Airport Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) at Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport, the Netherlands.

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by gro nd!based controllers who direct aircraft on the gro nd and in the air. The primary p rpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organi"e and e#pedite the flow of traffic$%&, and to provide information and other s pport for pilots when able. 'n some co ntries, ATC may also play a sec rity or defense role (as in the (nited States), or be r n entirely by the military (as in )ra"il). *reventing collisions is referred to as separation, which is a term sed to prevent aircraft from coming too close to each other by se of lateral, vertical and longit dinal separation minima+ many aircraft now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a bac, p to ATC observation and instr ctions. 'n addition to its primary f nction, the ATC can provide additional services s ch as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation information and N-TA.s (N-tices To Air.en). 'n many co ntries, ATC services are provided thro gho t the ma/ority of airspace, and its services are available to all sers (private, military, and commercial). 0hen controllers are responsible for separating some or all aircraft, s ch airspace is called 1controlled airspace1 in contrast to 1 ncontrolled airspace1 where aircraft may fly witho t the se of the air traffic control system. 2epending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may iss e instr ctions that pilots are re3 ired to follow, or merely flight information (in some co ntries ,nown as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the airspace. 'n all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instr ctions in an emergency. Altho gh the native lang age for a region is normally sed, 4nglish m st be sed on re3 est, as re3 ired by the 'nternational Civil Aviation -rgani"ation ('CA-).$5& Contents $hide& % 6istory 5 Airport control 5.% 7ro nd Control 5.5 8ocal Control or Air Control 5.9 :light 2ata ; Clearance 2elivery 5.< Approach and terminal control 9 4n!ro te, center, or area control 9.% 7eneral characteristics 9.5 =adar coverage 9.9 :light traffic mapping < *roblems <.% Traffic <.5 0eather > Call signs ? Technology @ .a/or accidents A Air navigation service providers (ANS*s) and traffic service providers (ATS*s) B *roposed changes

%C (SA specificities %% See also %5 =eferences %9 4#ternal lin,s %9.% 6istory %9.5 'nternet services $edit& 6istory 'n %B%B, the 'nternational Commission for Air Navigation ('CAN) was created to develop 7eneral = les for Air Traffic. 'ts r les and proced res were applied in most co ntries where aircraft operated. The (nited States did not sign the 'CAN Convention, b t later developed its own set of air traffic r les after passage of the Air Commerce Act of %B5?. This legislation a thori"ed the 2epartment of Commerce to establish air traffic r les for the navigation, protection, and identification of aircraft, incl ding r les as to safe altit des of flight and r les for the prevention of collisions between vessels and aircraft. The first r les were brief and basic. :or e#ample, pilots were told not to begin their ta,eoff ntil there is no ris, of collision with landing aircraft and ntil preceding aircraft are clear of the field. As traffic increased, some airport operators reali"ed that s ch general r les were not eno gh to prevent collisions. They began to provide a form of air traffic control (ATC) based on vis al signals. 4arly controllers, li,e Archie 8eag e (one of the first systemDs flagmen), stood on the field, waving flags to comm nicate with pilots. As more aircraft were fitted for radio comm nication, radio!e3 ipped airport traffic control towers began to replace the flagmen. 'n %B9C, the first radio!e3 ipped control tower in the (nited States began operating at the Cleveland . nicipal Airport. )y %B9>, abo t 5C radio control towers were operating. 'ncreases in the n mber of flights created a need for ATC that was not / st confined to airport areas b t also e#tended o t along the airways. 'n %B9>, the principal airlines sing the Chicago, Cleveland, and Newar, airports agreed to coordinate the handling of airline traffic between those cities. 'n 2ecember, the first Airway Traffic Control Center opened at Newar,, New Eersey. Additional centers at Chicago and Cleveland followed in %B9?. The early controllers trac,ed the position of planes sing maps and blac,boards and little boat!shaped weights that came to be called shrimp boats. They had no direct radio lin, with aircraft b t sed telephones to stay in to ch with airline dispatchers, airway radio operators, and airport traffic controllers. 'n E ly %B9?, en ro te ATC became a federal responsibility and the first appropriation of F%@>,CCC was made (F5,??>,B?C today). The :ederal 7overnment provided airway traffic control service, b t local government a thorities where the towers were located contin ed to operate those facilities. 'n %B<%, Congress appropriated f nds for the Civil Aerona tics Administration (CAA) to constr ct and operate ATC towers, and soon the CAA began ta,ing over operations at the first of these towers, with their n mber growing to %%> by %B<<. 'n the postwar era, ATC at most airports was event ally to become a permanent federal responsibility. 'n response to wartime needs, the CAA also greatly e#panded its en ro te air traffic control system. The postwar years saw the beginning of a revol tionary development in ATC, the introd ction of radar, a system that ses radio waves to detect distant ob/ects. -riginally developed by the )ritish for military defense, this new technology allowed controllers to

