Cases and solutions

Hydrogeology and geochemistry in the Curuksu (Denizli) hydrothermal field, western Turkey
H. Murat zler

Abstract Curuksu is a low temperature hydrothermal system located within the upper sector of the B. Menderes Graben. The hydrologic structure of the Curuksu hydrothermal system is largely controlled by major graben faults where it is characterized by the presence of two thermal reservoirs. One is formed by Paleozoic quartzite, schist and marble units, and the second consists of Pliocene limestone-travertine units. The thermal conditions in the Curuksu region indicate that the regional tectonics and resulting local stress field control low temperatures activity. Temperatures of 30 springs emerging in the study area range between 15 and 55 7C. These springs are classified as cold fresh, warm mineral and thermal waters. Pamukkale, Karahayt and Honaz springs are steam condensate waters, whereas Curuksu springs are commonly steam-heated waters with respect to the major anion concentrations. The reservoir temperatures have been estimated from chemical compositions by utilizing simultaneously, geothermometers and mixing models. According to these thermometric methods, the most probable subsurface temperature is in the range of 6290 7C. However, the mixing models suggest a temperature level of 80 7C for the parent water. The system has low total dissolved solid (TDS) of F10001500 mg/l, which indicate that these waters undergo conductive cooling within the reservoir. Key words Geochemistry 7 Geology 7 Hydrogeology 7 Hydrothermal waters 7 Isotopes

Introduction
The low temperature hydrothermal field of Denizli is located on the boundary of the Mediterranean and Aegean regions in western Turkey (Fig. 1). The study area, which covers F1400 km 2, lies at the intersection of B. Menderes-Gediz and Baklan graben, and is heavily faulted within graben systems. The faults generally lie in an eastwest direction at the Menderes Graben, in the northwest-southeast at the Gediz graben and in the northeastsouthwest direction at the Baklan graben. The dominant fracture joints and crack systems are parallel with these orientations. The highlands, with peaks of F20002500 m, have an east-west oriented in accordance with the geological structure. The denudation surfaces, valley forms and alluvial fans indicate that the E-W fault systems are the youngest, and the large displacements of these faults occurred during the Plio-Quaternary. Seismic data obtained from earthquakes indicate that this area is a first-degree earthquake zone. The average vertical displacement is F2.4 cm annually. Previous research has focused on regional groundwater quality (Gkalp 1971; Koak 1976; Es der and Ylmazer 1991), thermal water (S ims ek 1984; Filiz and Gkgz 1994; Gkgz 1994) and characteristics of travertine aquifer (Canik 1978; Altunel and Hancock 1993) in the Curuksu Basin. In this study, the Pamukkale, Karahayt and Kocabas hydrothermal systems have been investigated. The objectives of this investigation were to determine the geology and hydrogeology of reservoir rocks, springs and groundwater flow, and to geochemically interpret chemical analyses of thermal fluids. The 30 springs that are the subject of this study emerge with a total discharge of F5.6 m 3/s and a temperature level that ranges between 1555 7C. The field is situated in the east of Denizli. Pamukkale and Karahayt are known worldwide as tourist areas with their numerous hot springs and white travertine.

Received: 9 September 1999 7 Accepted: 14 February 2000 H. Murat zler Istanbul University Department of Geological Engineering, Avcilar Campus, 34840, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: ozlerhm6istanbul.edu.tr Fax: c90-212-5911997

Methodology
In the present study, a simplified geological map in the Denizli field has been presented at 1 : 100 000 scale. Chemical data were obtained from samples collected 1169

