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IWA Regional Symposium on Water, Wastewater and Environment: Traditions and Culture

Under the Aegis of:

UNESCO, Hellenic Ministry of Environment Energy and Climate Change, Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development and Food, and Hellenic Ministry of Education affairs, Culture and Sports.

e-PROCEEDINGS

Edited by: I. K. Kalavrouziotis and A. N. Angelakis

HELLENIC OPEN UNIVERSITY Patras, Greece, March 2014

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Copyright: IWA Regional Symposium on Water, wastewater and environment: Traditions and Culture. Hellenic Open University, Aristotelous 18, 26335, Patras, Greece The authors are exclusively responsible for their papers and not the editors of the proceedings.

ISBN: 97 8-960-538-921 -5

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PROLEGOMENA
. Most future facts are based on those in the past. Euripides, 480-406 BC, Ancient Greek Tragic. It is well documented that most of the technological developments relevant to water supply and wastewater are not achievements of present-day engineers but date back to more than five thousand years ago in prehistoric world. These developments were driven by the necessities to make efficient use of natural resources, to make civilizations more resistant to destructive natural elements, and to improve the standards of life. Thus, the very early settlement of the humankind were established in temperate areas with sufficient water supply. In the long history of humankind the basic, most powerful, propelling force that shaped his action was the need to secure food and water. All early civilizations had one thing in common; all were located near sources of a spring, river, lake or stream. During the Neolithic age (ca. 5,700-3,200 B C), the first successful efforts to control the water flow were driven (such as dams and irrigation systems), due to the food needs and were implemented in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The first known effort for water supply and wastewater management has been undertaken during the Neolithic Age in El Kowm (or Al Kawm), located between the Euphrates River and the city of Palmyra in modern day Syria. This location was one of the first places where domestic infrastructure for water and waste water was built. The early Mesopotamian cities at the end of the 4th millennium BC to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC had networks of wastewater and stormwater drainage. Some of these cities included Habuba Kebira, Mari, Eshnunna, and Ugarit. Wastewater disposal facilities such as drainage facilities were available in the Late Urak Period (ca. 3,300-3,200 BC) at Habuba Kabira. However, the first successful effort for developing advanced, comfortable, and hygienic lifestyle, as manifested from long term very efficient water supply and sewerage systems, bathrooms and flushing toilets, were Minoans in the island of Crete (ca. 32001100 BC) and an unknown civilization (ca. 26001900 BC) in Indus valley at MohenjoDaro, Harappa, and Lothal. The contacts of Minoans with Egypt intensified from the period of the first palaces (ca. 1900- 1700 BC) onwards suggesting thus, a possible influx of technology related to water, wastewater, and stormwater management, in this particular era should be existed. In addition, based on the similarities of hydrotechnologies developed by Mesopotamians and Egyptians, Minoans, and Indus valley civilizations possible intercontacts of them should be suggested. These technologies were further improved during the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods as well as during several Chinese Dynasties and Empires and pre-columbian civilizations. On the other hand, unsanitary conditions and overcrowding were widespread throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, resulting periodically in cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541-542 AD) and the Black Death (13471351 AD), which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies. However, the rapid technological progress in the last century created a disdain for the past achievements. Past technologies, especially in water and wastewater sectors, were regarded to be far behind the present ones; signified major advances achieved in the twentieth century. At the same time, it gathered a great deal of unresolved problems, related to the management principles, such as the decentralization of the processes, the durability of the water and wastewater projects, the cost effectiveness, and the sustainability and

iv especially the protection from floods and droughts. In the developing world, such problems were intensified in an unprecedented degree. Moreover, new problems have arisen such as related to the rapidly increased urbanization and contamination of water sources. Naturally, intensification of unresolved problems led societies to revisit the past and to reinvestigate the successful past achievements. To their surprise, those who attempted this retrospect, based on archaeological, historical, and technical evidences, and were impressed by two things: the similarity of principles with present ones and the advanced level of management both water and storm water and wastewater. Thus, today is well documented that most of the technological principles related to water and wastewater are not achievements of present-day, but date back to three to four thousand years ago. With the increasing worldwide awareness of the importance of water resources management in the ancient civilizations, the responsibility for organizing the IWA Regional Symposium on Water and Wastewater in Ancient Civilizations was undertaken by the IWA Specialist Group on Water and Wastewater in Ancient Civilizations (IWA SG on WWAC) the end of March 2012 during the 3rd IWA International Symposium which was held in Istanbul, Turkey. The Symposium was organized by IWA SG on WWAC in collaboration with the Hellenic Open University, the International Water History Association (IWHA) and other national and international agencies, in Patras, Hellas, from 22 to 24 March 2014. The aims of the Symposium were: (a) To reveal the cultural heritage in several regions of the world and to make visible the archaeological remnants of technologies which have contributed to the development of the existing technologies in water and wastewater management. (b) To describe and evaluate the ancient and traditional technologies, which on a long term may contribute to water and wastewater management systems and to the development of integrated methodologies. (c) To develop small systems based on old technologies using new equipment, which may be of great significance for water, wastewater and environmental management in the future, particularly in developing countries. The main themes of the Symposium are: (a) Evolution of urban wastewater and storm water management through the centuries; (b) Urban water supply in ancient civilizations: (c) Historical development of urban water supplies (i. e. cisterns, aqueducts, fountains, etc); (d) Ancient and traditional technologies for water and wastewater management; (e) Cultural heritage in river basins; (g) History of water and climatic changes and/or variability; (f) Cultural and socio-economic issues of water and sanitation in ancient civilizations; (h) History of irrigation; and (i) Environmental issues. The Symposium aimed to bring together a wide body of knowledge from the newly emerged and expanding field of water and wastewater management technologies in ancient civilizations. Out of 130 manuscripts were submitted and reviewed, of which 124 were selected to be presented as a full papers and 6 as short papers and are all included in this eProceedings volume. The papers have a wide geographical coverage: Asian (e. g. China, India, South Korea, Iran, and Near East), American, African European, and Mediterranean countries, with the prominence of the Ancient Hellenic and Roman worlds. The time frame of the themes presented in the submitted manuscripts extends from prehistoric to medieval and contemporary times; some papers examine modern environmental themes trying to trace old influences. Some papers have more philosophical and scientific, rather than technological, content, examining the birth and historical evolution of water sciences. We are impressed by the information gathered and processed by all authors of the manuscripts. Some of the manuscripts are of very of high quality but not all of them.