see the position of aircraft trac,ed on video displays. 'n %B<?, the CAA nveiled an e#perimental radar!e3 ipped tower for control of civil flights. )y %B>5, the agency had beg n its first ro tine se of radar for approach and depart re control. :o r years later, it placed a large order for long!range radars for se in en ro te ATC. 'n %B?C, the :AA began s ccessf l testing of a system nder which flights in certain positive control areas were re3 ired to carry a radar beacon, called a transponder that identified the aircraft and helped to improve radar performance. *ilots in this airspace were also re3 ired to fly on instr ments regardless of the weather and to remain in contact with controllers. (nder these conditions, controllers were able to red ce the separation between aircraft by as m ch as half the standard distance. :or many years, pilots had negotiated a complicated ma"e of airways. 'n September %B?<, the :AA instit ted two layers of airways, one from %,CCC to %A,CCC feet (9C> to >,<A? meters) above gro nd and the second from %A,CCC to <>,CCC feet (%9,@%? m). 't also standardi"ed aircraft instr ment settings and navigation chec,points to red ce the controllers' wor,load. :rom %B?> to %B@>, the :AA developed comple# comp ter systems that wo ld replace the plastic mar,ers for trac,ing aircraft thereby moderni"ing the National Airspace System. Controllers co ld now view information sent by aircraft transponders to form alphan meric symbols on a sim lated three dimensional radar screen. The system allowed controllers to foc s on providing separation by a tomating comple# tas,s. The :AA established a Central :low Control :acility in April %B@C, to prevent cl sters of congestion from disr pting the nationwide air traffic flow. This type of ATC became increasingly sophisticated and important, and in %BB<, the :AA opened a new Air Traffic Control System Command Center with advanced e3 ipment. 'n Ean ary %BA5, the :AA nveiled the National Airspace System (NAS) *lan. The plan called for moderni"ed flight service stations, more advanced systems for ATC, and improvements in gro nd!to!air s rveillance and comm nication. )etter comp ters and software were developed, air ro te traffic control centers were consolidated, and the n mber of flight service stations red ced. New 2oppler =adars and better transponders complemented a tomatic, radio broadcasts of s rface and flight conditions. 'n E ly %BAA, the :AA selected '). to develop the new m lti!billion!dollar Advanced A tomation System (AAS) for the Nation's en ro te ATC centers. AAS wo ld incl de controller wor,stations, called 1sector s ites,1 that wo ld incorporate new display, comm nications and processing capabilities. The system had pgraded hardware enabling increased a tomation of comple# tas,s. 'n 2ecember %BB9, the :AA reviewed its order for the planned AAS. '). was far behind sched le and had ma/or cost overr ns. 'n %BB< the :AA simplified its needs and pic,ed new contractors. The revised moderni"ation program contin ed nder vario s pro/ect names. 'n %BBB, controllers began their first se of an early version of the Standard Terminal A tomation =eplacement System, which incl ded new displays and capabilities for approach control facilities. 2 ring the following year, :AA completed deployment of the 2isplay System =eplacement, providing more efficient wor,stations for en ro te controllers. 'n %BB<, the concept of :ree :light was introd ced. 't might event ally allow pilots to se on board instr ments and electronics to maintain a safe distance between planes and to red ce their reliance on gro nd controllers. : ll implementation of this concept wo ld involve technology that made se of the 7lobal *ositioning System to help trac, the

position of aircraft. 'n %BBA, the :AA and ind stry began applying some of the early capabilities developed by the :ree :light program. C rrent st dies to pgrade ATC incl de the Comm nication, Navigation and S rveillance for Air Traffic .anagement System that relies on the most advanced aircraft transponder, a global navigation satellite system, and ltra!precise radar. Tests are nderway to design new coc,pit displays that will allow pilots to better control their aircraft by combining as many as 95 types of information abo t traffic, weather, and ha"ards.

[edit] Airport control

'nside the SGo *a lo;7 ar lhos 'nternational Airport's tower, 8atin America's second b siest airport. The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is vis al observation from the airport traffic control tower (ATCT). The ATCT is a tall, windowed str ct re located on the airport gro nds. Aerodrome or Tower controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the ta#iways and r nways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to > na tical miles (9.@ to B.5 ,m) depending on the airport proced res. =adar displays are also available to controllers at some airports. Controllers may se a radar system called Secondary S rveillance =adar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays incl de a map of the area, the position of vario s aircraft, and data tags that incl de aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information described in local proced res. The areas of responsibility for ATCT controllers fall into three general operational disciplines+ 8ocal Control or Air Control, 7ro nd Control, and :light 2ata;Clearance 2eliveryHother categories, s ch as Apron Control or 7ro nd .ovement *lanner, may e#ist at e#tremely b sy airports. 0hile each ATCT may have ni3 e airport!specific proced res, s ch as m ltiple teams of controllers ('crews') at ma/or or comple# airports with m ltiple r nways, the following provides a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the ATCT environment. $edit& 7ro nd Control 7ro nd Control (sometimes ,nown as 7ro nd .ovement Control abbreviated to 7.C or S rface .ovement Control abbreviated to S.C) is responsible for the airport 1movement1 areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other sers. This generally incl des all ta#iways, inactive r nways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the r nway or depart re gate. 4#act areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local doc ments and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person wal,ing or wor,ing in these areas is re3 ired to have clearance from 7ro nd Control. This is normally done via

I6:;(6: radio, b t there may be special cases where other processes are sed. .ost aircraft and airside vehicles have radios. Aircraft or vehicles witho t radios m st respond to ATC instr ctions via aviation light signals or else be led by vehicles with radios. *eople wor,ing on the airport s rface normally have a comm nications lin, thro gh which they can comm nicate with 7ro nd Control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell phone. 7ro nd Control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport, beca se this position impacts the se3 encing of depart re aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation. Some b sier airports have S rface .ovement =adar (S.=), s ch as, AS24!9, A.ASS or AS24!J, designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the gro nd. These are sed by 7ro nd Control as an additional tool to control gro nd traffic, partic larly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being moderni"ed. -lder systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems incl de the capability to display higher 3 ality mapping, radar target, data bloc,s, and safety alerts, and to interface with other systems s ch as digital flight strips .

[edit] Local Control or Air Control

8ocal Control (,nown to pilots as 1Tower1 or 1Tower Control1) is responsible for the active r nway s rfaces. 8ocal Control clears aircraft for ta,eoff or landing, ens ring that prescribed r nway separation will e#ist at all times. 'f 8ocal Control detects any nsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to 1go!aro nd1 and be re!se3 enced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller. 0ithin the ATCT, a highly disciplined comm nications process between 8ocal Control and 7ro nd Control is an absol te necessity. 7ro nd Control m st re3 est and gain approval from 8ocal Control to cross any active r nway with any aircraft or vehicle. 8i,ewise, 8ocal Control m st ens re that 7ro nd Control is aware of any operations that will impact the ta#iways, and wor, with the approach radar controllers to create 1holes1 or 1gaps1 in the arrival traffic to allow ta#iing traffic to cross r nways and to allow departing aircraft to ta,e off. Crew =eso rce .anagement (C=.) proced res are often sed to ens re this comm nication process is efficient and clear, altho gh this is not as prevalent as C=. for pilots.