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Fig. 1 Location map of the Curuksu (Denizli) low temperature hydrothermal field and main graben systems

from the hot and cold springs in 1993. The subsurface 1. The Dagdere formation (Td) composed of block gravtemperatures were calculated from the chemical composiel, graveled mudstone, graveled sandstone and sandtion of the discharged fluid by using geothermometers stone for the spring water as NaKMg and silica-enthalpy dia- 2. The Kzldere formation (Tk) consists of 2500 m of algrams. The origin and type of water are studied with the ternating conglomerates, sandstone, claystone and ligaid of isotopic data and the ClSO4HCO3 diagram. Isonite strata topic data of samples collected by DSI (State Hydraulic 3. The Sazak formation (Ts) is composed of intercalating Works 1986) have been re-evaluated. limestone, marls, siltstones and travertine, 200300 m thick 4. The Acdere formation (Ta) consists of marl, clayey limestone, mudstone, sandstone and travertine, 1000 m Geological setting and fault thick control in the field 5. The Gkpnar (Qg) is composed of alternating units of poorly consolidated conglomerates, sandstone and Geological setting mudstone, 100 m in thickness In the investigation area, para-autochthonous, alloch6. The Quaternary is characterized by terrace deposits, thonous and young-autochthonous units exist. Lithologialluvium, slope debris, alluvial fans and travertine cal units consist of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, The alluvium (Qa) covers all of the units (Ozler 1996). their ages range from Paleozoic to Quaternary and they Contact between rock associations in the fields is mainly outcrop in Denizli field (Fig. 2). The basement is comby unconformity; however, the contact among basement posed of para-autochthonous units, which are Gktepe metamorphic rocks and Plio-Quaternary materials is the gneiss and schist, and Yeniky marble. Allochthonous range front fault, with a normal downthrow to the south units are Ckelez limestone, Mentese ophiolites and Boz- and north of at least 450 m, and probably much more. kaya melange. These rocks are overlain by continental The denudation surfaces, valleys and alluvial fans indiand lacustrine Tertiary sediments that are young-autoch- cate that the east-west and north-west-south-east faults thonous units and have been divided into six lithological are the youngest and that the largest displacements ocunits, from bottom to top, as follows: curred along these faults during the Plio-Quaternary peri1170

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is the main cause of heating of the meteoric water at greater depth. The heat source in the hydrothermal field is considered either dependent on recent volcanism or on neotectonic activity. In the west of Honaz mountain (Fig. 2) there is important evidence of recent volcanic acod (Simsek 1982). The dominant fracture joints and crack tivity represented by Denizli alkaline volcanism, which systems are parallel with those orientations that have de- was a product of rifting in the Plio-Quaternary (Ozler veloped in the Pamukkale-Karahayt and Kocabas hydro- 1996). The volcanism in the field is closely related to the thermal system. rift system (Ercan 1979). The development of this magmatic intrusion is connected the formation of granite inHydrothermal activity and fault control trusions in the Aegean region (S engor and Ylmaz 1981). Western Anatolia is characterized by a series of grabens Pe-Piper and Piper (1989) state that the extensional reand comprises part of the Aegean extensional province. gime is not primarily control-led by magmatism, but proMenderes massif has been subjected to uplift and extenvides pathways (faults) for magma to reach the surface. sional forces, and the Aegean graben system was formed This extension was the main control in the generation of as a result of subduction of the North African (Levant) Plio-Quaternary alkaline volcanic rock by decompressionoceanic crust beneath the westward-moving Anatolian al melting of an upper mantle source. Meteoric waters plate south of the Aegean and Crete (Fig. 1). The westcirculate through the deep-seated and interrelated fault ward movement of the Anatolian plate during the Middle planes and fractures of recent graben systems. It has been Miocene began its separation from the Bitlis suture zone. established that these waters are probably heated by magThe extension in Western Anatolia is believed to be matic intrusions and by emanations from these intruclosely related to the northward movement of the Arasions (Simsek 1985). bian plate in the east, which pushed Anatolia westwards through the north Anatolian and east Anatolian faults (S ims ek 1985). During these neotectonic activities, nuHydrogeology merous step faults have been developed at the junction of the B. Menderes, Gediz and Baklan graben (Figs. 1 and The hydrogeological structure of the Denizli hydrother2). The existence of major faults and fault junctions is caused by extensional tectonism, volcanic intrusions and mal system is largely controlled by the Miocene graben
Fig. 2 Geological map of the Curuksu (Denizli) low temperature hydrothermal field

