1

I
Knowing the Oriental
On June 13, 1910, Arthur James Balfour Lectured the House of Commons on the problems w th wh ch we ha!e to deal n "#$pt%& 'hese, he sa d, belon# to a wholl$ d fferent cate#or$% than those affect n# the (sle of ) #ht or the )est * d n# of +or,sh re&% He spo,e w th the author t$ of a lon#-t me member of .arl ament, former pr !ate secretar$ to Lord /al sbur$, former ch ef secretar$ for (reland, former secretar$ for /cotland, former pr me m n ster, !eteran of numerous o!erseas cr s s, ach e!ements, and chan#es& 0ur n# h s n!ol!ement n mper al affa rs Balfour ser!ed a monarch who n 1112 had been declared "mpress of (nd a3 he had been espec all$ well placed n pos t ons of uncommon nfluence to follow the Af#han and 4ulu wars, the Br t sh occupat on of "#$pt n 1115, the death of 6eneral 6ordon n the /udan, the 7ashoda (nc dent, the battle of Omdurman, the Boer )ar, the *usso-Japanese )ar& (n add t on h s remar,able soc al em nence, the breadth of h s learn n# and w t8he could wr te on such !ar ed sub9ects as Ber#son, Handel, the sm, and #olf-- h s educat on at "ton and 'r n t$ Colle#e, Cambr d#e, and h s apparent command o!er mper al affa rs all #a!e cons derable author t$ to what he told the Commons n June 1910& But there was st ll more to Balfour:s speech or at least to h s need for # ! n# t so d dact call$ and moral st call$& /ome members were ;uest on n# the necess t$ for "n#land n "#$pt,% the sub9ect of Alfred < lner:s enthus ast c boo, of 1195, but here des #nat n# a once-prof table occupat on that had become a source of trouble now that "#$pt an nat onal sm was on the r se and the cont nu n# Br t sh presence n "#$pt no lon#er so eas$ to defend& Balfour, then, to nform and e=pla n& *ecall n# the challen#e of J&M. *obertson, the member of Tyneside, Balfour himself put Robertsons question again: What right have you to take up these airs of superiority with regard to people whom you choose to call Oriental?% The choice of Oriental% was canonical: ii had been employed by Chaucer and <ande! lle, b$ Shakespear, 0r$den, Pope, and Byron. It designated Asia or the East, #eo#raph call$, morally, culturally. One could speak in Europe of an Oriental personality, an Oriental atmosphere, an Oriental tale, Oriental despotism, or an Oriental mode of production, and be understood. Marx had used the word, and now Balfour was using it; his choice was understandable and called for no comment whatever.
I take up no attitude of superiority. But I ask (Robertson and anyone else)>who has even the most superficial knowledge of history, if they will look in the face the facts with which a British statesman has to deal when he is put in a position of supremacy over great races like the inhabitants of Egypt and countries in the East. We know the civilization of Egypt better than we know the civilization of any other country. We know it further back; we know it more intimately; we know more about it. It goes far beyond the petty span of the history of our race, which is lost in the prehistoric period at a time when the Egyptian civisation had already passed its prime. Look at all the Oriental countries. Do not talk about the superiority or inferiority.

'wo #reat themes dom nate h s remar,s here and n what w ll follow? ,nowled#e and power, the Bacon an themes& As Balfour 9ust f es the necess t$ for Br t sh occupat on of "#$pt, supremac$ n h s m nd s assoc ated w th our% ,nowled#e of "#$pt and not pr nc pall$ w th m l tar$ or econom c power& @nowled#e of Balfour means sur!e$ n# a c ! l Aat on from ts or # ns to ts pr me to ts decl ne8and of course, t means being able to do that& @nowled#e means r s n# abo!e mmed ac$, be$ond self, nto the fore #n and d stant& 'he ob9ect of such ,nowled#e s nherentl$ !ulnerable to scrut n$3 th s ob9ect s a fact% wh ch, f t de!elops, chan#es, or otherw se transforms tself n the wa$ that c ! l Aat ons fre;uentl$ do, ne!ertheless s fundamentall$, e!en ontolo# call$ stable& 'o ha!e such ,nowled#e of such a th n# s to dom nate t, to ha!e author t$ o!er t& And author t$ here means for us% to den$ autonom$ to t%8the Or ental countr$8s nce we ,now t and t e= ts, n a sense, as we ,now t& Br t sh ,nowled#e of "#$pt s "#$pt for Balfour, and the burdens of ,nowled#e ma,e such ;uest ons as nfer or t$ and super or t$ seem pett$ ones& Balfour nowhere den es Br t sh super or t$ and "#$pt an nfer or t$3 he ta,es them for #ranted as he descr bes the conse;uences of ,nowled#e&
7 rst of all, loo, at the facts of the case& )estern nat ons as soon as the$ emer#e nto h stor$ show the be# nn n#s of those capac t es for self-#o!ernment> ha! n# mer ts of the r own>&& +ou ma$ loo, throu#h the whole h stor$ of the Or entals n what s called, broadl$ spea, n#, the "ast, and $ou ne!er f nd traces of self-#o!ernment& All the r #reat centur es--and the$ ha!e been !er$ #reat-ha!e been passed under despot sms, under absolute #o!ernment& All the r #reat contr but ons to c ! l sat on8and the$ ha!e been #reat 8ha!e been made under that form of #o!ernment& Con;ueror has succeeded con;ueror3 one dom nat on has followed another3 but ne!er n all the re!olut ons of fate and fortune ha!e $ou seen one of those nat ons of ts own mot on establ sh what we, from a )estern po nt of ! ew, call self-#o!ernment& 'hat s the fact& (t s not a ;uest on of super or t$ and nfer or t$& ( suppose a true "astern sa#e would sa$ that the wor, n# #o!ernment )h ch we ha!e ta,en upon oursel!es n "#$pt and elsewhere s not a wor, worth$ of a ph losopher8that t s the d rt$ wor,, the nfer or wor,, of carr$ n# on the necessar$ labour&

/ nce these facts are facts, Balfour must then #o on to the ne=t part of h s ar#ument&
(s t a #ood th n# for these #reat nat ons8( adm t the r #reatness--that th s absolute #o!ernment should be e=erc sed b$ usB ( th n, t s a #ood th n#& ( th n, that e=per ence shows that the$ ha!e #ot under t far better #o!ernment than n the whole h stor$ of the world

2
the$ e!er had before, and wh ch not onl$ s a benef t to them, but s undoubtedl$ a benef t to the whole of the c ! l sed )est&&&)e are n "#$pt not merel$ for the sa,e of the "#$pt ans, thou#h we are there for the r sa,e? we are there also for the sa,e of "urope at large.