[edit] Flight Data / Clearance Delivery

Clearance 2elivery is the position that iss es ro te clearances to aircraft, typically before they commence ta#iing. These contain details of the ro te that the aircraft is e#pected to fly after depart re. Clearance 2elivery or, at b sy airports, the Traffic .anagement Coordinator (T.C) will, if necessary, coordinate with the en ro te center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. -ften, however, s ch releases are given a tomatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing 1free! flow1 depart res. 0hen weather or e#tremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be gro nd 1stops1 (or 1slot delays1) or re!ro tes may be necessary to ens re the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of Clearance 2elivery is to ens re that the aircraft have the proper ro te

and slot time. This information is also coordinated with the en ro te center and 7ro nd Control in order to ens re that the aircraft reaches the r nway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command center. At some airports, Clearance 2elivery also plans aircraft p shbac,s and engine starts, in which case it is ,nown as the 7ro nd .ovement *lanner (7.*)K this position is partic larly important at heavily congested airports to prevent ta#iway and apron gridloc,. :light 2ata (which is ro tinely combined with Clearance 2elivery) is the position that is responsible for ens ring that both controllers and pilots have the most c rrent informationK pertinent weather changes, o tages, airport gro nd delays;gro nd stops, r nway clos res, etc. :light 2ata may inform the pilots sing a recorded contin o s loop on a specific fre3 ency ,nown as the A tomatic Terminal 'nformation Service (AT'S).

[edit] Approach and terminal control

'nside the *otomac T=AC-N, (nited States. .ain articleK Terminal Control Center .any airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. 'n most co ntries, this is referred to as Approach or Terminal Control+ in the (.S., it is often still referred to as a T=AC-N (Terminal =adar Approach C-Ntrol) facility. 0hile every airport varies, terminal controllers s ally handle traffic in a 9C to >C na tical mile (>? to B9 ,m) radi s from the airport. 0here there are many b sy airports in close pro#imity, one single terminal control may service all the airports. The act al airspace bo ndaries and altit des assigned to a terminal control are based on factors s ch as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain, and vary widely from airport to airportK a large and comple# e#ample is the 8ondon Terminal Control Centre which controls traffic for five main 8ondon airports p to 5C,CCC feet (?,%CC m) and o t to %CC na tical miles (%BC ,m). Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into depart res, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and o t of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the ne#t appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en!ro te control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ens ring that aircraft are at an appropriate altit de when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a s itable rate for landing. Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. 'n this case, the en! ro te center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co!ordinate directly with the tower on the airport and vector inbo nd aircraft to a position from where they can land vis ally. At some of these airports, the tower may provide a non!radar proced ral approach service to arriving aircraft handed over from a radar nit before they are vis al to land. Some nits also have a dedicated approach nit which can provide the proced ral approach service either all the time or for any periods of radar o tage for any reason.

[edit] En-route, center, or area control

Controllers at wor, at the 0ashington Air =o te Traffic Control Center, (nited States. .ain articleK Area Control Center ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. *ilots fly nder one of two sets of r les for separationK Iis al :light = les (I:=) or 'nstr ment :light = les (':=). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating nder the different sets of r les. 0hile ':= flights are nder positive control, in the (S I:= pilots can re3 est flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions. 'n the (L, a pilot can re3 est for 12econfliction Service1, which is similar to flight following. 4n!ro te air traffic controllers iss e clearances and instr ctions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are re3 ired to comply with these instr ctions. 4n!ro te controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports aro nd the co ntry, incl ding clearance off of the gro nd and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation standards that define the minim m distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary depending on the e3 ipment and proced res sed in providing ATC services.

[edit] General characteristics

4n!ro te air traffic controllers wor, in facilities called Area Control Centers, each of which is commonly referred to as a 1Center1. The (nited States ses the e3 ivalent term Air =o te Traffic Control Center (A=TCC). 4ach center is responsible for many tho sands of s3 are miles of airspace (,nown as a :light 'nformation =egion) and for the airports within that airspace. Centers control ':= aircraft from the time they depart from an airport or terminal area's airspace to the time they arrive at another airport or terminal area's airspace. Centers may also 1pic, p1 I:= aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them into the ':= system. These aircraft m st, however, remain I:= ntil the Center provides a clearance. Center controllers are responsible for climbing the aircraft to their re3 ested altit de while, at the same time, ens ring that the aircraft is properly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate area. Additionally, the aircraft m st be placed in a flow consistent with the aircraft's ro te of flight. This effort is complicated by crossing traffic, severe weather, special missions that re3 ire large airspace allocations, and traffic density. 0hen the aircraft approaches its destination, the center is responsible for meeting altit de restrictions by specific points, as well as providing many destination airports with a traffic flow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being 1b nched together1. These 1flow

restrictions1 often begin in the middle of the ro te, as controllers will position aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the aircraft are close to their destination they are se3 enced. As an aircraft reaches the bo ndary of a Center's control area it is 1handed off1 or 1handed over1 to the ne#t Area Control Center. 'n some cases this 1hand!off1 process involves a transfer of identification and details between controllers so that air traffic control services can be provided in a seamless manner+ in other cases local agreements may allow 1silent handovers1 s ch that the receiving center does not re3 ire any co! ordination if traffic is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand!off, the aircraft is given a fre3 ency change and begins tal,ing to the ne#t controller. This process contin es ntil the aircraft is handed off to a terminal controller (1approach1).

