LECTURES 7 AND 8, JANUARY 22, 2004 OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT Distances can be measured by optical means using 1.

A Tachemeter (an optical theodolite equipped with a fixed or movable stadia diaphragm) or 2. an ordinary theodolite employed with a Subtense Rod or 3. an ordinary theodolite with multiple vertical angle measurement on targets with known elevations or 4. a Total Station (an Electronic Distance Meter and an Electronic Theodolite combined in one single instrument) A theodolite equipped with a fixed stadia diaphragm is called a Stadia Tachemeter. A theodolite equipped with movable stadia wires, on the other hand, is called the Subtense Tachemeter. Subtense Tachemetry can be alternatively carried out using an ordinary theodolite with a Subtense Rod. A Subtense Rod is a targeting device comprising multiple targets separated from each other by known distances. Estimation of distance with multiple vertical angle measurements is called tangential tachemetry. Tachemetry is faster and more economical albeit less accurate than taping. Typical accuracy of tachemetric distance measurement is 1 in 500 without an EDM unit. The accuracy improves to 1 in 10000 or better with an Total Station. If such accuracy is acceptable, tachemetry is an attractive option especially in undulating or mountainous topography. ELEMENTS OF OPTICS The principle of tachemetric distance measurement is illustrated schematically with Figure 1. Denoting the distance from the center of instrument to the target with d, the focal length of the objective lens with f, distance between top and bottom stadia wires with i and staff d f c f f intercept with s, = d = s + ( f + c ) . This relationship can be rewritten as: s i i
d = As + B

(1)

Thus the multiplicative constant purely depends on the theodolite characteristics A and additive constant B depends on the theodolite characteristic as well as the distance of the lens from the center of the theodolite. In modern instruments the distance between the optical center and the mechanical center of the theodolite is forced to be equal to the focal length using an additional lens called anallatic lens (Figure 2). For such instruments, the additive constant becomes zero. Denoting the focal length of the analectic lens by f, distance between the objective lens and the anallatic lens by n and the distance from the objective lens and the stadia

CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement

Figure 1. Tachemetric Distance Measurement

Figure 2. Anallatic Tachemeter diaphragm as m, since f1 and f2 are conjugate distances for the objective lens and ( f2 n) and (m n) are conjugate distances for the anallatic lens, 1 f = 1 f 1 +1 f2 for the objective lens and
1 f = 1 ( f 2 n ) + 1 (m n )

(A) (B)

for the anallatic lens. Since s i = f 1 f 2 and i i = ( f 2 n ) (m n ) ,

s f1 f 2 n = i f2 m n s ff fn ff From Equations (A), (B) and (C) f1 = . Hence i f + f n f + f n

(C)

CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement

s ff fn ff d = f1 + c = + c . Thus the additive and multiplicative constants, i f + f n f + f n A and B, are given in this case by
ff ( f + f n )i fn ff B =c f + f n A=

(2)

The focal length of the anallatic lens and the distance between the two lenses are usually chosen such that d = 100 s . DETERMINATION OF TACHEMETRIC CONSTANTS The tachemetric constants are usually provided by the manufacturer of the tachemetric theodolite. However, these constants are periodically checked by measuring at least two taped distances, one long and other short, using tachemetric survey and solving two simultaneous equations for the tachemetric constants as illustrated with the following example. Example. The following readings were obtained at the upper, middle and lower stadia wires to determine the tachemetric constants: Distance (m)
30.000 55.000 90.000

Readings
Upper Stadia Wire 1.433 1.710 2.352 Middle Stadia Wire 1.283 1.435 1.902 Lower Stadia Wire 1.133 1.160 1.452

Solution. For 30.000 m distance the difference between upper and lower stadia readings is 0.300, that for 55.000 m distance is 0.550 and that for 90.000 m distance is 0.900. It is clear from these measurements that the multiplicative constant for the tachemeter is 100 and additive constant is zero. This, in fact, is an over-determined problem, which could be solved in a simple manner only because conclusions drawn from simultaneous solution of any of the three pairs of equations would give the same combination of additive and multiplicative constants. A more formal solution of an over constrained problem such as this, where the number of equations is more than that is necessary, can be obtained by the method of least squares. The method of least squares for solving an over constrained problem will be discussed later in this course. TACHEMETRY WITH FIXED STADIA SYSTEM The sloped distance D (Figure 3) is given by D = As + B . Note that s is the stadia intercept perpendicular to the line of sight. If the staff is held vertical, s = s cos , where s is the stadia intercept on the target (staff). Thus

D = As cos + B H = As cos 2 + B cos V = As sin cos + B sin

(3)

CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement

From the results listed in Equation 35, Elevation of staff station = Elevation of instrument station + HI + V Hs. It should be noted that the staff could also be held perpendicular to the line of sight although this practice is less common. If the staff is held perpendicular to the line of sight, s = s and Equation 35 should be modified accordingly.

