shing-ming
(^
|]3)
is
the^'^^^ ^^^,
the Ghinese
to
Language,
427
known
convey
to the
to
educated
are
strangers
the
unlearned and
first
example
This
is
is
a very
common term
sha-p'Oj
in literature,
all
regarded as understood by
everybody.
By
that
So'ho
(i^
|pf)
of
There are other transcriptions, such as the Yuan-chuang, which represent the correct
is
pronunciation.
the
land of endurance."
guage
all
of the
With this meaning it passed into the lanChinese who had no native term whereby to express
later
that
are comparatively
very
use
common.
It
may
be found in
its
into
is
be well
known
to
Chinese
that called
in Sanskrit Jambu-dvipa.
In the ocean which surrounds the Of these the Southern one, which
is
great mountain
Meru
supposed
to
Island of Jarabus or Rose-apples (Eugenia Jarabos), which with the Buddhists became almost a
name
for India.
The term
it
it is
occurs
passed into
In the
latter a
common way
{\\)
of writing
Chan-pu
The name
is
Yen-foit-t'i
for
Jambu, and
is
t'i is
(^ |^
tree,
J|J).
The name
Chinese.
as a
Jambu"
"the
and this is the derivation accepted by the These use the term Chan-pu-chou apparently almost
for their
synonym
own
428
is also
The
Infiuevnce of
Buddhism on
ehiefly
the Chinese
its
Language,
In the
known
in
China
by
Sanskrit name.
early translations
Sumeru was
(^
5B
for
ffi)
Meru.
(j^
remained popular.
of the
Some
have
Sumeru
Hindus with
to
own Kun-lun,
names on
being supposed
sides.
different
writers,
Then Buddhist
sometimes
who have many Merus for their many systems of worlds, treat Meru and Sumeru as names of different mountains. And so in Chinese books we occasionally find Sumeru
called
Ta
Maha-Meru, but to
of the Buddhists,
is
from Meru.
|g ^).
is
Anavatatto.
It;
is
represented
by the above transcription, as it is the Sanskrit form which is given in Yuan-chuang's transcription A-na-p'o-ta (or tap)-to
^'^^s (^^* SX)?'^^^ - ^)SB while A-nou-ta is still in common use.
(M
latter is
Anavatapta
the
name of
rise.
it
The Chinese
it
identified
is
known
and
China
old
before
Buddhism reached
the country.
name Shewtu (^ ^)
B. C, and variations are Hsien-tu (,^ Jg) and Hsien-tou (gS), both probably pronounced like Hin-du. But these were all
declared to be wrong, and Yin-tuif^W jg) was given as the proper
transcription.
way
of writing
;g),
to
be
429
name
for India.
The second
name seems
to
may be
It is
names
properly their
name only
to
known
as India.^
The name
of the
the
^jp).
Yuan-chuang uses the transcription K'eng (or Geng)-ga {j% ^), and there are other ways of writing the name. But in general use
we never find any except the above Heng-chia, often shortened to Heng. The native word for a river, Ho, is added to this, and the term Heng Ho, or Ganges River is common alike in old and modern literature. With the Chinese as with the Indians " the sands of the Ganges" are used as a symbol for numbers beyond counting.
Off the coast of Chekiang
called P'ut'o or Puto.
is
Sanskrit word
P'ti-Vo-la-chia
(KaJ
'^
(^ P */S (^ PM. f^
of
flill)-
Bt^tter
ways
of writing the
name
are Pn-ta-lo-rhia
5S5).
of
(^
|g
^)
some
other writers.
to
time appeared on
it
to venture-
some
is
It
is
to
Kuan-yin
is
Puto
sacred,
supposed
Isle as a
word we sometimes
or Lo-ka, used as a
of
name
is
Another way
in
of writing this
name
which
name
is
completely obscured.*
Edkins' Ch. Bud., p. 88 ; Georgi Alphm. Tib., p. 10. See the Pu-t'o-ahan-cbih " (^ f-g iJj j^,y, Edkius' Ch. Bud.,
p. 139.
430
the Chinese
Language.
We
The Buddhist
names
generally-
unknown
to
be
Thus we
find
Lo-cha or Lo-sha
^)> ^sed to transcribe the Sanskrit word Laksha, which means a lakh or 100,000. This word, however, is not so well
0^*
known
name
for 10,000,000.
is,
The Chinese
Kn-ti ({E 55)
of Ku-ti,
|5;),
the
latter
a difference of statement as
that
it
to the
meaning
some
telling us
still
greater
number
is
given as
and which
is
said to denote
The
fifc)>
name
is
Jg li
Na-hu-to
(85 ft ^but some think that the second character here should The name Nayuta is said by native scholars to be be yil (J^).
the equivalent of their
billions,"
own
hoii ('^),
*'
''
ten
all
but
it is
also defined as
Above
these
is
the
highest
is
number
that
is
named.
A'seng-chih
f& ik M)'
This
and
form A-seng-chih-ye
(M
form
of transcription is little
is
known,
which
is
very common,
sum
human
figures.
Among
dhists
made by
the
Bud-
we
China.
which have been made popular in There in the Kshana, which in Sanskrit denotes the
moment regarded
as a
measure
of time."
is
In Chinese
this
(^|J gjj),
which
used to
Theiflnfluence of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
It has
431
been
time.
^|J J|5
^ g|) denotes
a
At
Kshana
the
Kalpa (Kappo
of
in Pali).
AYith the
Brahmans
Brahma
or
of a world or
transcribed in Chinese
or
^),
/^or
that
hap^o perhaps
treated as
if it
in
is
But
in practice
Kap)
it
is freely
the Buddhist
name
find
for
what they
We
from age
to
age,
Wan
is
Kieh,
for ever.
Of the names
for
the only
perhaps the
As
a measure of distance
standard, for
miles,
it
it
and
its
length
given in Chinese
li
by Yu-rjen (^
or
58)
(^ ^)
or
Yu
fy it) -hsfin
{^ ^)
more
fully
by
J|S).
date
apparently and
chuang's Yd-shan-na
the old
(JlJ .^j
introduced.
But, as usual,
writers
ways
of
writing
generally express
Yojana by Yu-yen
From
names
the
From
same
jewels
new names
for other
432
The Influence
of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language,
the foreign
own names. But in such name was adopted because it was believed to
(J^), a pearl, but
was the
old
word chu
Mani was
As
has
^ JB)'
This
is
name
name
which
is
Sometimes
it is
distinguish-
But
and
the
of
Mani
is
also in
Heaven
to
as
here.
It has wonderful
it is
the Buddhists
a sacred
One
Buddhist
riyam.
of the
to in
literature
is
Pali Velu-
This
some
beryl.
prefer to regard
One way
which
tion
{^
to
3^ Jg),
favour
in the pronunciation
was probably
like Bi-lu-luh
and
this
would seem
There are
word
in
classes,
One
class gives us
(^
|^
4), and the other has forms like F'i-liu-li (ft former seems to point to a Sanskrit, and the latter
original.
^).
The
to a Prakrit
is apparently the " has long been used without the " head
Thus
written
it
is
and
is
perhaps
pre-Buddhistic.
though
its
origin
at least
by the
lazuli
learned.
and
its
One
of the earliest
known
is
io
a pathetic
the Chinese
Language.
433
its
But
or
precise
it
meaning cannot
and place
*^
be
passage.
In
"^Take
(Jf^
my
^M
Wiy ^^')
2^'
kind
of porcelain coloured
and polished.
The
old descriptions of
to glass.^
For
glass,
however, there
written).
is
the special
is
name
Po-li
{^
and otherwise
This also
of
Sanskrit origin
at length this is
is
and
Written out
Sa-
(^
$'(
The
sibilant is
|5[ JJg).
Jjg \
scarcely
known.
(^
Then the
as usual
;(5f).
becomes
or
r,
and we have
than crystal.
written Ch^e-ch^u (J^ ;^)
is
Sankha, a
shell
it
translates Musaragalva,
it
which
and
translates
or transcribes
Karketana, the name of a white mineral or precious stone, perhaps a kind of chalcedony.
ch^ii as
(]ij |g).
been used by
of
the 6th
Rank Mandarins
are made.
But the
characters
is
expressly said to
and
it
is
The
it
and
possible
Then
there
is
in Sanskrit.
^
Ma-nao
See Prof. M. Miiller iu Journal R. A. S., vol. xii., p. 178. In the Chinese poem quoted in the text the word translated "seat" iu the text should perhaps be " work-box," a rendering which the context seems to require. " Ku-shi-yuan," ch. iv., Ist poem. The word liu-li is said to occur iu literature of the 4th Century
B. G. or thereabouts.
434
the Chinese
to
Language.
tlie
(M ^
as a
5i)is
^^^ Marakati
is
supposed
denote
emerald,
is
and ma-nao
Further ma-nao
(or
given
rendering for
is
Asmagarbha
Asmagalva)
which
diamond.
In some
ma-nao
in
this
yd and
shih,
and
To account
said
to
for this
term a new
was
This
it
scarcely be
is of
foreign origin.
possible that
dialectical
as
variety of
of agate.
The
This
% ^).
Kuang-yun apparently, and Kanghsi only repeats the very short account given in the Kuang-yun. The pin-f/ie was produced, we
are
told,
in
to
China apparently.
Pindayas, a
swords,'^
to
name
as
name we have evidently the Sanskrit The Pin-t'ie " makes very sharp steel.
ball
and
pinda means a
or
lump, so
be a compound of other iron (]^ |f |f ft ^), used as a rendering for pinda in the Buddhist books.
being
of
known
aries.
to the
or
the dye or
the drug
articles
which
Such
names under which they were In not a few cases, however, the foreign name
it
denoted.
The
plant and
its
known
to
report.
Then
names
for
applied to
'
be identical with or to
"Kuaug-yuu"
g[
" Fati-yii-tsa-ming"
{%
^),
List of Errata
at end.
435
otliers,
or to be as
it
Many
instances might
be
will be given as
we proceed.
(or Stila),
which
in India is
utility.
name
beauty and
it
The Sala
the founder
he lay
in his
moments.
And
ever since
left
when the
eartli
on which the
to lose
its
Buddha
is
this
wont before
In
leaves
punctually sheds
well known,
is
is
leafy tears.
China
Sha
in
or Sa-lo
(^
=^).
But
as
not
known
name Sa-lo
various localities.
The Chinese
This latter
or
Silk-cotton tree
in
(Bomhax Heptaphyllum).
and
this
called
Sanskrit Salmali,
became
in
Chinese Sa-h-vin
(^
iil /fv).
As
religiosa),
in
names Pippala.
This tree
it
held
great
reverence
Gautama
called the
called
Buddhahood.
and
this
often
tree,
name,
transcribed
known
Pi-po-lo
(fl|
^ ^)
This
name, however,
Another
tree in mystical
golden
his
when
In
the
Buddha appears
in the world, or
when
prospers
greatly
Chakravartin.
1
ordinary times
in Cli.
TJdumbara bears
;
fruit
chap,
The
Salnuili tree is
Rec,
(^ ^).
436
The
Tnfliiencf of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
is
often
In
Chinese the
name when
first
(^
to
^ |^
j^). in
wu
{$j) for
yu
seems
have ever
But the
transcription
is
And
the
name
is
common
fig-tree.
The Mango
names
Sanskrit term.
(^
jj
^ or
to
:^j),
mix up Thus
characters.
Amala, a name
An-mo'lo'ha
for a
officinalis
or Phyllanthus Emhlica).
for
(
for the Sanskrit word Jp JSO^, Amalaka, another name for the Emhlica officinalis or the fruit Emhlic myrohalans. In South China the name am-lo (an-lo) is
is
which
given also to a kind of plum, and in books which treat of Buddhist matters
amra
is
buUace.
Another kind
myrobalan
is
is
that yielded
by the
called Haritaki.
it
From
we
Arabs
got their
name
for
Halileh which, as
(=pf
have seen,
is
^
the
^). and
(f) being
Jack
We
for
the
fruit
we have now
to consider another.