v Despite the efforts of reviewers and the members of the Organizing and the Programme Committees, it was very difficult to bring all manuscripts into a high level, particularly in terms of language. We hope that the readers of this e-volume will tolerate an occasionally lower level of processing and presentation of the information given. We did the same deliberately, for two main reasons. First, we found it very useful to collect as many information bits as possible with the widest coverage. With think that in this initial, exploration phase of research, this is more important than the language and the quality of presentation. Second, we are aware that most of the contributions do not originate from formal and funded research projects. Many authors were motivated by personal interest or even by hobby and made their contributions in parallel to their many duties and under the stress of their heavy workload. Finally, special thanks are due to the members of the Symposium Secretariat: Mr. Nikolaos Bonatsos ,Mrs. Eirini Kostakioti, Miss. Santy Coles, and Miss. Georgia Tsourti, and to the coordinators of the reviews Drs. Michalis Leotsinidis, Hrissi Karapanagioti, Ioannis Sibetheros, Georgios Antoniou, Nikolaos Fourniotis, Petros Kokkinos, Angelos Patakas, Dimitris Vlastos, and Ierotheos Zacharias for their positive contribution for the successful materialization of the Symposium. Last but not least, many thanks are due to all authors, the Organizing and the Programme Committees, and all local organizers for their devoted contributions. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ioannis K. Kalavrouziotis Hellenic Open University, School of Science and Technology, Tsamadou 13-15 & Saint Andrea, 262 22 Patras, Greece, ikalabro@eap.gr; ikalabro@yahoo.com Dr. Andreas N. Angelakis Hellenic Water Supply and Sewerage Systems Association, 15 Patroklou str., 41222 Larissa, Greece, angelak@edeya.gr; info@a- angelakis.gr

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Contents
Prolegomena, I. K. Kalavrouziotis and A. N. Angelakis ........................................ iii Introductory Themes.............................................................................................. 1 Past and modern water problems: progress or regression? D. Koutsoyiannis .......... 3 The cult and the use of Water in ancient Greece with emphasis the city of Patras, M. Petropoulos ....................................................................................................... 15 Urban water management in the anthropocene: Accepting future challenges while learning from the past, P. A. Wilderer .................................................................... 27 The ancient urban water system construction of China: the lessons we learnt, Xiao Y.Zheng ................................................................................................................... 35 Ancient and traditional technologies for water and wastewater management ................................................................................................................................ 47 Water management through time and space, J. Berking, B. Beckers, and B. Schtt ................................................................................................................................ 49 A review on water and wastewater treatment and methods from ancient to present in Iran, M. E. Azari Najaf Abad, N. Zarrineh and H. Eshraghi.............................. 59 Waters supply in the Cretan Poleis (late 8th-mid 1st c. BC): New perspectives about technique in the field of ancient hydraulics, R. Bardet ................................ 71 Water management practices focusing on the Ottoman baths in Crete, Hellas: Lessons learned, E. Kanetaki.................................................................................. 83 Hydraulic characteristics of the drainage systems of ancient Hellenic theatres: A preliminary study, K. Kollyropoulos, G. Antoniou, I.K. Kalavrouziotis, and A.N. Angelakis ................................................................................................................ 95 Water management at the Monastery of Mount Sinai during the 6th century AD, P. Koufopoulos and M. Myriantheos ....................................................................... 109 Urban water supply in ancient civilizations ..................................................... 121 Intelligent hydraulic devices in ancient Greece, K. P. Kotsanas .......................... 123 Some elements of the water supply system of the city of Perge, in the Roman imperial period, F. Debaste and B. Haut ............................................................. 135 The water supply of ancient Cumae: the case study of the Forum bath, M. E. Cornacchia, F. De Paola, M. Giugni, and G. Lofrano......................................... 145 The Water System of Liao, Xixia and Jin Dynasties of China, F. Tie, and F. Yuemeng ............................................................................................................... 155

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Water supply system of Diocletians palace in Split-Croatia, K. Marasovi, S. Perojevi, J. Margeta ........................................................................................... 163 Quality, quantity and management of urban water supply in the Prefecture of Larnaka, Cyprus, P. P. Karanikola, G. E. Tsantopoulos, S. A. Tampakis, V. A. Andrea, and A. N. Matoli...................................................................................... 175 History of Water and climatic changes and /or variability............................. 185 What historical climate time series tell us and what their future impacts may be likely on sanitation and water quality in Kadi, Mauritania, G. Cisse, S.Touray,B. Kone, H. Ba, D. Traore , I. Sy, M. Tanner , J. Utzinger ....................................... 187 Evolution of meteorology: from Aristotle to satellites, N. Dalezios .................... 201 Sensitivity analysis of the potential evapotranspiration under the climate change scenarios, E. A. Baltas .......................................................................................... 213 Efficiency in water use is adversely influenced by environmental variability, I. S. Tokatlidis .............................................................................................................. 223 Local peoples opinions on wetlands vary for different wetlands types: Comparative study of Prespa national park and Amvrakikos wetlands national park, Greece, G. E. Tsantopoulos, V. A. Andrea, S. A. Tampakis, P. P. Karanikola, and T. Kousmani ................................................................................................... 231 Water resources management of coastal resilience climate change impacts, S. Kotsopoulos, S.E. Poulos, A. Panagopoulos, P. Nastos, G. Skiannis, G. Ghionis, I. Alexiou, A. Ilias, I. Matiatos, V. Pisinaras, K. Lazogiannis, G. Arampatzis, E. Kosmidis, I. Boskidis, and I. Pappas .................................................................... 241 Cultural and socio-economic issues of water and sanitation in ancient civilizations .......................................................................................................... 249 Western books on hydraulics in the historic Beitang library of the jesuits in Beijing China (1583-1773 AD), A. Koenig ....................................................................... 251 Water use and treatment in the making of traditional Greek Ouzo, H. K. Karapanagioti and A. Bekatorou ......................................................................... 265 Nikos Kazantzakis and the environment, M. Chatziapostolou, V. Sifakis, C.Arvanitis, A. Angelakis, and Y.Phillis .............................................................. 275 Genesis and evolution of some lagoons in Greece and Italy: preliminary data for a key to geomorphological model interpretation, C.Donadio, and L. Stamatopoulos .............................................................................................................................. 283

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Diachronic environmental evolution of the Messolonghi lagoon in Western Greece and archaeological evidence, M. Diamanti, J. Hatzopoulos, and I. K.Kalavrouziotis .................................................................................................... 297 The Pergamene astynomic law Regulations for the safekeeping of water supply and drainage after an earthquake ?, H. Fahlbusch................................................. 307 History of Irrigation ............................................................................................ 313 The Real Canal de la Infanta in Barcelona, Spain, JL de la Pea and M. Salgot .............................................................................................................................. 315 From agricultural wastewater use to intelligent reclaim irrigation system (IRIS) in the region of Murcia, F. Pedrero, J.J. Alarcnan, A.J. Garca, P.A Nortes and M.Abelln .............................................................................................................. 323 The movement of water in orchards of Kampos: An old irrigation system, E. Apostolides, M. Papafotiou, A.M. Vissilia, and A. Paraskevopoulou .................. 335 The history of optimization. Applications in water resources management, N.Theodossiou, D. Karakatsanis, and I.Kougias .................................................. 345 Transition from traditional to modern wastewater management in Samsun, Middle Black Sea, Y. Ardal, E. Tfeki, G. Turan, and F. Temel .................................... 357 Ancient innovations in irrigation and water resources management in North Africa and West Asia, A. M.A. Salih and S. S.H. Abdalla ................................................ 367 Application of treated urban wastewater through subsurface drip irrigation, M. Sakellariou Makrantonaki, V. Giouvanis and T. Bamnaras ............................... 375 Waterborne health risks and sanitation during antiquity, H.S. Vuorinen ............. 385 The utilization of water resources in Thessaly from the 19th century until today, D. K. Kalfountzos, K. G. Goumas, and A. G. Siouras ................................................ 393 A historical overview of aquaculture activities: progress and perspectives, A.Nikolaou and G. Lofrano ................................................................................... 405 The art of searching for extremes from Euclid to Dantzig: A historical pursuit of optimisation theory, as a basis for the evolution of optimisation methods of water resources management, E. S. Bekri, P. C. Yannopoulos, and M. Disse ................ 417 Forests and wastewater reuse, G.Bourazanis and P. Kerkides .............................. 429 Historical development of urban water supplies ( e.g. cisterns, aqueducts, fountains, etc) ........................................................................................................ 441 Ancient water supply systems in Old Israel, G. Oron ........................................... 443 Ancient aqueduct in Naxos, V. Lambrinoudakis .................................................. 453