Balfour produces no evidence that Egyptians and the races with whom we deal% appreciate or even understand the good that s being done them b$ colon al occupat on& (t does not occur to Balfour, howe!er, to let the "#$pt an spea, for h mself, s nce presumabl$ an$ "#$pt an who would spea, out s more l ,el$ to be the a# tator CwhoD w shes to raise d ff cult es% than the good nat !e who o!erloo,s the d ff cult es% of fore #n dom nat on& And so, having settled the ethical problems, Balfour turns at last to the pract cal ones& (f t s our bus ness to #o!ern, w th or w thout #rat tude, w th or w thout the real and #enu ne memor$ of all the loss of wh ch we ha!e rel e!ed the populat on CBalfour b$ no means mpl es, as part of that loss, the loss or at least the ndef n te postponement of "#$pt an ndependenceE and no ! ! d ma# nat on of all the benef ts wh ch we ha!e # !en to them3 f that s our dut$, how s t to be performedB% "n#land e=ports our !er$ best to these countr es&F 'hese selfless adm n strators do the r wor, am dst tens of thousands of persons belon# n# to a d fferent creed, a d fferent race, a d fferent d sc pl ne, d fferent cond t ons of l fe&% )hat ma,es the r wor, of #o!ern n# poss ble s the r sense of be n# supported at home b$ a #o!ernment that endorses what the$ do& +et
d rectl$ the nat !e populat ons ha!e that nst nct !e feel n# that those w th whom the$ ha!e #ot to deal ha!e not beh nd them the m #ht, the author t$, the s$mpath$, the full and un#rud# n# support of the countr$ wh ch sent them there, those populat ons lose all that sense of order wh ch s the !er$ bas s of the r c ! l sat on, 9ust as our off cers lose all that sense of power and author t$, wh ch s the !er$ bas s of e!er$th n# the$ can do for the benef t of those amon# whom the$ ha!e been sent&

BalfourGs lo$ c here s nterest n#, not least for be n# completel$ cons stent w th the prem ses of h s ent re speech& "n#land ,nows "#$pt? "#!pt s what "n#land ,nows? "n#land ,nows that "#$pt cannot ha!e self-#o!ernment3 "n#land conf rms that b$ occup$ n# "#$pt? for the "#$pt ans, "#$pt s what "n#land has occup ed and now #o!erns3 fore #n occupat on therefore becomes the !er$ bas s% of contemporar$ "#$pt an c ! l Aat on? "#$pt re;u res, ndeed ns sts upon, Br t sh occupat on& But f the spec al nt mac$ between #o!ernor and #o!erned n "#$pt s d sturbed b$ .arl ament:s doubts at home, then the author t$ of what> s the dom nant race8 and as ( th n, ou#ht to rema n the dom nant race8has been underm ned&% Hot onl$ does "n#l sh prest #e suffer3 t s !a n for a handful of Br t sh off c als8endow them how $ou l ,e, # !e them all the ;ual t es of character and #en us $ou can ma# ne8 t s mposs ble for them to carr$ out the #reat tas, wh ch n "#$pt, not we onl$, but the c ! l sed world ha!e mposed upon them&% 1 As a rhetor cal performance Balfour:s speech s s #n f cant for the wa$ n wh ch he pla$s the part of, and represents a !ar et$ of characters& 'here are of course the "n#l sh&% for whom the pronoun we% s used w th the full we #ht of a d st n#u shed, powerful man who feels h mself to be representat !e of all that s best n h s nat onGs h stor$& Balfour can also spea, for the c ! l Aed world, the )est, and the relat !el$ small corps of colon al off c als n "#$pt& (f he does not spea, d rectl$ for the Or entals, t s because the$ after all spea, another lan#ua#e? $et he ,nows how the$ feel s nce he ,nows the r h stor$, the r rel ance upon such as he, and the r e=pectat ons& /t ll, he does spea, for them n the sense that what the$ m #ht ha!e to sa$, were the$ to be as,ed and m #ht the$ be able to answer, would somewhat uselessl$ conf rm what s alread$

'he /cope of Or ental sm 3I

e! dent? that the$ are a sub9ect race, dom nated b$ a race that ,nows them and what s #ood for them better than the$ could poss bl$ ,now themsel!es& 'he r #reat moments were n the past3 the$ are useful n the modern world onl$ because the powerful and up-to-date emp res ha!e effect !el$ brou#ht them out of the wretchedness of the r decl ne and turned them nto rehab l tated res dents of product !e colon es& "#$pt n part cular was an e=cellent case n po nt, and Balfour was perfectl$ aware of how much r #ht he had to spea, as a member of h s countr$:s parl ament on behalf of "n#land, the )est, )estern c ! l Aat on, about modern "#$pt& 7or "#$pt was not 9ust another colon$? t was the ! nd cat on or )estern mper al sm3 t was, unt l ts anne=at on b$ "n#land, an almost academ c e=ample of Or ental bac,wardness3 t was to become the tr umph of "n#l sh ,nowled#e and power& Between 1115, the $ear n wh ch "n#land occup ed "#$pt and put an end to the nat onal st rebell on of Colonel Arab , and 190J, "n#landGs representat !e n "#$pt, "#$ptGs master, was "!el$n Bar n# Calso ,nown as O!er-bar n#%E, Lord Cromer& On Jul$ 30, 190J, t was Balfour n the Commons who had supported the pro9ect to # !e Cromer a ret rement pr Ae of f ft$ thousand pounds as a reward for what he had done n "#$pt& Cromcr made "#$pt, sa d Balfour?
"!er$th n# he has touched he has succeeded n&& & &Lord CromerGs ser! ces dur n# the past ;uarter of a centur$ ha!e ra sed "#$pt from the lowest p tch of soc al and econom c de#radat on unt l t now stands amon# Or ental nat ons, ( bel e!e, absolutel$ alone n ts prosper t$, f nanc al and moral&:

3
How "#$ptGs moral prosper t$ was measured, Balfour d d not !enture to sa$& Br t sh e=ports to "#$pt e;ualed those to the whole of Afr ca3 that certa nl$ nd cated a sort of f nanc al prosper t$, for "#$pt and "n#land Csomewhat une!enl$E to#ether& But what reall$ mattered was the unbro,en, all-embrac n# )estern tutela#e of an Or ental countr$, from the scholars, m ss onar es, bus nessmen, sold ers, and teachers who prepared and then mplemented the occupat on to the h #h funct onar es l ,e Cromer and Balfour who saw themsel!es as pro! d n# for, d rect n#, and somet mes e!en forc n# "#$ptGs r se from Or ental ne#lect to ts present lonel$ em nence& (f Br t sh success n "#$pt was as e=cept onal as Balfour sa d, t was b$ no means an ne=pl cable or rrat onal success& "#$pt an