In South China the common name for this fruit is Po-lo-mi (*ijj {fe or ^), these three sounds and characters being those used
express the paramita of Prajila-paramita.
not
^
to
This
name
is
apparently
known
in
India,
and
its
origin
is
the Chinese
Language.
437
to
one account
it
was given
to the fruit
on account of
sweetness.
May we
phala
fruit,
and mi
is
may
In India "
what
called the
honey-jack
punningly,
Sit
is
^'
Jack (^'
gi]
JH -i 6^)-
the
Amoy
dialect the
name becomes
in
It is related that
first
the sixth
century
in
and planted
the garden of
a Buddhist
monastery
So
it is
name po-lo-mi may be in some way connected with pfiramita. But the common Sanskrit name for the fruit is Panasa (Phanas in Bombay), and this is known in Chinese literature, where it appears
as P'o-na-sa
(
8i5
^)- This
be the
Udumbara
also is called
we have perhaps
The
fibre.
name from
called Po-lo-ma
and
also
this
name
is
Here
we may have
v^ord
before,
and
The next
is
the well
known
(g
as a
pg or :^
j^).
This
which
used also
name
for the
Mudar
it
As
the Coral
to the
Shan-ch'a
((1|
^)
this
berries.
But
in
common language
name man-t'o-lo
of
1 N. (Hainan)
is
given to the
Datura
p.
(*
m W>
Chiung-chow-fon
p.
r>5
;
Shi-lei-fa
4'^S
O/iinp.^p JjuntjiKKjp.
in
some
of
the
made
therefrom.
;j(),
Ghan-Van
It
{^
but
to
trees
having
good
or
scented
timber.
has
fared
with this
word chandana
example,
in a like
manner
which
prized
it
as, for
In early
we
find the
word
name
Sandal.
the Sanskrit
name
being
Vilva.
word was
<>i'
transcribed in Chinese
by P'in-po (^
iS
|$
ft).
and
it
Mi
^^^'
^'^^^^
cannot be said
in
use.
On
It
the
apple.
it is
also given to
the Ok-gue
as
we read
of
it
being given
{'tnm^ *)'
also the lovely
There
is
Champaka
said,
^'MicJielia
Chmnpaca)
(or
in
it is
Chiampa)
China
in
5fi9)
country.
Hence came
transcriptions.
its
name, which
find
popular
various
Thus we
C/ian-po-la
( jSf
t8
and
jjg)
and
Chaji-po-ha
Of these the
but
it
(^
common
of its
its
is
final syllable.
with their
of
own Garfragrant
denia.
'
the
N.
p. 21
and
vol.
ii.,
p.
173;
489
praise
"yellow flowers," the ''odorous gold" which scents the wood, or its " gold-coloured flowers " which make it the '' Buddha of
the forest."!
is
called Tfila
to-lo
(^
jg),
But
it
is
given to at
one other species of Palm, and the Palmyra or Fan Palm This
is
the
tree
the leaves
of which, as
we have
seen, are
usM
The word
specially,
it is
7fC),
to-lo, as
written above,
also
sometimes used
to
word
tida,
It is
however,
of
the silky
tree
is
down
so used,
and that
{%
way
still
^
of
mil
But
the old
is
tou-lo
(^
Jg), which
so
tAi
The reformers
for tou, but
of
When European
introduced
into
find
velvet,
plush,
and
woollen
goods
were
first
tou-lo.
Thus we
woollens
and
Tou-lo-juiig,
is
for
and
velvets respectively.
to
The name
admiration
for
some
of
these in
of their softness
and whiteness.
(^
of
Chinese obtained
India.
their
knowledge
its
But
first
it is
was probably,
by
San-
later
Han
dynasty and
in
means
skrit is
of
Buddhist missionaries.
One name
for cotton
a native
is
name
of foreign origin.
we
Ixxix.
440
the Chinese
Language.
Kap-pa or something similar. Another old way of writing this name is Ku {^)-pei, supposed by some to be a misprint originally
for the above.
We
Chieh
(i.e.
Ka
(^
Jg '^).
According
to
way
of writing the
apparently a mistake.
name is Ka-po-lo (jjg Jg^ ^), but this The other forms all seem to point to
Karpasa
(''
an original
variety of
cotton
is
Kurpas
") or a dialectical
such as kapas.
By
sent in the 5th and 6th centuries from-Java and other places to
It
is
worthy
of
note that
the
Malay name
from India,
is
from
professional
is
The Sanskrit word Hingu has long supplied a name for Asafcetida among the Chinese.
literary
and
This word
(^ ^)
and Hing-yu
and Hun-chu
first
(^
Hing-chu.
^), the most common form perhaps being the This is used to denote the plants [Ferula
We find
(|{pj
this
as a native term,
and A-wei
to
Shih-lo
(^
^).
This
is
and
One
of the
common names
for
Black Pepper
in
Sanskrit
is
its
" Fau-i-miug-i," ch. xiii., N. & Q., vol. ii., pp. clis. ccxxxiii, ; ccxxxiv.; "Pen-ts'ao," ch. which is the Cotton of the xxxvi. A distiuction is made between Ku-pei (-j^ Bombax tree, and Ku-tung ("^ |i) which is the cotton of ths plant Gossypiam.
"I-ch'ie-cliiug-yin-i," ch.
i.
54,
72,
94;
" Yuaa-chien-lei-han,"
K)
*'
and xxxiv.
the Chinese
Language.
(pjc
441
!i)>
The
is
latter is
it
comparatively
(j^g
if|jj),
Hu-chiao
that
is,
On
India,
always called by
original
name
This in
ened
is
to
Pi-poh.
^ ^ ^
is
much used
Here
medicinally, and
is
known
word
as Pi-poh-mu
miila,
(^
^).
mu
for the
Sanskrit
which means a
name
We
origin.
name
of
Indian
Chinese,
is
Mo-li (written
^ ^ and
in several
other ways), the Sanskrit Malli or perhaps short for Mallika, the
Jasminum Samhac.
as the Indian
But
this
word Mo-li
is
name
Some
But
tell
brought
China
Indian name
Man (^ and
otherwise).
flowers.
It
is
is
to
which in
Chinese
Mo-lo
^).
The
man and
we
And
But
is
Malati in
also Mo-li.
is
This
is
also
known
as
transcribed
in
Chinese Sti-mo-
mm
An
This
3)is
the fragrant
incense.
substance
literary
fg).
known
is
as
for
making
The
(^g |g
this is
Chu
(Ku)-se-t''o
Koot or Koost of
Among
one which
is
is
practitioners.
This
is
labelled Pu-ku-chih
^H
*^ Jg).
442
The Influence
of
Buddhism on
| and
the Chinese
Language.
i.e.,
(^
^ @
Ig*)
and Hu-chiu'tzu,
J').
Though
some
of these terms as
Hindustani
The Vakiichi
is
leguminous plant
of
Bawchan
seeds
of
commerce.
many
of
China
its
seeds are
still
largely
imported.
They
them
are
doctors hold
in esteem.^
We
have
also the
Tu-nou (JH
||), a
name
in
which Dr. F.
is
the Sanskrit
note,
man
The Buddhist
struck with the
pilgrims in
much
of the
classes
people of that
country.
The word
mala, is often
name
for the
Turning next
to
names
of animals
we
of these
from Indian
Thus
is
in addition to
Ch.
p.
Dymock's Dymock's
s.v.
Mo-lo
is
lily.
" Pen-ts'ao,"
443
or
is,
is
very
is
little
known
Another way
(flu g|5),
of writing the
same word
the only
Ghia-ye, that
Gor-ya
is
Pen Ts'ao."
But
this also
of rare occurrence,
and Hsiang
is
name
One
current.
We
Sanskrit
this is
name known
is
8eng-ga
(ff"
or
^), somealso
times with pi
{^) added
apparently by mistake.
There
which
is
As
this
like
Sin-gya
it
probably
Bud-
known to the Chinese by this name at an early period.^ The rhinoceros, moreover, has a Chinese name Hsi or Hsiniu (^ ^). But it is also known at least to some extent in literature by the Sanskrit name K*adga. In Chinese this becomes Ghieh (Katyga (\^ or i% ^) or K'o {K'atyga {% &) The
dhism, and the lion was apparently
unicornity,
notice
if
one
may
Buddha, who
epithet
Then
as to Birds, in the
Ka-
ling-pin-ga
(jjg
^ ^
11)'
^^^^
is
is,
Kalavingka in Sanskrit.
Another way
former
is
of writing this
word
Ko-lo
{^
Now
the Kalavingka
sparrow
is
something
very different.
and more
are
There
who
bird
makes a low
soft music,
it ?
When
grown
li.
'*
;
Hsi.ch'ao-hsin-yii," chap. v.
444
dells or
the
*'
Kokila.
glory of
But it is not a mere earthly bird, for as it sings to the Buddha here so it is a dweller in the Paradise of Amida.* The Mynah (or Mainah) is known by various names in difand
it
books.
One
of its
common names
by
its
of India.
also
known
In
Sanskrit
name Sarika
or Sari.
{^
fij),
but sometimes we
The
latter is
also given
is
by the Chinese
and
said to be another
name
for the
ChHu-lu
{% ^)
of their
books.
take
it
compliment
to his
mother
to
were
when
Like the
native word
Lung
the Sanskrit
Naga
includes
all
serpents so far
powers.
retained
Among the
its
is
Indian name.
This
is
the
Kumbhira
Kumbhila,
In
"the
crocodile of
the Ganges;
(g
fflJt
^)ov
Kum
(^) pH'lo.
The creature is
also
(^)
*
2
at least to
some
Burnouf
"
Le Lotus,"
&c., p. 565.
CHAPTER
IX.
We
have next
to
consider
some
to
of the
the
Chinese language as a
Buddhism.
And
we
first
and
trans-
China
the peculiar
meanings.
left
many
expressions
untranslated.
In dealing
into Chinese,
v^^ith
we
are
They
cal formulae; or
or (3)
first
and third
of these
modes
Then
if
we enquire how
it
is
Sanskrit words and phrases have not been rendered into Chinese
equivalents
we
The
forth
left
their
to
their
successors.
446
the Chinese
Language.
of tran-
of interpretation
and sometimes
make
needless changes.
There
which the
left in
say those
of the
T^ang period,
fathers.
their
old forms
Thus
a
(1) the
dharani
and
mystical
as they
were found.
like
Such terms
(2)
as
left
were
of too great
Bhagavan, were
untranslated as
unknown
in China
tree,
and had
their
Jambu
retained
left
untranslated
by the early
were
left.
Lastly (5)
all
those
signification
Anuttara-
But
it
known than
least
With
to
new terms
given to
Chinese by translations
Sanskrit expressions.
These terms
new to Chinese because they are such for practical of them may perhaps be found in old literature Some purposes. before Buddhism, but these became known through the influence of that religion and so passed into the common language.^
Beginning with the Buddhas we find that the
Chinese regard
it,
title
or as the
name
into
of the
historical
Buddha Sakyamuni,
usually given
*'
Chinese.
The rendering
Neng-jen-tsi-mo (|g
one capable of
But the
^
is
very
commonly
omitted, and
(^
and
ig
MM)
chap.
iu other books.
447
used by
itself as
is,
Buddha.
It is
this sense as a
name
of
way
Instead of Neng-jen
Neng-ju (fg %), the able scholar, the clever Here we have an instance of what occurs often The name Sakyamuni in the Chinese treatment of foreign words.
find occasionally
of learning.
we
man
is
(^
JJg
3^).
Of
this Shi-chia
to
be a Sanskrit word
said to be a Chinese
of learning.
word used
man
One
Buddha
is
in
is
Chinese Shi-tsun
jj).
Loka-jyeshtha of
is,
however, also
;
and
we
is
find,
moreover, that
it is
Tathii-
gata, Purushottama,
also a
and other
or epithets of
Buddha.
