Glasgow College of Nautical Studies Department of Maritime Studies METEOROLOGICAL INSTR MENTS Aneroid Barometer T!

e word "aneroid" means wit!out li#uid$ An aneroid %arometer is an instrument for measuring t!e air pressure& w!ic! does not use an' li#uid& unli(e t!e old fas!ioned mercur')in)glass %arometer$ An aneroid %arometer consists of one *or more+ t!in metal capsules wit! round corrugated faces$ Most of t!e air !as %een suc(ed out of t!e capsule lea,ing a partial ,acum inside so t!at an increase in t!e e-ternal air pressure will compress t!e faces towards eac! ot!er$ T!e' are pre,ented from collapsing toget!er %' a strong spring t!at is fi-ed to t!e instrument %ase$ One face of t!e capsule is fi-ed firml' so t!at t!e ot!er side fle-es in and out wit! small c!anges in air pressure$ T!is mo,ement of one face is transmitted to a pointer %' a s'stem of le,ers and a c!ain wound round a spindle$ Compared wit! t!e mercur')in)glass %arometer& t!e aneroid %arometer !as t!e following ad,antages. a$ a%sence of li#uid %$ lig!t weig!t c$ easil' porta%le d$ ma' %e easil' adapted to gi,e a recording trace$ Ordinary Aneroid Barometer T!e t'pe of aneroid %arometer most commonl' seen is t!at w!ic! loo(s rat!er li(e a cloc( and is found in t!e !ome and on %oard s!ips not issued wit! e#uipment %' t!e Met$Office$

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T!e %arometer is made up of. a$ t!e "aneroid capsule" or "sensiti,e element"& w!ic! is a t!in)walled disc wit! corrugated faces$ T!ere is a partial ,acum inside& %ut some dr' inert gas remains$ %$ a strong spring w!ic! pre,ents t!e capsule collapsing under t!e pressure of t!e atmosp!ere$ c$ a long le,er& w!ic! transmits t!e mo,ement of t!e capsule face and t!e spring$ d$ a connecting le,er t!at transmits t!is mo,ement to turn t!e roc(ing arm */+$ e$ a pro0ecting arm pulls on& or slac(ens off& t!e c!ain *1+& w!ic! is wound around t!e pulle' *2+& on t!e spindle$ T!e pointer is attac!ed to t!e end of t!e spindle$ f$ a !airspring& w!ic! ta(es up t!e slac( in t!e c!ain w!en t!e pro0ecting arm *3+ mo,es towards t!e spindle$ 4!en t!e atmosp!eric pressure increases t!e upper face is pressed in and t!e spring is forced down$ T!is mo,es t!e le,er arm down also and t!is mo,ement is transmitted to a pull on t!e c!ain$ T!e c!ain turns t!e pulle'& and t!us t!e pointer& cloc(wise against t!e !airspring$ T!e pointer t!en points to a !ig!er pressure$ 4!en t!e atmosp!eric pressure decreases& t!e pressure on t!e face of t!e capsule decreases and t!e spring is a%le to pull t!em furt!er apart$ T!is mo,ement of t!e spring results in t!e arm *3+ mo,ing towards t!e centre$ T!e slac( in t!e c!ain is ta(en up %' t!e !airspring turning t!e pulle' anti) cloc(wise and t!e pointer t!en indicates a lower pressure$ Care and Use T!e %arometer must %e mounted in a place w!ere it is not near local !eat sources nor in direct sunlig!t& nor su%0ect to !ea,' ,i%ration$ It s!ould also %e s!ielded from draug!ts and gusts$ 5efore reading t!e %arometer it ma' %e gi,en a gentle tap to o,ercome an' friction or stiffness in t!e lin(age or c!ain$

