Chapter IV Cognitive Engineering

[1] HCI: Developing Effective Organizational Information Systems, Dov Teeni, Jane Carey, Ping Zhang [2] Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer Interaction, Yvonne Rogers, Helen Sharp, Jennifer Preece

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Introduction [1]
Cognitive engineering applies knowledge of cognitive

psychology to the design and development of systems that support the cognitive processes of users. A simplified cognitive model of human information processing serves as the basis for understanding how cognitive resources such as memory and attention are utilized in HCI. Additional models such as Normans model of user activity and the GOMS model further demonstrate how user interact with computers and the implications for designers. Complexity is seen to represent the utilization of scarce cognitive resources and reducing complexity is one of the goals of cognitive engineering.
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

A Simplified View of Human Information Processing (HIP) [1]

Figure 5.3 presents a simplified model of Human

Information Processing which includes processors and memories that interact in order to process information. There are three types of processors:

Perceptual, Cognitive, and Motor processors.

Two types of memory: Working memory Long-term memory

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

A Simplified View of Human Information Processing (HIP) [1]

Attention

Verbal Memory Spatial data Processors

Working Memory

Long term Memory

Perception

Cognition

Motor

Figure 5.3 A simplified model of Human Information Processing (HIP), including memories and processor.
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

A Simplified View of Human Information Processing (HIP) [1]

Performance: the speed and accuracy of the

information-processing task. Automatic behavior: behavior characterized by cognitive processes that are fast and cognitively undemanding. Controlled behavior: behavior characterized by cognitive processes that are relatively slow and cognitively demanding.

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

A Simplified View of Human Information Processing (HIP) [1]

Processing of Images: processing characterized as

spatial, graphic, and holistic. Processing of verbal information: processing characterized as sequential, linguistic, and procedural. Memory Aids

Heuristics: rules of thumb that depend heavily on the content and context of the task. Metaphor: a cognitive process in which an experience is related to an already familiar concept. Mental model: a representation of the conceptual structure of a device or a system.
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Why do we need to understand users? [2]

Interacting with technology is cognitive Need to take into account cognitive processes involved

and cognitive limitations of users Provides knowledge about what users can and cannot be expected to do Identifies and explains the nature and causes of problems users encounter Supply theories, modelling tools, guidance and methods that can lead to the design of better interactive products

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Cognitive processes [2]

Attention Perception and recognition

Memory
Learning Reading, speaking and listening Problem-solving, planning, reasoning and decision-

making

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Attention [2]
Selecting things to concentrate on at a point in time from the

mass of stimuli around us Allows us to to focus on information that is relevant to what we are doing Involves audio and/or visual senses
Focussed and divided attention enables us to be selective in

terms of the mass of competing stimuli but limits our ability to keep track of all events
Information at the interface should be structured to capture

users attention, e.g. use perceptual boundaries (windows), colour, reverse video, sound and flashing lights

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Activity: Find the price of a double room at the Holiday Inn in Bradley [2]

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Activity: Find the price for a double room at the Quality Inn in Columbia [2]

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Activity [2]
Tullis (1987) found that the two screens

produced quite different results

1st screen - took an average of 5.5 seconds to search

2nd screen - took 3.2 seconds to search

Why, since both displays have the same

density of information (31%)? Spacing

In the 1st screen the information is bunched up together, making it hard to search In the 2nd screen the characters are grouped into vertical categories of information making it easier

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The Complexity of HCI [1]

Complexity of HCI: the

human resources needed for interacting with the computer to accomplish the task.

Figure 5.4 HCI as a Bridge between Human and Computer

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation [1]

Gulf of execution: the gap between the

users goal and its computerized implementation. Gulf of evaluation: the gap between the computerized implementation of the users goal and its evaluation by the user.

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Bridging the gaps using Normans Model [1]

Establish a goal that needs to be accomplished. Form the intention (or hierarchy of intentions) that will accomplish the goal. Specify the action sequence to implement the intentions. Execute the action. Perceive the state of system resulting from the action. Interpret the system state. Evaluate your interpretation against the expectation based on your intentions.
Goals Intentions Evaluation

Action specification

Interpretation

Execution

Perception

Physical system

Figure 5.6 Norman's seven stage model of user activity

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Fit and Complexity [1]

The fit between the users mental model of

the system and the actual model of the system affects complexity, too. The greater the fit, the easier it is to determine how to translate goals into action. The greater the misfit, the more difficult and more erroneous is the process of bridging the execution and evaluation gulfs.

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

User Activity with Multiple Intentions[1]

Users in organizational settings usually interact with

computers to achieve complex goals. Normans model of user activity can be useful for describing the user activity involved in more complex tasks by modelling multiple intentions to accomplish a single goal, (e.g. checking a new sales forecast and summing the corresponding revenues). Each of these two intentions describes how the seven stages are organized to bridge the gulfs between the computer and the user.