It
when addressing a Buddha or speaking of one or his image. Thus in the Mountain Monastery poem Tu Fu describing a ruined temple says The old Hall alone
common form
of speech
remains
is
crumbled
to dust (-jg
5p
^).
for
The
example in
world honours,
But
the
Buddhists
is
practically
Among
the
to
have preceded
The
latter
many
stages of existence,
for himself that
was part
to
of the
good
destiny he had
made
he was
encounter Di-
pankara.
when the youth had presented his offering and given worship to the Buddha the latter predicted to Gautama that after many great cycles of years
the occasion of the meeting
On
had passed he would become Buddha with the name Sakyamuni. The old Buddha Dipankara (or Dipaka) is transcribed in Chinese
448
^)
sometimes with
lo
added
are
The
this
transcriptions,
however,
in
very rarely
met
witli,
and
Buddha
name.
is
known
is
He
the Jan-teng
the
Buddha
bright as a burning
lamp
or he
the Ting-kuang
(^
for
56)
means light-maker
or illuminator,
of the great radiance which emanated from the body of the future
Buddha when he was only a baby. One of the most popular and
China
is
the god or goddess called Kuan-shi-i/in (|| j^ W) or This last is a fair Kuan-yin, or Kuan-tzu-tsai (|g g ;g).
looks
name which is Avalokitesvara, meaning down or regards.'' But the two other
an improper analysis of
forms
name.
Kuan-yin
is
a P'u-sa
who
women and
of
As
is
a god he
is of
the P'u-sa
Kuan-yin
some
of
(or Kuan-shi-yin),
many
is
other
titles,
Thus he
known as P'u-men
or beholding
all
(^
that
facing
all sides
things, a
epithet
Samanta-mukha, facing in
and love
for
directions.
Tender compassion
mankind
we
(^ ^)
Kuan-
shi-yin, the epithet Chiu-h'u having the sense of " releasing from
misery" or
''
As her
downwards she
be a rendering
is,
(^
^)-P'u-sa, that
is,
the
word
In
poraries
all
lands where
the
of
Buddhism prevails few among the contemBuddha are better known that the rich lay
the Chinese
Language.
on
it
449
Jeta's
Park and
built
the great
But
known
not by his
name which was Sudatta, but by the epithet charitable actions had won for him, Anfitha-pindada,
of
the lielpless."
It
was
this latter
which was
is,
giver to orphans
to
and the
friendless.
This
is
sometimes shortened
remained unaltered.
The
first
translators
Hsd (^)
ku'tu,
to
kind
to the
the
Kuare
^ ^\ that
So
:
is,
those
who
without one to
whom
to
appeal (A-niltha).
woman
whom
an orphan and
JS
want to be supported by
my own
son
(^
-g^
flfe
One
title
of
skrit is Chakra-vartin,
perhaps. Wheel-revolving.
The
interpretation in Chinese
that
is,
Chuan-'lmi-shSng'Wang ((f |g 2), the Holy King of the Revolving Wheel. There are
name which
But
and
is
perhaps of
Solar origin, and there are several theories as to the origin and
meaning
of
its
Chinese rendering.
in the
the latter
long
ago
new
applications,
even
to
a ruler in the
world below.
The term
Holy "
is
title
used alone, or
is
it
is
qualified
indicate that
the king
Then Buddhism
became Fa-lmi [f^
^
Wheel
the
of the
Law.
In Chinese
It
this
^)
iii.
with
;
same meaning.
iii.
was
at
See the
'
*'
Li-chi," chap.
xliii.
450
The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
of Buddhism was first preached, and the by saying that there Buddha " set the Wheel of
the Faith in
motion.'*
This in
Chinese
is
Ch'U'chuan-fa4un
(U
first time,
1^ f^ H). Here the word ch'u, meaning at first, for the was probably at one time superfluous, and the phrase
Chuan-fa-lun
establish
the
Kingdom
Law."
of
But
mean simply to teach or propagate the Buddhist religion. This is its common use now, and so familiar is the form of Thus expression that the word /a may be left out as understood.
soon came to
we
is
that they
may
help
Buddha
to
I-tsu
Fu-
of houses
monks
and which
{^
also
is
by
others.
Reverend."
or Listener,
is
This was
name given
at first to the
immediate
disciples of the
Buddha,
who were
first
This
Ta-ti-tzu
common
terms
1^ -f ), Great Brethren, and the term is use as one of respect for old or eminent monks.
(^
in
mortality,
But
when used
The
in
the sense of
''
a world,"
is
well
(H
^
-S?-)
denotes in
Form
s.r.
Dhammachakkam.
tlie
Chinese Language.
is
451
rendered
by shi
(ifr),
a generation, by yu (^),
existence,
^j),
is
Near
history of
Buddhism
Its
is,
attained a
among
the followers
(in
of that religion.
Pali
Gijjakut) that
sacred books
Vulture Peak.
we usually
sho-chueh
(^
S)^ ways
that
in in
is
perhaps Gi-dha-kut.
is
There are
but
transcribed,
the mountain
is
known
China by translations
Ling-chiu-fhig or shan
of the Sanskrit.
jlj ),
(g ?^ ll^ or
Peak
This
name
is
explained as denoting
that the mountain was so called from the wise prophetic vultures
by which
it
was haunted.
But we
of the Sanskrit
name
its
Chiti-t^ou-feng, that
Vulture-Head Peak,
as
resemblance of
summit
to the
head
of a vulture.
The name
When Buddha's
he "
will free
becomes Buddha
have a Paradise
from dust
''
be called Virajas.
is
and
soil,
clean
by Li-kou.
to gardens
name
often given
by Chinese
(^ ^)
or
Deer Garden.
This
of
name
from Benares.
There
is
ed by wild deer.
It
meaning Deer Park, a wood inhabitwas here that Buddha " first set in motion
it is
Buddhism.
452
The
Injiiience of
Buddhism on
the Chinese,
Language.
tzU'Uu (,^ \^ Jjt), literally, the Dark Stream from the Deer Park. But the expression means the order of Buddhist monks,
the sombre vested profession derived from Buddha.
Going on next
associated with the
to
names
of objects
monks we
is
The
Buddhist monastery
word which
meant
^
in
or
^),
to Sanskrit terms
translations.
But
some
of
the
old
as the
of
rendering of Vihfira.
designate
were used
to
and
to
only in certain
cases
Ta-ssu
{^ ^)
The abbots
Staff.''
or heads of
ofiice
(^
The
staff is
of
wood, but
surmounted by a head
of rings
is
not supposed to
be
rendering
of the
Sanskrit
name Khakkhara,
as
''
the Khikshari
of
a chaitya."
the
staff,
like
this
and
was at
first
carried by every
monk when
of
going his
it
rounds begging.
Confucianists
sometimes speak
as the
Staff,
it
and we
find
them alluding
says a Con-
knock from
whom Buddha
wishes to release.
because they
in this
life,
and
if
how
it
tt 0f t&
flff
iii
^ # ^>
The
hifliience of
Buddhis7n on
the Chinese
Language.
453
drop the word Chang using only Hsi, as in names of wells and
other objects.
Thus there
is
a Hsi-ch'iian
(^ ^) or
monk
Pewter
Staff
the spot with his staff and caused the Spring to appear.
who has no
Monk's
settled place of
abode
is
staff.
On
the other
is
hand
the
monk who
monastery
said to
have hung up his staff, and hence he is called JTua {j^)-h8i, a Hung-up Pewter Staff. Intermediate between these is the monk who while attached to a monastery makes visits or pilgrimages to
noted seats of religion.
When
such a Brother
visits a
monastery
he lays down
a few days.
Staff,
he wishes
to
be a guest for
He
is
is
and he
staff',
Kua-hsi
(^
it
is
^),
said
hung-up
and
to
safe.
on a peg to keep
clean
It should be
to the
it
staff in imita-
which
It is also
known
once
because a
is to
monk
The Hsi-chang
j^),
be distinguished
(^
of a
which
is
member
Buddhist fraternity.^
Buddhists are known collectively as
This
title
of the
was translated
into
(^
||j),
This became a
It
is
received
as,
new
for
applications.
given to
in
other
books,
example,
it
to
those
the
Emperor's Palace.
Confucianist,
In cases like
this
denotes a Library of
it
may
also be
learned
the
monk Yuan-chuang (Hiouen Thsang) was honoured with title T'ang San-tsang, which we may translate Canon of
of the
Buddhism
T'ang period."
In later times
this epithet
has
* Hodgson's Essays on the Lang. Lit. and Rel. of Nepal and Tibet, pp. 141, 143; "Hsiao-hsio-chi-chie*' (/)> &c.,) chap, v., p. 20; " Shi-shih-yao-lan," and chap. ~fi 1^ Vf| chap. IS, &c., chap. iv.
154
which
It
was
So
translated in Chinese by
Chin-kang
(^
pji|)
in these senses.
its
term
is
used
to
symbol, the
It
is
used figuratively
to
their
Indian names.
A
great,
well
known
technical
term of Buddhism
is
in Sanskrit
viz.,
the
medium and
translated by San-sheng
as each
of
(^ ^)
Then
came
its
There
is,
of old date in
Buddhism.
The
Bud-
different
ways
of attaining Nirvana.^
Then we have the popular term Fii-te-shS (fg (^ ^), which was perhaps made by or for the Buddhists. It is used as a translation of the Sanskrit Puny-sala, a name given to the houses of The Chinese made such shelter set up by the roadside in India.
houses or sheds and gave them this name, using the buildings
also as places of worship.
They
are
still
common
is
in
many
is.
parts
of
called simply
Fu-te, that
Religious
Merit.
word
usually added
The use
of the
government stations
These
she,
^
at intervals of
on the highways.
stations,
pavilions,
were called
and travellers
l.%e Influence of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
465
generally.
itself is
and
in
punya-skandha,
In
this,
as
many
perhaps served
word
is
used as a noun.
mean happy
the
A remembrance
to
seems
have produced
such
common
expression as Chi-fu-te
(^
is
fg f*), to accumulate
(fj), a
religious
merit,
of
Evam maya
it
The
expression ju-shi-wo-wSn
as the title of a book.
was adopted
The formula
of
in
(^
And
in a learned
and popular
treatise of the
Re2nd Century
A. D. we
meaning.
find this
salutation.
explanation in
common
I put
my
trust in.
These expressions
are said to
mean simply
The
the
It
employed
in
also in
to
common
tender
literature in
of
" to
give
adherence,
submission.''
arms and
is
submitting to Government.
still
An
old
in use
and
is
said to be a
synonym
Buddhist
45 1)
use
is
the Chinese
Langnagp.
Kiwi
(^
or |g).
The
spelling of
would seem
to give a
and
it
was perhaps
word
like
or salutation.
We next take
a phrase which
is
it
to
to
by the adherents
other
The phrase
is
is
Lou-chin
leaking
(S ^),
skrit
" having
all
exhausted or ended."
This phrase
of
is
term Asrava-kshaya,
then
affliction,
of
water,
and
Buddhism
a yielding to sin,
The
'^
Pali form
or
it
by
Extinction
thus
cessation
human
passion,
Arahatta."
to all
And
lou-chin
it is
man who
all
is
Such a person
is
is,
is
also
Chinese
Chu-lou-i-chin
free
(^
^)} having
from
all spiri-
tual imperfection.
Or he
and
said to be
Wu-lou
(H
Jg), free
from
leaking, staunch
perfect.
mind
to
of
one
using
it
as
it
is
hard
tell in
employed.^
Sanskrit word
We
Paramita
been
It has also
and
it is
well
known by
the
common
rendering Tao-pi-
iM
ffi
other shore."
^'
is
Nirvana
so the
And
life
here-
stated one of
their objections
to
Buddhism
pM.
(?S
^)>
^^^^
which
"
is.
Diet.
s.
v.
Bnrnonf
Le
Lotus,"
457
Then
for
^),
is
to ferry
over or
carry across,
another rendering
Paramita.
The Six
means
made by
These use
it
to translate
Mukti, Moksha,
to free or
derivatives of much,
ra-eans
meaning
that binds to
existence,
it
and
also free,
unbound
generally.
Then with
to
Mle-tu
[^
J5), to save
by
extinction.
This stands for the word Nirvana (which we have seen was imported into Chinese as
i\r/{?-pw,)
and some
is
of its derivatives.
The
phrase mie^tu,
it
will
be observed,
and salvation.
(jjj
Thus
5fe
the
common
expression Mie-tu-chung-sheng
all
Jg
^\
creatures, to cause
them
to attain
Nirvana.
When
last
it,
and
it
Buddhist monk.
The
is
last
phrase
(jjilj
we
notice in this
-departiaieiiit
of our subject
Sken-Vung
There are
who
becomes Arhan or Buddha. In Sanskrit these are called Abhijiia (or Abhijnana), and this is translated in Chinese by shen-t'img as
above.
five of these
powers
Panohabhijfia,
458
the Chinese
six.
Language,
In China tbe
temples, and
it
many
proper signification.
For
this
we sometimes
and other
is
(^ JE
'Ij),
in
which pan-cho
the
is for is
abhijnana.
Another way
of giving
Wu'hsiin (.
added
to the
"We next go on
to consider
some
of the
new
expressions
And
of
Chinese
lations
as,
from Sanskrit.
examples that they are not such but only new terms introduced
by Buddhist teachers and their followers. We must also bear iu mind that here, as in the last division, some of the terms treated as additions by Buddhists may not be such but may have been
in the language from an early date.
term as a native one stolen from an old Taoist writer or with lazy
indifference
calling
another
all
it
is
strange to them.
As we
know, however,
it
is
not easy in
phrase was
first
whom
it
was invented.
For
now under
authorities.
consideration
we have
And we now
with
beginning
The
first
which occurs
is
the very
made by
459
in order to
become a
to
religious ascetic.^
But Ckhi-chia
may
be applied now
it is still
and nuns.
usually
Hence
in
common language
The Confucianists
it
also
have the phrase ch'u^chia, but with them family, to break the " invidious bar."
means
to excel the
Another expression
dhist
is
vows
of a professed
Bud-
Some
'
see in this
words about
is
not
As we have
which
ch'u'shi is employed, viz., to be born, to come into the world. The Buddhists, who perhaps originated the phrase, also use it in this way to denote the incarnation of a Buddha. When a P'u-sa leaves the Tushita Heaven and is born in this world for the last
time he
phrase
is
is
And
this
good sovereign.*
The phrase
is afflictedwith
T*i'tii
(^
Jg), ordained
by shaving,
is
a Buddhist
crate
him
to the service of
is
Buddha
if
his life
spared.
When the
life,
boy recovers he
as a novice or disciple.
He
but
The
often
is
he
is
in the
church
is
by the mere
head shaved.
But
this
name
who
is
the vow.
title
with which he
may
give
up the
life
of a professed Buddhist.
The
^
title
is
also
is
extended
to the novice
who
fulfills his
parents*
'
p. 376.
460
TOW.
Tlie Injtuenee
The,
title is
or TVuU-leaper,
and the
in
by
they please.
Fo-tzii,
Sons
Buddha.
This term
to pious
is
and
monks and
life
monks
This
all
generally.
It
is
when
is
done by
the insignia
These are
still
in
remembrance
poverty called by the old term robe and bowl, and Chuan-i-po
(M
is to
This ex-
pression C/hian-i'po
is
monk
who
but
leaves his
all
the
At
to
or to the monastery.
it
and
it is
used in
Another phrase
Buddhists
is
of
this
first
used by the
lantern.
to
Chuau-tSng
lamp or
Buddhism
long
darkness.
is
it
brings light
the
night of
The old abbot and all who have the lamp of faith and wisdom must give it over betimes well trimmed and in full Or as others put it, he flame to those who are coming after. it a new lamp for him with light must lamp burning who has a
who
follows.
we
article,
The
Fa-chii (J^
Torch
of
Buddhism, was
first
lit
by Sakyamuni
and held out by him over the dark ocean of existence. He gave it over to his successor, and this and every great teacher since
has tried Jan-fa-chii
(^
^ ')g\
it
to
of the
Faith
was
first
It is
461
without interruption.
treatise,
title
of a well
Ghuan-teng-lu (f^ jg
Record
of the
of the
Lamp, which
a
When
it is
Buddha
is
or a Buddhist saint
is
described as sitting
{fjH
usually said of
him that he
Ghia-fii-tso
(Jjjjj),
^ ^).
we
"VVe are
The
are
first
character
but
this, as
told, is
a mistake.
of expression, however, is
told
from them
people.
it is
to
A fuller form of
to cross the legs
expression
is
Chie-chia-fii'
in the
(^
Hid
M ^)j
and
sit
down, used
" Miao-fa-ching"
The
great Patriarch
for nine years in looking at a wall or rather sitting with his face
He was
all
own
heart,
hian-hsin
(B
JW
ffi
to
a wall in order
to the
Buddhists
is
Mu-yii
(/fc fSIJ,
Wood
of
The shape
fish is
said to
to
it
because the
a
it
"Tu-Bhi-cbi.shuo" (tt |J
^ ^), chap,
p.
p. 52.
i., p, 6 (profi) and Shi-ahih-yao-lan," chap. tp.
'
Bt. 61.
Bonne Loi,"
334
'
462
the Chinese
Language.
is
may
ultimately
One name,
monastery in China
Hstao-ssit
it
(^ ^)
or Hsiao.
This
name
(A.D. 479
members
of the family
were
Hence we
find in
ions like
^ || ^), that
from that
simply, to study
is
in a Buddhist temple.
Then Hsiao-chai (^
it is
^)
" monastery
It is
literary
name
Hsiao Tzti-yun, a
The
with
the
made by holding up
Ho-chang
the hands
China
by the Buddhists.
palms together.
called
(ft
^),
putting the
But
this
term
is
word
hritdnjali,
The Ho-chang
to
as an act
of respect
and
considered
be characteristic of Buddhists
to them.
though
is
no longer confined
With
is
the Buddhists
to fold the
an outward sign
to
of the faith
man
professes
have in Budscholars
dha,
his
Church and
meaning
Canon.
The
native
are
of our phrase.
By
attain to
to fold
to
^B'M^ WiS.KmW'
popular.
as
it is
^ |g
more
out
for ho is
is
perhaps more correct than that given above, but the latter
to be oft left
This
is
short for
Hoehang-nan-wu
Jlie Influence of
tion.
Buddhism on
the Chinese
this
Language.
463
form of expression,
The
phrase Ho'ma7i'pai {^ f^ ^), Reverence and salutation with foldin acknowledgin reply to
and
This rendering
for
li (|j|)
in the sense of
The Buddhist monks and nuns in China do not as a rule beg their food from door to door. But they go abroad much in
search of subscriptions for the maintenance of their establishments
and
for useful
this
works
to
religious character.
As
gave
rise to several
new forms
One
Ch^ao-hua
(|3? flj),
explained as meaning to
seek out
fch'aoj
is
Another phrase
is,
to call to
those who have earned conversion (hua). Mu-yuan (^ ^), to summon the destined, that good works those who in a former existence wrought
for themselves a
good destiny.
This phrase
is
and Mu-hua^
summon
to con-
version.
The Buddhist
"more
and
tells
the believing giver that his alms and donations have both
They
him
made
roots
of further merit to
fruit in lives to
come.
Because the
reli-
-p),
is
Hua-tzUf
it
will be
remembered,
common name
for a beggar.
464
the Chinese
Language.
is
in connection
supposed to
follow that
we expect
new
express-
The
life
may
saying,
may
be to be bora in
another place."
And Chuang-tzu
life
turn
But
iments, and the thought of other lives than this did not take
it
came embodied
in story
by
Buddhism.
dreams
life
we
live
now
is
only a short
is full of
such
It tells us that
is
we
did in
we
are to be in future
modes
of existence.
lit.
of existence,
expression Lun-hui (JJ jgl), Rotation wheel revolving, was perhaps invented by the
The
Buddhists.
It has at least
become
their property as a
term
to
To end
life is
the
and one
of the dreadful
punishments in
said to Ghiasan-shi^lun-
H iS J^
M)>
t^ g^ three transmigrations
from another.
When
(^
^), body
of revolution.
phrase has passed into popular use in the sense of " in birth " or " when I come again into this world."
But
Shen or Ching-shen
to
(^
jpf ),
If
it
evil it
may
(^
Ti-yii
it
),
or
Hungry
the Chinese
Language.
465
This term
was used
meanings
as one of the
of this
word was
was not
ancestors,
satisfactory.
So Tsu-fa-huei
was taken
among
by
in
specially
remembered
all
of
the Xii-lan-hui,
It
is
when
manner
of
extended to them.
relatives
may
may be doomed to re-birth in a low and painful condition that many of the rites and services performed by Buddhist monks
These have given the language
such expressions as Chiii-chien (j^ ^), to " follow the dead with worship," to obtain for them advancement in the other world.
who
is
supposed to
is
of his misdeeds.
Like chui-chien
Chao-tu
evoke
(f2 ^),
also coined
to
and
save.
is
mon
dead.
is
Tu-wang (j^
or
death
Fo-shi
{^
'^),
Buddha
business.
This
name
we
is
used
by laymen.
Instead of "Buddha-Business"
find native
of
Buddha
it is
in this sense.
Thus
Cheng
I-chuan
of the
Sung dynasty
death-rites
Buddhist
services, the
^ J^
)g).
that
is,
gives a
new expression
tJNI'^ERSITT
466
We
to the
religious teachings.
life
and death
to life
many
"a
sea
ages
of
One
of these is
troubles,"
to
(g
'^),
Sea
of
Bitterness or Misery.
Then
hang
Fo.
(^
But
The Grace''
or Ship of Mercy.
a very
especially
Prajna which
is
being in
common
To
circulate
good
Ship of Mercy"
be
('Jg jf;
g
the
of
summed up
in
Fao'fa
(^
changing existence
where we
let it go.
series
man
knowing whence he
conies
he goes
called
murky
wisdom
and
Ilun-cfh'd,
@), Torch
of
Wisdom,
synonym
We
to die
introduced
by the Buddhists.
Some
of the old
Most
of these
fais
One
of
them
HitH'shcng llsi-t'ten
(^
is,
J\ || 55), the
spirit
to the
No
one
a
with reference
to
relative
is
newly deceased.
IjCss
complimentary and
reassuring
the expression
Chien-f/eU'ivang
(^
Ig
J),
to see
of the
Dead.
This
a safe one as
it
au expression
very
the Chinese
Language.
467
find
classes
lias
of
the people.
come hefore us
already, and
is
Ghien-ming-
to be
dead simply.
was
also the
first
phrase Shun-shl
This seems
to
it is
''go the
way
monk
or
nun
is
Yuanis
(U
''
to
have perfect
de?ld,
is
peace.*'
He, that
expressed by i-ynan-chi
(E HI S)' ^^^ ^^^^ already entered into his rest. The phrase yuan-cM is in common use, and it may be seen on sepulchral
monuments
of professed
Coming back
which the Chinese
to life let
owe
to
Buddhism.
One
of
these
is
Sui-hsi
(^
X which seems to
It
is
mean folknvlng
is,
delight.
It is explained,
however, as meaning
to enjoy.
to praise, that
perhaps
it is
in this
last sense
that
generally employed
in
commoTi
literature.
said to sui-hsi,
have
enjoyment
Generally speaking
sauntering at will
other expression
forth
among
is
pleasing
and
interesting objects.
The
a hair light.
fang-hao-kK an g (jj 56)> literally, to send It is derived from the Buddhist scriptures in
as sending
knob
of hair
is
between
The recognized
fang-hao-
that sense.
But
they have also extended their application and made them denote
a countenance beaming with delight.
ingly,
of
is
To fa ng-han-huaiig,
accord-
to
lit
up with happiness as
is
at the sight
and
recovered.
We
names
miscellaneous
of
terms,
chiefly
of objects
Buddhist objects of
The use
of these
468
place,
the Chinese
Language.
be,
now
tain localities.
which forms
part of
many names
god or
and
tive epithets.
Among
spirit,
the people
as in
is,
Fo
often used as a
synonym
(|ft)-/'o,
for shen,
chHng
invite
Buddha, that
By
an
Kuan
the
Grod of
War, has
received
Hu-kuo Fo (U g 'j^), the Ikiddha who protects the In Chinese books, country, the God who defends the Empire. whether by Confucian or other authors, Buddha is mentioned by
several titles in addition to those already mentioned.
Pie
(-j^
is
the
King
gUJ),
the Golden
language used
It is often given
for
among
name, especially
is
young boys.
Thus Fo-kuang
in childhood
is
Buddha's Brightness,
name given
and
life.
is,
Shi
But Chin-Fo,
name,
is
from an
official
account of the
Fo on
were answered.
called
Fo-nu
(jjjj),
Buddha's
him
praise.
The
commonly known as Fo-sang (^), has other names also in common use.
;
The
in
fragrant citron
is
B.'s
the lemon
;
is
called
some
and another
fruit of this
kind
is
called Fo-t'ao
is
(f^^),
B.'s peach.
(jjfi
Then we
B.'s
find the
Thorn-Apple
known
as Fo-ch'te-er
is
1^), as well as
Fo-kao-ts'ao
{^
(^
]^),
is
Fo'chia-ts'ao
is
]^), B.'s
as ultra-marine
called
Fo-cWlng
and images.
tlie
Chinese Language.
the
469
(BM)
The rounded
to
tops of
many
liills
give
name
Fo-t'oii
the
hills.
dialect, is
this
name
lias
been extended
to
all
kinds of
and
to
The
also
expression Fo-kuo
(^)
is,
kingdoms but
Hills of the
Laud
of
Buddha."
We
the sense of
a novice or
young
disciple.
About
Amoy
strong
{^
^
*'
^), p6 meaning
Here Fo-tzu
is
seem
is
to
occur
which
Buddha's
birthday.
The Emperor
term and
of
China
is
styled
is also
Huo
Fo
honourable epithets
to
good
officials
moral
to
qualities.
present to just
and generous
officials
tablets
inscription
of a
(^
^ ^ ^),
it is
the Living
Buddha
is
myriad
Fo-hsing
man's
Jen-Jen- chih-hsing
(A
Then
came
*'
to
mean
there
Lastly
the
term Fo-ku
{'^),
We
of
name
Kuan-yin appears.
This goddess
is to
Her nose
is
specially
mothers like
to see a child
is
At Foochow,
where Kuan-yin
baby
is
often soothed to
470
sleep
ch'iong Kaan-sin.
am
twiddling
to
make it
like Kuaii-yin's."
A brunette beauty
spoken
of as a T'ie
is,
(tHeJ) that
(^), Kiian-yin (from the colour of iron a dark-complexioned goddess of beauty. It is said
may
man
in
her
in all
Such a man
(^
IS
W ^)>
is
^^^
^i^
is
^^ Kuan-yin's Hall.
This alludes
to the
fact that
Kuan-yin
specially a
Temple
this
Then
as
Kuan-yin Yai
given
to
Yai meaning a
cliff
j^'f^f^ipio^-
any
high steep
or
any
of
tall
mountains.
several of the
applied to certain
objects.
Thus
a pretty
Bamboo
tiek,
the Gycas
dialect
i2ei;oZit^a, is called
the
Amoy
Kuan-yin
Kuan-yin's bamboo.
yin-liu
(^)
is
yew
and
in others
tree.
is
There
is
an araceous plant
(of
known
as
Kuan-yin-lien (^) or Kuan-yin- chiao (^), the latter being conLien is a name for the lotus, and sidered the more correct term.
chiao
is
the plantain.
Then we have
also
Kuan-yin-ton and
g)
and
cabbage
(ts^ai
^).
recall the
Marian- rose,
Marigold, and similar terms derived from the respect paid to the
Virgin Mary.
The Lohans
also
have contributed
to the
formation of several
sit
new
still
Hence when
a host
is
arranging his
471
So
kang
in a
room
(J5^),
dignified
in fun
Half
and half
hard-working
people call the idle literati their Lohan, because they often lead
idle useless lives, receiving
the mere
Then
some
districts a
is
Podocarpus
and
in others a different
(|g),
Taxaceous tree
popularly
known
as
for
the Lohan-sung
various conifers.
name
One name
is
Mangosteen, a
fruit little
known
to
the Chinese,
name being
fruit.
Buddha's
common term for a Buddhist monk, Ho-shang. This is given as a name to little boys in order to cheat boy-hunting demons, and the name
made
of the
is
life.
it is
It
is
also
current generally as a
nickname
olfensive.
and
The
long-tailed
Jay (Urocissa)
the Shan-Ho-shaug,
Mountain Monk.
To
Castor and
(^
jj),
Sea
They
come out
bad weather.
is
him
as a
From
fts'aij of
the term
[JJH
Ka-lan-ts'ai
for
North China.
have seen that Mfira, the Tempter or Devil, came into
We
is
From
his
bad character
this
being
kinds of mischief.
said to
goes
and
to
tlie
of as
Feng-mo-Uao
^
a
Y),
bedevilled
madness.
man he may
many
ways.
472
til
The
InfliieJire
of
Buddhism on
is
the Chinese
Language.
head, espe-
at the person so
spoken of
simply a
tool or block
cially
It
also
denotes
who has
to
lost his
head,
who
is
bewildered for a
moment.
It remains
of a
the monks.
of these certain
members
the fraternity
officials.
Thus
Peking there
the Seng-lu-ssu
(ff'
J^ "3), Register
the
title
office for
Buddhist monks.
In
it
are two
monks with
to
Shan-ahi
(^
iS)>
who
others.
monks
it
resid-
was
first
instituted
to
by T'ang
Wen
to 841),
and the
first
hold
was the
(jjj "^).
Seng-lu and a
Divinity
Fu
(gl])
Seng-lu.
The
last
was a Doctor
in
who
TO OLD EXPRESSIONS.
of the effects
in
We have
now
to consider
some examples
These
which
effects
resemble in
some measure,
as
Thus
as to Christianity
we know
Greece.
these
that such
words received
But when they were taken up by the early Christians new meanings and higher applications.
of pre-Christian
its
So
the
also
New
writings.
native land
expressions.
and meanings
is
to several
Sanskrit
conspicuous example
Playfair)
;
afforded
by the word
Ir.;
*'
The
Tnfiitence
473
dharma, which
is
some
of its
many
common meanings
tions.
it
new and
special applica-
So also when their system was brought into China and proit
pagated there
receive
caused
new
significations.
many old Chinese words and phrases to One of the many reproaches which
has perverted the uses
The
(i&X heart or mind, and ks'ing (f^), moral nature. Here the Buddhists are charged with making confusion by changing one word
for the other.
This criticism
is
j1lst
to
a great extent.
Those
Buddha
is
this
word they
existence
nature.
into which mortals are born are the results of actions influenced
by
In pictures
this is
illustrated
by representing
modes
of existence as so
it
many
We
(tt)
also find of
the hsing
is
the latter,
the
which
is
Buddhism.
it is
This word
the
is
common
and
like
it
Fa
has
many
original
and non-Buddhistic
dharma
religion
Now
So
it is
Chinese Buddhist
writings
fa
is
found in
all
these senses,
word
is
many
used.
ways
in
f^),
all
Fa,
to
is
observe
the regulations and specially to carry out the eight-fold law about
the removal of
^
officials.
the word
/a acquired the
;
da M
*
" Ohih-yne-lii" See "San-yu-fang-wen-chi " (H S! ;i ^)> chap. ii. where the B. patriarch says to the king '^ f^ j^ ^l<)' chap, iv., Ohniig-ynng,' ch. i. (commentary); "Slii-shihMeng-tzii," chap, xi., p. fi;
''
yao-lan," chiip, f^
a.
v.
/|^>,
474
the
Chinese Langnage.
to be used in the sense
meaning
of being or
becoming a Buddhist.
So Fa-chiao
(^ ^)
is
the
reli-
we
redundant
Then /a
is
in
the
Law
The meaning
of
latv
mind
fa
Buddhist senses.
is
Thus, for
so
example, the
monk who
(JK
warned that by
doing he incurs guilt with respect to the laws of the land as well
as those of
Buddha
ift
13 fi f:R
^#
W)-
Further, in
Fa-men {f^),
Law,
was
In Buddhism
of
religious
men
is
(H
used
to
SI JS f^)i ^^^ systems of the Three Vehicles. Fa-men translate such Sanskrit terms as dharma-paryaya, a
la loi,"
to
be used as
It
synonym
for
Ching
(1^),
Buddhists.
Fo-meUj
as Confucianists are
There
Justice.
With
throne,
t)ie
Buddhists
the
seat
of
or
the
In old
word means
awake or become
conscious,
then
to
have wisdom,
which
The Buddhists
Buddha
But
who
is
religious,
1 " Yunpf-cheng," Eds. 2nd y. 1.4; " Ta-pau-nie-p'an-cliingf." ohaj), xxxiv. *'Ku-liang," chap.ix. ; ' Miao-fa-lieu-hiia-cliing," chap. i.
77/e Injluence
475
is
{irousing are
moral delusion.
The Buddha
of
so
called because he
all things,
the
misery of
all
life,
Nirvana.
He
that word.
The chiao
of
of
and
it is
intellectual
wisdom.
to
Buddha
is
spiritual
The Buddha
of
is
spiritual
wisdom whose
seat
is
in
man's
The mention
of chiao
Some
new
of the uses
made
In
of this
and Bodhi suggests the word Tao (^). word have been indicated in a
to see
we have now
how
applications.
many
formed a
part,
sometimes
with the original meaning and sometimes changing this for one of
their
own
to
importation.
New
made
and
religion.
to
have many
significations it
was employed
Thus
it
to
in the sense of a
way
or
also for
Path
is
the
Pa-sheng-tao-fen
(A
?tt
^)
Holy Path,
in Sanskrit
Then
tao
is
Thus P'u-sa-tao
more commonly
**
is
it
in
some
denotes
is
required of a P'u-sa,
les devoirs
vi.,
d*un Bodhiii.,
^ " Chuang-tzu," chap, i., pp. 13, 26; and chap, " Meug-tzu," chap, ix, p. 32.
;
p.
2; L.C.C.,
p. 239;
476
B uddkLsm,
o)i
the Chinese
Language.
In the
sattva/'
way
to
become a P^u-sa.
wisdom "
it is
Tao
is also
transmigration.
five)
classes
six
of of
ways
some or
all of
which mortals
in hell,
have
to
pass.
Hungry
the
classification
the
Asuras are
called
are the
tao or tao or
Good
states of existence,
and the
last three
Bad
hell.
States,
is
or the
San (3)
O-tao, Three
Bad
This
last
term
We have
There
is
also another
imitation.
In this
life.
the six classes of creatures refer only to this world and to one
They
the
{J^)-tao,
Deva
is to
name
of
appear as Buddha.
Further
is
Thus
by
Buddha
possesses.
Then
the
word dharma
So
is
also rendered
is
also
yoga
as the
it is
The word Bodhi, as has been seen, is translated by chiao, but much more frequently represented by tao. Thus te (^) tao
attain Bodhi,
is to
and Ch'eng
]^)'tao
in
is to
perfect
it,
that
is,
to
attain
Buddhahood.
The Buddhists
their founder
high estate like to associate their ch^eng-tao with that of the old
Tlid influence of
Buddhism
The
latter
o)i the
Chinese Language.
to
-177
native philosophers.
practical
means
become perfect
in the
in
duty.
much
and
unceasing application.
quote the saying which
to
make
it
of use so
man must
(5/p8C/PJ6KA/pj8
Tree of
The Peepul
is
to
Wisdom, because under a Peepul Gautama attained Bodhi. The Chinese translate Bodhi-druma by Tao-shu {^\ Tree of Wisdom, and they extend the name to several other trees. The spot on which Gautama attained Bodhi was called the Bodhi-mandala
(or-manda), Circle of Wisdom.
Tao-ch'amj
(ig), the
Arena
of
Wisdom.
popular and was employed to denote " the seat " of a superior
being, the centre from
Puto, the
Wu
Thus the Island of T^ai mountain, and the 0-mei mountain are the
which he operates.
hadra P'u-sas.
of supernatural
And any mountain which is regarded as the scene influences may be spoken of as a Tao-chUings}um,
is
and
is
applied to
as
With
uses denotes
is
to lead
such
life.
To
Confucianists their
the right
their
own
cMng
(JE)-
taoy
way
or orthodoxy.
is
To Buddhists
the
as a matter of
course
own system
the cheng-baOy
Saddharma
or
"
ions.
Thus Brahmanism
It
one of the
systems of doctrine.
i
also
grouped together as
for heresy
i^ytao, strange
reminds us of
religions.
its
Another term
is
which
also
Confucian use
hsie {^)-tao,
depraved
478
system.
the Chinese
Language.
those
But
this
phrase
may
also be applied
to
who
are
Such
It
may
With
course,
ciples.
means
of
wisdom,
to
apprehend prin-
With the Buddhists it means to enter religion, to take the vows of a monk or nun. Then tao came to mean a sect or Hence arose the system, and we read of ninety-six tao or sects.
phrase Ho-tao-ch'tt'chia
are you professed?
{^ ^
also
{fj
Tao
full
Buddhist monk,
the
expression
Thus a
From
of expression
Taosu
by
if^y that
Buddhists.^
distinction
made
chiefly
to
believe^ to trust
m, faithful,
truthful.
The
in
in
Buddhism.
is
With
example
Mencius, a hsiii-jen
ciple.
Among
Believing
are
^'
He who
i
Buddhism
(), or
he
so
is
an unbeliever Pu-hsin
tell
{^
fg ).
As he
that doubts
creatures
is
doomed
Buddhists
us that
all
t^
M-
^Ji
^ ^ T^ ^^ !& - ^ T>
for
iS
One
Many
of the
is
hao-shi
or services.
Tao are taken from the " Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching" comFor the Liu Tao see the " Fa-yuan-chu-hn," chap, ^), chap. _t, p. 40. See also " Shi-shih-yao- Ian," chap. The use of Tao-ck'ang in the sense of a Buddhist monastery Jl s. V. jg A, &c. is said to have originated with Yang Ti, the Sui Emperor of infamous memory. It is now applied to Taoist and other temples, but it is Buddhist in origin.
of these uses of
text.
'
iuatead of hsin-nan
we
iiod
commouly shan-nan
(^
r* A
xj
in.
&i
Tlip Influence
of Bnddhisw
oit
479
To shew
friends,
filial
to
be true to one's
and
to observe
Confucianism.
is
^'
But among
the people
now
hao-shi
in its acquired
Buddhist sense.
with
public the
To
hao-shi
(^
f^ 1^)
Buddhists
to
build
bridges,
monks
and temples,
and
help
liberally
the
poor
and
unfortunate.
for
We
also
find
synonym
Fo-shi as
manner somewhat
have merit and
and Confucius
not
To
(^
toil
and not
boast, to
is
it
make
it
a virtue
JJ
M^
fJ
feeling.
or merit, and
employed
in that sense.
to
denote
the
all
reciting
of
magical formulae,
It
was
in this sense of
''religious
Wu
Ti
famous conversation. " Since I came to the Throne," says the Emperor, " I have built temples, copied sacred
Kung-te
in
told.
What
merit
is
me (#
jpf
" f^) ?
is
There
is
harma.
the
But Kung-te
also used
by the Buddhists
Sanscrit
guna
in
qualities.
mind when he
the old
(^
;
J^).
This term
"Chih-yue-lu," chap,
iv.;
Edkins'
Cli.
Bud.,
p.
101
" Yi-cliing,"
chap.iii,
p. 8.
480
the
Chinese Language.
of his time
give freely.
in
Cg
^#
living
J|
()
And
if
in
the
asked How
can you put tbe pearl in tbe moutb of the dead one
not generous
to
you were
'g'
him when
(^
/f
fpj
IS) ?
and giving
The expression is explained as distributing {'pu) one's property The Buddhists use it in the it away {shi) to otbers. sense of giving alms to the poor, but specially to the monks and
nuns.
It is the rendering for diina,
(Lia-tit).
Charity, the
first of
the Six
Saving Virtues
Then
pii'shi
offerings
called
phrases
like
che-hsle
In modern Chinese
term pu'shi
is is
seldom
if
Buddhist way.
It
and
It is
donations to mendicant
to
monks and
acts
of
needy monasteries.
religious or spiritual
extended also
charitable
cantations,
and performing
to the
Passing on
with mortal
life
modes
we
find these,
was
to
be expected,
much
few examples
will serve to
that of the
or
make
keep
life.
But
to
mean "during
it to
my
existence."
mean
is
" in a previous
literally hefore
natal states."
^ '*
')^\i\x^
{^'^
^), an ex:
" Chaang-tzii," chap, ix., p. 3 Huai-nan-tzii's " Works, chap. xi. ku-ehi-kiiau" (-^ "^ HI), chap, x,: ' F[on-hati-s)iu," nhap. xxix,
"
Chin -
481
Bnddhists gave
it
the sense of
natal
states."
Thus sheng-chHen-tvu-tsui
(^
"f}
|ffl|
means "
to
former incarnations,
such
expressions as
lives.
chi-sari'sheng
affair
Again an
In
ed in
manner Ch'ien-shi and Hsien-shi (^ -g;) once denotpast time or in a former age. But since Buddhism prelike
vailed they
mean nearly always in a former state of existence, in a previous life. The mating of husband and wife, for example, is said to be the lot which results from the destiny made for
themselves by the couple in a former existence, and
it is
not de-
^ m M ^ ^ M ^ -^ ^ M^ &
It
6i
We
earlf/
may
still
be used in this
life.
But
it
is
Buddhists gave
in their teachings
and
made by one
hatred due to
Thus su-guan (J^) is a vow or prayer and su-chou (^) is a present ; an unpleasantness in a past existence. To have
in a former life
life
incurred in a former
expressed by
Su-yuan
or Su-xju-yiian
previous existence.
On
^), to have resentment from a the other hand a happy marriage is said
(^
made
i^^ g K
of a
$S>)
fair
fate in marriage
former
state of existence.
1 See "Fa-yen" (^ B). chap, vi.; " Tzii-erh.chi" chap, Ixxxv.j "Liac-chai," &o., chap. xiii.
j
482
the Chinese
is
Language.
The
plirase
Wa-ch'ang
is of
purely Buddhistic,
to the city
which the
(M
We find
second capital.
or of short duration.
Hence
it
to
But anitya
of
Las
all
it
impermanency
creation/*
to
and wic-ch'ang
Then
came
and
it
in popular language.
became the
messengers, the
tall
and short
We next
original
take the
of
common
is
phrase Ch'ang-yeh
(g
But
^), the
in
meaning
which
the
used in the
to trans-
common
use of the term, but the "long time'* has come to be in a man-
ner defined.
It
is
human
of a
creature, or that
Buddha and
simply the
of the grave.
in
The philosopher
phrase appears
poem
which
this
The poem
being here
begins
error
7l^
^^'^
To
the Buddhists, as
we know,
is
man's
ence,
life
here
in
is
and
How
long
the
With
man
is
as
^ fiS)
s.
er,
T'ung-chien-wai-chi"
Huang
Ti
cliap.
"]t.
"Miao-fa,"
&c., cbap.
ii.
et
al.
Burnouf " Le
483
why
In common Chinese the term Yin-yuan (Q ^) means " the and wherefore " of a thing, the reason or cause or explanaIt has also the technical use
results
to
oneself or
one's
The Buddhists gave the term the new meaning of the Us effects in another stage of existence.
and the
'^
yua^i
is
the immediate or
Hence
this
word
yin
is
from.
The expression
is
lai'shhig^wei-Uao-rjin
(2i^
^ :^ T H)
and cheng
life,''
{JE)-yin
is
also
a cause
"Causes of Existence.'*
man
reaps as
he sows.
The
fruit of his
conduct
may
be gathered by himself,
or the fruit
may
but remain
When
man
own conduct he is said to Chie-kuo (j^ |^), gather To be cangued, chained and kept in
prison
is
who from
is
idleness
and
The term
used in a trans-
lation of the
New
Testament
John the
worthy
of
make
fruit "
But the
translation
is
not to "
make
fruit."
meaning,
viz., to
experience in one
chie-kuo with
in another.
Thus
in
generally
is
them and with the Chinese life of fruit which was grown
also hsiu-kuo
by
oneself
a former
life-
So
(^ ^)
is
to
make
^
*^
fruit, to act
d:c.,
now
in
cliap. ix,j
Le Lotus,"
&c,, p.
132; "Yuu-fu-
iv., p. 2.
484
the Chinese
Language.
common language
is
hsiu-huo
is
which
will
with Confucianists
of actions
done in past
is
It is
and from
this
may
adoption by the Buddhists. They employ it to Karma, that mysterious something which the individual makes in one state of existence and which makes the The mouth, same individual in another state of existence.
translate their
operates.
The
life
before
may have
to their
doer.
It
may
have,
interpretation as
when
J&
&W^^
vows
their
is certain.^
The religious services on behalf of the Hungry Ghosts have come before us already. These ghosts are often called Yu-hun (Wf ^^f Souls at large, "Wandering Spirits. But this is an old
Chinese term, and in Confucian literature denotes the
spirit of
one deceased gradually dissolving, becoming dispersed in the air from which it came. In the Appendix to the " Yi-ching " we
find
**
it
^ ^).
31
2
;
mean
body causes
iii.,
St.
verse
viii.
p.
L.C.C.,
p. 3G8.
the Chinese
Language.
485
and by some they are taken to mean on being set free becomes transformed. The
common
shelter
and nourishment.
to those
who
live
arts.
is,
by degrading
corpse," that
bumps
against a
(jjjt
falls in
2^ JJ
It is
idle
^)
is
common
also applied as a
an
(J^) once meant to worship The Buddhists took it to denote their religious services, and now ta (^J)-chiao is " to hold a service of worship.'* But it has special reference to the feast of the Seventh Month, at which offerings and libations are made to the spirits of ancestors, and also to all ghosts supposed to be in an unhappy condition. Hence the term P'u-tu (^ ^), which means simply "to rescue all," has become a name for this
vagabond.
simply,
The word
and
to
This
is
a very
common
Let us now notice a few of the names transferred to Buddhist sacred places from other objects.
for a Buddhist monastery is ssu
{^\ and
denoted a public
office,
But up to the time of Han Ming Ti and this old use still survives. The
first
Hung-lu-ssii
signification.
and
As
the missionaries
by a white horse the name of the yamen was changed to JPai-ma-ssu (|^ ,^ ^), White Horse Temple. In like manner the word An (j^) was once simply a name for any house or cottage. But from the use made of this word by the Buddhists
it
has
iii.,
p.
4;
" CUu-tzu-yii-lei" (!
p,
17;
486
tery.
the Chinese
Language.
*'
Shuoin the
It once
But
Again Shan-men (Jj f^), Hill-door, has come to have the meaning of a temple or monastery, specially one in the country. The single word shan is also often employed in this sense, and
ming
(^)-shan,
is
not only
"celebrated hills"
but
also
And
Then the phrase Shang-fang (J; -jj) is originally a But it also has the special superior place, or the upper region.
gate.
meaning of a Buddhist monastery, the place of the superior man, that is, of the Buddhist monk.
In the native designations for the clergy
we
find similar
The Fang-chang (-fi poetry and romance was one of the three
changes of meaning.
mortals.
It
^)
of Chinese
Isles of the
Im-
was
far
away
In
it
Ocean
were guarded by
From
who
head of
word Tsu
(jjB.),
which
in
The Shang-jen
( J^
A)
it is
also a
monk.
When
speaking of him-
monk often uses the phrase Shan^jen (ill A)j which in common speech means only a man of the Further a Buddhist monk speaks and hills, a mountaineer. ^ Kaiiglisi Diet. v. H; " Su-wGa-chuDg-kung-Blii-chi," chap. p. 5;
a
s.
1.,
*'
Shuo-weu"
s.v.
K'an aa above.
487
^), the Ragged one, or Pln-na Poor rags. The name is derived from the na or rag(^ 1^), ged jmtchwork coat which the poor monks once wore. This
sort of
garment may
still
We
la (Jg),
winter of one's
life.
word
fifty
is
employed
in the sense of
monk
being given as so
many
sui or
years of
new meanings
is
When
As Devas the
Among
THen-chii
Devendra.
who
and
its
adherents.
t'ien-imng
Four great Deva Kings, or as the Ssu'ta-chin-hang-wangy Four great Vajra Kings. They stand
{^ :)^Ji
iX
in front of Buddhist
demons, but they have long since come to extend their protection to individuals
religions.
The
term
T'ien
is
Tempter,
whom we
Deva Mara.
^
"Tu-ahi-ohi-shuo," chap,
X., p. 3.
ii.,
chap,
i.,
p. 4; "Ch'ang-ll.shi.chi-chn,"
The name Faug-chang for the abbot's apartments in a monaaterj is said to date from the second half of the seventh century, tlie reign of T'ang Kao Tsnng. It is not derived from old Chinese romance, but from the measured ruins of the room of a celebrated Indian Buddhist. This room was found to have been ten feet every way, and hence tlie namo/anj-c/ian^, ten feet square.
chap
" Shi-Bhib-yao-lan," chap. _t.
488
the
Buddhists
make
of the
word
ch^ lo
(^).
In
common
we sometimes
also
have adopted
this
mode of
is,
to
To see
is
to
come
into
is seen, as when we speak of the waves of from a luminous body impinging on the optic nerve. Even mere spirit without body is spoken of as having " touch
perception"
(^
jf#
^ # M S )'
detailed.
The word hsiang (ft) plays a great part in Chinese BudThe common meanings of the dhistic language and literature.
Some of these new ways, while they also gave the word peculiar applications drawn from their own system. It means, for example, with them a banner and a sign or mark as a translation of the Sanskrit word dhvaja
word are well known and need not be
the Buddhists adopted, and some they applied in
in such expressions as Sii-mi-hsiang, Sumeru-sign.
We
find
it
(^
:^ jj ft)
"prodigies" or "miracles."
word Sanjnd in the Sense of thought or consciousness, and also Some explain the word in such cases as meaning name, symhol.
as denoting rather
thoughts."
Very
often
word lakshana
mark or sign. Thus the thirty-two great are the hsiang by which he is known. This Buddha marks of a use of the word passed over into the common language and
in the sense of a
p. 8
M ^)) chap,
+^
the Chinese
Language.
489
common
It is strange also to
the
One of the
Fang-pien
is
{-ff
is
g),
This
made by
this
may
old date.
e.g,
in the
the
use of means.
Then fang-pien
is
also
frequently the
renders
ever,
" ^nigmatique."
The translators
into Chinese,
fits
it
how-
understood sandha to
mean
that which
in or ia
also
is
by
the
Sui-i (gg
This
common
it
has
As the expedients
or devices to
which
mean
''good works."
To subscribe
and succour
^S
W-
be found illustrated in the '* Chin, kang-ohing" and "Miao-fa-lien-hua-ohing," when compared with the Sanskrit verses. Cf. also Burnouf s Le Lotus, pp. 5, 17, 30 et al. Thus in the 79th stanza of ch. i- of the "Miao-fa" we find ;f^ ;fB, the S. being dharma vabhava yadrisnh and Bumoof' a rendering * ia aatur (i la loi a 6tQ 6aonc6o
The uses
may
490 The Influence of Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
These use
it
to render
But riddhi
is
the
consummation of
it
one's
though the
in the
their
hs^sju-i can
can
make himself as
may
But the ju-i sceptre is only a token of good wishes that all things prosper for the person to whom it is given. For Riddhipada or supernatural magical power the common rendering
Shen-tsu {%^ J), spiritual foot. garded as pre-Buddhistic since
is
re-
Kao Tsu's
sons.
($
JB)
is
acquired the
new meaning
Retreat."
Sometimes we
term yd "^-an-chu^ the Rain Retreat, more frequently omitted. This is the HsiaRetreat, but Hsia-la
is
Summer
also a
monk's age
his
summers and winters, his years before and since ordination. The phrase Kung-hei once meant to serve and to give offer-
^^
it
jp^),
'^to
and gods."
It also
meant
giving to a travelThis
is
now
the
common
it is
Kung-yang (-^^ ) was once to serve with food and drink and afterwards it came to mean *' to render service generally."
Among
the Buddhists
it is
Chinese Language.
491
make
offerings to Pagodas,
objects.
have also passed into the common language and are generally
In old Chinese the word Cho (jg) is an epithet of water It is then used fluids and means muddy, impure.
and other
figuratively of an age in
which
all
government
is
bad, as in the
expression Ghi-cho-shi-chih-cheng
sense of im-
Cho-shi
is
when
life
is
vice,
when man's
hastening to destruction.
The term
now
of very
common
The
last part of
my
is
to illustrate
the effects of
illustrations
Buddhism
Chinese by
Sayings.
Common
Here we have
to do only
common
speech.
must be premised, however, that some of the examples given by the above-mentioned scholars as Proverbs and Common Sayings would be better designated by some such title as Familiar
It
Quotations.
Further,
it
is
to be
remembered that
as
these
and are
in
many
cases susceptible
of
interpretation.
1 " Li.clii," chap, i., p iv.; " Le-ki," Gallery, p. 3 ; Snore<l Edict. Art. 2. p. Tfi ; " Fenrr-su-t'unj^," chap, iii.; " Fo-kuo-chi," chap. ii.. &c. " Haii Fei-tzu," chaps, xi. and xix.; " Miao-fa," etc., chap, i.; B.'s " Lo Lotus," p. 33 sts. 88, 89 ot m1. ' See " Fa-yuau-chu-liu," chap, xcviii.; " Feng-su-t'uug," ohap. vii., p. 4.
;
492
The Influence of Buddhism on
tlie
the
Chinese Language,
heard in
A few
examples
is,
will suffice,
name
or titles or attributes.
Of a
man who
having any superiority which might give him a right to do so, This the Chinese say Ni-fo'ch'uan-thL-fo (M ft)-
%%
means " the Glay Buddha advises the Mud Buddha," that is, reproof is given with a bad grace and is not heeded. Buddha
warns against
others.
all
sins
being
man
mind
who
them
The conduct of
do not burn incense in the time of distress clasp Buddha's feet W)- Those who use religion as a i: 3^ iS (Ba Bl SI
him)
(^
ft f^
^ S)-
The
word Fu'f'u denotes, as we know, not only Buddha but also an image of Buddha. From the latter use comes the proverbial expression Pi Fu-thc-chH (g ?? ffl jS), " a Buddha upset This is said in irony of an affair spoiled by will rise again"
!
mismanagement when the mischief cannot be repaired. Then there is the saying To'iii-chiang-pu-pai-fo (j^
ft)j /P the image-maker does not worship the image.
^ [
know
" ^^
artificer
in clay
We
all
how
illustrated
by the saying
Huang-ni-man't^on-hao-hmg Fo
(^
Fo-i'tzu'wei-pen^
fang-pien-icei-mSn
1^ fVr Buddha makes If He teaches us to compassion the root and charity the door.
{^
^ M 1^ ^
cultivate as a
first
essential a
the
Chinese Language.
493
pien
"
of
also taken
skill in
use of means
*'
He who
pent*s heart.
from an
fair
words
is
said to
P JB >&)' Buddha^s mouth and a serthe wicked and deceitful man who preys on
One
of
this latter
the kind-hearted
cription
is
who
are unsuspecting.
des-
said
to
^^^^ expression Fo-yen-p^o-hsin is used also in (ft BK IS *&) B^^ the sense of " looking like a genius but being only an old woman."
say of a
man who
pretends to be religious
'M ^^} pretending be extremely benevolent (" very honest ") he yet runs off with iz
The Confucian
tells
moralist chides
them
their pa-
Buddha.
One way of stating this is The parents Living Buddha in the world (^ 'SE
Then
there
is
The
reverence a
dead Buddha
meant by Living Buddha. Man's heart or mind (hsin) has been declared to be the Buddha, and many sages have taught this
doctrine.
The
original intention
ft), the mind mind is Buddha. Let us now take one or two illustrations, all drawn from Mr. Scarborough's Collection of the use of Kuan-yin's name in popu-
popular saying
Hsin-chien-chi'shi-fo
M iP ^
determined
is
is
firm in
lar sayings.
lost all
(fj;
her charms
it is
rudely
said
ShaO'shi-kuan'yin'lao-shi'hou
is
18
W ^ S IS),
la
a monkey.
is
Another saying
which alludes
to the
beauty of Kuan-yin
You do
not need the face of Kuan-yin, you only need your hus{J^
^ U ^ M P>^' ^ & W-
I" the
494
TJie Influence of
Buddhism on
the Chinese
Language.
he does
BK
i?H
ate being
Lo-lian of the
?-no;ry eyes,
not
know Kuan-yin
(^
IS
-{^ iu^
The word P'u-sa is of frequent occurrence in the Proverbs and other common sayings of the people, and we can see from Some are false teaching, these how loosely the name is applied. abstain from eating and taking life is to which To says as that
be a P'u-sa (i^
^
its
^iF
cannot protect
U :^ ^ S)ffl
There
is
more truth
in the
The Ho-shang, or Buddhist monk, and his profession are fit subjects for satire or ridicule. The monk is an imhe simpleton or at least is bald-headed. postor or But some of
always
the popular sayings are either in praise or not in censure of the
clergy.
Such
is
it
is
'Hhe old
monk who
Lao-ho'Shang-Gh'iaO'mU'yii
(^
fU
ItJ
^
and
He
precepts,
recites the
There
is
another saying
who have not an untoward destiny become monks (^ s^ 0^ fit ft 1^)- ^^^ ^^^^ saying is given with a slight variaIn the good days of Budtion and is otherwise interpreted.
dhism
in
They
If
one sou
becomes a Buddhist
monk
Instead of Ch'u-cJda beHeaven ( Hi :/L ?c)come a monk, we sometimes find ch'eug-tao attain Bodhi or become Buddha. But this saying is now obsolete, and is quoted only as an instance of bygone credulity in heresy. The smooth pate of the " peel'd priest " does good service in the popular *' You are placing language, but one illustration must suffice.
^#
an
olive
made
(or
nests of vice
is
known
it
to all.
of thieves and The fact is illustrated in They take the Pahice of Purity
(fg*
a house of Vultures
$t
BB
the Chinese
Language.
is
495
here
H ^).
is
an allusion
an old
story.
is
also
one
fol-
is
expressed in the
The Kasha a Coat-of-mail for enduring insult (^ Ka-sa), as we know, the name Ka-sha ^ >S S J5
la)(or
is
Of sayings which
take only one.
and
to
come we
If you enjoy
in
merit in a former
life
{-^ ^^
H ^ ig
jfl
ff iS
QT
is
who
Such a
doctor,
he
is
a
ffi
King Yama
fffi
fifc
J^f
;g
^
"
S| |g
^ M SI)born wisdom
is
as a person in
When man
is
man
born
in ex-
Death has arrived " (/p Jij). This is one of many cases in which Wtc-ch'ang, as death, seems to be in a manner personified.
istence but unperceived
^^^
With
reference to the
(^
if
^), an
official
is
in the
thus
If there
is
no Heaven there
Heaven
exists the
good
will
ascend to
if
if
is
no Hell
(lit.
there
there
is
inferior
go into
H'J
it
(5;
^M
There
g.
A A)it
;
I'J
is
common
S^ ? saying
road to
it
the
496
the Chinese
Language.
{Ji^^^^
AJE
* Ml
let
common language
Scarborough's
given in Mr.
collection.
"Do
fli
A*
is
^ S * ).
exist
in
may
among
the bad
Get a pearl
all,
fo.
manij
^M
have nothing.
awl
(*
;if
^ i ^ t fe ft (or S) fi
cannot
np
in the world
and
if
you
is
are a poor
man you
own
anything.
The K'ung-wang
the
first
Han
We
The Essays,
as the reader
may have
formation was lacking, and partly because they have been cut
off
from
But
their
aim
is
not so
much
to teach facts
has been
yet
it is
little
And
neither
work nor
toil in
watch
^
Scarborough's Collection of Chinese Proverbs Perny's Prov. Chin. ; Rev. A. H. Smith's Proverbs and Common Sayings of the Chinese in the Ch. Rec, vols. xiv., XV., xvi.; Premare Not. Ling. Sin., p. 135 ; Moule's Four Hundred Millions, ohap* vii.; Sacred Edict, art. 7, Amplification.
Acharya
Agii
p.
Akanishta
Akshobja
Aloe
Amban
Amifcabha Arara
Anagamin
Aiianda Anavatapta
'
'
Angudan
Anjir
Apium
Arak Aranyaka Arhan Asankhya
Asura
Avichi
402 366 401 389 332 366 389 436 404 393 428 352 349 345 354 409 404 430 398 401
Captain
Carmine Cent
Cha Chaghan
Che Cheque
Chocolate Cigar
Cocoa
Company
Consul
Daiji
P 340 333 >) 339 )j 407 J) 374 5J 438 438 399 )J 408 >J 369 )> 336 55 333 333 55 333 55 335 55 337 55
5) 5> 55
Frank
Fujin
p.
334 365
442 344 397 429 398 429 388 429 365 358 340 364 333 364
Gaja
Garabier
i!
55
5 5
,5
5,
55
55
Gran a Gurun
Hafan
Halileh
55
5>
55
55
Dakshina
Dalai Dana-pati
55 55
Badan Eadik
Baghshi Bal
Ball
Balliifc
348 n 347
,,
Dapon Darkhan
Darughatsi
55
55
Balsam
Batsa Batnru
Beg Bhikshu
Bithese
Bo-de Bodhi
Bodhidharma
Bodhisatfcva
371 378 339 349 339 378 367 357 401 367 377 418
I
Datoh Dharani
55
55 55 55
55 55 55 55 55
Dhima
Dliuta
Dunya
Dzasssak
372 415 370 414 377 372 372 346 423 442 405 419 365 338 354 372 365
355 352 339 338
p.
Hutukhtu
Ilchi
Imam Imam
India Insure
Efu
Fara
Firuzah Flannel Foot
55
55
5
Jambu-dvipa 427 Janggin 366 Janji 373 Jetavana 410 ,5 Jhapeva 416 5, Jira 440
p.
387,411
>J
Kablon
377
11
Kajang
P))
Kalampak
Kalavingka
j
5) >> 5>
Kanpu Kapa
Kappal
Kapur Kara
Karkefcana
5>
5)
55
51 5) 55 55
Karma
Karon
Karpasa Kashaya Kasyapa
K'atags
55
55
Keke Khadga
55
55
55 55
55
346 345 443 376 368 346 345 374 433 420 373 439 413 393 377 366
Mazu
Merchant Metre Mihr
Mile
P55
5>
55
Qahwah
Quarter Quinine
p.
,,
55
55
Moksha
Murda-seng Muslim
55
55 55
Myrrh
Rahu
Rakshas
Rapa
Rifle
Sabbath
Nabo
Naraas
35
33
55
Nangka Nayuta
Nirvana Noian
55
33
35
33
33
Sakra Sakridagama 55
Sakyainuni
Sala Salmali iSamadi Saraghati
55
Khan
Khatun
Nomuukhan
Nor
Nasliadir
33
374 350
373
55 55
Khurma
Khvaja Kinn ara
Obo
53
55 ,,
5>
,5 55
5)
5)
5>
Om maiii pad
me hum
Ounce
Padre Panasa
33
55
Knot
Koti
Krupp Khsana
Kumbandlias Kumbliira
55 55
)5
53
Sanputra
Sarira
55 55
55
55
J5
55
Paficha varsha
Kusa
Kuslitha
Panshen
deni
Er -
55
Laksha
J>
Lama
Lanza
Latin
55
55
3J
55
55
53
>
55
55
Shir
Si-lin
Maitreya
Malli
35
55
Penang Penny
Pin
Piiid-pata
Siddhanta
Silosu Siraha
33
35 55
55
Maiidara
55
Mango Mani
Manjusri
3>
55
Sloka Sphatika
55
53
Siamana
Sranianera .Srotapanna
55
35
53
Mappa
Mara
Marakti Marichi
)i
55
Pound
Prajna- para-
337
Stupa
418 390 340 429
55 53 55 55 55 >
55
55
)3
mita Pratyeka
Protest
Su
Suf
Sula Sultan
Maskah
Maudgalyaya ua
Putalaka
ii
349
Sameru
HI
Tala
Tala-pattra
p.
, ,
Tanga Tangha
Tangri
Telephoii T'er
, ,
,,
, ,
Taj Tula
Tu-li
Tumari Tusbita
,,
,,
4Uu
,,
Yaksbas
, ,
Tirjak Tobacco
, ,
Ton
Toulo
,,
,
Trayas-trinso
Udnmbara
fjla
,,
Ullambbana,,
Yam a
Yasmiii
Yoga
Yojana
Upadbyaya (See
also
s.
Kbvajj
Upasaka
,,
Tsala Tu-ch'i
Usu
Zafaraii
Zak
384 375
(XTNIVERSITY
Cheng-shi-chih-yin
Cheng-su-yin-tzii
p.
71
Cheng-tzu-furg
Cheng-yin-chii-hna
-hui-pien -pien-wei
,,
-t'ung-su-piao -tso-yao
,,
46 87 99 99 99 100 99
29
Ku-yun-piao-ch'iin Kuang-kan-Iu-tzii-shu
p.
,,
90 67
91 38 59,92 98
,,
Kuei-yuan-chu-tsung
Lei-pien
,,
49
64 77 61 96 73 66 78 80 95 68
Chi-chiu-chang Chi-yun
60 66 45 65
73
Lei-yun
Li-pu-yun-liao Li-shi-yin-chien
Liu-shu-ku
Liu-shu-liao
,,
Ch4e-yun-chih-nan
Chung-chow-ch'uan-yun
Ching-tien-shi-wen Chuan-chu-ku-yin-liao
48 82
76
,,
29
31
,,
65 68 53 28 56 95 79
52
Ming-yuan
Pan-ma-tzii-lei
>>
83 64
67 88 39 92 64 81 26
P'ei-wen-yun-fu
P'i-ts'ang
n
)) )>
HuDg-wu-cheng-yun
I-ch'ie-ching-yin-i
Pi-ya
P;i-ya
)}
Pien-yun-kuan-chu-chi Po-hsio
San-ts'ang San-ts'ang-hsiin-ku Sh^ng-lei Sheng-lei-piao
>1
,,
J>
)>
Jen-tzu-hsin-k'an-Li.puyun-liao
26 39
38,96
72
it
95
35,91 82
87 44
97 86 85
Shi-ming
Shi-yun-ch'i-liao
it
i> 11
Shuo-wn
Shuo-wen-chie-tzu-i-
33
Ku-chin-yun-liao Ku-shi-yin-hsio-wu-shu
chdng
>
5>
-chu
93 94
Shno-wen-chie-tzu-hsilshi-hsi-chuan p. t'ung M
,,
Urh-ya- chu-su
55
>>
P>> >j
57
-hsin-i
))
-1
hsun-ting-sheng -yun-pu, n
,
, ,
94
55 42,47
-yin-i
jj
64 68 39 44 49
8i)
Ssii-sh^Dg-ch'ie-yuu
,,
, ,
Ssu-shi-erh-cli4 Ssu-yin-shi-i
-lei-pu
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j> 5)
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50,60
Wu-fang-yuan-yin Wu-yin-chi-yan
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Ta-kuang-i-hui-yil-pien
, ,
68,81 71
69 67
T'ang-yun
T'ien-chu-tzu-yuan Tsaner-chie-hsun-tsuan r '^^ if -pien
,,
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Tseug-yun
Tzu-chien
-Hui
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,, ,,
,,
50 63 30 26 26 62 77 84
Yen-hsii-ts'ao-t'arig-pi -chi,,
Yuan-li
Yu-pien
Ynii-chi Yun-fu-ch'un-yii -hsio-chi-ch'eng -chih-nan ,, ,, -hui -liao
97 26 45 ,92 40
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>>
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)j
75
-lin
-shi
,,
-shuo
,,
40 46 63
23 92
>> )>
80 88 74
61 69
n
,,
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-tsuan -tsung
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Urh-ya
-cheng-i
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Yung-hsi-kuang-yun
47 62 58
ERRATA.
P.
1,
line 4,
not.
11, for
La Couperie
J
read Lacouperie.
12,
1.
J,
15,
1, 1.
23,
put inverted
commas
The
after
mean and
another.
,,
24,
,,
1.
subjects.
1.
32,
1.
Ju read Tza-ju.
42,
1.
for
jj
43,
46,
1.
yim and pu
are transposed.
,,
1.
17, for
1, for
J 4 read
for
"ftt.
47,
48,
1.
yen read
T/^i?^-
I.
11,
from foot
50,
54,
1.
*'
5, for
The invention
in
T'ang dynasty."
This
is
China
''
first
the edition
in
93,
97,
1.
Yuan Yuan's Thirteen Classics. 10, for Kuei Fu read Kuei Fu-hsio.
1, 2,
1.
is in
the
Wylie
of:
collection in
By
the Librarian
an
months
107,
1.
ago.
9, for
,,
first
paragraph.
read "swathing."
110,
1.
put
comma
after speech
after
"but."
11
ERRATA.
115, 117,
119,
1.
P.
5, for
9, for
"place
to
1.
1.
10,
8,
read o and 1 for 123, Note, add Lu-sUh-chHen-chi (jg 130, 1. 8, after " word " insert " even."
1.
bJ $&) ch. 6.
137,
1.
24, omit
7,
6,
comma
after "breathes."
142,
1.
from foot
1.
places.
144,
146,
1. 1.
8,
8, for
1.
13, place a
dele the
comma
after " noh-noh.^^ 147, 1. 6, for " eh " read " keh " and for ? read 148, 1. 8, from foot for "stta/b" read " saukJ'
155,
162,
1.
6, for
3,
1.
1.
from foot
166,
6,
we
198,
1. 1.
5,
3,
208,
i.e. |H|.
210, 1.14,
"before
appetiius
and
after
fruentis.
215,
1.
19, put
8, for
comma
after "brothers."
216,
1.
^ Jt read ^ y.
The read To.
for
1. 1.
1.
11, for
8, 9,
220,
222,
real."
234, 261,
1.
14, before
7, for
"included"
insert
"not."
1. 1.
297,
1.
"It
is
when
whom
the dis-
ERRATA.
P.
297, 302, 330, 332,
1. I.
1.
16, dele
20, for
14, for
11,
comma
after
*'
constable."
chien-ahi
after
'^
read Chien-a^hi.
insert
1.
from foot
"mappa''
of
map."
5, for
1,
341,
1.
no-fa read
read
''
no-t'ou.
5, for t*on
read t*ou.
18, for
2, after
1.
Kurun
is
an old Nu-chSn
word meaning Princess or wife of chieftain. 366, 1. 7, from foot after "resides" addThis
written
word,
An-pan
(}f i^)
is
as a Nii-chen term,
379,
1.
7,
2,
^ substitute
for
399,
1. 1. 1. 1.
403,
417,
from foot for '' Mauchi" read "Marichi." 17, for " Szamana " read " Sramana."
"Saria " read "Sarira.
do.
12, for
14, for
read
do.
1.23, for
1.
1. 1-
425,
Ga
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