32 Or ental sm
affa rs had been controlled accord n# to a #eneral theor$ e=pressed both b$ Balfour n h s not ons about Or ental c ! l Aat on and b$ Cromer n h s mana#ement of e!er$da$ bus ness n "#$pt& 'he most mportant th n# about the theor$ dur n# the f rst decade or the twent eth centur$ was that t wor,ed, and wor,ed sta##er n#l$ well& 'he ar#ument, when reduced to ts s mplest form, was clear, t was prec se, t was eas$ to #rasp& 'here are )esterners, and there are Or entals& 'he former dom nate3 the latter must be dom nated, wh ch usuall$ means ha! n# the r land occup ed, the r nternal affa rs r # dl$ controlled, the r blood and treasure put at the d sposal of one or another )estern power& 'hat Balfour and Cromer, as we shall soon see , could str p human t$ down to such ruthless cultural and rac al essences was not at all an nd cat on of the r part cular ! c ousness& *ather t was an nd cat on of how streaml ned a #eneral doctr ne had become b$ the t me the$ put t to use8 how streaml ned and effect !e& Knl ,e Balfour, whose theses on Or entals pretended to ob9ect !e un !ersal t$, Cromer spo,e about Or entals spec f call$ as what he had ruled or had to deal w th, f rst n (nd a, then for the twent$-f !e $ears n "#$pt dur n# wh ch he emer#ed as the paramount consul- #eneral n "n#land:s emp re& BalfourGs Or entals% are CromerGs sub9ect races,% wh ch he made the top c of a lon# essa$ publ shed n the Edinburgh Reyiew n Januar$ 1901& Once a#a n, ,nowled#e of sub9ect races or Or entals s what ma,es the r mana#ement eas$ and prof table3 ,nowled#e # !es power, more power re;u res more ,nowled#e, and so on n an ncreas n#l$ prof table d alect c of nformat on and control& CromerGs not on s that "n#landGs emp re w ll not d ssol!e f such th n#s as m l tar sm and commerc al e#o sm at home and free nst tut ons% n the colon$ Cas opposed to Br t sh #o!ernment accord n# to the Code of Chr st an moral t$%E are ,ept n chec,& 7or f, accord n# to Cromer, lo# c s someth n# the e= stence of wh ch the or ental s d sposed alto#ether to #nore,% the proper method of rul n# s not to mpose ultrasc ent f c measures upon h m or to force h m bod l$ to accept lo# c& (t s rather to understand h s l m tat ons and endea!or to f nd, n the contentment of the sub9ect race, a more worth$ and, t ma$ be hoped, a stron#er bond or un on between the rulers and the ruled&% Lur, n# e!er$where beh nd the pac f cat on of the sub9ect race s mper al m #ht, more effect !e for ts ref ned understand n# and nfre;uent use than for ts sold ers, brutal ta= #atherers, and ncont nent force& (n a

'he /cope of Or ental sm 3J

word, the "mp re must be w se3 t must temper ts cup d t$ w th selflessness, and ts mpat ence w th fle= ble d sc pl ne&
'o be more e=pl c t, what s meant when t s sa d that the commerc al sp r t should be under some control s th s--that n deal n# w th (nd ans or "#$pt ans, or /h llu,s, or 4ulus, the f rst ;uest on s to cons der what these people, who are all, nat onall$ spea, n#, more or less in statu pupillari, themsel!es th n, s best n the r own nterests, althou#h th s s a po nt wh ch deser!es ser ous cons derat on& But t s essent al that each spec al ssue should be dec ded ma nl$ w th reference to what, b$ the l #ht of )estern ,nowled#e and e=per ence tempered b$ local cons derat ons, we consc ent ousl$ th n, s best for the sub9ect race, w thout reference to an$ real or supposed ad!anta#e wh ch ma$ accrue to England as a nat on, or8as s more fre;uentl$ the case8to the spec al nterests represented b$ some one or more nfluent al classes of "n#l shmen& (f the Br t sh nat on as a whole pers stentl$ bears th s pr nc ple n m nd, and ns sts sternl$ on ts appl cat on, thou#h we can ne!er create a patr ot sm a, n to that based on aff n t$ of race or commun t$ of lan#ua#e, we ma$ perhaps foster some sort, of cosmopol tan alle# ance #rounded on the respect alwa$s accorded to super or talents and unself sh conduct, and on the #rat tude der !ed both from fa!ours conferred and from those to come& 'here ma$ then at all e!ents be some hope that the "#$pt an w ll hes tate before he throws n h s lot w th an$ future Arab & & & & "!en the Central Afr can sa!a#e ma$ e!entuall$ learn to chant a h$mn n honour of Astraea *edu=, as represented b$ the Br t sh off c al who den es h m # n but # !es h m 9ust ce& <ore than th s, commerce w ll #a n&

How much ser ous cons derat on% the ruler ou#ht to # !e proposals from the sub9ect race was llustrated n Cromer:s total oppos t on to "#$pt an nat onal sm& 7ree nat !e nst tut ons, the absence of fore #n occupat on, a selfsusta n n# nat onal so!ere #nt$? these unsurpr s n# demands were cons stentl$ re9ected b$ Cromer, who asserted unamb #uousl$ that the real future of "#$pt>l es not n the d rect on of narrow nat onal sm , wh ch w ll onl$

4
embrace nat !e "#$pt ans& & & but rather n that of an enlar#ed cosmopol tan sm&% /ub9ect races d d not ha!e t n them to ,now what was #ood for them& <ost of them were Or entals, of whose character st cs Cromer was !er$ ,nowled#eable s nce he had had e=per ence w th them both n (nd a and "#$pt& One of the con!en ent th n#s about Or entals for Cromer was that mana# n#