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T!e descripti,e terms suc! as "Storm'" or "6air" found on t!e faces of some %arometers are little more t!an traditional and are of no real ,alue in forecasting$ Most %arometers !a,e a dum% pointer t!at is set o,er t!e pointer after reading$ T!e o%ser,er can see& at a glance& t!e %arometric tendenc' since t!e last time t!e %arometer was read and t!e dum% pointer set$ Corrections and Errors 7$ 8$ Errors due to paralla- w!en reading$ Read w!en facing s#uare on to t!e %arometer$ No temperature correction is re#uired wit!in t!e normal operating range due to t!e use of a %imetallic lin( in t!e le,er)s'stem and %' insertion of a calculated #uantit' of inert gas into t!e capsule during manufacture$ Correction due to ,ar'ing !eig!t$ Reading must %e reduced to sea le,el$ Errors due to gusts and draug!ts$ T!e %arometer must %e suita%l' sig!ted to a,oid sudden increases in air pressure$ Correction due to cali%ration$ 4it! t!e passage of time and t!e man' c!anges in pressure it e-periences& t!e capsule ma' not return to its original s!ape$ T!is effect is (nown as "!'steresis"$

9$ :$ /$

Precision Aneroid Barometer T!e ordinar' aneroid %arometer !as man' ad,antages o,er t!e mercur' %arometer$ ;owe,er it is not accurate enoug! for precise o%ser,ations$ T!e precision aneroid %arometer !as a stac( of t!ree capsules lin(ed toget!er along t!e line of t!eir a-is$ T!e use of 9 capsules produces a greater mo,ement for a gi,en c!ange in pressure& compared wit! t!e simple aneroid %arometer& and furt!er& no spring is re#uired to pre,ent t!e capsules collapsing$ T!e mo,ement of t!e capsules alters t!e position of a pi,ot %ar carr'ing an electrical contact$ It does not dri,e an' s'stem of lin(ages& so t!at errors due to friction and mec!anical wear are eliminated$ reading is %' means of a mec!anicall' operated micrometer screw t!at is

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rotated until a circuit is completed$ T!e gearing of t!e micrometer is suc! as to allow a precise reading of an e-panded scale$

T!e precision aneroid %arometer is made of.) T!e stac( of 9 capsules *A+ containing a small amount of gas& t!e purpose of w!ic! is to compensate for c!anges in temperature$ T!e stac( is rigidl' fi-ed at one end to t!e inside of a cast)metal c!am%er$ A contact arm *5+ wit! a 0ewel pi,ot is (ept against t!e ot!er end of t!e stac( *G+ %' a !air spring *C+$ One end of t!e contact arm is fitted wit! a counter)%alance *E+ and t!e ot!er end is fitted wit! an electrical contact *6+$ A micrometer screw *I+ is turned %' a !andle *<+ w!ic! pro0ects t!roug! t!e casing of t!e instrument$ At t!e ot!er end of t!e micrometer t!ere is anot!er electrical contact *D+$

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A digital counter *;+ is dri,en from t!e micrometer screw$ A cat!ode ra' indicator *=+ lig!ts up w!en t!e circuit is completed %' t!e contacts *6+ and *D+ touc!ing$ A 7$/= %atter' powers t!e circuit$ As t!e stac( mo,es in and out wit! c!anges in pressure& t!e position of t!e contact arm will alter as long as t!e micrometer is screwed out so t!at *D+ and *6+ are not in contact$ As t!e micrometer is screwed in t!e contact *D+ mo,es down until contact is made wit! t!e end of t!e pi,oting arm& w!en t!e circuit is completed and t!e indicator lig!ts up$ 6urt!er mo,ement of t!e micrometer will pi,ot t!e arm furt!er& *against t!e !air spring+ so t!at it is no longer in contact wit! t!e end of t!e stac( *G+$ 4!en t!e micrometer is screwed out again t!e cat!ode)ra' indicator will sta' alig!t until t!e instant w!en t!e arm 0ust touc!es t!e end of t!e stac( and t!e contact is %ro(en& w!en t!e indicator "t!read" %rea(s$ T!e position of t!e micrometer& at t!is instant& and so t!e pressure& can %e read off from t!e counter$ Care and Use T!e %arometer s!ould %e mounted a%out 7$/ metres a%o,e t!e dec( prefera%l' on a fore)and)aft %ul(!ead$ T!e met!od of reading t!e %arometer is as follows.) 7$ >ress& and (eep pressed& t!e %lac( switc! %utton$ 8$ Turn t!e (nurled (no% so t!at a$ if t!e t!read of lig!t in t!e indicator is continuous& t!e pressure reading increases until t!e t!read 0ust %rea(s$ %$ if t!e t!read of lig!t in t!e indicator is %ro(en& t!e pressure reading decreases until t!e t!read 0ust %ecomes continuous$ 9$ Re,erse and repeat t!e process in 8 a%o,e& ta(ing care not to o,ers!oot& and stop w!en t!e t!read of lig!t 0ust %rea(s$ :$ Release t!e %utton and read off t!e pressure from t!e read)out$ If t!e tent!s reading is e#uall' %etween two figures& t!e odd num%er s!ould %e ta(en$ /$ An' necessar' corrections for !eig!t and inde- errors are applied$ It is not necessar' to appl' an' corrections for temperature$ REMEMBER TO READ ON THE 'BREAK'