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Causes of Errors [1]

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Perception [2]
How information is acquired from the world and

transformed into experiences

Obvious implication is to design representations that

are readily perceivable, e.g.

Text should be legible Icons should be easy to distinguish and read

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Is color contrast good? Find italian [2]

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Are borders and white space better? Find french [2]

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Activity [2]
Weller (2004) found people took less time to

locate items for information that was grouped

using a border (2nd screen) compared with using color contrast (1st screen)

Some argue that too much white space on

web pages is detrimental to search

Makes it hard to find information

Do you agree?

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Which is easiest to read and why? [2]

What is the time? What is the time?

What is the time?

What is the time?

What is the time?

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Design implications [2]

Icons should enable users to readily distinguish their meaning Bordering and spacing are effective visual ways of grouping information Sounds should be audible and distinguishable Speech output should enable users to distinguish between the set of spoken words Text should be legible and distinguishable from the background Tactile feedback should allow users to recognize and distinguish different meanings
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Memory [2]
Involves first encoding and then retrieving

knowledge We dont remember everything - involves filtering and processing what is attended to Context is important in affecting our memory (i.e. where, when) We recognize things much better than being able to recall things

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2. Number of Elements in an Interface

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(Adapted from Pressman 2005 and Stallings 2005)

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Human factors in interface design

Limited short-term memory

People can instantaneously remember about 7 items of information. If you present more than this, they are more liable to make mistakes. When people make mistakes and systems go wrong, inappropriate alarms and messages can increase stress and hence the likelihood of more mistakes. People have a wide range of physical capabilities. Designers should not just design for their own capabilities. like pictures, some like 27 text.
Juan Manuel Gmez Reynoso, Ph.D. (Adapted from Pressman 2005 and Stallings 2005)

People make mistakes

People are different

People have different interaction preferences

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Peoples Mind
People learn through mental models A mental model is acquired through the

intervention of the 3 levels of memory

Long term memory: retrieve Short term memory: perceive. Short-term memory (STM) refers to memories that last no longer than 30 seconds unless they are rehearsed in that timeframe. Working memory: put together pieces, then store
28 Juan Manuel Gmez Reynoso, Ph.D. (Adapted from Pressman 2005 and Stallings 2005)

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Memory Span
The exact reasons for forgetting information over a

short period of time are disputed The general consensus is that the amount of new facts we can retain over short periods of time are severely restricted by this process of forgetting. Another term for the capacity of short-term memory is 'memory span'. A memory span test consists of the individual conducting the experiment reading out lists of words or digits which increase in length. The longest list a person can remember in the correct order in over half the trials is known as his or her memory span.

Chunking
A method of improving our ability to remember things over a

short period of time is called chunking. This is also a word used to describe the organization of things into meaningful sections. Realistically, the average person under normal conditions can expect to remember four items short-term. With chunking, it is possible to remember far more. For example, it is easier to remember nine numbers in three groups of three. The total capacity of short-term memory is hard to define because it will be different depending on the material used. Generally speaking however, short-term memory can be affected by long term memory, time taken to pronounce words and differences between individuals
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Learning Model

Auto

Humans mind is able to detect 7 2 elements at the same time

21/01/2014

Juan Manuel Gmez Reynoso, Ph.D. (Adapted from Pressman 2005 and Stallings 2005)

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Processing in memory [2]

Encoding is first stage of memory

determines which information is attended to in the environment and how it is interpreted

The more attention paid to something The more it is processed in terms of thinking about it

and comparing it with other knowledge The more likely it is to be remembered

e.g. when learning about HCI, it is much better to reflect upon it, carry out exercises, have discussions with others about it, and write notes than just passively read a book, listen to a lecture or watch a video about it

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Context is important [2]

Context affects the extent to which

information can be subsequently retrieved Sometimes it can be difficult for people to recall information that was encoded in a different context:

You are on a train and someone comes up to you and says hello. You dont recognize him for a few moments but then realize it is one of your neighbors. You are only used to seeing your neighbor in the hallway of your apartment block and seeing him out of context makes him difficult to recognize initially

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Activity [2]
Try to remember the dates of your grandparents

birthday Try to remember the cover of the last two DVDs you bought or rented Which was easiest? Why? People are very good at remembering visual cues about things

e.g. the color of items, the location of objects and marks on an object

They find it more difficult to learn and remember

arbitrary material

e.g. birthdays and phone numbers

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Recognition versus recall [2]

Command-based interfaces require users to

recall from memory a name from a possible set of 100s GUIs provide visually-based options that users need only browse through until they recognize one Web browsers, MP3 players, etc., provide lists of visited URLs, song titles etc., that support recognition memory

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The problem with the classic 72 [2]

George Millers (1956) theory of how much

information people can remember Peoples immediate memory capacity is very limited Many designers think this is useful finding for interaction design But
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What some designers get up to[2]

Present only 7 options on a menu Display only 7 icons on a tool bar

Have no more than 7 bullets in a list

Place only 7 items on a pull down menu Place only 7 tabs on the top of a website page
But this is wrong? Why?