The Augustan aqueduct in the context of road system and urbanization of the served territory in Southern Italy, G. Libertini, B. Miccio, N. Leone, and G. De Feo ................................................................................................................................ 461 Pompeii water supply - route and tunnels of the Serino aqueduct, W. F. Lorenz and G.De Feo ................................................................................................................ 477 The devils bridges: the medieval aqueduct of Salerno, M. Carotenuto, G. Lofrano, and I. Marino .......................................................................................................... 487 Cisterns of the classical bathhouse on the Kerameikos road in front of the Dipylon, J. Stroszeck ............................................................................................................. 499 Wheel-well and reservoir: The historic water supply system in the community of Kampos on Chios, D. Monioudi - Gavala ............................................................. 509 Monumental fountain structures: The role of nymphaea within the urban context of cities of the Graeco-Roman East, G. A. Aristodemou............................................ 523 SOMES Waters Museum a way to valorize the past and educate the future, V .L. Croitoru .................................................................................................................. 537 The Roman aqueduct of Nicopolis (of the prefecture of Preveza), C. Mercouri and E. Saltagianni ........................................................................................................ 545 Supplying water in Hellenistic and Roman Macedonia: The art of the wells, A.G. Kaiafa-Saropoulou ................................................................................................. 557 Engineering aspects of the aqueduct in Roman Minoa, Akrotiri, Chania, Hellas, A. Samiotakis, Y. Palogos , Y. Christodoulakos, A. N. Angelakis, and P. Gikas ....... 569 Comparative analysis for alternative water sources using rainwater harvesting and groundwater withdrawal in Auchi, Nigeria, P. O. Idogho, and Y. Olotu .............. 579 Evolution of Fountains through the Centuries in Crete, Hellas, A. . Angelakis... 591 Roman aqueducts:The case of Patras aqueduct (Greece), G. Goumas, H. Papadopoulou, C. Vozikis, and P.A. Kakavas ....................................................... 605 Water pumps through the Ages, S. I. Yannopoulos, G. Lyberatos, A. N. Angelakis, and N.Theodossiou ................................................................................................. 615 The Ottoman fountains of Naupactos (Lepanto), E. G. Katsouli ......................... 627 Advances in the history of reservoir monitoring, . Eli and G. Tayfur .............. 631 An investigation of the hydrological potentials of an ancient Greek city, Palairos (Western Greece), T. Tiwari, E. Zagana, R. Lehne, A. Kallioras, C. Schueth ..... 641 Rainwater exploitation: from ancient Greeks to modern times, E. Sazakli, E. Sazaklie, and M. Leotsinidis .................................................................................. 653

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The 19th c. water reservoirs complex in Patras, Greece, G. Antoniou ................. 663 Residential rainwater cisterns in Ithaki, Greece, G. Antoniou ............................... 675 Baths in ancient Elis, O. Vikatou ........................................................................... 687 Following the Aqueducts course of Roman Patras, L. Papakosta ...................... 701 Ancient Italic water civilizations in the Mediterranean Italy: An anthropological perspective, E. Eulisse ............................................................................................ 713 Cultural heritage in river basins ......................................................................... 729 Implications of traditional commercial practices on the current environmental status of River Yamuna in the Delhi- Mathura-Agra region, India, A. Mehra and D.K. Banerjee ................................................................................................................. 731 The evolution of the Po valley and Reno basin (North Italy) through the historical cartography: vicissitude of a land reclamation, C. Ferronato, G. Vianello, and L. Vittori Antisari ........................................................................................................ 741 Zengjiang river regulation: Perfect combination of water ecological restoration and humanity history, X. Fei, L.Zhenguo, L. Da, L.Leyin, and H. Weiying ................ 753 The Solideness of water culture of north river behind the historical changes of water conservancy, O. Jianbo, X. Fei, and L. Jianguo .......................................... 759 Preserving Lingko and Lodok System as an agricultural heritage in the Flores River Basin, F.J Putuhena ............................................................................................... 765 Raw materials used for the millstones production in ancient Greece. Examples from Macedonia and Thrace, V. Melfos, C. Papacharalampou, P. Ch. Voudouris, A. Kaiafa, and K.Voudouris .................................................................................. 773 Alpheus River myths in a game theory perspective, M. V. Podimata and P. C. Yannopoulos ......................................................................................................... 785 Worshipping in latium region, central Italy, P. Merciai, B. Nobiloni, and A. Zourou .................................................................................................................. 797 Immediate interventions for the restoration of Patras Roman aqueduct, M. Mentzini .............................................................................................................................. 805 Geo habitat mapping in the Aegean and Ionian seas : A pilot study for the sustainable management of coastal resources in the context of the eu marine strategy framework directive, G. Ferentinos, G. Papatheodorou, E. Fakiris, M. Geraga, D. Christodoulou, M. Iatrou, S. Kordella, M. Georgiadis, E. Tzanatos and K. Koutsikopoulos................................................................................................. 817

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Environmental history of watersides in ancient civilizations: A cultural legacy, A. Watelet and E. Hermon................................................................................... 827 Natural resources and the emergence of civilization, C. A. Tsekos and D. P. Matthopoulos ........................................................................................................ 839 Evolution of urban wastewater and storm water management through the centuries .............................................................................................................. 847 Overview of wastewater management through the Ages, J. Brown and G. Lofrano ............................................................................................................................... 849 History of Prague sewer system and wastewater treatment, J. Wanner ............... 861 Historical development of urban sanitation and wastewater management in Cyprus, P. Azina and N. Kathijotes ..................................................................................... 871 Water management structures in historical settlements: Towards a crossgeographical, cross-cultural categorization, E. Antonelli and K. Liapi ................ 881 Hydroelectric power plants of PPC S.A. in Greece and their comtribution in water management, I. Argyrakis ........................................................................... 893 A comparative study of the ancient and modern wastewater environmentally protected and ethically oriented management, T. Kakogiannis, T. Hortis, P. Drakatos, P. H. Koukoulakis and I. K.Kalavrouziotis.......................................... 903 Combination of coagulation/flocculation and ozonation processes for the advanced treatment of molasses wastewater, N. D. Tzoupanos, S. D. Sklari, G. Dimitreli, A. I. Zouboulis and P. E. Samaras ............................................................................... 913 Urban organization and development of the sewerage network in Ancient Rome and influence on the later systems, L. J. Del Giacco, R. Drusiani, A. Zanobini and G.O. Margaritora ................................................................................................. 925 Manganese in drinking water and human health. Historical data from Eleias prefecture, Greece, S.P. Varnavas ........................................................................ 937 Chromium (VI) removal from acidic wastewaters in composite reactive beds, K. A. Komnitsas and G. D. Bazdanis ............................................................................. 947 Removal of erythromycin from aqueous solutions by an friendly environmentally method, S. Georgopoulos, M. Panitsa and M. Papadaki ..................................... 959 Treatment of domestic wastewater by constructed wetlands in the rural regions of Turkey: the case study of Yrkal, F. A. Temel, Y. Ardali, G. Ozyazici, R. V. Uslu .............................................................................................................................. 965