31 O*("H'AL(/<
them, althou#h c rcumstances m #ht d ffer sl #htl$ here and there, was almost e!er$where nearl$ the same& 'h s was, of course, because Or entals were almost e!er$where nearl$ the same& How at last we approach the lon#-de!elop n# core of essent al ,nowled#e, ,nowled#e both academ c and pract cal, wh ch Cromer and Balfour nher ted from a centur$ of modern )estern Or ental sm3 ,nowled#e about and ,nowled#e of Or entals, the r race, character, culture, h stor$, trad t ons, soc et$, and poss b l t es& 'h s ,nowled#e was effect !e? Cromer bel e!ed he had put t to use n #o!ern n# "#$pt& <oreo!er, t was tested and unchan# n# ,nowled#e, s nce FOr entals% for all pract cal purposes were a .laton c essence, wh ch an$ Or ental st Cor ruler of Or entalsE m #ht e=am ne, understand, and e=pose& 'hus n the th rt$-fourth chapter of h s two-!olume wor, Modern Egypt, the ma# ster al record of h s e=per ence and ach e!ement, Cromer puts down a sort of personal canon of Or ental st w sdom?
/ r Alfred L$all once sa d to me? Accurac$ s abhorrent to the Or ental m nd& "!er$ An#lo-(nd an should alwa$s remember that ma= m&% )ant of accurac$, wh ch eas l$ de#enerates nto untruthfulness, s n fact the ma n character st c of the Or ental m nd& 'he "uropean s a close reasoner3 h s statements of fact are de!o d of an$ amb #u t$3 he s a natural lo# c an, albe t he ma$ not ha!e stud ed lo# c3 he s b$ nature scept cal and re;u res proof before he can accept the truth of an$ propos t on3 h s tra ned ntell #ence wor,s l ,e a p ece of mechan sm& 'he m nd of the Or ental, on the other hand, l ,e h s p ctures;ue streets, s em nentl$ want n# n s$mmetr$& H s reason n# s of the most sl pshod descr pt on& Althou#h the anc ent Arabs ac;u red n a somewhat h #her de#ree the sc ence of d alect cs, the r descendants are s n#ularl$ def c ent n the lo# cal facult$ 'he$ are often ncapable of draw n# the most ob! ous conclus ons from an$ s mple prem ses of wh ch the$ ma$ adm t the truth& "ndea!or to el c t a pla n statement of facts from an$ ord nar$ "#$pt an& H s e=planat on w ll #enerall$ be len#th$, and want n# n luc d t$& He w ll probabl$ contrad ct h mself half-adoAen t mes before he has f n shed h s stor$& He w ll often brea, down under the m ldest process of cross e=am nat on&

Or entals or Arabs are thereafter shown to be #ull ble, de!o d of ener#$ and n t at !e,F much # !en to fulsome flatter$,F ntr #ue, cunn n#, and un, ndness to an mals3 Or entals cannot wal, on e ther a road or a pa!ement Cthe r d sordered m nds fa l to understand what the cle!er "uropean #rasps mmed atel$, that roads and

The Scope of Orientalism 39

pa!ements are made for wal, n#E3 Or entals are n!eterate l ars, the$ arc lethar# c and susp c ous,% and n e!er$th n# oppose the clar t$, d rectness, and nob l t$ or the An#lo-/a=on race& Cromer ma,es no effort to conceal that Or entals for h m were alwa$s and onl$ the human mater al he #o!erned n Br t sh colon es& As ( am onl$ a d plomat st and an adm n strator, whose proper stud$ s also man, but from the po nt of ! ew of #o!ern n# h m,F Cromer sa$s, >( content m$self w th not n# the fact that somehow or other the Or ental #enerall$ acts, spea,s, and th n,s n a manner e=actl$ oppos te to the "uropean&% CromerGs descr pt ons are of course based partl$ on d rect obser!at on, $et here and there he refers to orthodo= or ental st author t es C n part cular "rnest *enan and Constant n de Lolne$E to support h s ! ews& 'o these author t es he also defers when t comes to e=pla n n# wh$ Or entals are the wa$ the$ are& He has no doubt that an$ ,nowled#e of the Or ental w ll conf rm h s ! ews, wh ch, to 9ud#e from h s descr pt on of the "#$pt an brea, n# under crosse=am nat on, f nd the Or ental to be #u lt$& 'he cr me was that the Or ental was an Or ental, and t s an accurate s #n or how commonl$ acceptable such a tautolo#$ was that t could be wr tten w thout e!en an appeal to "uropean lo# c or s$mmetr$ of m nd& 'hus an$ de! at on from what were cons dered the norms of Or ental beha! or was bel e!ed to be unnatural3 Cromer:s last annual report from "#$pt conse;uentl$ procla med "#$pt an nat onal sm to be an ent rel$ no!el dea% and a plant of e=ot c rather than of nd #enous #rowth&% )e would be wron#, ( th n,, to underest mate the reser!o r of accred ted ,nowled#e, the codes of Or ental st orthodo=$, to wh ch Cromer and Balfour refer e!er$where n the r wr t n# and n the r publ c pol c$& 'o sa$ s mpl$ that Or ental sm was a rat onal Aat on of colon al rule s to #nore the e=tent to wh ch colon al rule was 9ust f ed n ad!ance b$ Or ental sm, rather than after the fact& <en ha!e alwa$s d ! ded the world up nto re# ons ha! n# e ther real or ma# ned d st nct on from each other& 'he absolute demarcat on between "ast and )est, wh ch Balfour and Cromer accept w th such complacenc$, had been $ears, e!en centur es, n the ma, n#& 'here were of course nnumerable !o$a#es of d sco!er$3 there were contacts throu#h trade and war& But more than th s, s nce the

5
m ddle of the e #hteenth centur$ there had been two pr nc pal elements n the relat on between "ast and )est& One was a #row n# s$stemat c ,nowled#e n "urope about the Or ent, ,nowled#e re nforced b$ the colon al encounter as well as b$ the w despread n-