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T!e onl' maintenance re#uired is to c!ange t!e %atter' at inter,als of some 3 mont!s or w!en t!e t!read %ecomes dim or difficult to read$ Errors and Corrections 7$ 8$ 9$ :$ Cali%ration correction as per t!e ordinar' aneroid %arometer$ Correction due to !eig!t a%o,e sea le,el$ No correction s!ould %e re#uired for temperature$ Errors due to gusts and draug!ts$ A damping cap ma' %e fitted to t!e entr' tu%e$ T!e damping cap greatl' restricts t!e flow of air into t!e c!am%er so t!at t!e %arometer is not affected %' rapid c!anges in pressure as t!e s!ip rises and falls in a !ea,' sea$

T!e %arometer s!ould& of course& %e mounted awa' from sources of !eat& ,i%ration& and etcetera$ Marine Open Scale Baro rap! T!e %arograp! is similar in principle to an aneroid %arometer& %ut instead of a pointer mo,ing o,er a dial& t!e mo,ement of t!e capsule mo,es a recording pen o,er a c!art mounted on a re,ol,ing drum$ 6urt!er modifications are re#uired to produce an instrument suita%le for use at sea$ T!e purpose of t!e %arograp! is to produce a continuous& permanent record of t!e atmosp!eric pressure %etween readings of t!e %arometer and& more importantl'& it ena%les t!e o%ser,er to see t!e %arometric pressure tendenc' at a glance$ T!e %arograp!s originall' used were found& w!en ta(en to sea& to !a,e too) crowded a scale for accurate o%ser,ations$ T!e instrument was t!erefore redesigned to gi,e an open scale$ T!is was ac!ie,ed %'. a$ using eit!er a %ellows t'pe capsule wit! an internal spring or a stac( of some / capsules$ 5ot! of t!ese t'pes will multipl' t!e mo,ement resulting from pressure c!anges$ !a,ing a pen arm as long as is con,enientl' possi%le$ t!e le,er s'stem %etween t!e capsule and t!e pen arm multipl'ing t!e capsule mo,ement$

%$ c$

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It was furt!er found t!at t!e trace produced was widened out into a %and co,ering se,eral milli%ars on t!e scale$ T!is was t!e result of. a$ %$ c$ d$ ,i%rations from t!e engines& etc$ s!ort)lasting pressure c!anges due to gusts of wind$ oscillations in pressure as t!e s!ip rose and fell in !ea,' seas$ angular accelerations as t!e s!ip rolled and pitc!ed$

T!ese pro%lems were largel' *%ut not entirel'+ o,ercome %' mounting t!e instrument on t!ic( foam ru%%er mountings and %' t!e use of oil damping around t!e capsule$