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Simultaneous carbon and sulphur substrates removal by Desulfobacter postgatei dominated biofilms in anaerobic packed reactors, P. Kousi, E. Remoundaki, A. Hatzikioseyian and M. Tsezos .............................................................................. 977 Qualitative characterization of wastewater sludge in the Region of East Macedonia and Thrace, E. Eleftheriadou, A. Evangelou and D.Komilis ................................ 991 Genesis and diaspora of the dairy process: Aerobic biological treatment of its wastewaters, T. I. Tatoulis, A. G. Tekerlekopoulou, C. S. Akratos and D. V. Vayenas ................................................................................................................ 1001
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Concentration levels and removal of pharmaceutical compounds in wastewaters in Greece, C. I. Kosma, D. A. Lambropoulou and T. A. Albanis ............................ 1013 Sludge management from municipal wastewater treatment plants in the region of Northern Greece, K. H. Gudulas, P. Samaras, and A. Karagiannidis................. 1023 Microalge:from sewage treatment to potential biofuel production, A.F.Aravantinou and I.D. Manariotis ............................................................................................. 1033 Environmental issues......................................................................................... 1043 Lake is not only water: signatures of environmental history and anthropogenic impact in sediments of small Estonian lakes, T. Koff, A. Marzecov, E. Vandel, E. Avi and A. Mikomgi ........................................................................................... 1045 Lake Karla and the contradictory character of Greek Environmental Policies: A brief historical overview, S. Gialis and C. S. Laspidou ....................................... 1057 A finite-difference scheme on the 3D equation of convective diffusion in a fluid solvent, C. A. Papastavrou, V. C. Loukopoulos and G.T. Karahalios ............... 1067 Study of air pollutants dispersion across street canyons characterized by different W/H ratios, G. Iakovou and P. Kassomenos ....................................................... 1079 Chromium (VI) in the environment: history and strategies for the treatment of polluted water and wastewater with Cr(VI), M. K. Michailides, A. G. Tekerlekopoulou, S. Coles, C. S. Akratos and D. V. Vayenas ............................ 1087 Influence of chromium on nitrification in a submerged biofilter, S. Aslan and B. Gurbuz ................................................................................................................. 1099 Bacteriophages as faecal indicators in environmental systems: Historical perspectives and recent uses, V. I. Syngouna, and C. V. Chrysikopoulos .......... 1109 Analysis of pesticide residue in tomato samples using analytical protocol based on application of QuEChERS technique and GC-ECD system, J. Stocka, M. Biziuk and J. Namienik ................................................................................................ 1121

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Contaminants of emerging concern: The case of licit and illicit drugs in urban wastewaters, E. Hapeshi, M. Gros, R. Lopez-Serna, M.R Boleda, F. Ventura, M. Petrovic, D. Barcelo and D. Fatta-Kassinos ..................................................... 1131 Pesticide occurrence and ecological risk assessment in natural surface waters of Amvrakikos Gulf, N.W. Greece, T. Albanis and G. Karras............................... 1143 Application of a ceramic membrane contactor for the removal of pesticides from aqueous solutions by ozonation, A. Zouboulis, S. Stylianou, D. Zamboulis, P.K. Vareltzis and P. Samaras ................................................................................... 1155 Managing coastal waters by using the fixes that fail systems archetype, G. Ekonomou, C. Neofitou and S. Matsiori ............................................................. 1163 Restoration of eutrophic water bodies with BephosTM by managing internal nutrient loads, M. Zamparas, V. Vekiou, Y. Deligiannakis and I. Zacharias................... 1171 Genotoxicity study of surface water samples from Mikri Prespa and Kastoria lakes, A. Kindou and D.S.Vlastos ................................................................................. 1181 Photolytic and photocatalytic removal of pyridine and photolytic removal of 3chloropyridine from aqueous solutions: effect of conditions, C.G. Skoutelis and M. I. Papadaki ......................................................................................................... 1191 ADM1-based modeling of a continuous anaerobic digester for biogas production from food industry waste(water)s, M. Alexandropoulou, G. Antonopoulou and G. Lyberatos ............................................................................................................ 1199 Application of geothermal energy and its environmental problems in Turkey, A. Baba.................................................................................................................... 1207 Cost and environmental impact of constructed wetland facilities, D. Gkika, G. D. Gikas and V. A. Tsihrintzis ................................................................................. 1215 Greek and Roman Baths in Aitoloakarnania. The relation of the Roman baths to the main road (via publica Romana) and the commercial sea routes, V. Tsantila .... 1229 Water is everywhere in the world, E. Sazaklie ................................................... 1241 Water heritage in Relleu (Marina Baixa) arid region, Alicante, Spain, M. Salgot de Maray, M. Soler and A. Manuel ....................................................................... 1253 Indicators of eefficient uurban water management, N. Haruvy and S. Shalhevet ............................................................................................................................ 1265 Passive sampling vs traditional spot sampling for the determination of occurrence and removal rates of emerging pollutants in wastewater treatment plants, V. Kostakopoulou, N. K. Stamatis, . . Thomatou, I K. Konstantinou ................ 1275

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Treatment of municipal wastewater by aquatic pond system: Performance and economy evaluation, G. Banerjee and B. Sohini ................................................ 1285 Seasonal variation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa under different catchment and storage conditions in a rooftop rainwater harvesting system, M. T. Amin, A. A. Alazba, M. Nawaz, M. Y. Han, U. Manzoor ....................................................... 1297 Effects of weather conditions on solar disinfection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in harvested rainwater for potable purposes, M. T. Amin, A. A. Alazba, M. Nawaz, M. Y. Han, U. Manzoor ............................................................................................ 1309 Tidal currents at the Strait of Euripus: Did incomplete understanding of hydraulics harm, unnecessarily, archaeology? G. M. Horsch, N. Th. Fourniotis and N. Diplarakos .......................................................................................................... 1321 A high-resolution archive for palaeo-environmental studies: calcareous sinter in ancient aqueducts, G. Srmelihindi and C. W Passchier ................................... 1331 Desalination, replenishment and the environment, a political-economist view of the case for Israel, E. Sadan ..................................................................................... 1343 Short Papers ...................................................................................................... 1351 Water supply in Arabian Sicily: the territory of Pachino, G. M. Magno ............ 1353 Accuracy assessment of the EPA method for quantification of viable Ascaris eggs in samples from sludge drying bed, M. C. Vieira da Rocha, M. E. Bars, G. M. Deleu and M. C. Borba Braga............................................................................ 1359 Evaluation of ancient water supply management in rural societies of Iran (case studies: Qanats and Ab anbars), K. K. Rahimabad, Z. Imen and M. Ghafouri...1365 An ancient hydraulic structure is still functioning after 2350 years! The oldest hydraulic structure in the world, still in function! G. Lekakis ............................ 1371 The diachronic relationship between art, science and technology & the global interactive project World Water Museum installation, K. Haliori.................. 1375 Observations on irrigation works in the Achaemenid Heartland (6th-4th c. BC), S. A. Shobairi .............................................................................................................. 1381 Author Index.................................................................................................... 1387