[edit] adar coverage

Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typically se long range radar that has the capability, at higher altit des, to see aircraft within 5CC na tical miles (9@C ,m) of the radar antenna. They may also se T=AC-N radar data to control when it provides a better 1pict re1 of the traffic or when it can fill in a portion of the area not covered by the long range radar. 'n the (.S. system, at higher altit des, over BCM of the (.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by m ltiple radar systems+ however, coverage may be inconsistent at lower altit des sed by npress ri"ed aircraft d e to high terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may re3 ire n mero s radar systems to cover the airspace assigned to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports from aircraft flying below the floor of radar coverage. This res lts in a large amo nt of data being available to the controller. To address this, a tomation systems have been designed that consolidate the radar data for the controller. This consolidation incl des eliminating d plicate radar ret rns, ens ring the best radar for each geographical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in an effective format. Centers also e#ercise control over traffic travelling over the world's ocean areas. These areas are also :'=s. )eca se there are no radar systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers provide ATC services sing proced ral control. These proced res se aircraft position reports, time, altit de, distance, and speed to ens re separation. Controllers record information on flight progress strips and in specially developed oceanic comp ter systems as aircraft report positions. This process re3 ires that aircraft be separated by greater distances, which red ces the overall capacity for any given ro te. Some Air Navigation Service *roviders (e.g. Airservices A stralia, The :ederal Aviation Administration, NAICANA2A, etc.) have implemented A tomatic 2ependent S rveillance ! )roadcast (A2S!)) as part of their s rveillance capability. This new technology reverses the radar concept. 'nstead of radar 1finding1 a target by interrogating the transponder, the A2S!e3 ipped aircraft sends a position report as determined by the navigation e3 ipment on board the aircraft. Normally, A2S operates in the 1contract1 mode where the aircraft reports a position, a tomatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. 't is also possible for controllers to re3 est more fre3 ent reports to more 3 ic,ly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. 6owever, since the cost for each report is charged by the A2S service providers to the company

operating the aircraft, more fre3 ent reports are not commonly re3 ested e#cept in emergency sit ations. A2S is significant beca se it can be sed where it is not possible to locate the infrastr ct re for a radar system (e.g. over water). Comp teri"ed radar displays are now being designed to accept A2S inp ts as part of the display. This technology is c rrently sed in portions of the North Atlantic and the *acific by a variety of states who share responsibility for the control of this airspace.

[edit] Flight tra!!ic mapping

The mapping of flights in real!time is based on the air traffic control system. 'n %BB%, data on the location of aircraft was made available by the :ederal Aviation Administration to the airline ind stry. The National ) siness Aviation Association (N)AA), the 7eneral Aviation .an fact rers Association, the Aircraft -wners N *ilots Association, the 6elicopter Association 'nternational, and the National Air Transportation Association petitioned the :AA to ma,e AS2' information available on a 1need!to!,now1 basis. S bse3 ently, N)AA advocated the broad!scale dissemination of air traffic data. The Aircraft Sit ational 2isplay to 'nd stry (AS2') system now conveys p!to!date flight information to the airline ind stry and the p blic. Some companies that distrib te AS2' information are :light4#plorer, :lightIiew, and :lyteComm. 4ach company maintains a website that provides free pdated information to the p blic on flight stat s. Stand!alone programs are also available for displaying the geographic location of airborne ':= ('nstr ment :light = les) air traffic anywhere in the :AA air traffic system. *ositions are reported for both commercial and general aviation traffic. The programs can overlay air traffic with a wide selection of maps s ch as, geo!political bo ndaries, air traffic control center bo ndaries, high altit de /et ro tes, satellite clo d and radar imagery.

[edit] "ro#lems
$edit& Traffic
:or more information see Air traffic flow management. The day!to!day problems faced by the air traffic control system are primarily related to the vol me of air traffic demand placed on the system and weather. Several factors dictate the amo nt of traffic that can land at an airport in a given amo nt of time. 4ach landing aircraft m st to ch down, slow, and e#it the r nway before the ne#t crosses the beginning of the r nway. This process re3 ires at least one and p to fo r min tes for each aircraft. Allowing for depart res between arrivals, each r nway can th s handle abo t 9C arrivals per ho r. A large airport with two arrival r nways can handle abo t ?C arrivals per ho r in good weather. *roblems begin when airlines sched le more arrivals into an airport than can be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere ca se gro ps of aircraft that wo ld otherwise be separated in time to arrive sim ltaneo sly. Aircraft m st then be delayed in the air by holding over specified locations ntil they may be safely se3 enced to the r nway. (p ntil the %BBCs, holding, which has significant environmental and cost implications, was a ro tine occ rrence at many airports. Advances in comp ters now allow the se3 encing of planes ho rs in advance. Th s, planes may be delayed before they even ta,e off (by being given a 1slot1), or may red ce

speed in flight and proceed more slowly th s significantly red cing the amo nt of holding.

[edit] $eather
)eyond r nway capacity iss es, weather is a ma/or factor in traffic capacity. =ain or ice and snow on the r nway ca se landing aircraft to ta,e longer to slow and e#it, th s red cing the safe arrival rate and re3 iring more space between landing aircraft. :og also re3 ires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in t rn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft. 'f more aircraft are sched led than can be safely and efficiently held in the air, a gro nd delay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the gro nd before depart re d e to conditions at the arrival airport. 'n Area Control Centers, a ma/or weather problem is th nderstorms, which present a variety of ha"ards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate aro nd storms, red cing the capacity of the en!ro te system by re3 iring more space per aircraft, or ca sing congestion as many aircraft try to move thro gh a single hole in a line of th nderstorms. -ccasionally weather considerations ca se delays to aircraft prior to their depart re as ro tes are closed by th nderstorms. . ch money has been spent on creating software to streamline this process. 6owever, at some ACCs, air traffic controllers still record data for each flight on strips of paper and personally coordinate their paths. 'n newer sites, these flight progress strips have been replaced by electronic data presented on comp ter screens. As new e3 ipment is bro ght in, more and more sites are pgrading away from paper flight strips.