T!e %arograp! consists of two units& t!e aneroid capsule wit! t!e magnif'ing le,ers& and t!e drum carr'ing t!e c!art$ T!e capsule is mounted ,erticall' in an oil)filled %rass c'linder& and fi-ed firml' to t!e %ase$ T!e c'linder is sealed e-cept for a small space around t!e rod from t!e capsule to t!e le,er s'stem$ A%o,e t!is !ole is a small reser,oir& partl' filled wit! more oil$ An' c!ange in air pressure will cause oil to flow t!roug! t!e gap& %ut t!e oil used !as a ,iscosit' t!at will onl' let it flow slowl'$ T!is smoot!es out an' sudden or s!ort term c!anges in pressure and ma(es t!e %arograp! suita%le for use at sea$ *Do not attempt to top up t!e oil in t!e reser,oir$+ If t!e %arograp! is to %e mo,ed& screwing down a plug on t!e connecting rod can seal t!e reser,oir$ 4!en t!e %arograp! is in use& t!is plug s!ould %e screwed up t!e rod as far as possi%le$
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T!e le,er s'stem causes t!e pen arm to rotate up and down a%out a !ori?ontal a-is$ T!e radius of t!e lines mar(ing t!e !ours on t!e trace is t!e same as t!e lengt! of t!e pen arm$ T!e modern t'pe of pen used in %arograp!s is a "felt tip@ t!at s!ould last for a 'ear$ T!e paper trace& or %arogram& is fi-ed to a ,ertical %rass c'linder t!at is dri,en round %' cloc(wor(& re,ol,ing once e,er' A da's$ T!e %arograp! scale is normall' from 2/Bm% to 7B/Bm% %ut it is possi%le to reset t!e instrument so t!at t!e central pressure on t!e scale is as low as 11Bm%$ T!is operation ma' %e necessar' in Tropical Re,ol,ing Storms or in intense mid)latitude depressions$ Resetting is done %' turning t!e milled (no% on t!e gallows a%o,e t!e capsule$ Care and Use T!e %arograp! s!ould %e installed !ori?ontall' on foam mountings on a rigid surface$ It s!ould %e protected from e-cessi,e ,i%ration& direct sunlig!t& local !eat sources and gusts$ If t!e reading of t!e pressure at one instant is re#uired t!e instrument ma' %e gi,en a lig!t tap %ut not prior to an o%ser,ation of tendenc'$ T!e drum is wound once a wee( and t!e paper c!art is replaced at t!e same time$ It is suggested t!at t!is %e done at t!e same time eac! wee($ Once t!e new c!art is secured t!e pen is set at t!e correct da' and GMT$

Errors and Corrections As t!e %arograp! is intended to pro,ide onl' a record of t!e tendenc'& and not an a%solute ,alue& of t!e atmosp!eric pressure o,er a relati,el' s!ort period& great accurac' is not re#uired$ T!erefore no correction or ad0ustment need %e made for it$

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T!e Meas"rement o# H"midity at Sea An instrument used for measuring t!e !umidit' of t!e air is called a !'grometer$ T!e t'pe t!at uses t!e difference in temperature %etween two t!ermometers ) t!e dr')%ul% t!ermometer and t!e wet)%ul% t!ermometer ) is (nown as a ps'c!rometer$ T!e (ind of ps'c!rometer usuall' found at sea *Mason"s ;'grometer+ consists of two similar t!ermometers mounted in a Ste,enson screen$ Mason's Hy rometer

T!is !'grometer consists of two mercur')in)glass t!ermometers mounted ,erticall' in a marine Ste,enson screen& toget!er wit! t!e associated reser,oir for t!e wet %ul% t!ermometer$ T!e %ul% of t!e wet %ul% t!ermometer is co,ered wit! a single t!ic(ness of t!in& clean muslin or cam%ric w!ic! is tied on wit! a few t!reads of darning cotton$ T!e ends of t!e darning cotton act as a wic( drawing up t!e distilled water from t!e plastic reser,oir %' capillar' action$ T!is water (eeps t!e muslin co,er moist and e,aporation from t!e co,er cools t!e wet %ul%$ T!e purpose of t!e screen is to protect t!e t!ermometers from an' !eat radiation and 'et allow t!em to ta(e up t!e true temperature of t!e air$ T!e