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Monumental fountain structures: The role of Nymphaea within the urban context of the cities of the Graeco-Roman East
G. A. Aristodemou1
1

School of Humanities, International Hellenic University, 57001, 14th km ThessalonikiMoudania, Thermi, Thessaloniki, g. aristodemou@ihu.edu.gr

Abstract The term nymphaeum is conventionally used by archaeologists for monumental fountain structures of different architectural forms. Their common features are their monumentality and their exceptional architectural aesthetics, as well as their function as urban landmarks. They were public buildings, included in the citys urban context, sometimes located just at the citys outskirts, however always connected with a major aqueduct - either at its end, or along the route. Monumental nymphaea are centrally located in major cities of the roman East and are usually financed by the Emperor, the city, or wealthy local patrons. These imposing monuments stood one to three stories high and were embellished with sculptural display programs that often interacted with flowing water to create innovative kinetic displays, carefully arranged to reflect the citys image, to project its prosperity and to display the authority and majesty of the benefactor or/and the local community. Their study tries to reconstruct the role they held in the urban design, as well as in the social and political life of the cities of the Graeco-Roman East. Keywords: Architecture; Nymphaea; Urbanism; City Landscape; Eastern Provinces; Roman Empire.

Introduction
What is a nymphaeum? The term nymphaeum is conventionally used by archaeologists to describe a monumental fountain structure that comprised an aedicular faade and was often supplemented with lateral wings. A monumental nymphaeum was equipped with a basic open air storage basin that would also guarantee the nymphaeums functionality in times of low water supply or increased demand. A secondary drawing basin sometimes supplemented the installationthe water would run from one basin to the other. Waterspouts at the drawing basins parapet wall were to facilitate consumers. The architectural evolution and the great typological diversity of roman nymphaea have been studied by several scholars (Neuerburg 1960; Walker 1979; Letzner 1990, 117-216; Gros 1996, 418-444; Ginouvs 1998, 92-100; Agusta-Boularot 1997; Agusta-Boularot 2001; Dorl-Klingeschmid 2001; Aristodemou 2012, 25-27 and 28-41; Richard 2012, 1-47). Their common features are their monumentality and their function as vehicles of a carefully planned and executed sculptural display programme (Aristodemou 2011; Aristodemou 2012, 199-277; Longfellow 2011).
IWA Regional Symposium on Water, Wastewater and Environment: Traditions and Culture. Patras, Greece, 22-24 March 2014

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They were public buildings included in a citys infrastructure, sometimes located just at the citys outskirts and always connected to the city's water supply system - either at its terminus or along its route (Aristodemou 2011b,179; Aristodemou 2012, 49-53; Richard 2012, 68-80). Nymphaea as components of the water supply system. The hydraulic infrastructure of a city follows some rules. The aqueducts are generally considered as chronologically contemporary (if not anterior) with the large-scale water consuming structures they supplied. Certain large-scale building programmes include the joint construction of aqueducts and monumental fountains (Richard 2012, 52). This is detectable in those cases where a nymphaeum is organically connected to the aqueduct and presents similar technical and architectural features (e.g. the 1st c. AD Pollio Nymphaeum and the Aqua Throessitica in Ephesos) - or their joint construction is epigraphically confirmed (e.g. the Hydrekdocheion of C. Laecanius Bassus and the Nymphaeum Traiani and their adjoining aqueducts). It presupposes a shared supply system, which makes the calculation and control of the water discharge necessary for each installation easier-in technical terms. However, more frequent are those cases where monumental fountains were integrated into a pre-existing distribution network (Richard 2012, 57). The construction of new and monumental fountains apparently implies technical adaptations of the existing system so that it can cope with the new demands. Normally, the later addition of a fountain to an aqueduct is easily detected. Some examples are: the so-called Straenbrunnen in Ephesus connected to the Flavian Old Marnas Aqueduct, the 2nd c. AD Nymphaeum at Butrint connected to the Augustan aqueduct, the Severan South Nymphaea F2, F4 in Perge added to the city's network and nymphaea in Petra, Laodikeia, Side, also added to a preexisted system. A flexible water distribution system is very helpful in these instances. The above two types of hydraulic building programs appear in different time periods (Richard 2012, 59). The earliest examples are those of the first type and correspond mainly to the 1st and 2nd c AD when Greek cities, such as Ephesus, began to expand and necessitated new water supply systems. Jointly constructed water installations are to be seen as components of an architectonically expressed unified system, directly associated with the availability of local natural water sources, the water management plan, specific intentions and the specific needs of the local society. The second type (integration into a pre-existing system) includes the majority of the examples and appears rather late in the Imperial period. It probably corresponds to demographic demands and reflects the needs of each period. However it is not always easy to detect the connection, for example of undated aqueducts and nymphaea built in remote places. Where were nymphaea located within the city? The existence of a proper location was one of the basic criteria for deciding where a monumental nymphaeum should be built. The location of monumental nymphaea was indicated by various factors: their accessibility, their visibility and their function as memorable urban components (Uurlu 2009, 43). Sometimes the conduits supplying major nymphaea would pass through private estates thus disturbing surface activities, such as farming - some of which would have to be reimbursed (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 124 notes 570-572; Aristodemou 2012, 50). In other cases cities exploited neglected lands by constructing imposing and luxurious nymphaea. In this way, nymphaea highlighted locations of minor importance and contributed to the development of the city landscape (Uurlu 2009, 44). Cities also invaded into the already formed urban net: in Myra (Lycia) they partially demolished a bridge so