[edit] Call signs

A prere3 isite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and se of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by 'CA- (prono nced 1ai!,ay!oh1) on re3 est s ally to sched led flights and some air forces for military flights. They are written callsigns with 9!letter combination li,e L8., AA8, S0A , )A0 , 286 followed by the flight n mber, li,e AA8A@5, )A0C%A. As s ch they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the a dio or =adio!telephony callsigns sed on the radio contact between pilots and Air Traffic Control not always identical with the written ones. :or e#ample )A0 stands for )ritish Airways b t on the radio yo will only hear the word Speedbird instead. )y defa lt, the callsign for any other flight is the registration n mber (tail n mber) of the aircraft, s ch as 1N%59<>1 or 1C!7A)C1. The term tail n mber is beca se a registration n mber is s ally painted somewhere on the tail of a plane, yet this is not a r le. =egistration n mbers may appear on the engines, anywhere on the f selage, and often on the wings. The short =adio!telephony callsigns for these tail n mbers is the first letter followed by the last two, li,e C!)C spo,en as Charlie!)ravo! Charlie for C!7A)C or the last 9 letters only li,e A)C spo,en Alpha!)ravo!Charlie for C!7A)C or the last 9 n mbers li,e 9<> spo,en as tree!fower!fife for N%59<>. 'n the (nited States the abbreviation of callsigns is re3 ired to be a prefi# (s ch as aircraft type, aircraft man fact rer, or first letter of registration) followed by the last three characters of the callsign. This abbreviation is only allowed after comm nications has been established in each sector. The flight n mber part is decided by the aircraft operator. 'n this arrangement, an identical call sign might well be sed for the same sched led /o rney each day it is

operated, even if the depart re time varies a little across different days of the wee,. The call sign of the ret rn flight often differs only by the final digit from the o tbo nd flight. 7enerally, airline flight n mbers are even if eastbo nd, and odd if westbo nd. 'n order to red ce the possibility of two callsigns on one fre3 ency at any time so nding too similar, a n mber of airlines, partic larly in 4 rope, have started sing alphan meric callsigns that are not based on flight n mbers. :or e#ample 2865987, spo,en as l fthansa!two! tree!lima!golf. Additionally it is the right of the air traffic controller to change the 'a dio' callsign for the period the flight is in his sector if there is a ris, of conf sion, s ally choosing the tail n mber instead. )efore aro nd %BAC 'nternational Air Transport Association ('ATA) and 'CA- were sing the same 5!letter callsigns. 2 e to the larger n mber of new airlines after dereg lation 'CA- established the 9!letter callsigns as mentioned above. The 'ATA callsigns are c rrently sed in aerodromes on the anno ncement tables b t never sed any longer in Air Traffic Control. :or e#ample, AA is the 'ATA callsign for American Airlines H ATC e3 ivalent AA8. -ther e#amples incl de 8O;48O for 4l Al, 28;2A8 for 2elta Air 8ines, 86;286 for 8 fthansa etc.

[edit] %echnology
.any technologies are sed in air traffic control systems. *rimary and secondary radar are sed to enhance a controller's 1sit ational awareness1 within his assigned airspace H all types of aircraft send bac, primary echoes of varying si"es to controllers' screens as radar energy is bo nced off their s,ins, and transponder!e3 ipped aircraft reply to secondary radar interrogations by giving an '2 (.ode A), an altit de (.ode C) and;or a ni3 e callsign (.ode S). Certain types of weather may also register on the radar screen. These inp ts, added to data from other radars, are correlated to b ild the air sit ation. Some basic processing occ rs on the radar trac,s, s ch as calc lating gro nd speed and magnetic headings. (s ally, a :light 2ata *rocessing System manages all the flight plan related data, incorporating ! in a low or high degree ! the information of the trac, once the correlation between them (flight plan and trac,) is established. All this information is distrib ted to modern operational display systems, ma,ing it available to controllers. The :AA has spent over (S2F9 billion on software, b t a f lly!a tomated system is still over the hori"on. 'n 5CC5 the (L bro ght a new area control centre into service at Swanwic,, in 6ampshire, relieving a b sy s b rban centre at 0est 2rayton in .iddlese#, north of 8ondon 6eathrow Airport. Software from 8oc,heed!.artin predominates at Swanwic,. 6owever, Swanwic, was initially tro bled by software and comm nications problems ca sing delays and occasional sh tdowns. Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller f rtherK :light 2ata *rocessing SystemsK this is the system ( s ally one per Center) that processes all the information related to the :light (the :light *lan), typically in the time hori"on from 7ate to gate (airport depart re;arrival gates). 't ses s ch processed information to invo,e other :light *lan related tools (s ch as e.g. .TC2), and distrib tes s ch processed information to all the sta,eholders (Air Traffic Controllers, collateral Centers, Airports, etc). STCA (Short Term Conflict Alert) that chec,s possible conflicting tra/ectories in a time hori"on of abo t 5 or 9 min tes (or even less in approach conte#t ! 9> seconds in the