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lou,ered sides of t!e screen (eep out all radiation& %ut air ma' flow freel'& %ot! laterall' and ,erticall'$ T!e e,aporation of water from t!e muslin around t!e wet %ul% re#uires a suppl' of !eat ) t!e "latent !eat of ,apori?ation"$ T!is !eat is o%tained from t!e water& t!e surrounding air and from t!e t!ermometer& and its e-penditure produces a fall in t!e temperature of t!e wet %ul%$ t!e lower t!e !umidit' of t!e air& t!e greater will %e t!e rate of e,aporation& w!ic! in turn causes a greater reduction in t!e temperature of t!e wet %ul%$ At a gi,en temperature& as t!e !umidit' of t!e air rises& t!e rate of e,aporation decreases& and so t!e cooling of t!e wet %ul% t!ermometer decreases$ 4!en t!e air is saturated& no e,aporation will ta(e place and t!e wet %ul% temperature will %e t!e same as t!e dr' %ul% temperature$ t!erefore t!e amount %' w!ic! t!e wet %ul% temperature is lowered pro,ides a measure of t!e !umidit'$ T!e difference %etween t!e readings of t!e two t!ermometers is (nown as t!e "depression of t!e wet %ul%"$ 6or a gi,en dr' %ul% temperature& t!e greater t!e depression of t!e wet %ul%& t!en t!e lower t!e dew point of t!e air *and t!us its a%solute !umidit'+$ T!e wet %ul% reading& in normal circumstances& s!ould alwa's %e less t!an t!e dr' %ul% reading$ If t!e air is saturated t!e readings will %e t!e same$ Care and Use T!e dr' %ul% t!ermometer s!ould %e (ept dr' and clean and in particular& free from salt$ If t!e t!ermometer !as !ad to %e was!ed or dried if found moist t!en an inter,al of 7/ minutes must elapse %efore ta(ing a reading$ T!e wet %ul% must also %e (ept free of contamination$ T!e muslin co,er s!ould %e c!anged wee(l' at t!e same time as t!e reser,oir is cleaned out and refilled wit! distilled water$ Also t!is operation must %e done if t!ere !as %een some li(el' contamination i$e$ salt spra'$ Again a time inter,al of 7/ minutes must !a,e elapsed %efore ta(ing t!e reading$

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T!e Ste,enson screen must %e !ung to windward %efore reading and at a !eig!t of appro-imatel' / feet off t!e dec( to allow an unrestricted airflow past it$ Ceep it well clear of all !eat sources$ Allow 7/ minutes if mo,ed %efore reading$ If t!e dr' %ul% temperature is %elow BoC a$ t!e wet %ul% ma' %e co,ered wit! super cooled water$ t!is water s!ould %e induced to free?e %' touc!ing t!e %ul% wit! a piece of ice& snow or fine pencil point$ T!e wet %ul% temperature will rise to B oC wit! t!e release of latent !eat as t!e water turns to ice$ t!e temperature will t!en fall again and w!en it is stead' t!e reading is ta(en$ t!e water in t!e reser,oir will %e fro?en$ T!ere s!ould %e a t!in la'er of ice on t!e wet %ul%$ If t!e muslin is dr' %ecause t!e ice t!ere !as e,aporated& it is necessar' to paint t!e %ul% wit! ice)cold water to produce a t!in coating of ice$ It will ta(e a%out 7B or 7/ minutes for t!e water to free?e and w!en t!e wet %ul% temperature is %elow t!e dr' %ul% temperature& and stead'& t!e reading ma' %e ta(en$

%$

Errors and Corrections T!ere are no corrections to %e applied to t!e readings& and most errors in t!e instruments cannot %e allowed for$ T!e errors t!at ma' arise w!ic! can %e remo,ed are t!ose due to contamination of eit!er %ul% or t!ermometers are fault'$ T!e $!irlin Psyc!rometer T!e Mason"s !'grometer is intended for use w!ere t!ere is normal draug!t of 8 to : (nots$ It is t!erefore unsuita%le for use in !olds or ot!er confined spaces& or if t!e relati,e wind speed is low$ In suc! cases it is necessar' to pro,ide a draug!t mec!anicall'& t!e instrument normall' used in suc! circumstances %eing t!e 4!irling >s'c!rometer$ T!e mo,ement of t!e instrument t!roug! t!e air pro,ides t!e draug!t$ T!e w!irling ps'c!rometer s!ould %e used in t!e s!ade& if on dec($ T!e instrument s!ould %e rotated a%out 71B R>M until consecuti,e readings of
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%ot! t!ermometers agree to B$7oC$ T!is s!ould ta(e a%out 8 minutes$ t!e wet %ul% s!ould %e read first as its temperature will start to rise as soon as t!e o%ser,er stops rotating t!e ps'c!rometer$ T!e muslin wic( s!ould %e c!anged regularl' along wit! topping up t!e reser,oir wit! distilled water$

