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EE201 ACNotes
EE201 ACNotes
Chapter 10 Objectives
Review signal properties Review complex numbers and operations Perform sinusoidal steady-state (SSS) analysis of circuits Define the notion of a complex phasor for representing currents and voltages
Signal Definitions
Time invariant signal
Signal is an arbitrary constant when time progresses such as DC current or DC voltage
Time-varying signal
Signal varies with time such as AC current or AC voltage
Periodic Signal
A function f(t) is is said to be periodic if and only if there is any T such that f(t+T) = f(t) , for all t where T is period and f is frequency
T=
1 f
v ( t ) = Vm sin(t + )
where
Vm is the amplitude is the angular frequency (radian/sec) is the phase shift (degrees or radians)
Frequency
volts 1
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
period
T=
1 f
10
sec
Amplitude
volts
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
10
sec
Peak: Blue 1 volt, Red 0.8 volts Peak-to-Peak: Blue 2 volts, Red 1.6 volts Average: 0
Phase Shift
Period=6.28
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
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AC Voltage and Current Sources (active elements) Resistors (R) Inductors(L) Capacitors (C) Inductors and capacitors have limited energy storage capability passive elements
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
di + Ri = Vm cos(t ) dt
e j = cos( ) + j sin( )
di + Ri = v s dt
2. Find the complex response i(t) = Imejt+ 3. Find Im and , (discard the imaginary part)
= a2 + b2 = arctan
a = cos b = sin b a
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Example p = 3 + j4 q = 1 - j2
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Multiplication (easier in polar form) x = p q = ac + jad + jbc + j2bd = (ac bd) + j(ad + bc) Example p = 3 + j4 q = 1 - j2
Example p = 3 + j4
x=
q = 1 - j2
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Eulers Identity
Eulers identity states that e j = cos() + jsin() A complex number can then be written as r = a + jb = cos() + jsin() = [cos() + jsin()] = e j Using shorthand notation we write this as e j
= a2 + b2
= tan 1
b a
p = m1e j (1 )
q = m2 e j ( 2 )
Multiplication
z = p q = m1m2 e j (1 + 2 )
Example
p = 6e
j 6
j 2
q = 2e
z = p q = (6)(2 )e
j + 6 2
= 12e
2 j 3
p = 630
q = 290
z = p q = 12120
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= a2 + b2
= tan 1
b a
p = m1e j (1 )
q = m2 e j ( 2 )
Division
z = pq =
Example
p = 6e
j 6
m1 j (1 2 ) e m2
q = 2e
j 2
z = p q =
j 6 j e 6 2 = 3e 3 = 3 60o 2
More on Sinusoids
Suppose you connect a function generator to any circuit containing resistors, inductors, and capacitors. If the function generator is set to produce a sinusoidal waveform, then every voltage drop and every current in the circuit will also be a sinusoid of the same frequency. Only the amplitudes and phase angles will (may) change. The same thing is not necessarily true for waveforms of other shapes like triangle or square waveforms. Fortunately, it turns out that sinusoids are not only the easiest waveforms to work with, they're also the most useful and occur quite frequently in real-world applications.
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Phasors
A phasor is a vector that represents an AC electrical quantity such as a voltage waveform or a current waveform The phasor's length represents the peak value of the voltage or current The phasor's angle represents the phase angle of the voltage or current Phasors are used to represent the relationship between two or more waveforms with the same frequency
Phasors
The diagram at the right shows two phasors labeled v1 and v2 Phasor v1 is drawn at an angle of 0 and has a length of 10 units Phasor v2 is drawn at an angle of 45 and is half as long as v1 In terms of the equations for sinusoidal waveforms, this diagram is a pictorial representation of the equations v1 = 10 cos() v2 = 5 cos( + 45 ) The equations above and the diagram convey the same information
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Phasors
Phasors are complex numbers used to represent sinusoids of a fixed frequency Their primary purpose is to simplify the analysis of circuits involving sinusoidal excitation by providing an algebraic alternative to differential equations A typical phasor current is represented as I = IM For example, i(t) = 25cos(t + 45) has the phasor representation I = 2545 A phasor voltage is written as V = VM For example, v(t) = -15sin(t + 30) = 15cos(t + 120) has the phasor representation V = 15120
The Phasor
The term ejt is common to all voltages and currents and can be ignored in all intermediate steps, leading to the phasor:
I = I me j = I m
The phasor representation of a current (or voltage) is in the frequency domain
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Since phasors are functions of frequency (), we often refer to them as being in the frequency domain Circuits expressed as sinusoids are considered to be in the time domain
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In terms of phasors, IR = IRej and VR = VRej so the above equation becomes VR = RIR = ZR(j)IR This result simply means that the impedance of an ideal resistor is independent of frequency. In other words, resistors act the same in AC circuits as they do in DC circuits
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Example
Find i(t) in the circuit on the right.
v(t ) = L i (t ) =
di (t ) dt
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yields
VL e j (t + ) = L
d I L e j (t + ) = jLI L e j (t + ) dt
In terms of phasors, IL = ILej and VL = VLej so the above equation becomes VL = jLIL = ZL(j)IL In other words, the inductor impedance is jL which is dependent on frequency
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Comparison
i (t ) =
A (sin t ) L 2
i (t ) =
A (sin t ) R
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yields I C e j (t + ) = C
d VC e j (t + ) = jCVC e j (t + ) dt
In terms of phasors, IC = ICej and VC = VCej so the above equation becomes IC = jCVC = ZC(j)VC In other words, the capacitor impedance is 1/jC which is dependent on the frequency
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i (t ) = C
A sin(t + ) 2 1 C
Impedance of 1/jC Phase shift of +90
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Phasor Diagrams
The arrow for the phasor V on the phasor diagram is a photograph, taken at t = 0, of a rotating arrow whose projection on the real axis is the instantaneous voltage v(t).
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Impedance
We define impedance as Z = V/I or V = IZ ZR=R ZL=jL ZC=1/jC
Impedances in series or parallel can be combined using the same resistor rules that you learned in Chapter 3
Impedance Relationships
Some circuit applications deal with the inverse of impedance which is called admittance. The admittance is denoted as Y = 1/Z YR=1/R YL=1/jL YC=jC
If Z = R+jX; R is the resistance, X is the reactance: (units of ohms ) If Y = G+jB; G is the conductance, B is the susceptance: (units of siemens S)
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Impedance Example
Find the equivalent impedance, in polar form, for the circuit below if = 0.333 rad/sec
1 Z EQ = R + jL = 1 + j 3 = 1 + j = 245o 3
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Use DC circuit analysis techniques normally, but the values of voltage, current, and resistance can be complex numbers Change back to the time-domain form if required
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P1 = 16.15mW
Superposition Example
The superposition principle applies to phasors; use it to find V1
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Thvenin Example
Thvenins theorem also applies to phasors; use it to find VOC and ZTH in the circuit below.
Answer: Voc = 6 j3 V
ZTH = 6 + j2
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Chapter 10 Summary
In this chapter you: Reviewed signal properties Reviewed complex numbers and operations Performed sinusoidal steady-state (SSS) analysis of circuits Defined the notion of a complex phasor for representing currents and voltages
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