:rench =oissy N -rly approach centres $9&) and alerts the controller prior the loss of separation. The algorithms sed may also provide in some systems a possible vectoring sol tion, that is, the manner in which to t rn, descend, or climb the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minim m safety distance or altit de clearance. .inim m Safe Altit de 0arning (.SA0)K a tool that alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be flying too low to the gro nd or will impact terrain based on its c rrent altit de and heading. System Coordination (SOSC-) to enable controller to negotiate the release of flights from one sector to another. Area *enetration 0arning (A*0) to inform a controller that a flight will penetrate a restricted area. Arrival and 2epart re .anager to help se3 ence the ta,eoff and landing of aircraft. The 2epart re .anager (2.AN)K A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calc lates a planned depart re flow with the goal to maintain an optimal thro ghp t at the r nway, red ce 3 e ing at holding point and distrib te the information to vario s sta,eholders at the airport (i.e. the airline, gro nd handling and Air Traffic Control (ATC)). The Arrival .anager (A.AN)K A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calc lates a planned Arrival flow with the goal to maintain an optimal thro ghp t at the r nway, red ce arrival 3 e ing and distrib te the information to vario s sta,eholders. passive :inal Approach Spacing Tool (p:AST), a CTAS tool, provides r nway assignment and se3 ence n mber advisories to terminal controllers to improve the arrival rate at congested airports. p:AST was deployed and operational at five (S T=AC-Ns before being cancelled. NASA research incl ded an Active :AST capability that also provided vector and speed advisories to implement the r nway and se3 ence advisories. Converging = nway 2isplay Aid (C=2A) enables Approach controllers to r n two final approaches that intersect and ma,e s re that go aro nds are minimi"ed Center T=AC-N A tomation System (CTAS) is a s ite of h man centered decision s pport tools developed by NASA Ames =esearch Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the :AA for operational eval ation and se. Some of the CTAS tools areK Traffic .anagement Advisor (T.A), passive :inal Approach Spacing Tool (p:AST), Collaborative Arrival *lanning (CA*), 2irect!To (25), 4n =o te 2escent Advisor (42A) and . lti Center T.A. Traffic .anagement Advisor (T.A), a CTAS tool, is an en ro te decision s pport tool that a tomates time based metering sol tions to provide an pper limit of aircraft to a T=AC-N from the Center over a set period of time. Sched les are determined that will not e#ceed the specified arrival rate and controllers se the sched led times to provide the appropriate delay to arrivals while in the en ro te domain. This res lts in an overall red ction in en ro te delays and also moves the delays to more efficient airspace (higher altit des) than occ r if holding near the T=AC-N bo ndary is re3 ired to not overload the T=AC-N controllers. T.A is operational at most en ro te air ro te traffic control centers (A=TCCs) and contin es to be enhanced to address more comple# traffic sit ations (e.g. Ad/acent Center .etering (AC.) and 4n =o te 2epart re Capability (42C)) .TC2 N (=4T

'n the (S, (ser =e3 est 4val ation Tool ((=4T) ta,es paper strips o t of the e3 ation for 4n =o te controllers at A=TCCs by providing a display that shows all aircraft that are either in or c rrently ro ted into the sector. 'n 4 rope, several .TC2 tools are availableK i:ACTS (NATS), 4=AT- (2SNA $%&), IA:-='T (2:S), New :2*S (.AS(AC). The S4SA=$<& *rogramme sho ld soon la nch new .TC2 concepts. (=4T and .TC2 provide conflict advisories p to 9C min tes in advance and have a s ite of assistance tools that assist in eval ating resol tion options and pilot re3 ests. .ode SK provides a data downlin, of flight parameters via Secondary S rveillance =adars allowing radar processing systems and therefore controllers to see vario s data on a flight, incl ding airframe ni3 e id (5<!bits encoded), indicated airspeed and flight director selected level, amongst others. C*28CK Controller *ilot 2ata 8in, Comm nications H allows digital messages to be sent between controllers and pilots, avoiding the need to se radiotelephony. 't is especially sef l in areas where diffic lt!to! se 6: radiotelephony was previo sly sed for comm nication with aircraft, e.g. oceans. This is c rrently in se in vario s parts of the world incl ding the Atlantic and *acific oceans. A2S!)K A tomatic 2ependent S rveillance )roadcast H provides a data downlin, of vario s flight parameters to air traffic control systems via the Transponder (%CBC .6") and reception of those data by other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important is the aircraft's latit de, longit de and levelK s ch data can be tili"ed to create a radar!li,e display of aircraft for controllers and th s allows a form of pse do!radar control to be done in areas where the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the gro nds of low traffic levels, or technically not feasible (e.g. oceans). This is c rrently in se in A stralia, Canada and parts of the *acific -cean and Alas,a. The 4lectronic :light Strip system (e!strip)K A system of electronic flight strips replacing the old paper strips is being sed by several Service *roviders, s ch as NAI CANA2A, .AS(AC, 2:S, being prod ced by several ind stries, s ch as 'ndra Sistemas, Thales 7ro p, :re3 entis, Avibit, SAA) etc. 4!strips allows controllers to manage electronic flight data online witho t *aper Strips, red cing the need for man al f nctions. S,y=ecK 6ardware based video recording tool that records and replays all information capt red on ATC- screens. (sed for legal recording (co pled with voice recording), training and post event analysis.$>&

[edit] &a'or accidents

A list of recent accidents can be fo nd in this list. -n E ly %, 5CC5 a T polev T !%>< and )oeing @>@ collided above Pberlingen near the bo ndary between 7erman and Swiss!controlled airspace when a S,yg ide!employed controller (*eter Nielsen), naware that the flight was receiving instr ction from the on! board a tomatic Traffic Collision Avoidance System software to climb, instr cted the so thbo nd T polev to descend. See 5CC5 Pberlingen .id!Air Collision for more on this accident. The deadliest mid!air crash, the %BB? Char,hi 2adri mid!air collision over 'ndia, partly res lted from the fact that the New 2elhi!area airspace was shared by depart res and arrivals, when in most cases depart res and arrivals wo ld se separate airspaces.

The deadliest collision between airliners too, place on the gro nd, on .arch 5@, %B@@, in what is ,nown as the Tenerife disaster.