M0 O*("H'AL(/<
terest n the al en and unusual, e=plo ted b$ the de!elop n# sc ences of ethnolo#$, comparat !e anatom$, ph lolo#$, and h stor$? furthermore, to th s s$stemat c ,nowled#e was added a s Aable bod$ of l terature produced b$ novelists, poets, translators, and # fted tra!elers& 'he other feature of Or ental-"uropean relat ons was that "urope was alwa$s n a pos t on of stren#th, not to sa$ dom nat on& 'here s no wa$ of putt n# th s euphem st call$& 'rue, the relat onsh p of stron# to wea, could be d s#u sed or m t #ated, as when Balfour ac,nowled#ed the #reatness% of Or ental c ! l Aat ons& But the essent al relat onsh p, on pol t cal, cultural, and e!en rel # ous #rounds, was seen8 n the )est, wh ch s what concerns us here8to be one between a stron# and a wea, partner& <an$ terms were used to e=press the relat on? Balfour and Cromer, t$p call$, used se!eral& 'he Or ental s rrat onal, depra!ed CfallenE, ch ldl ,e, d fferent%3 thus the "uropean s rat onal, ! rtuous, mature, normal% But the wa$ of enl !en n# the relat ons sh p was e!er$where to stress the fact that the Or ental l !ed n a d fferent but thorou#hl$ or#an Aed world of h s own, a world w th ts own nat onal, cultural, and ep stemolo# cal boundar es and pr nc ples of nternal coherence& +et what #a!e the Or entalGs world ts ntell # b l t$ and dent t$ was not the result of h s own efforts but rather the whole comple= ser es of ,nowled#eable man pulat ons b$ wh ch the Or ent was dent f ed b$ the )est& 'hus the two features of cultural relat onsh p ( ha!e been d scuss n# come to#ether& @nowled#e of the Or ent, because #enerated out of stren#th, n a sense creates the Or ent, the Or ental, and h s world& (n Cromers and Balfour's language the Oriental is dep cted as something one judges (as in a court of law), someth n# one stud es and depicts (as in a curriculum), something one disciplines (as in a school or prison), something one illustrates (as in a zoological manualE& 'he po nt s that n each of these cases the Oriental is contained and represented by dominating frameworks. Where do these come fromB Cultural strength is not something we can discuss very easily and one of the purposesof the present wor, s to llustrate, anal$Ae and reflect upon Orientalism as an e=erc se of cultural strength. In other words, it is better not to risk #eneral Aat ons about so !a#ue and $et so mportant a notion as cultural stren#th unt l a good deal of mater al has been anal$Aed f rst& But at the outset one can say that so far as the )est was concerned dur n# the n neteenth and twent eth centur es, an assumption had been made that the

The Scope of Orientalism 41

Or ent and e!er$th n# n t was, f no patentl$ nfer or to, then n need of correct !e stud$ b$ the )est& 'he Or ent was ! ewed as f framed b$ the classroom, the cr m nal court, the pr son, the llustrated manual& Or ental sm, then, s ,nowled#e of the Or ent that places th n#s Or ental n class, court, pr son, or manual for scrut n$, stud$, 9ud#ment, d sc pl ne, or #o!ern n#& 0ur n# the earl$ $ears of the twent eth centur$, men l ,e Balfour and Cromer could sa$ what the$ sa d, n the wa$ the$ d d, because a st ll earl er trad t on of Or ental sm than the n neteenth-centur$ one pro! ded them w th a !ocabular$, ma#er$, rhetor c, and f #ures w th wh ch to sa$ t& +et Or ental sm re nforced, and was re nforced b$, the certa n ,nowled#e that "urope or the )est l terall$ commanded the !astl$ #reater part of the earthGs surface& 'he per od of mmense ad!ance n the nst tut ons and content of Or ental sm co nc des e=actl$ w th the per od of unparalleled "uropean e=pans on3 from 111I to 191M "uropean d rect colon al dom n on e=panded from about 3I percent of the earth:s surface to about 1I percent of t& "!er$ cont nent was affected, none more so than Afr ca and As a& 'he two #reatest emp res were the Br t sh and the 7rench3 all es and .artners n some th n#s, n others the$ were host le r !als& (n the Or ent, from the eastern shores of the <ed terranean to (ndoch na and <ala$a, the r colon al possess ons and mper al spheres of nfluence were ad9acent, fre;uentl$ o!erlapped, often were fou#ht o!er& But t was n the Hear Or ent, the lands of the Arab Hear "ast, where (slam was supposed to def ne cultural and rac al character st cs, that the Br t sh and the 7rench encountered each other and the Or ent% w th the #reatest ntens t$, fam l ar t$, and comple= t$& 7or much of the n neteenth centur$, as Lord /al sbur$ put t n 1111, the r common ! ew of the Or ent was ntr catel$ problemat c? )hen $ou ha!e #ot a& & & fa thful all$ who s bent on meddl n# n a countr$ n wh ch $ou are deepl$ nterested --$ou ha!e three courses open to $ou& +ou ma$ renounce 8or monopol Ae--or share& *enounc n# would ha!e been to place the 7rench across our road to (nd a& <onopol A n# would ha!e been !er$ near the r s, of war& /o we resol!ed to share&%

6
And share the$ d d, n wa$s that we shall n!est #ate presentl$& )hat the$ shared, howe!er, was not onl$ land or prof t or rule3 t was the , nd of ntellectual power ( ha!e been call n# Or ental sm& (n a sense or ental sm was a l brar$ or arch !e of nformat on commonl$ and, n some of ts aspects, unan mousl$ held& )hat bound the arch !e to#ether was a fam l$ of deas and a un f$ n# M5 O*("H'AL(/< set of !alues pro!en n !ar ous wa$s to be effect !e& 'hese deas e=pla ned the beha! or of Or entals3 the$ suppl ed Or entals w th a mental t$, a #enealo#$, an atmosphere3 most mportant, the$ allowed "uropeans to deal w th and e!en to see Or entals as a phenomenon possess n# re#ular character st cs& But l ,e an$ set of durable deas, Or ental st not ons nfluenced the people who were called Or entals as well as those called Occ dental, "uropean, or )estern3 n short, Or ental sm s better #rasped as a set of constra nts upon and l m tat ons of thou#ht than t s s mpl$ as a pos t !e doctr ne& (f the essence of Or ental sm s the nerad cable d st nct on between )estern super or t$ and Or ental nfer or t$, then we must be prepared to note how n ts de!elopment and subse;uent h stor$ Or ental sm deepened and e!en hardened the d st nct on& )hen t became common pract ce dur n# the n neteenth centur$ for Br ta n to ret re ts adm n strators from (nd a and elsewhere once the$ had reached the a#e of f ft$-f !e, then a further ref nement n or ental sm had been ach e!ed3 no Or ental was e!er allowed to see a )esterner as he a#ed and de#enerated, 9ust as no )esterner needed e!er to see h mself, m rrored n the e$es of the sub9ect race, as an$th n# but a ! #orous, rat onal, e!er-alert $oun# *a9& Or ental st deas too, a number of d fferent forms dur n# the n neteenth and twent eth centur es& 7 rst or all, n "urope there was a !ast l terature about the Or ent nher ted from the "uropean past& )hat s d st nct !e about the late e #hteenth and earl$ n neteenth centur es, wh ch s where th s stud$ assumes modem Or ental sm to ha!e be#un, s that an Or ental rena ssance too, place, as "d#ar Ou net phrased t& /uddenl$ t seemed to a w de !ar et$ of th n,ers, pol t c ans, and art sts that a new awareness of the Or ent, wh ch e=tended from Ch na to the <ed terranean, had ar sen& 'h s awareness was partl$ the result of newl$ d sco!ered and translated Or ental te=ts n lan#ua#es l ,e /ans,r t, 4end, and Arab c3 t was also the result of a newl$ perce !ed relat onsh p between the Or ent and the )est& 7or m$ purposes here, the ,e$note of the relat onsh p was set for the Hear "ast and "urope b$ the Hapoleon c n!as on of "#$pt n 1J91, an n!as on wh ch was n man$ wa$s the !er$ model of a trul$ sc ent f c appropr at on of one culture b$ another, apparentl$ stron#er one& 7or w th Hapoleon:s occupat on of "#$pt processes were set n mot on between "ast and west that st ll dom nate our contemporar$ cultural and pol t cal perspect !es& And the Hapoleon c e=ped t on, w th ts #reat collect !e monument of erud t on, the Description de lEgypte, pro! ded a scene or sett n#