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that they would build a fountain adjacent to the precinct of the NE cemetery (DorlKlingenschmid 2001, 216 no 65, fig. 143). Part of the southern precinct wall at the Apollo sanctuary in Hierapolis, was cut in order to create space for the construction of the monumental nymphaeum (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 124, 193). The final selection of the location was made by the citys authorities and was approved by the consul of the province (Winter 1996, 184; Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 124). The officer in charge of the maintenance of the already existing network and the construction of new water structures was a high rank officer called curator aquarum, responsible for the financial and the quality control of each project (Rodgers 1982,171-180; Winter 1996, 193-201, mainly 199-200). The scale of the waterworks reflected the intentions and the financial status of the sponsor, i.e. the emperor, the city authorities, or a wealthy citizen. Constructing a water supply system was a large scale investment which necessitated funds, advanced technological expertise, knowledge of the specific geographical, social and political conditions that were prevalent in a region, as well as an adequate local population to support this project (Walker 1987, 69; Uurlu 2009, 43; Aristodemou 2012, 51). Ephesus is a typical example of a large city that was supplied by multiple major aqueducts (Wiplinger 2006b, 38-39 (plate); Ersoy 2006, 41 fig. 2). This tight proportional relationship between the population density and the construction of an aqueduct is also visible in Roman Crete, where an extended network of aqueducts is to be found (Kelly 2006, 303-310, fig. 2). The North African provincial cities present a hierarchical water network divided so that water was distributed to the public sector (nymphaea, baths, gymnasia) and the residential part of the city (Wilson 1995; Ellis 1996, 183). In the Levantine provinces (Syria, Palestine, Arabia) the nymphaea were a secondary part of the city's water supply system (Richard 2008, 271-272; Kamash 2010,62-75, 116-132). Another aspect of a nymphaeum's functionality is its position within the network. Even when the spacial distribution of baths, nymphaea and minor public fountains composing the water-network appears random, the archaeologists need to form an overall understanding of the technical characteristics and the operation of the distribution system in order to correlate structures together and detect their functional interaction (Jansen 2000b; Richard 2012, 60). One basic parameter is the fact that the multi-branched water distribution system of a city follows a certain hierarchy, starting from the natural water sources, passing to the transportation system and terminating to the water structures. However, there are so many variations, local constrains (topographical, climatic) and technical solutions, especially in the eastern provinces, that each case is unique. The spacial and functional affiliation of the central system (aqueducts) and its subsystems (nymphaea) was recently thoroughly studied by J. Richard (2012, 63-80) who translated the system into the following schematic stages: collection & transport (springs, aqueducts) - distribution & storage (castella divisoria, reservoirs) - supply & use (fountain basins) - drainage (conduits). He considers nymphaea as isolated subsystems within the central system, which also includes numerous public fountains, simple basins, cisterns, as well as subsidiary systems supplying industrial and agricultural works. Richard (2012, 69-76) presents three models regarding the relationship between aqueducts and nymphaea: 1) when they form a close system and have an exclusive connection: the aqueduct supplies the nymphaeum directly - the later is either attached to the aqueduct as its endpoint, or connected to it with a large conduit providing large quantities of water (e.g. Hydrekdocheion of C. Laecanius Bassus in Ephesus, the Antonine Nymphaeum of Sagalassos, the City Gate Nymphaeum of Side), 2) the nymphaeum belongs to a secondary system and shares the aqueduct with other water installations, but still receives the major amount of the distributed water. The Flavian Miletus Numphaeum, the Nymphaeum Traiani in Ephesus, the Hadrianic Nymphaeum F3

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in Perge received water from the aqueduct's reservoirs or distribution tanks, 3) the nymphaeum exists only as a subordinate structure; it spreads into the city network and presents a low hydraulic impact to the system. As a result, smaller pipes are used and a lower quantity of water is expected to discharge in the monument (Richard 2012, 90). Usually it refers to nymphaea integrated to the central system at a later period (e.g. the two Severan Nymphaea in Laodikeia added to the 2nd c. AD network, or the two Severan Nymphaea (F2, F4) in Perge added to the system supplying the Flavian South Baths). In the Greek provinces, the long history of hydraulic technology has formed a different situation. Most cases involve ancient fountains that remain in use until the Roman period thanks to constant maintenance and renovations. They relied on local springs and their collection galleries were supplied by reservoirs (Glaser 1983, 71-90, 146-151; AgustaBoularot 2001). Following this tradition some fountains built in the roman period were connected to a distant aqueduct but they also had their own reservoir, e.g. the Castalia in Delphi, the Larissa Nymphaeum (Argos), the Lycabettos Nymphaeum in Athens, the Herodes Atticus Nymphaeum in Olympia. These nymphaea functioned as the terminus point of an aqueduct, forming a localised version of Richard's 1st model. The Hadrianic SE Nymphaeum of the Athenian Agora corresponds to Richard's 2nd model, since it shares the aqueduct, being the primary consumer of the principal supply branch. The two Nymphaea from Gortyn illustrate a Greek version of Richard's 3rd model, since they acted as a subordinate part of a three-branched network that brought water from a distant aqueduct and distributed it in secondary branches. Nymphaea by nature necessitated a constant discharge of water. When water resources were abundant, this fact would not cause a problem to the city's supply system. However, in cases when water resources were limited, several issues were raised. Since the central aqueduct system would not stop discharging water to the city, the water control was transferred to the distribution tanks (castella divisoria) (Hodge 2002, 281-292; Kessener 2006; Peleg 2006). This control could be achieved with water faucets, which would decrease or cease a nymphaeum's water supply in periods of need (Ellis 1996, 179; Richard 2008, 269, 276-277). The regulation mechanisms reflect the degree of adaptation of these networks to local conditions. It is a complex task to estimate the water consumption of nymphaea, since each case is unique. The monumentality of a fountain does not prove its functional impact. Only the monument's hydraulic apparatus can reflect its functionality. A complex and extended hydraulic system suggests a more utilitarian function, while emphasis given on the architectural form and embellishment of the monument in conjunction with a water basin of medium capacity would suggest that the amount of water reaching the specific nymphaeum was limited (Richard 2008, 274-276; Richard 2012, 94). The shape and the dimensions of a nymphaeum's reservoir also reflect its capacity and thus its functional impact. The Asia Minor provinces present a great variety in dimensions evolving from slightly reduced at the early imperial period, to average during the 2nd c. AD, and to extreme scales in the Antonine and the Severan periods (Richard 2012, 113). The Greek provinces consist mainly of medium size nymphaea supplemented with medium size reservoirs. Nymphaea from the Levantine provinces are characterised by J. Richard (2012, 78-79) as subordinate consumers of reduced dimensions and low impact to the central system. Though they present imposing architectural forms and elaborated faades, their water basins are of medium capacity - an indication of probably limited water resources at those regions (Richard 2008, 274; Richard 2012, 97,114). Some of these nymphaea were supplied by a single conduit, a direct indication of a low water pressure, i.e. water displays such as waterfalls were rather prohibitive (Richard 2008, 276). Regarding other nymphaea (e.g.