[edit] Air navigation service providers (A)*"s+ and tra!!ic service providers (A%*"s+
The reg latory f nction remains the responsibility of the State and can be e#ercised by 7overnment and;or independent Safety, Airspace and 4conomic =eg lators depending on the national instit tional arrangements. -ften yo will see a division between the Civil Aviation A thority (CAA) (the =eg lator) and the ANS* (the Air Navigation Service *rovider). An Air Navigation Service *rovider H The air navigation service provider is the a thority directly responsible for providing both vis al and non!vis al aids to navigation within a specific airspace in compliance with, b t not limited to, 'nternational Civil Aviation -rgani"ation ('CA-) Anne#es 5, ?, %C and %%+ 'CA- 2oc ments <<<< and B<5?+ and, other international, m lti!national, and national policy, agreements or reg lations. An Air Traffic Service *rovider is the relevant a thority designated by the State responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned H where airspace is classified as Type A thro gh 7 airspace. Air traffic service is a generic term meaning vario sly, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service). )oth ANS*s and ATS*s can be p blic, private or corporati"ed organisations and e#amples of the different legal models e#ist thro gho t the world today. The world's ANS*s are nited in and represented by the Civil Air Navigation Services -rganisation (CANS-) based at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands. 'n the (nited States, the :ederal Aviation Administration (:AA) provides this service to all aircraft in the National Airspace System (NAS). 0ith the e#ception of facilities operated by the 2epartment of 2efense (2o2), the :AA is responsible for all aspects of (.S. Air Traffic Control incl ding hiring and training controllers, altho gh there are contract towers located in many parts of the co ntry. A contract tower is an Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) that performs the same f nction as an :AA!r n ATCT b t is staffed by employees of a private company (.artin State Airport in .aryland is an e#ample). 2o2 facilities are generally staffed by military personnel and operate separately b t conc rrently with :AA facilities, nder similar r les and proced res. 'n Canada, Air Traffic Control is provided by NAI CANA2A, a private, non!share capital corporation that operates Canada's civil air navigation service. Albania ! Ag/encia Nacionale e Trafi, t A/ror A stria ! A stro Control A stralia ! Airservices A stralia (State -wned Corporation) and =oyal A stralian Air :orce. )elgi m ! )elgocontrol )ra"il ! 2epartmento de Controle de TrQfego ARreo (.ilitary A thority) and ANAC ! AgSncia Nacional de AviaTGo Civil ) lgaria ! Air Traffic Services A thority Canada ! NAI CANA2A ! formerly provided by Transport Canada

Central America ! CorporaciUn Centroamericana de Servicios de NavegaciUn Aerea 7 atemala ! 27AC (2irecciUn 7eneral de AeronQ tica Civil) 4l Salvador 6ond ras Nicarag a Costa =ica ! 2irecciUn 7eneral de Aviacion Civil )eli"e Colombia ! ((A4AC)AeronQ tica Civil Colombiana Croatia ! 6rvats,a ,ontrola "raVne plovidbe (Croatia Control 8td.) C ba ! 'ACC ('nstit to de AeronQ tica Civil de C ba) C"ech =ep blic ! WX"enX letovRho provo" Y= 2enmar, ! Naviair (2anish ATC) 2ominican =ep blic ! 27AC (2irecciUn 7eneral de AeronQ tica Civil) 4stonia ! 4stonian Air Navigation Services 4 rope ! 4 rocontrol ! (4 ropean -rganisation for the Safety of Air Navigation) :inland ! :inavia :rance ! 2irection 7RnRrale de l'Aviation Civile (27AC) K 2irection des SystZmes de la Navigation ARrienne (2SNA) (7overnment body) 7eorgia ! SALA4=-NAI'7ATS'A, 8td. (7eorgian Air Navigation) 7ermany ! 2e tsche :l gsicher ng (7erman ATC) 7reece ! 6ellenic Civil Aviation A thority (6CAA) 6ong Long ! CA2 (Civil Aviation 2epartment) 6 ngary ! 6 ngaroControl .agyar 8Rgiforgalmi S"olgQlat [rt. (6 ngaroControl 6 ngarian Air Navigation Services *te. 8td. Co.) 'celand ! 'SAI'A 'ndonesia ! Ang,asa * ra '' 'reland ! 'AA ('rish Aviation A thority) 'ndia ! Airports A thority of 'ndia (AA') ( nder .inistry of Civil Aviation, 7overnment -f 'ndia) 'taly ! 4NAI ('talian ATC)(4nte Na"ionale Assisten"a al Iolo ! 'talian ATC) Eamaica ! ECAA (Eamaica Civil Aviation A thority) 8atvia ! 87S (8atvian ATC) 8ith ania ! ANS (8ith anian ATC) .acedonia ! 27CA (.acedonian ATC) .alaysia ! 2CA!2epartment of Civil Aviation .alta ! .alta Air Traffic Services 8td .e#ico ! Servicios a la NavegaciUn en el 4spacio ARreo .e#icano Netherlands ! 8IN8 (2 tch ATC) New [ealand ! Airways New [ealand (State -wned 4nterprise) Norway ! Avinor (State!owned private company) *a,istan ! Civil Aviation A thority ( nder 7overnment of *a,istan) *er ! Centro de 'nstr cciUn de AviaciUn Civil C'AC Civil Aviation Training Center *hilippines ! Civil Aviation A thority of the *hilippines (CAA*) ( nder the *hilippine 7overnment) *oland ! *ANSA ! *olish Air Navigation Services Agency *ort gal ! NAI ! NAI (*ort g ese ATC)