Orientalism 43
for Or ental sm, since "#$pt and subse;uentl$ the other (slam c lands were ! ewed as the l !e pro! nce, the laboratory, the theater of effect !e )estern ,nowled#e about the Or ent& ( shall return to the Hapoleon c ad!enture a l ttle later& ) th such e=per ences as Hapoleon:s the Or ent as a bod$ of ,nowled#e n the West was modern Aed, and th s s a second form n wh ch n neteenth- and twent eth-centur$ Or ental sm e= sted& 7rom the outset of the per od ( shall be e=am n n# there was e!er$where amon#st Or ental sts the amb t on to formulate the r d sco!er es, e=per ences, and ns #hts su tabl$ n modem terms, to put deas about the Or ent n !er$ close touch w th modern real t es& *enanGs l n#u st c n!est #at ons of /em t c n 11M1, for e=amp1e, were couched n a st$le that drew hea! l$ for ts author t$ upon contemporar$ comparat !e #rammar, comparat !e anatom$, and rac al theor$3 these lent h s Or ental sm prest #e and8the other s de of the co n8made Or ental sm !ulnerable, as t has been e!er s nce, to mod sh as well as ser ousl$ nfluent al currents of thou#ht n the )est& Or ental sm has been sub9ected to mper al sm, pos t ! sm, utop an sm, h stor c sm, 0arw n sm, rac sm, 7reud an sm, <ar= sm, /pen#ler sm& But Or ental sm, l ,e man$ of the natural and soc al sc ences, has had parad #ms% of research, ts own learned soc et es, ts own "stabl shment& 0ur n# the n neteenth centur$ the f eld ncreased enormousl$ n prest #e, as d d also the reputat on and nfluence of such nst tut ons as the /oc NtN as at ;ue, the *o$al As at c Society, the 0eutsche <or#enland sche 6esellschaft, and the Amer can Or ental /oc et$& ) th the #rowth of these soc et es went also an ncrease, all across "urope, n the number or professorsh ps n Or ental stud es3 conse;uentl$ there was an e=pans on n the a!a lable means for d ssem nat n# Or ental sm& Or ental st periodicals, be# nn n# with the Fundgrabcn des Orients (1809), mult pl ed the ;uant t$ of ,nowled#e as well as the number of spec alt es& Yet l ttle of this activity and !er$ few of these institutions existed and flour shed freel$, for n a third form

7
n wh ch t e= sted, Orientalism mposed l m ts upon thought about the Orient. Even the most ma# nat !e writers of an age, men l ,e 7laubert, Her!al, or /cott, were constra ned n what the$ could e ther e=per ence of or sa$ about the Or ent& For orientalism was ult matel$ a pol t cal ! s on of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the fam l ar (Europe, the )est, us) and the strange (the Orient, the East, them'). 'h s vision n a sense created and then served MM O*("H'AL(/< the two worlds thus conce !ed& Or entals l !ed n the r world, we% l !ed n ours& 'he ! s on and mater al real t$ propped each other up, ,ept each other #o n#& A certa n freedom of ntercourse was alwa$s the Westerner:s pr ! le#e3 because h s was the stron#er cult ure, he could penetrate, he could wrestle w th, he could # !e shape and mean n# to the #reat As at c m$ster$, as 0 srael once called t& +et what has, I th n,, been pre! ousl$ o!erloo,ed s the constr cted !ocabular$ of such a pr ! le#e, and the comparat !e l m tat ons of such a ! s on& <$ ar#ument ta,es t that the Or ental st real t$ s both ant human and pers stent& (ts scope, as much as ts nst tut ons and all-per!as !e nfluence, lasts up to the present& But how d d and does Or ental sm wor,B How can one descr be t all to#ether as a h stor cal phenomenon, a wa$ of thou#ht, a contemporar$ problem, and a mater al real t$B Cons der Cromer a#a n, an accompl shed techn c an of emp re but also a benef c ar$ of Or ental sm& He can furn sh us w th a rud mentar$ answer& (n 'he 6o!ernment of /ub9ect *aces% he wrestles w th the problem of how Br ta n, a nat on of nd ! duals, s to adm n ster a w de-flun# emp re accord n# to a number of central pr nc ples& He contrasts the local a#ent% who has both a spec al st:s ,nowled#e of the nat !e and an An#lo-/a=on nd ! dual t$, w th the central author t$ at home n London& 'he former ma$ treat sub9ects of local nterest n a manner calculated to dama#e, or e!en to 9eopard Ae, (mper al nterests& 'he central authority is n a pos t on to ob! ate an$ dan#er ar s n# from th s cause&F )h$B Because th s author t$ can ensure the harmon ous wor, n# or the d fferent parts of the mach ne% and should endea!our, so far as s poss ble, to real se the c rcumstances attendant on the #o!ernment of the dependenc$&% 'he lan#ua#e s !a#ue and unattract !e, but the po nt s not hard to #rasp& Cramer en! s ons a seat of power n the west, and rad at n# out from t towards the "ast a #reat embrac n# mach ne, susta n n# the central author t$ $et commanded b$ t& )hat the mach ne:s branches feed nto t n the "ast8human mater al, mater al wealth, ,nowled#e, what ha!e $ou8 s processed b$ the mach ne, then con!erted nto more power& 'he spec al st does the mmed ate translat on of mere Or ental matter nto useful substance? the Or ental becomes, for e=ample, a sub9ect race, an e=ample of an Or ental% mental t$, all for the enhancement of the author t$% at home& Local nterests% are Or ental st spec al nterests, the central author t$% s the #eneral nterest of the mper al soc et$ as a whole& )hat Cromer ;u te accuratel$ sees s the man-