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Sea S"r#ace Temperat"res As well as t!e re#uirement for o%taining t!e sea)surface temperature for inclusion in t!e reports sent to t!e appropriate Met$Office& it is also re#uired %' t!e O$O$4$ to ena%le !im to ma(e decisions on ,entilating and on t!e pro%a%ilit' of fog and ice$ T!ere are four met!ods of measuring t!e temperature of t!e seawater at& or near t!e sea surface and& as mig!t %e e-pected& eac! met!od !as its ad,antages and disad,antages$ %& B"c'et Met!od

In t!is met!od a sample of seawater is o%tained in a special %uc(et& %roug!t on dec( and its temperature measured %' immersing a t!ermometer in t!e sample$ T!is met!od is not wit!out pro%lems& especiall' wit! t!e increased si?e and speed of modern s!ips$ A dou%le)walled can,as %uc(et ma' still %e used %ut a small)reinforced ru%%er %uc(et is now supplied to all 5ritis! =oluntar' Reporting S!ips$ After securing t!e end of t!e line to t!e rail& t!e %uc(et s!ould %e t!rown into t!e water well clear of t!e s!ip"s side and forward of all disc!arges$ T!e %uc(et s!ould not %e dragged along t!e surface and filled wit! spra' and foam for t!e sample would t!en !a,e a temperature somew!ere %etween t!at of t!e sea and t!e air$ It is t!erefore %est to t!row t!e %uc(et in a fas!ion similar to !ea,ing a lead line& and t!e %uc(et s!ould t!en sin( #uic(l'$ On reco,er' of t!e %uc(et& t!e t!ermometer s!ould %e put into t!e water immediatel' and t!e sample ta(en into t!e s!ade so t!at it is not warmed %' sunlig!t$ T!e t!ermometer s!ould %e immersed as deepl' as possi%le& (eeping it clear of t!e sides and %ottom& and it is !eld at t!e ,er' top %' t!e fingertips$ T!e reading is ta(en as soon as t!e temperature is stead' i$e$ after a%out 7 minute$ As far as possi%le t!e %ul% and stem s!ould %e (ept in t!e seawater sample w!ilst t!e temperature is %eing read$ So"rces o# Error( *a+ *%+ %uc(et not at temperature of seaD t!ermometer is not at same temperature as waterD
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*c+ *d+ *e+ )&

temperature of water ma' c!ange in inter,al %efore readingD t!ermometer reading ma' c!ange w!en reco,ering for readingD scale errors$ En ine Room *nta'e Met!od

T!is met!od is ,er' con,enient %ut it lac(s accurac'$ T!e temperature ma' %e o%tained %' use of a t!ermometer or a t!ermograp!$ A sample of water ma' %e o%tained from a tap attac!ed to t!e inta(e& t!e procedure t!ereafter %eing t!e same as in t!e %uc(et met!od$ Alternati,el' a t!ermometer ma' %e fitted in a poc(et inset into t!e inlet pipe& t!e good conducting properties of t!e steel ena%ling t!e temperature of t!e seawater to %e o%tained$ So"rces o# Error( *a+ *%+ *c+ *d+ *e+ *f+ +& inta(e well %elow surfaceD t!ermometer ma' not %e accurate as t!e one supplied %' t!e Met$OfficeD incoming water !eated on passage t!roug! t!e !ot EERD poor t!ermal conducti,it' %etween steel poc(et and t!ermometerD paralla- ) position aw(ward of readingD mista(e on rela'ing message to %ridge$ Sensor Met!od

A small sensor unit is fitted to t!e inside of t!e !ull %elow t!e water line& forward of all disc!arges and in a compartment not su%0ect to !eating or cooling from s!ip%oard sources$ T!e sensor is wired up to a read)out on t!e %ridge$ So"rces o# Error( *a+ *%+ *c+ difference in temperature %etween outside and inside !ullD c!anges in draftEtrim will determine t!e dept! of sensor& t!erefore not at sea surfaceD electrical fault$

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