=omania ! =omanian Air Traffic Services Administration ! (=-.ATSA) = ssia ! :ederal State (nitary 4nterprise 1State AT. Corporation1 ! (State AT. Corporation) Singapore ! CAAS (Civil Aviation A thority of Singapore) Serbia ! Serbia and .ontenegro Air Traffic Services Agency 8td. (S.ATSA) Slova,ia ! 8etovR prevQd",ovR sl \by Slovens,e/ rep bli,y Slovenia ! Slovenia Control So th Africa ! Air Traffic and Navigation Services , $5& Spain ! A4NA (Spanish ATC and Airports) Sweden ! The 8:I 7ro p (Swedish ATC) Swit"erland ! S,yg ide Taiwan ! AN0S Civil Aerona tical Administration Thailand ! A4=-T6A' (Aerona tical =adio of Thailand) Trinidad and Tobago ! TTCAA (Trinidad and Tobago Civil Aviation A thority) T r,ey ! 27CA (T r,ish 2irectorate 7eneral of Civil Aviation) (nited Lingdom ! National Air Traffic Services (<BM State -wned * blic!*rivate *artnership) (nited States ! :ederal Aviation Administration (7overnment )ody) (,raine ! (,rainian State Air Traffic Service 4nterprise ((,SATS4) Iene" ela ! 'NAC ('nstit to Nacional de AviaciUn Civil) $edit& *roposed changes 'n the (nited States, some alterations to traffic control proced res are being e#amined. The Ne#t 7eneration Air Transportation System e#amines how to overha l the (nited States national airspace system. :ree flight is a developing air traffic control method that ses no centrali"ed control (e.g. air traffic controllers). 'nstead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and a tomatically in a distrib ted way sing comp ter comm nication to ens re the re3 ired separation between aircraft.$?& 'n 4 rope, the S4SA=$<& (Single 4 ropean S,y AT. =esearch) *rogramme plans to develop new methods, new technologies, new proced res, new systems to accommodate f t re (5C5C and beyond) Air Traffic Needs. .any co ntries have also privati"ed or corporati"ed their air navigation service providers.$@& $edit& (SA specificities :AA Control Tower -perators (CT-);Air Traffic Controllers se :AA -rder @%%C.?>S as the a thority for all proced res regarding air traffic. :or more information regarding Air Traffic Control r les and reg lations, refer the :ederal Aviation Administration's (:AA) website atK$9&

[edit] *ee also

Air safety Air traffic controller Airspace Area Control Center (ACC) A stralian Air Traffic Control A tomatic dependent s rveillance!broadcast (A2S!))

Aviation light signals )ash,irian Airlines :light 5B9@ N 268 :light ?%% mid!air collision 4 ropean -perational Concept Ialidation .ethodology (4!-CI.) :light level (:8) :light planning :light trac,ing :light progress strip :light traffic mapping 7lobal Air Traffic .anagement ':ATCA ('nternational :ederation of ATC Associations) *rofessional Air Traffic Controllers -rgani"ation Tenerife disaster, (T:N) Terminal Control Center Tower en ro te control (T4C) Iirt al Air Traffic Sim lation Networ, (IATS'.) [agreb mid!air collision

[edit] e!erences
] 1:AA @%%C.?> 5!%!%1. httpK;;www.faa.gov;air^traffic;p blications;atp bs;ATC;atcC5C%.html. ] 1'2A- :A_1. httpK;;www.icao.int;icao;en;trivia;peltrg:A_.htm`59. =etrieved 5CCB! C9!C9. ] 27AC;Aviation Civile .aga"ine ] a b S4SA= ] =ecord and =eview Air Traffic Control 2ata ] :ree :light ] .c2o gall, 7len and =oberts, Alasdair S.,Commerciali"ing Air Traffic ControlK 6ave the =eforms 0or,eda(A g st %>, 5CC@). Canadian * blic Administration, Iol. >%, No. %, pp. <>!?B, 5CCB . Available at SS=NK httpK;;ssrn.com;abstractb%9%@<>C $edit& 4#ternal lin,s 0i,imedia Commons has media related toK Air traffic control The ATC Networ, ! The online portal for ATC professionals ATC Training Schools 'nternational :ederation of Air Traffic Safety 4lectronics Associations atcosonline ! A comm nity based site for air traffic controllers from aro nd the world

[edit] ,istory
(.S. Centennial of :light Commission ! Air Traffic Control $edit& 'nternet services SLObraryK The single point of reference in the networ, of aviation safety ,nowledge 8isten to ATC radio 5<;@ 8ive Aviation =adio 8isten to 74=.AN ATC (N=0) radio 5<;@ 8ive Aviation =adio .ap of airborne flights controlled by (S ATC

A dio of interview with (S terminal area controller $hide& vcdce Commercial air travel 8ist of all airlines d 8ist of passenger airlines d 8ist of regional airlines d 8ist of charter airlines d 8ist of 1firms1 with m ltiple 'ATA coded 1certificated air carrier holdings1 'ATA d 'CA- d 'STAT -neworld d Star Alliance d S,yTeam Airline =eservations System d Airline tic,et d Airline timetable d )oarding pass d Codeshare agreement d Continent pass d 4lectronic tic,et d :light cancellation d :re3 ent flyer program d 7overnment contract flight d -pen!/aw tic,et d =ed! eye flight d =o nd!the!world tic,et d Standby d Travel agency d Travel search engine d 0arsaw Convention Airline h b d Airport d Airport lo nge d 2omestic airport d 'nternational airport d =egional airport )ag tag d )aggage allowance d )aggage caro sel d )aggage claim d )aggage handler d Chec,ed baggage d 8ost l ggage Airstair d Airport chec,!in d Airport sec rity d )oarding d 7ate Aircraft seat map d Airline seat d :irst class d ) siness class d *remi m 4conomy class d 4conomy class d Travel class Aircraft lavatory d Airline meal d Airsic,ness bag d 'n!flight entertainment d ) y on board d 'nflight smo,ing 2eadheading d Captain d :irst officer d :light attendant d :light engineer d *ilot d * rser d Second -fficer d Third -fficer Arrival Card d 2epart re Card d *assport Air traffic control d Aircraft safety card d Airline sec rity d Airport a thority d Airport police d Civil aviation a thority d :light data recorder d *re!flight safety demonstration d

Airlines

'nd stry associations Airline alliances

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Airport

8 ggage Chec,!in Seating

'n flight

Aircrew 'mmigration

Safety

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