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faults. The primary reservoir rock in the field is the Gktepe-Yeniky formation, which contains quartzite, schist and marble, with secondary permeability represented by a network of joints, fractures, faults and karstic features that are a result of Plio-Quaternary tectonic activities. The Kzlburun formation contains clay, silt, marl, sandstone and gravel and these form the cap rocks. Faulting in the area has caused the formation of secondary permeability in the reservoir rocks. Drilling studies have confirmed that the hot waters with high discharge rates are found in areas where faults are dense. The other reservoir is the Sazak formation and contains limestone and travertine. It overlies the Kzlburun formation, and appears in an area of F200 km 2 in the vicinity of Denizli. Its continuity is, however, broken by lateral lithological variations in the formation. The thickness of limestone in this unit varies, and it is transitive into marls and sandstone, laterally and vertically. Intensive karstification has developed in the travertine. Nearly all springs, especially the high-yield karst springs, such as; Gkpnar, Pnarbas, Haydarbaba and Halkabas springs, discharge from this karstified unit. Travertine originates from hot waters that emerge from open fissures along the fault zones. Total discharge of the 30 springs is F5.6 m 3/s and they have temperatures that vary between 15 and 55 7C (Table 1). However, the calculated reservoir temperatures

range between 62 and 90 7C (Ozler 1996). The hot waters are of calcium-magnesium and sodium-bicarbonate type. Groundwater recharge source is mainly from meteoric precipitation. The reservoir rocks are fed through major faults (Fig. 3). The geothermal fluids, after being heated by magmatic intrusions at greater depths, travel upwards to the reservoirs through the major faults bounding the graben, and then flow towards the center of the graben where they are mixed with increasing amounts of cold water (S ims ek 1982). Hydrothermal activities in the Curuksu basin started during the Miocene and Pliocene when lava approached the ground surface and there was volcanic activity. The genesis of deep karstification was accelerated by hydrothermal activities that developed during these periods along with suitable climatic conditions. The variations in lithological and petrographical characteristics of the rocks contribute to the variation in karstification. Karstic units in the area are marble, limestone, travertine and transitive. The units have gained high porosity and permeability by fracturing and faulting from active tectonics, and they have been karstified by groundwater circulation. Faulting in the area has resulted in the development of secondary permeability in the reservoir rocks. Drilling has confirmed that the hot waters with high discharge rates originate from areas where faults are dense.

Table 1 Chemical composition and stable isotope contents of hydrothermal waters in Denizli low temperature field (in mg/l)
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Cold fresh springs (Honaz springs) Springs Gkpnar Pnarbas Kazanpnar Bceli Hyk Kocapinar Warm Halkabas springs Kokarsu (Curuksu Kaynarca-I springs) Kaynarca-II iban H.B. Icgol H.B. Dsgol H.B. IKD Sgt Kzlar ayrlk Aga Yrkdomlari Camurlu Mehmetcik Kelkaya Ince ark Domuzdusen Thermal zel Idare springs Jandarma Karahayt- Beltes Pamukkale Kzllegen Kurtur Kzlhamam Temp. ( 7C) 15 24 16 16 20 17 20 22 21 21 21 23 23 22 20 18 20 21 21 22 19 19 23 22 35.7 35.2 35.2 53 54.5 42
2 pH Ca 2c Mg 2c Na c K c HCO3 Cl SO4 TDS SiO2 Tritium d 18O () (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (TU)

dD ()
P54.46 P54.82 P57.31 P53.92 P55.47

7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.6 7.1 6.9 6.7 6.7 7.5 6.8 7.4 7.4 6.6 6.7 6.8 7 6.8 7 6.6 7.9 7.2 6.7 6.6 6.1 6.3 6.6 6.5 6.5 6.3

44.1 50.1 102.2 80.2 274.5 140.0 324.6 358.7 324.6 340.7 280.6 266.5 262.5 340.7 232.5 360.7 280.6 324.6 300.6 340.7 360.7 296.6 344.7 340.0 225.0 290.1 239.4 255.3 318.5 265.1

10.9 3.2 9.7 3.4 42.6 9.2 60.8 9.2 42.6 7.8 24.4 3.5 116.7 32.2 115.5 29.9 113.1 34.5 60.8 24.6 91.2 24.6 85.1 39.1 86.3 36.8 109.4 34.5 126.5 18.4 80.3 27.1 97.3 24.6 113.1 27.6 97.3 17.5 109.4 34.5 80.3 5.7 91.2 18.4 121.6 32.2 109.8 34.9 10.5 30.6 32.7 36.9 67.8 35.4 121.5 93.2 89.3 96.0 60.2 99.1

0.8 0.8 0.2 1.6 6.6 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 2.7 2.7 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.7 2.7 3.9 2.7 3.9 4.7 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.1 3.7 4.7 21.0 19.7 18.7

122.0 7.10 189.1 7.10 439.2 17.7 427.0 17.7 289.8 7.10 259.4 7.1 524.6 71.0 616.1 56.8 561.2 71.0 399.6 24.8 518.5 24.8 561.2 56.8 494.1 71.0 634.4 71.0 439.2 63.9 610.0 24.8 485.0 24.8 616.1 71.0 408.7 28.4 634.4 71.0 610.0 24.8 603.9 49.7 658.8 71.0 650.1 71.4 1065.6 75.6 1147.6 152.4 1060.4 110.8 1157.8 153.1 1250.0 193.4 1229.5 90.7

14.4 8.2 72 100.9 447.2 133.3 787.7 807.0 744.5 787.3 688.8 528.4 557.2 715.7 624.4 706.1 739.7 696.5 734.9 715.7 706.0 566.8 744.5 709.5 178.6 337.3 401.8 659.7 620.1 501.0

186 189 408 420 777 420 1140 900 1140 1326 1326 900 900 1140 1320 1383 1365 1080 1130 1140 1020 960 1200 1215 1340 1302 1311 1536 1530 1560

19

138.3 165.2 114.4 221.9 230.2 175.9

2 2 2 7 4 1 1 1 0 P 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 0

P8.91 P9.11 P8.78 P8.69 P8.72

P8.55 P54.57 P8.85 P56.7 P8.72 P55.15 P8.66 P55.44 P8.78 P56.52 P8.78 P57.31 P8.68 P54.38

P8.74 P8.92 P8.73 P8.32 P8.62 P8.73 P7.17 P7.74 P8.01

P55.48 P59.46 P55.73 P58.16 P58.80 P59.46 P54.14 P54.51 P56.62

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Fig. 3 The location of cold fresh, warm mineral and thermal springs and the regional groundwater temperature variations in the Curuksu field

been characterized as follows: cold (~20 7C), fresh (F186420 mg/l TDS), acidic (F 7.17.6 pH) and soft (F155430 mg/l hardness as CaCO3); contains Ca 2c This study is based on samples from 30 hot and cold 2 (F44140 mg/l), SO4 (F8100 mg/l), and HCO3 springs in this area. Chemical composition of all samples c (F122250 mg/l); poor in Na (F35 mg/l) and Cl is shown in Table 1 and their locations are shown in (F78 mg/l). These waters (Pnarbas, Gkpnar, KazanFig. 3. The procedures described by the American Public pnar, Hyk, Kocapinar and Bceli springs) are of the Health Association (APHA and others 1989) and by Hem calcium bicarbonate (Ca-HCO3) type, and they issue (1970) were followed in the field and laboratory. The from the karstic limestone in the Honaz region at an elecomposition of hydrothermal water depends on many vation of F600 m. These springs have large discharge cafactors: temperature-dependent reactions between host pacities of F3.5 m 3/s. rock and water is a major factor, and leaching plays an The warm mineral waters, named locally Curuksu rotten important role when the amount of a particular constiwater, have been characterized as follows: a low tempertuent is too small to achieve equilibrium. However, the ature (F2023 7C), brackish (F10001383 mg/l TDS), processes of mixing, boiling and cooling usually have a acidic (F6.67.5 pH) contains Ca 2c (F100360 mg/l), pronounced influence on the final composition of geo2 (F100807 mg/l), HCO3 (F250650 mg/l); poor in SO4 thermal waters (Karouaz 1994). c Na (F540 mg/l) and Cl (F1770 mg/l). The warm mineral waters are of the calcium, magnesium/carbonate, sulfate (Ca, Mg/HCO3, SO4) type. They emerge as springs at an elevation of 300500 m. The waters ascend Fluid chemistry through faults and fractures from the underlying gneissschist-marble complex into the travertine and limestone The chemical composition of the fluids of Curuksu hyaquifer from which they flow out in the Curuksu plain. drothermal field varies with the mixing direction of the Thermal waters, i.e. the Pamukkale and Karahayt cold water, which depends on the flow path. The geother- springs, have been characterized as follows: a low tem as perature (F35.254.5 7C), brackish (F13021560 mg/l mal fluid is diluted with regard to Na c, K c, Cl , SiO2 2c a result of mixing with cold water, whereas Ca , Mg 2c TDS), basic (F6.16.6 pH) contains Ca 2c 2 2 and SO4 concentrations increase. However, the slight (F225318 mg/l), SO4 (F178659 mg/l), HCO3 c chemical differences that exist between the hydrothermal (F10601250 mg/l); Na (F30.699.1 mg/l) and Cl (F75.6193.4 mg/l). The thermal waters are of the calwaters are probably caused by CO2 and H2S. Water analyses of the Curuksu Basin are divided into cium sulfate (Ca-SO4) type, which emerge as springs at an elevation of 300350 m. The waters ascend through three categories according to temperature, pH and total faults and fractures from the underlying gneiss-schistdissolved solids (TDS): cold fresh waters, warm mineral marble complex into the travertine and limestone aquifer. waters and thermal waters. The cold fresh waters have

Hydrogeochemical characteristics

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Fig. 4 Curuksu hydrothermal waters on Piper diagram

The relative ion concentration levels are the same in all the springs, namely; Ca 2c 1 Mg 2c 1 Na c 1 K c and 2 2 1 HCO3 1 Cl . The SO4 concentration is high in nuSO4 merous water samples, up to 807 mg/l in contrast to samples from the Honaz region springs (nos. 14, Table 5) that contain as little as 8.2 mg/l. Chlorine and sodium occur in the Honaz region springs in exceptionally low concentration: 7.17.5 mg/l Cl and 3.29.2 mg/l Na. These low concentrations imply that practically no NaCl has been added underground to the water, not even to the mineralized water end-member. Solution rates and concentrations are controlled primarily by the amount of water contacting the Ca, Mg, Na, K, SO4, HCO3 and Cl minerals, and, to a lesser extent, by the mode in which water is supplied, such as laminar or turbulent flows or impacting raindrops and spray (Ford and Williams 1989). A trilinear plot (Fig. 4) of the spring analysis indicates substantial variability in water type, although calcium was the predominant cation in all samples. Bicarbonate was the predominant anion for the Honaz region springs and sulfate was the predominant anion for the other springs. This is because of an increase in the Mg 2c/Ca 2c 2 and SO4 /HCO3 ratios with increasing distance from the recharge area. The change in these ratios is caused by the dissolution of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) along the flow paths. It is important to note that these reactions involve the dissolution of the minerals in fresh water and mixing with the thermal waters along the main graben faults.

Geothermometers
Temperatures in geothermal reservoirs are not generally homogeneous, but variable, both horizontally and vertically. Chemical geothermometry, when applied to specific hot springs can, at best, be expected to reveal the temperatures of the aquifer feeding the respective springs. Temperatures encountered in deep drill holes may thus be higher than those indicated by chemical geothermometry of springs, particularly if the springs are fed by shallow aquifers (Arnorsson and others 1983). The NaKCa geothermometer of Fournier and Trusdell (1973) was developed specially to deal with calcium-rich waters that give anomalously high temperatures calculated by the Na/ K method. Changes in concentration resulting from boiling and from mixing with cold, dilute water will affect the NaKCa geothermometer. The main consequence of boiling is loss of CO2, which can cause CaCO3 to precipitate. The loss of aqueous Ca 2c will generally result in NaKCa calculated temperatures that are too high. The effect of dilution on the NaKCa geothermometer is generally negligible in the high temperatures geothermal water, but not in the low temperatures geothermal water (Fournier 1981). NaKMg A ternary plot of Na/1000K/100Mg 1/2 has been proposed by Giggenbach (1988) as a method to determine reservoir temperature and to recognize waters that have attained equilibrium with host rocks. Fournier (1977)

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states that the diagram is most useful in determining which waters are most suitable for geochemistry, by eliminating these that are only partially equilibrated by dilution/ mixing or near surface rock-water reactions. As can be seen in Fig. 5, all spring waters form a group at the Mg corner, which means the spring waters are immature. This points to extensive interaction of the spring water with rock at comparatively low temperatures, because the concentrations of Mg are relatively high in low temperature waters. In the present case, all thermal waters are not found to be in equilibrium. The fall in a field in which the classic cation geo-indicators cannot be relied upon. Magnesium concentrations in geothermal fluids tend to decrease as temperature increases. As the geothermal fluid flows from a high to a low temperature environment, it appears to pick up significant amounts of Mg relatively easily and quickly from the surrounding rock. This leads to a major ambiguity in the application of the geothermometer of Fournier and Potter (1979). ClSO4HCO3 This diagram was described by Giggenbach (1991) for an initial eyeball assessment of correlation between various constituents. This diagram (Fig. 6) provides an individual indication of the mixing relationship or geographic grouping, e.g. Cl waters form a central core that waters towards the margin of a thergrades into HCO3 2 steam-heated waters are usually mal area. Also, high SO4 encountered over the more elevated part of a geothermal field. The degree of separation between data points for high chloride and bicarbonate gives an idea of the relative degree of interaction of CO2-charged fluids at lower contents as it increases temperatures, and of the HCO3 with time and distance traveled underground. Figure 6 indicates that the hottest samples are sulfate waters,
Fig. 6 2 Cl SO4 HCO3 triangular diagram for Curuksu hydrothermal waters

which, with time, became bicarbonate waters when they approach the cold water from shallow recharge zones. Samples 1, 2, 5, 19, 20 and 21, which are cold waters in Curuksu, and samples 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 (Pamukkale-Karahayt waters), which are the hottest waters in corner. These are the study area, are located in the HCO3 steam condensate waters. Other samples plot in the 2 corner because their pH steam-heated waters in the SO4 is quite high (Table 1). The sulfate is probably formed by oxidation of H2S during upflow. The results show an old high-temperature system that is cooling down, but is still receiving sulfide from a magmatic source. The high con , Mg 2c and H2S, (which is oxidized to sultent of HCO3 fate and lowers the pH of water) in near-surface waters may indicate high temperature at depth (Tonani 1970).

Mixing evaluation
Mixing has been inferred from more than one piece of evidence through the field. First, relatively low chloride and total dissolved salt concentrations in some samples have been recognized. Second, large flow rates in some of the springs and large differences between measured and geothermometer temperatures were found in some cases. Third, Arnorsson and others (1983) suggest a linear relation between Cl and most of the constituents as evidence of mixing, which can be demonstrated by Fig. 7. It illustrates the relationships between pH, Ca, HCO3, SO4 versus Cl and temperature, indicating that significant mixing occurs between the geothermal reservoir water and the waters of the cap-rock aquifers. Consequently, there are significant interconnections between the geothermal reservoir and the cover. 1175

Fig. 5 Na cK cMg 2c triangular diagram (after Giggenbach 1988) for Curuksu hydrothermal waters

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Fig. 7 2 and SO4 versus Cl and temperature for triangle cold fresh springs, circle warm mineral springs and square pH, Ca 2c, HCO3 thermal springs

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Silica-enthalpy mixing model In general, the quartz geothermometer is applied in high temperature reservoirs, and the chalcedony geothermometer in low temperature reservoirs. The dissolved silica concentrations in hydrothermal solutions with near neutral pH can generally be used as one of the more reliable chemical geothermometers when applied to waters collected from wells. Trusdell and Fournier (1977) used a plot of dissolved silica versus enthalpy of liquid water to estimate the temperature of the hot water component of the mixed water. Enthalpy is used as a coordinate rather than temperature. This is because the combined heat contents of two waters at different temperatures are conserved when these waters are mixed (neglecting small heat of dilution effects), but combined temperatures are not. The chalcedony solubility curve used in Fig. 8 is the curve proposed by Arnorsson and others. (1983). Since the waters in this field are found to be mixed waters (see Fig. 7) the use of a mixing model is necessary. The chalcedony is expected to control the silica content of thermal fluids. Figure 8 shows results of the silica-enthalpy mixing model applied to Curuksu data indicating a good linear relationship. It shows that the hottest waters of the field plot close to the solubility curve of chalcedony, suggesting a probable equilibrium with this mineral. Taking sample 1 (Gkpnar spring) to represent the cold water component, its silica content was 19 mg/l with a temperature of 15 7C, and the silica-enthalpy plot intersects the chalcedony saturation curves at 260 and 330 kJ/kg. These waters correspond to a subsurface temperature of 62 and 80 7C respectively.

hot spring systems. In many places all the hot spring waters that reach the surface are mixed waters or have equilibrated chemically at shallow or intermediate reservoirs or aquifers, so a consideration of enthalpy and chloride relations may overcome this difficulty. This diagram mainly depends on the fact that the range of chloride concentrations of hot springs appears to result mainly from different amounts of boiling water, so this range in concentrations can give information about the minimum temperature of the reservoir feeding the springs. The enthalpy-chloride mixing model for some of the Curuksu data plotted in Fig. 9 shows that Curuksu waters are mixtures of cold waters, and possibly conductive cooling occurs. Figure 9 clearly shows two groups of water. Line A connects samples 12, 8, 25 and 30, which are probably affected by cooling in two processes: boiling and mixing with cold water and possible conductive cooling. Line B connects samples 23, 18, 13, 27, 26, 28 and 29 in the Pamukkale and Karahayt field where the dominant process seems to be mixing with cold water rather than boiling. The chloride-enthalpy mixing model gives a reservoir temperature of F80 7C, which is similar to the temperatures given by the silica-enthalpy-mixing model. In the west of the area, cooling is probably caused by mixing with cold groundwater rather than boiling; in the east the boiling process prevails over mixing with cold water.

Isotope studies

Origin and type of water Table 1 reports the isotopic composition for 22 springs, Chloride-enthalpy mixing model most of which are located at various elevations in the Fournier (1977) discussed the use of enthalpy-chloride diagrams for the prediction of underground conditions in Curuksu hydrothermal field. The cold, mineral and ther-

Fig. 8 The silica-enthalpy mixing model for geothermal waters from the Curuksu field

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Fig. 9 The chloride-enthalpy mixing model for geothermal waters from the Curuksu field show two different groups of waters

Fig. 10 D versus O-18 for square cold fresh springs, triangle warm mineral springs and circle thermal springs

mal waters have been analyzed for oxygen-18 and deuterium (DSI 1989). The results define a local meteoric line with dDp8 d 18Dc14.6 (Yurtsever 1978; Fig. 10). The dD and d 18O values of the cold water in Curuksu are very close to this local meteoric line, confirming their meteoric origin. This has been confirmed by deuterium isotope measurements. DSI (1989) analyzed the deuterium content of rain water in the Curuksu region and obtained dD values that varied between 46.9 and 67.53. The data relative to cold springs have been used to define the local meteoric line that is intermediate between the meteoric world line (MWL) and the lakes area meteoric line (LAML). The dD and d 18O values of the thermal spring waters in Pamukkale and Karahayt show enrichment relative to meteoric waters. The deuterium content of the thermal waters indicates that the recharge area for cold fresh, warm mineral and thermal waters is at an elevation of F600800 m. Acidic steam-heated waters show enrichment in 18O and D relative to meteoric waters, which may originate from decomposition of marble in the Pal1178