Figure 3. Tachemetric Measurements Example. Determine the tachemeter constants for the following observation obtained with a theodolite with a focal length of 200 mm and distance from the object lens to the trunnion axis of 100 mm with the staff held vertically: Horizontal Distance (m) 50 100 150 Elevation Angle 3-48-00 1-06-00 0-36-00 Staff intercept (m) 0.500 1.000 1.500

Solution. The additive constant, B, is simply equal to the focal length plus the offset of the object length from the trunnion axis, i.e., 0.300 m. Thus for the three observations:

d1 = As cos 2 + B cos 50 = A 0.500 cos 2 348 + 0.300 cos 348 A = 99.84 100 = A 1.000 cos 2 106 + 0.300 cos106 A = 99.74 150 = A 1.500 cos 2 036 + 0.300 cos 036 A = 99.83 Assuming all measurements to be of equal weight the estimate of A is the average of the three estimates, i.e., 99.80.
SUBTENSE TACHEMETRY In the fixed stadia system the angle subtended at the optical center of the tachemeter by the stadia intercept is constant. In the rarely-used subtense method, the intercept on the target is
CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement

kept constant (usually 3 m) irrespective of the distance employing a special target called the Subtense Rod (Figure 4). As a result, the angle subtended by the intercept at the optical center will decrease with distance. The stadia interval in the subtense method is adjusted using amicrometer. As in fixed stadia tachemetry, the distance d is still given by f d = s + ( f + c ) . However, in the subtense method i changes with distance and s remains i constant. Denoting the pitch of the stadia micrometer with p and the index error of the micrometer with e, if m revolutions of the micrometer translate into a staff intercept s, i = (m e ) p . Hence d= fs + ( f + c) (m e ) p (4)

Thus the additive constant in this case is same as in fixed stadia tachemetry and the multiplicative constant is f {(m e ) p}.

Figure 4. Subtense Rod TANGENTIAL TACHEMETRY In the tangential method, the staff intercept between two vertical angles are measured to establish the horizontal distance. If the vertical angles to the top and the bottom of the staff intercept are 1 and 2, respectively, and angle subtended by the staff intercept, s, at the instrument station is , the horizontal distance, d, is given by:
d= s cos 1 cos 2 sin

(5)

Vertical distance between the trunnion axis and the staff location can then be calculated.
ELECTRONIC TACHEMETRY The stadia procedure is becoming rare after the introduction of the Total Station instrument. A Total Station is in fact a combination of an electronic theodolite and an EDM.

Figure 5 shows the Leica 1100N Total Station that has a nominal range of up to 3000 m. The 30 telescope of the electronic theodolite in this equipment is capable of resolving 3 angles. The instrument is equipped with a dual axis level compensator with up to 0.5 accuracy and a laser plummet with an accuracy of 1.5 mm (two times the standard deviation) and a point diameter of 2.5 mm at 1.5 m height. The infrared signal based EDM in this instrument has
CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement

the ATR capability. The instrument has a distance measurement accuracy of 5 mm 2 parts per million (ppm) of distance, with the part before the sign representing the zero error and the ppm term denoting the scale error. Such instruments can be connected to a field computer which stores readings and facilitates the processing of the data electronically. Some models of Total Station can even transfer data remotely using a wireless modem to the drawing office as the surveying work progresses. As a result, labor intensive surveying procedures such as detailed contour surveying has become very fast, economical and efficient. The procedure for horizontal distance and elevation angle measurements with the total station instrument are as outlined earlier. The procedure for estimation of random and systematic errors is also as explained in the sections on theodolites and EDMs.

Figure 5. Leica 1100N Total Station

CE21010 Class Notes Optical and Electronic Distance Measurement