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Jerash, Apameia, Bosra, Skythopolis, Gadara) the archaeological evidence showed that the water flow was steady, an indication that the monument was directly connected to the central water distribution system, and thus, the water reaching the nymphaeum's basin would be in sufficient quantity. Another aspect of a nymphaeum's functionality is its connection to the urban aesthetics. Monumental nymphaea were usually built along major city streets and squares (plazas) so that their elaborate aedicular faades would attract the attention of the passerby. The location chosen for the monument, the time period of its construction and its affiliation to its neighbouring monuments are creating a harmonic ensemble giving the desired impression of power and prosperity (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001,123; Aristodemou 2012, 53). Thus, monumental nymphaea would function as landmarks, highlighting their urban environment, accentuating the architectural setting, and making its perception by the citizens more clear and memorable (Uurlu 2009, 44-45; Aristodemou 2012, 53). The elaborated faades of the nymphaea placed in the centre of the urban armature may function as theatrical scaenae frontes, to which are directly comparable (Aristodemou 2011b). This tendency is usually found in the nymphaea of the Greek and Asia Minor provinces (e.g. Olympia, Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, Miletus, Perge, Sagalassos). This phenomenon should be traced back to the Hellenistic tradition of the theatrical - almost scenographic - configuration of the urban fabric. In the Levantine region where the Hellenistic tradition was not very apparent the nymphaea were placed along columnar streets in a more discreet manner, usually behind the lateral porticoes (Richard 2008, 280). This differs greatly from the dominant position of the nymphaea in the cities of Asia Minor or Greece but it corresponds better to the demanding climatic conditions of the area. Apart from architectonically supplementing the urban fabric, monumental nymphaea contributed to the formation of the city's self identity. The depiction of nymphaea in a city's coinage (Trell 1978) reflects their function as symbols and components of the city's armature. Their depiction in official coins suggests their political importance either to the Emperor or the provincial authorities (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 17 fig. 4a-f ; Longfellow 2011,839-49, figs. 8-12). The rich faade of a luxurious nymphaeum acted as a symbol of a citys confidence, wealth and power (Koloski-Ostrow 2001; Aristodemou 2011, 154; Aristodemou 2012, 64, 252). The contribution of the nymphaeum`s sculptural decoration (Aristodemou 2011; Aristodemou 2012) is important both to the promotion of the imperial propaganda and the private political ambitions as well as to the formation of the city`s identity (Aristodemou 2012, 65-87, 252-277). Carefully designed and placed in prominent positions at the monument`s faade, the statuary assemblages underline the organic relationship between the building, the sculpture and the water. The artistic composure that derives from this interaction exceeds the monuments architectural context and connects it with the natural environment or the cityscape where the monument belongs (Aristodemou 2011,155-156).

Function in context.
Monumental nymphaea in the cities of the Greek mainland Renowned fountains of the Greek mainland during the Late Archaic and the Classic period were the Enneakrounos in Athens (Glaser 1983, 67 no. 49, figs. 123,124; Tlle-Kastenbein 1986), the Peirene and Glauke in Corinth (Robinson 2011), Cassotis and Castalia in Delphi (Glaser 1983, 22 no 15, figs 42-43, 26 no 18, figs. 48-50, 97 no 68, figs. 182-185, 191).

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Their significance and their reputation were maintained even after the appearance of the first Roman nymphaeum in Greece, the one in Larissa of Argos (2nd c. AD). Not many new fountains were built until the Early Imperial period. The ones that already existed and the ones that were being built at that time were placed in central locations, either as part of a larger architectural complex or as autonomous edifices (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 21; Longfellow 2011, 108). The basilica type Nymphaeum at the SW slope of the Lycabettos Hill in Athens (Leigh 1997, 279-290; Longfellow 2011,120-122) was the terminus point of the Hadrianic aqueduct which brought water from Mount Parnes (Lolos 1997, 304). It included a barrelvaulted reservoir and it might have functioned as a castellum divisorium rather than a castullum aquae. The majority of the other Athenian fountains were located in the ancient Agora, in close proximity with the Roman Agora (Glaser 1983, 93 no 65, figs. 175, 229; Agusta-Bularot 2001,170-174). The semicircular Hadrianic Nymphaeum in the SE corner of the Athenian Agora was supplied by the principal branch of the Hadrianic aqueduct (Longfellow 2011, 122-130; Richard 2012,77). It replaced the 6th c. BC SE fountain, mentioned by Pausanias (,14,1). The replacement of the Greek fountain by the Roman nymphaeum, the location of the nymphaeum towards the small plaza that leads to the Roman Agora make the SE Nymphaeum a connecting link between the ancient (Greek) and the modern (Roman) Athens and it contributes to the Romanisation of the Athenian urban landscape (Martin 2002; Longfellow 2011, 128-130; Aristodemou 2012, 54) which at that time displayed the image of a city with Roman characteristics. The Larissa Nymphaeum of Argos (Walker 1987, 60-71; Longfellow 2011, 113120; Aristodemou 2012, 287) was also situated at the foot of a hill (Kriterion). It was directly connected to the Northern Aqueduct, bringing water from the Kephalobryso (Lolos 1997, 306) and functioned as its terminal point and principal consumer. It included two vaulted reservoirs, which might have acted as distribution tanks rather than storage tanks, conveying its water to the city of Argos. Corinth lies in a strategic position between the Saronic Gulf and the Corinthian Gulf and is abundant in natural springs. Thanks to a well organised water distribution system (Landon 1994) the Agora of Corinth during the Roman period was embellished with impressive fountains. The ancient fountains of Peirene, Glauke and the Sacred Spring were preserved thanks to constant renovations. They all included storage galleries supplied by local springs, whose waters were channelled in a stream that ran down the hill towards the sea (Robinson 2001, 20, 207, 234). Peirene has always been a nodal point in the daily and social life of the Corinthians, but in the Roman period it evolved in a great edifice filled with symbolisms (Robinson 2011; Aristodemou 2012, 56, 75). Between the late 1st c. BC and the early 1st c. AD several fountain structures were built in the citys Agora: the Poseidon Fountain, the South Stoa Fountain, the Fountain at the theatre peristyle, the Nymphaeum at the Apollos temple hill (Robinson 2001, 246, 267, 296, 310). Through a multi-branched distribution system they were connected to the Hadrians Aqueduct, almost 100km in length, which brought water from Lake Stymphalos (Lolos 1997, 272) to the Acrocorinth storage tanks. These fountains and their sculptural complexes acted as symbols promoting Corinths position as the roman capital of Provincia Achaea (Wiseman 1979; Robinson 2001, 2-4; Aristodemou 2012, 54).

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Figure 1. Corinth, Plan of the Agora. Distribution of Fountains (after Robinson 2001, fig. 0.1).

A complex of two -shaped Nymphaea, called and , are to be found in Nicopolis at the site Bouphoi inside the West Gate. They were directly connected to the same aqueduct that transported water from the river Louros - whose springs are located in Hagios Georgios of Preveza (Lolos 1997, 304). Their architectural resemblance and the fact that they were supplied by the same conduit lead S. Walker (1979, 140) to the conclusion that they both belong to the same construction programme of the emperor Hadrian (Longfellow 2011, 132-133). Nymphaea were also built in sanctuaries (Glaser 2000, 442-443 note 53; Longfellow 2011, 136; Aristodemou 2012, 56, 85). The Herodes Atticus Nymphaeum lies on a prominent location on the north boundary of the Zeus sanctuary in Olympia. It was directly connected to the aqueduct running from the hills of Linaria and functioned as its primary consumer (Lolos 1997, 308). The Nymphaeum in the sanctuary of Eleusis was built next to Great Propylon and was supplied by the ancient spring Kallichoros (Glaser 1983, 105-106). Gortyn in Crete presents a complex, extended and multi branched system that supplied the city's waterworks, i.e. at least two nymphaea, several fountains, bathhouses and water supply systems for private estates (Longfellow 2011, 117). All these waterworks required a large water discharge. The sources of the Gortyn aqueduct (dated at the 2nd c. AD) can be found on the south slopes of mount Ida, following its course in the valley of the river Lethaeus. The aqueduct was divided in three branches- the one the eastern side of the river Lethaeus entered the Praetorium and supplied its nymphaeum and bathhouse (Richard 2012, 57).