eozoic basement. At the surface, this enrichment is additionally influenced by isotopic exchange with atmospheric water, the composition of which will also vary among localities. (Giggenbach 1988). Tritium constraints on timing of fluid flow and mixing process Tritium can be used in reservoir monitoring studies because an increase in the 3H of geothermal discharges can be indicative of increasing dilution or of a rapid recharge by meteoric waters. In this respect, 3H-Cl diagrams can be used to illustrate groundwater mixing with geothermal waters (Giggenbach 1988). The activity of tritium ( 3H, half-life 12.3 years) in thermal waters provides a useful tracer to indicate underground residence times. Data on results of tritium measurements in the Curuksu hydrothermal system (DSI 1989) are presented in Table 1. A mean thermal water residence time of about 50 years and a velocity of F55 m/year was estimated from Karahayt tritium data. A comparison of tritium activities between

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Fig. 11 Diagram showing tritium activity versus Cl concentration for hydrothermal waters from Curuksu field

thermal waters from Pamukkale-Karahayt and Curuksu reveals that the Pamukkale-Karahayt waters generally have lower tritium activities than those Curuksu waters that have comparable Cl concentrations. This indicates a longer residence time of Pamukkale-Karahayt waters than at Curuksu. Possible reasons for this include longer flow path, lower flow rate, lower permeability, an older meteoric water end-member, or a combination of these factors. The tritium data shown in Fig. 11 are consistent with a model in which mixing occurs along the major faults of the graben system (Fig. 2). The flow of mixed water is westward along this fault (see Fig. 3).

Conclusion
The investigation site was uplifted during late Pliocene and Quaternary times, and an E-W graben formed because of tensional forces where the crust of the earth is thinner. The magma rose up to the surface and, thus, the hydrothermal field occurred naturally along the graben faults and caused the hydrothermal karstification. Geological, hydrogeological and geochemical results show that the hydrothermal fluid, which rises along the main faults of graben field, is accumulated in the permeable strata and moved into the middle parts of the graben. Water within the Curuksu system is mainly of meteoric origin, and studies suggest that Cokelez mountain in the north and Honaz mountain in the south are the main sources of recharge for the hydrothermal system. The temperatures of 30 springs emerging in the study area range between 15 and 55 7C. The waters are classified as cold fresh, warm mineral and thermal waters. Chemical characteristics of the waters are of Ca-HCO3, Ca, Mg-HCO3, SO4 and Ca-SO4 composition respectively. The slight chemical differences that exist between hydrothermal waters are probably caused by CO2 and H2S, as indicated by its isotopic composition, and could originate from decomposition of marble from the Paleozoic basement. These may also affect the isotopic composition of

thermal waters, which exhibit an interesting oxygen enrichment. The reservoir temperature of geothermal water in the Curuksu area seems to be reflected by Chalcedony solubility and is estimated to be in the range of 6280 7C. However, the mixing models suggest a temperature of 80 7C for the parent water. The heat source is probably more powerful in the western part of the area (Pamukkale-Karahayt) because geothermometer temperatures increase towards the west. Most of the thermal spring waters at the Pamukkale, Karahayt and Honaz springs are steam-condensate waters (peripheral) and those at Curuksu are steam-heated waters according to Giggenbachs (1991) classification based 2 and on the concentrations of the major anions, Cl , SO4 HCO3 . These springs are found to be mixed with cold groundwater. All spring waters in the Denizli low temperature area have 18O and D isotopic values of meteoric signature. Available chemical and isotopic data indicate that the Denizli thermal waters are diluted as a result of karstic cold fresh groundwater recharge that flows northward from Honaz region. A combination of the isotopic results with other studies suggest that a large geothermal reservoir exist in the Curuksu area.

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