'he /cope of Or ental sm 45

a#ement of ,nowled#e b$ soc et$, the fact that ,nowled#e8no matter how spec al8 s re#ulated f rst b$ the local concerns of a spec al st, later b$ the #eneral concerns of a soc al s$stem of author t$& 'he nterpla$ between local and central nterests s ntr cate, but b$ no means nd scr m nate& (n CromerGs own case as an mper al adm n strator the proper stud$ s also man,% he sa$s& )hen .ope procla med the proper stud$ of mankind to be man, he meant all men, nclud n# the poor (nd an%3 whereas CromerGs also reminds us that certa n men, such as Or entals, can be s n#led out as the sub9ect for proper stud$& 'he proper stud$8 n th s sense8of Or entals s Or ental sm, properl$ separate from other forms of ,nowled#e, but f nall$ useful Cbecause f n teE for the mater al and soc al real t$ enclos n# all ,nowled#e at an$ t me, support n# ,nowled#e, pro! d n# t w th uses& An order of so!ere #nt$ s set up from "ast to west, a moc, cha n of be n# whose clearest form was # !en once b$ @ pl n#? Mule, horse, elephant, or bulloc,, he obe$s h s dr !er, and the driver his sergeant, and the sergeant his lieutenant, and the lieutenant, his captain, and the captain his major, and the ma9or his colonel, and the colonel h s br #ad er command n# three re# ments, and the brigadier h s #eneral, who obe$s the V cero$, who is the servant of the "mpress& As deepl$ for#ed as s th s monstrous cha n of command, as stron#l$ mana#ed as s Cromer:s Oharmon ous

8
wor, n#,% Or ental sm can also e=press the stren#th of the )est and the Or entGs wea,ness8as seen b$ the )est& /uch stren#th and such wea,ness are as ntr ns c to Or ental sm as the$ are to an$ ! ew that d ! des the world nto lar#e #eneral d ! s ons, ent t es that coe= st n a state of tens on produced b$ what s bel e!ed to be rad cal d1fference& 7or that s the ma n ntellectual ssue ra sed b$ Or ental sm& Can one d ! de human real t$, as ndeed human real t$ seems to be #enu nel$ d ! ded, nto clearl$ d fferent cultures, h stor es, trad t ons, soc et es, e!en races, and sur! !e the conse;uences humanl$B B$ sur! ! n# the conse;uences humanl$, ( mean to as, whether there s an$ wa$ of a!o d n# the host l t$ e=pressed b$ the d ! s on, sa$, of men nto us% C)esternersE and the$% COr entalsE& 7or such d ! s ons are #eneral t es whose use h stor call$ and actuall$ has been to press the mportance of the d st nct on between some men and some other men, usuall$ towards not espec all$ adm rable ends& )hen one uses cate#or es l ,e Or ental and )estern as both the start n# and the end po nts of anal$s s, research, publ c pol c$

M2 O*("H'AL(/<
(as the cate#or es were used b$ Balfour and CromerE, the result s usually to polarize the d st nct on8the Oriental becomes more Or ental, the )esterner more )estern-and l m t the human encounter between d fferent cultures, trad t ons, and soc et es& (n short, from ts earl est modern h stor$ to the present, Or ental sm as a form of thou#ht for deal n# w th the fore #n has t$p call$ shown the alto#ether re#rettable tendenc$ or an$ ,nowled#e based on such hard-and-fast distinctions as "ast% and )est%? to channel thou#ht nto a )est or an "ast compartment& Because th s tendenc$ s r #ht at the center of Or ental st theor$, pract ce, and !alues found n the )est, the sense of )estern power o!er the Or ent s ta,en for #ranted as ha! n# the status of sc ent f c truth& A contemporar$ llustrat on or two should clar f$ th s obser!at on perfectl$& (t s natural for men n power to sur!e$ front t me to t me the world w th wh ch the$ must deal& Balfour d d t fre;uentl$& Our contemporar$ Henr$ @ ss n#er does t also, rarel$ w th more e=press fran,ness than n h s essa$ 0omest c /tructure and 7ore #n .ol c$&% 'he drama he dep cts s a real one, n wh ch the Kn ted /tates must mana#e ts beha! or n the world under the pressures of domest c forces on the one hand and of fore #n real t es on the other& @ ss n#er:s d scourse must for that reason alone establ sh a polar t$ between the Kn ted /tates and the world3 n add t on, of course, he spea,s consc ousl$ as an author tat !e !o ce for the ma9or )estern power, whose recent h stor$ and present real t$ ha!e placed t before a world that does not eas l$ accept ts power and dom nance& @ ss n#er feels that the Kn ted /tates can deal less problemat call$ w th the ndustr al, de!eloped )est than t can w th the de!elop n# world& A#a n, the contemporar$ actual t$ of relat ons between the Kn ted /tates and the so-called 'h rd )orld Cwh ch ncludes Ch na, (ndoch na, the Hear "ast, Afr ca, and Lat n Amer caE s man festl$ a thorn$ set of problems, wh ch e!en @ ss n#er cannot hide. @ ss n#erGs method n the essa$ proceeds accord n# to what l n#u sts call b nar$ oppos t on? that s, he shows that there are two st$les n fore #n pol c$ Cthe prophet c and the pol t calE, two t$pes of techn ;ue, two per ods, and so forth& )hen at the end of the h stor cal part of h s ar#ument he s brou#ht face to face w th the contemporar$ world, he d ! des t accord n#l$ nto two hal!es, the de!eloped and the de!elop n# countr es& 'he f rst half, wh ch s the )est, s deepl$ comm tted to the not on that the real world s e=ternal to the obser!er, that ,nowled#e cons sts of record n# and

'he scope of Or ental sm MJ

class f$ n# datathe more accuratel$ the better&% @ ss n#erGs proof for th s s the Hewton an re!olut on, wh ch has not ta,en place n the de!elop n# world? Cultures wh ch escaped the earl$ mpact of Hewton an th n, n# ha!e reta ned the essent all$ pre-Hewton an ! ew that the real world s almost completel$ internal to the obser!er&% Conse;uentl$, he adds, emp r cal real t$ has a much d fferent s #n f cance for man$ of the new countr es than for the )est because n a certa n sense the$ ne!er went throu#h the process of d sco!er n# t&% Knl ,e Cromer, @ ss n#er does not need to quote / r Alfred L$all on the Or ental:s nab l t$ to be accurate3 the po nt he ma,es s suff c entl$ unar#uable to re;u re no spec al !al dat on& )e had our Hewton an re!olut on3 the$ d dnGt& As th n,ers we are better off than the$ are& 6ood? the l nes are drawn n much the same wa$, f nall$, as