530 530 Monumental nymphaea in the cities of Asia Minor

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After Ephesus gaining the title of Neokoros (during Domitians reign), its role among the other cities of the Provincia Asia was upgraded (Friesen 1993). From the 1st c. AD extensive building programmes included the joint construction of aqueducts and monumental fountains (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001,139-142, fig. 84; Uurlu 2004, 59-66; Richard 2012, 53). Ephesus' water supply depended on an extended network of five aqueducts (Wiplinger 2006b; Scherrer 2006). The earliest were the Aqua Iulia and the Aqua Throessitica fed by the Marnas river. The Augustan Aqua Throessitica directly supplied the Pollio Nymphaeum (its monumental terminus point) and through a subordinate system of conduits, also supplied the Hydreion at the upper end of Embolos. The Flavian Hydrekdocheion of C. Laecanius Bassus probably had an exclusive relationship with a yet unidentified aqueduct (IK Ephesus III, 695) functioning as its endpoint (Richard 2012, 54). Archaeological evidence connects the Old Marnas Aqueduct (AD 92/93) (Scherrer 2006, 48-50) with several fountains, among them the Domitian's Fountain and its suggested terminus point- the so called Fontne at the Magnesia Gate. Another striking example is the joint construction of a ten stadia long aqueduct supplied by the Kaystrus river with its monumental terminus on the north side of Embolos, the Nymphaeum Traiani (IK Ephesus II, 424), both financed by the wealthy T. Claudius Aristion (Wiplinger 2006b, 26; Quatember 2011, 49-52, 79-82). Ephesus' nymphaea were located in nodal points of the city: during the Hellenistic period the fountains were gathered mostly along the Curetes Street and close to the theatre (Open-Air Fountains, the Hellenistic Theatre Fountain, the Fountain at the Heroon of Androclos); during Augustus reign they were found near the Upper Agora and the Domitian's square (Hydreion, the Pollio Nymphaeum); during the Flavian period along the road that leads to the Magnesia Gate and the Domitian's square (Hydrekdocheion C. Laecanius Bassus, Domitians Fountain); the Curetes Street (Nymphaeum Traiani) and the Magnesia Street (the Magnesia Gate Fountain) attracted the interest during Trajans reign; during the Late Antiquity, fountains were built at the Stadium (the Byzantine Fountain), the theatre (the Late Antiquity Fountain) and the Tetragonos Agora. The Celsus Library was converted into an imposing nymphaeum in the lower part of Embolos (Jacobs-Richard 2012, 13-14). In every period the fountains and the nymphaea of Ephesus were arranged along major city streets, functioning as landmarks. Having a direction from the South to the North (the South Street, the Curetes Street, the Magnesia Gate Street) they were probably following the course of the subterranean distribution conduits, providing at the same time a constant symbol of water (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 141, fig. 85; Uurlu 2009, 73-74). The image a visitor received when walking across the city, through the great streets surrounded by porticoes, impressive fountains and major public edifices, was exactly what the Ephesians aimed at, that of the first and the greatest metropolis of Asia.

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Figure2. Ephesus. Distribution of Fountains and Nymphaea (after Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, fig. 85a).

Sagalassos in Pisidia was supplied by five or six aqueducts, closely related to the four monumental fountains excavated in the city which necessitated a constant and steady water discharge (Richard 2012, 55). The Augustan Doric Fountain located in the NE residential sector was supplied by a local aquifer. During time it was converted into a castelum divisorium. The two Trajanic Fountains at the Lower Agora and the Stadium were supplied by one or two aqueducts, built early in the 2nd c. AD. The Late Hadrianic Nymphaeum at the Lower Agora and the Antonine Nymphaeum in the Upper Agora (Mgele et al. 2007, 462-472; Longfellow 2011, 151-156) were probably jointly constructed with their corresponding aqueducts. Each was probably supplied by a separate supply line (Richard 2012, 55). Perge grew upon a grid street system that determined the boundaries between the unoccupied and the residential areas until the Severan era (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 145, fig. 87; Uurlu 2009, 42-43, 57-58). The north terminus of the main vertical axis of the city is defined by the North Hadrianic Nymphaeum (F3) (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 145 with note 679; Longfellow 2011, 156-161; Aristodemou 2012, 262-263) situated at the acropolis foot and designed as a triumphal arch. The south terminus (passing the Plancia Magna Gate) is defined by the Septimius Severus plaza and the group of the two Severan nymphaea F2 and F4 (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 146 with fig. 87; Aristodemou 2012, 263-

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265). They were financed by the high priestess of the Imperial Cult, Aurelia Paulina (IK Perge I no195). They were annexed to the Flavian bath-complex and shared the same water supply system. The North Nymphaeum F3 acted also as a distribution tank. Its water was running from the basin to an open air channel /euripus which extended along the central carriage street, connecting the North (F3)and the South nymphaea (F2/F4) .

Figure 3. Perge, City plan. Location of nymphaea (after Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, fig. 87).

Conclusions
Monumental Nymphaea were a striking novelty in the Graeco-Roman Provinces, both in their architectonic form and their functionality. The construction of these large scale and innovative monuments drastically changed the architectural landscape in the cities of the Eastern Provinces. Naturally, in regions with a long tradition in water management, such the mainland and island Greece, nymphaea were welcome as an imposing architectural type, but the basic technology was already known. In the inland Asia Minor and the Levantine regions, where large scale waterworks -including the joint construction of aqueducts and nymphaea- improved the living standards, nymphaea were considered as a huge technological progress. Nevertheless, in each case nymphaea contributed to the increase of the water supply, both in quantity and in quality (Richard 2012, 254). Besides the practical aspects, e.g. the fact that aqueducts and fountain structures were necessary for the daily activities relying on them, nymphaea introduced the concept of luxury in the urban landscape by causing a visual impression and remaining identifiable

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through time. Monumental fountain acted as the link between utility and design, politic relations and local development. The concern for visibility and embellishment emerged mostly during the 2nd and 3rd century AD enabled nymphaea to develop into these imposing structures; however nymphaea kept their practical and utilitarian function throughout the Imperial period. This is also evident in the complexity level of their hydraulic apparatus (Richard 2012, 257). A new water culture was formed in each period corresponding to the needs of the inhabitants and the local abundance of water. The monumental nymphaea of major cities of the Graeco-Roman East deployed across major streets, plazas and significant meeting points of the city, functioning as displays of the power and the prosperity of these metropolitan cities, reflecting their past and their present wealth (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001, 149-150). The nymphaea were not isolated monuments but they interacted with their surrounding urban environment (Drerup 1966, 181; DorlKlingenschmid 2001, 149; Aristodemou 2012, 64). In prosperity periods the purpose was the display of the city as a flourishing metropolis with intense religious, social and political life. Every major city in the vast Roman Empire tried to stand out from the rest in order to gain the emperors interest and favor and each were competing with each other through the realization of grandiose construction programmes (Thomas 2007, 127). Based on the above, it becomes understood that the construction of the nymphaea obeys the local needs and peculiarities much more than what it was formerly thought (Richard 2008, 281; Aristodemou 2012, 53).

Acknowledgments
The author thanks Ms Antonia Aristodemou (EFL Teacher-Translator) for carefully proofreading the English text.

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