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Logical Opposition and Reasoning and Interference
Logical Opposition and Reasoning and Interference
Logical Opposition and Reasoning and Interference
Square of opposition
A f f I r m a ti v e
u n
v e r
s a
l E
n e g a t i v e
i c u l a r
I p a r t
4. Subaltern opposition opposition that exist between two propositions that differ only in quantity. (A and I) (E and O)
c o n t
S u b a lt e r n s
contradictory
S u b a l t e r n s
r y O
IS u b c o n t
r a
Only one proposition can be true. (If one is true, the other is false.)
If A is true, O is false
All murders are criminals (A) (true) Some murders are not criminals (O) (false)
If O is true, A is false
Some birds do not fly (O)(true) All birds are flying animals (A) (false)
If E is true, I is false
If no student are listening (E) (true) Then, some students are listening (I) (false)
If I is true, E is false
If some students are deans listers (I) (true) Then, no students are deans listers (E) (false)
2. Contrary terms it pertains to the relationship between A and E. (They differ only in quality)
the two cannot be both true but can be both false.
if one is true, the other is false If one is false, the other is doubtful (either true or false) If A is true E is false
All books are useful (true) No books are useful (false)
If E is true, A is false
No dogs are cats (True) All dogs are cats (False)
3. Subcontrary refers to the relationship between I and O proposition. (they differ only in quality)
If one is false, the other is true If one is true, the other is doubtful If I is false, O is true
some animals are plants (false) Some animals are not plants (true)
If O is false, I is true
Not all cellphones are electronic device (false) Some cellphones are electronic device. (true)
If O is true, I is doubtful
If some students are not varsity players (true) Then, some students are varsity players (true)
If some animals are not plants (true) Then, some animals are plants (false)
4. Subaltern opposition opposition that exist between two propositions that differ only in quantity. (A and I) (E and O) Rules:
if A or E proposition is true, I or O proposition is true. if A or E proposition is false, I or O proposition is doubtful. If I or O proposition is true, A or E proposition is doubtful. If I or O proposition is false, A or E proposition is false.
If A or E proposition is true, I or O
proposition is true.
A that is true: if A is true I is true (A and I) All cats are animals. (true) Some cats are animals. (true)
(E and O) All priests are not nuns (true) Some priests are not nuns (true)
if A or E proposition is false, I or O
proposition is doubtful.
A that is false: if A is false I may be true or false. (A and I)
If, everyone in the class is actively participating (false) Then, few in this class are actively participating (true)
( A and I)
If, all creatures are immortals (false) Then, some creatures are immortal (false)
If I or O proposition is true, A or E
proposition is doubtful.
I that is true: if I is true, A may be true or false.
If, some doctors are professionals (true) Then, all doctors are professionals (true) If, some students are smart (true) Then, all students are smart (false)
or false.
If, some criminals are not law abiding
If I or O proposition is false, A or E
proposition is false.
I that is false: if I is false, A is false.
If, some carrots are fruits (false)
Then, each carrot is a fruit (false)
O that is false: if O is false, E is false. If, some pigs are not animals (false) Then, all pigs are not animals (false)
Reasoning/ Inference
What is reasoning/inference?
It is our capacity to understand complex reality. It is a mental operation wherein the mind infers a new truth drawn out from previous judgments. Therefore, reasoning is making conclusion from a given sets of propositions.
Inductive reasoning - inductive reasoning is a type of reasoning wherein it draws its conclusion from particular or specific concepts to general or universal idea. Example:
Kyle is a good dancer. Hannah is a good dancer. Robin is a good dancer. But, Kyle, Hannah, Robin are CVSU students. Therefore, CVSU students are good dancers.
Jane is smart. But, Jane is a tourism student. Therefore, tourism students are smart.
Inductive reasoning the truths of its premises makes it likely and probable that its conclusion is also true. (at least 51% certainty)
Parts of inference:
Premises: part of inference from which conclusion is drawn or the new knowledge is derived. Premises is also know as antecedent.
Conclusion: is the final statement derived from premises. It is also called consequent. Sequence: the necessary connection between the premises (antecedent) and the conclusion (consequent).
Man is a rational being; but Socrates is a man; hence, Socrates is a rational being
Antecedent
(premises)
Inference
sequence
consequent
(conclusion)
Invalid inference:
Roses are red, violets are blue; therefore I am Filipino. Some men(gender) are leaders; but, Jessie is a leader; therefore Jessie is a man.
Note: there must always be a logical/necessary connection to make a valid or sound inference.
Valid Inference:
All men are mortal, but you are a man, therefore you are mortal.
Philosophers are seekers of wisdom, but Socrates is a philosopher, so, Socrates is seeker of wisdom. All students are learners; but CVSUans are students; hence, CVSUans are learners.
2. Mediate inference:
The conclusion passes from two proposition Through a medium New proposition and new truth Example:
All men are free; but I am a man; thus, I am free. All voters are citizen, but Aldrin is a voter; therefore, Aldrin is a citizen.
(mediate inference uses two propositions from which conclusion will be drawn out. Mediate inference creates new propositions as well as new knowledge.)
Nothing is both A and not-A Hanna can never be present and absent in my class at the same time.