9
Balfour and Cromer drew them& +et s =t$ or more $ears ha!e nter!ened between @ ss n#er and the Br t sh mper al sts& Humerous wars and re!olut ons ha!e pro!ed conclus !el$ that the pre-Hewton an prophet c st$le, wh ch @ ss n#er assoc ates both w th naccurate% de!elop n# countr es and w th "urope before the Con#ress of L enna, s not ent rel$ w thout ts successes& A#a n unl ,e Balfour and Cromer, @ ss n#er therefore feels obl #ed to respect th s pre-Hewton an perspect !e, s nce t offers #reat fle= b l t$ w th respect to the contemporar$ re!olut onar$ turmo l&F 'hus the dut$ of men n the post-Hewton an CrealE world s to construct an nternat onal order before a cr s s mposes t as a necess t$%? n other words, we must st ll f nd a wa$ b$ wh ch the de!elop n# world can be conta ned& (s th s not s m lar to Cromer:s ! s on of a harmon ousl$ wor, n# mach ne des #ned ult matel$ to benef t some central author t$, wh ch opposes the de!elop n# worldB @ ss n#er ma$ not ha!e ,nown on what fund of ped #reed ,nowled#e he was draw n# when he cut the world up nto pre-Hewton an and post-Hewton an concept ons of real t$& But h s d st nct on s dent cal w th the orthodo= one made b$ Or ental sts, who separate Or entals from )esterners& And l ,e Or ental smGs d st nct on @ ss n#er:s s not !alue-free, desp te the apparent neutral t$ of h s tone& 'hus such words as prophet c,% accurac$,F nternal,% emp r cal real t$,% and order% are scattered throu#hout h s descr pt on, and the$ character Ae e ther attract !e, fam l ar, des rable ! rtues or menac n#, pecul ar, d sorderl$ defects& Both the trad t onal Or ental st, as we shall see, and @ ss n#er conce !e of the d fference between cultures, f rst, as creat n# a battlefront that

M1 O*("H'AL(/<
separates them, and second, as n! t n# the west to control, conta n, and otherw se #o!ern Cthrou#h super or ,nowled#e and accommodat n# powerE the Other& ) th what effect and at what cons derable e=pense such m l tant d ! s ons ha!e been ma nta ned, no one at present needs to be rem nded& Another llustrat on do!eta ls neatl$8perhaps too neatl$--w th @ ss n#er:s anal$s s& (n ts 7ebruar$ 19J5 ssue, the American Journal of Psychiatry pr nted an essa$ by Harold w. 6l dden, who s dent f ed as a ret red member of the Bureau of (ntell #ence and *esearch, Kn ted /tates 0epartment of /tate? the essa$s t tle C'he Arab )orld), ts tone, and ts content ar#ue a h #hl$ character st c Or ental st bent of m nd& 'hus for h s four-pa#e, double-columned ps$cholo# cal portra t of o!er 100 m ll on people, cons dered for a per od of 1,300 $ears, 6l dden c tes e=actl$ four sources for h s ! ews? a recent boo, on 'r pol , one ssue of the "#$pt an newspaper Al-Ahram, the perodical Oriente Moderno, and a boo, by <a9 d @haddur , a well-,nown Orientalist. 'he art cle itself purports to unco!er the nner wor, n#s of Arab beha! or,% wh ch from our po nt of ! ew s aberrant% but for Arabs s normal&% After th s ausp c ous start, we are told that Arabs stress conform t$3 that Arabs nhab t a shame culture whose prest #e s$stem% n!ol!es the ab l t$ to attract followers and cl ents Cas an as de we are told that Arab soc et$ s and alwa$s has been based on a s$stem of cl ent-patron relat onsh ps%E3 that Arabs can funct on onl$ n confl ct s tuat ons3 that prest #e s based solel$ on the ab l t$ to dom nate others; that a shame culture8and therefore (slam tself8ma,es a ! rtue of re!en#e Chere 6l dden tr umphantl$ c tes the June 59, 19J0 Abram to show that n 1929 P n "#$ptD n 10J0 cases of murder where the perpetrators were apprehended, t was found that 50 percent of the murders were based on a des re to w pe out shame, 30 percent on a des re to sat sf$ real or ma# nar$ wron#s, and 31 percent on a des re for blood re!en#e%E3 that f from a )estern po nt of ! ew the onl$ rat onal th n# for the Arabs to do s to ma,e peace> for the Arabs the s tuat on s not #o!erned b$ th s , nd of lo# c, for ob9ect ! t$ s not a !alue n the Arab s$stem&% 6l dden cont nues, now more enthus ast call$? t s a notable fact that wh le the Arab !alue s$stem demands absolute sol dar t$ w th n the #roup, t at the same t me encoura#es amon# ts members a , nd of r !alr$ that s destruct !e of that !er$ sol dar t$%3 n Arab soc et$ onl$ success counts% and the end 9ust f es the means%3

'he /cope of Orientalism 49

Arabs l !e naturally" n a world character Aed by an= et$ expressed n #eneral Aed susp c on and d strust, wh ch has been labelled free-float n# host l t$%3 the art of subterfu#e is h #hl$ developed n Arab l fe, as well as n (slam tself%3 the Arab need for !en#eance o!err des e!er$th n#, otherw se the Arab would feel e#o-destro$ n#% shame,

10
'herefore, f )esterners cons der peace to be h #h on the scale of !alues% and f we ha!e a h #hl$ de!eloped consc ousness of the !alue of t me,% th s s not true of Arabs& (n fact,% we are told, n Arab tr bal soc et$ Cwhere Arab !alues or # natedE, str fe, not peace, was the normal state of affa rs because ra d n# was one of the two ma n supports of the econom$&F 'he purpose of th s learned d s;u s t on s merel$ to show how on the )estern and Or ental scale of !alues the relat !e pos t on of the elements s ;u te d fferent&F Q"0& 'h s s the apo#ee of Or ental st conf dence& Ho merel$ asserted #eneral t$ s den ed the d #n t$ of truth3 no theoret cal l st of Or ental attr butes s w thout appl cat on to the behavior of Or entals n the real world& On the one hand there are )esterners, and on the other there are Arab-Or entals3 the former are C n no part cular orderE rat onal, peaceful, l beral, lo# cal, capable of hold n# real !alues, w thout natural susp c on3 the latter are none of these th n#s& Out of what collect !e and $et part cular Aed ! ew of the Or ent do these statements emer#eB )hat spec al Aed s, lls, what ma# nat !e pressures, what nst tut ons and trad t ons, what cultural forces produce such s m lar t$ n the descr pt ons of the Or ent to be found n Cromer, Balfour, and our contemporar$ statesmenB

II
Imaginative Geography and Its Representations: Orientalizing the Oriental
/tr ctl$ spea, n#, Or ental sm s a field of learned stud$& (n the Chr st an )est, Or ental sm s cons dered to ha!e commenced ts formal e= stence w th the dec s on of the Church Counc l of