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Why? [2]
Inappropriate application of the theory People can scan lists of bullets, tabs, menu

items for the one they want They dont have to recall them from memory having only briefly heard or seen them Sometimes a small number of items is good But depends on task and available screen estate

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Personal information management [2]

Personal information management is a growing

problem for many users

vast numbers of documents, images, music files, video clips, emails, attachments, bookmarks, etc., where and how to save them all, then remembering what they were called and where to find them again naming most common means of encoding them but can be difficult to remember, especially when have 1000s and 1000s How might such a process be facilitated taking into account peoples memory abilities?

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Personal information management [2]

Memory involves 2 processes recall-directed and recognition-based scanning File management systems should be

designed to optimize both kinds of memory processes

e.g. Search box and history list Provide them with ways of saving files using colour, flagging, image, flexible text, time stamping, etc

Help users encode files in richer ways

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The GOMS Model for Describing HCI[1]

GOMS: Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection

rules are the elements of a model that describes purposeful HCI.

Goals specify what the user wants and intends to achieve. Operators are the building blocks for describing human-computer interaction at the concrete level. Methods are programs built with operators that are designed to accomplish goals. Selection rules predict which method will be used. For example, If the mouse is working, select point to an item on screen, if not select choose OPEN option in file menu.
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

GOMS Architecture

Start

Using GOMS [1]

Choose Top Level

Goals

Draft Operators and Methods for Each Goal

Select Methods

Check for Goal Attainment Repeat until Satisfied Yes

Further Refinement Needed?

No Stop

Figure 5.9 A flow chart for building GOMS

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Example: Check email

Procedure check_emails Goal Login Goal read_email

Goal memorize_sender's_name Goal read_email_body Selection rule Select_appropriate_formulation(x)

Goal reply_email_friend Operator Type (Hi <x>) Goal reply_email_familly Operator Type (Dear <x>)

Goal reply_email(x)

Loop Goal: Logout

Mental operations
Visual buffer Perceived_item: John Long term memory (John, relation, friend) (Jack, relation, family) (email, name, John)

Goals Reply_email_friend Reply_email_family memorize_sender's_name

Selection rule If Perceived_item = X And (X, relation, friend) Then Process goal reply_email_friend

How To Use GOMS

1. Analyze hierarchical structure of a task
a. coarse analysis focuses more on the cognitive structure of a task b. fine analysis focuses more on the structure imposed by the specific interface design

2. Analyze alternative methods 3. Assign operators to base level goals 4. Assign times to operators 5. Sum the operator times

Operator Times
Press key on keyboard
Use mouse to point to object on screen Move hand to pointing device Move eyes to location on screen

280 ms

1,500 ms
300 ms 230 ms 1,200 ms

Retrieve item from memory

Learn a single step in a procedure Select among methods

25,000 ms
1,200 ms

More available in ABCS, GOMSL and CM&N

Summary
A method to describe tasks and how a user performs those tasks with a specific design
bridges task analysis with a specific interface design error-free, goal-directed, and rational behavior

Views humans as information processors

small number of cognitive, perceptual, and motor operators characterize user behavior

To apply GOMS:
analyze task to identify user goals (hierarchical) identify operators to achieve goals sum operator times to predict performance

Using GOMS for text editing [1]

Operators

Mental primitives for flow of control:

Accomplish the goal of <goal description> Report goal accomplished Decision: if<operator> then<operator> else<operator> Goto step <number>

Memory stage and retrieval

Recall that <working memory object> Retain that <working memory object> Forget that <working memory object> Retrieve LTM that <long-term-memory object> Move mouse Press key <key name> Type in <string of characters> Move-cursor to <target coordinates>

Primitive external operators

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Errors [1]
Errors: deviations from intentional behavior that is

either skill, rule or knowledge based. Classification of errors based on behavior type:

Skill based behavior: automatic behavior that is predefined and requires minimal cognitive resources. Rule based behavior: controlled behavior that relies on predefined rules of behavior that are contingent on particular situation encountered. Knowledge based behavior: highly controlled behavior that requires assessment and generation of new rules of behavior, and is demanding of cognitive resources.
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc