CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 NUCLEAR BATTERY

A burgeoning need exists today for small, compact, reliable, lightweight and self-contained rugged power supplies to provide electrical power in such applications as electric automobiles, homes, industrial, agricultural, recreational, remote monitoring systems, spacecraft and deep-sea probes. Radar, advanced communication satellites and especially high technology weapon platforms will require much larger power source than todays power systems can deliver. For the very high power applications, nuclear reactors appear to be the answer. However, for intermediate power range, 10 to 100 kilowatts (kW), the nuclear reactor presents formidable technical problems. Because of the short and unpredictable lifespan of chemical batteries, however, regular replacements would be required to keep these devices humming. Also, enough chemical fuel to provide 100 kW for any significant period of time would be too heavy and bulky for practical use. Fuel cells and solar cells require little maintenance, and the latter need plenty of sun. Thus the demand to exploit the radioactive energy has become inevitably high. Several methods have been developed for conversion of radioactive energy released during the decay of natural radioactive elements into electrical energy. A grapefruit-sized radioisotope thermoelectric

generator that utilized heat produced from alpha particles emitted as plutonium-238 decay was developed during the early 1950s. Since then the nuclear has taken a significant consideration in the energy source of future. Also, with the advancement of the technology the requirement for the lasting energy sources has been increased to a great extent. The solution to the long term energy source is, of course, the nuclear batteries with a life span measured in decades and has the potential to be nearly 200 times more efficient than the currently used ordinary batteries. These incredibly long-lasting batteries are still in the theoretical and developmental stage of existence, but they promise to provide clean, safe, almost endless energy. Unlike conventional nuclear power generating devices, these power cells do not rely on a nuclear reaction or chemical process do not produce radioactive waste products. The nuclear battery technology is geared towards applications where power is needed in inaccessible places or under extreme conditions. The researchers envision its uses in pacemakers and other medical devices that would otherwise require surgery to repair or replace.

Additionally, deep-space probes and deep-sea sensors, which are beyond the reach of repair, would benefit from such technology. In the near future this technology is said to make its way into commonly used day to day products like mobile and laptops and even the smallest of the devices used at home. Surely these are the batteries of the near future. Nuclear batteries run off of the continuous radioactive decay of certain elements. These incredibly long-lasting batteries are still in the theoretical and developmental stage of existence, but they promise to provide clean, safe, almost endless energy. They have been designed for personal use as well as for civil engineering, aeronautics, and medical treatments. The almost magical production of electricity in nuclear batteries is made possible by the process of betavoltaics. Through this technology, the electrons that radioactive isotopes regularly lose due to decay can be harnessed and directed into a stream of electricity. A semiconductor, possibly made from silicon, catches the flying electrons and directs them into a steady power source. Even a small amount of radioactive material will provide a charge for a very long time before it expires. Some people want to develop nuclear batteries to solve the pesky problem of your cell phone running out of juice just as you were writing down an important address. But other researchers see the potential for nuclear batteries to power things in situations where a battery really needs to last a long time because there is no way to replace it. They suggest applications such as pacemakers or other implants, detectors to be dropped in the bottom of an ocean or sealed deep within a bridge. Perhaps interstellar flights could be powered by a series of batteries each lasting several decad. These batteries can extract energy from radioactive isotopes in a number of ways. Some rely on thermal energy. As isotopes break down, they produce heat, which an atomic battery can harness to make electricity. The heat can also be useful on devices like spacecraft, which need a source of warmth to keep scientific instruments in a safe temperature range. In the deep cold of space, components would quickly freeze without heating, but expending energy on heat could cause the equipment to run out of power, so atomic batteries provide both heat and power to resolve this problem. Other devices rely on non-thermal methods of energy generation. The most common method takes advantage of beta particle emission to create electricity. This atomic battery design is known as a betavoltaic design, and is quite safe for use around people, because beta particles cannot penetrate human skin. They are much weaker than the more dangerous gamma particles that can be a concern with some radioactive isotopes. It is also potentially possible to convert the decay directly into kinetic energy for use to move mechanical components of a device. Experimental atomic battery projects have

shown how this application could be useful for some medical devices and other equipment. The life of the battery depends on the characteristics of the isotope used to make it, but could be a decade or more. This can meet the needs of many devices, providing a stable energy supply for an extended period of time.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The idea of nuclear battery was introduced in the beginning of 1950, and was patented on March 3 rd, 1959 to tracer lab. Even though the idea was given more than 30 years before, no significant progress was made on the subject because the yield was very less. A radio isotope electric power system developed by inventor Paul Brown was a scientific breakthrough in nuclear power. Browns first prototype power cell produced 100,000 times as much energy per gram of strontium -90(the energy source) than the most powerful thermal battery yet in existence. The magnetic energy emitted by the alpha and beta particles inherent in nuclear material. Alpha and beta particles are produced by the radioactive decay of certain naturally occurring and man made nuclear material (radio nuclides). The electric charges of the alpha and beta particles have been captured and converted to electricity for existing nuclear batteries, but the amount of power generated from such batteries has been very small. Alpha and beta particles also posses kinetic energy, by successive collisions of the particles with air molecules or other molecules. The bulk of the R &D of nuclear batteries in the past has been concerned with this heat energy which is readily observable and measurable. The magnetic energy given off by alpha and beta particles is several orders of magnitude greater than the kinetic energy or the direct electric energy produced by these same particles. However, the myriads of tiny magnetic fields existing at any time cannot be individually recognized or measured. This energy is not captured locally in nature to produce heat or mechanical effects, but instead the energy escapes undetected. Brown invented an approach to organize these magnetic fields so that the great amounts of otherwise unobservable energy could be harnessed. The first cell constructed (that melted the wire components) employed the most powerful source known, radium-226, as the energy source. The main drawback of Mr. Browns prototype was its low efficiency, and the reason for that was when the radioactive material decays, many of the electrons lost from the semiconductor material. With the enhancement of more regular pitting and introduction better fuels the nuclear batteries are thought to be the next generation batteries and there is hardly any doubt that these batteries will be available in stores within another decade.

1.3 TYPES OF NUCLEAR BATTERIES

These batteries can extract energy from radioactive isotopes in a number of ways. Some rely on thermal energy. As isotopes break down, they produce heat, which an atomic battery can harness to make electricity. The heat can also be useful on devices like spacecraft, which need a source of warmth to keep scientific instruments in a safe temperature range. In the deep cold of space, components would quickly freeze without heating, but expending energy on heat could cause the equipment to run out of power, so atomic batteries provide both heat and power to resolve this problem. Other devices rely on non-thermal methods of energy generation. The most common method takes advantage of beta particle emission to create electricity. This atomic battery design is known as a betavoltaic design, and is quite safe for use around people, because beta particles cannot penetrate human skin. They are much weaker than the more dangerous gamma particles that can be a concern with some radioactive isotopes.

Fig.2.1 Types of Nuclear/Atomic batteries

1.3.1 RADIOISOTOPE GENERATORS

A thermoelectric converter uses thermocouples. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials). A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference. By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends. In practice, many are connected in series to generate a larger voltage from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies. The alkali-metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC) is an electrochemical system which is based on the electrolyte used in the molten salt battery|sodium-sulfur battery, sodium beta-alumina. The device is a sodium concentration cell which uses a ceramic, polycrystalline -alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), as a separator between a high pressure region containing sodium vapor at 900 1300 K and a low pressure region containing a condenser for liquid sodium at 400 - 700 K. Efficiency of AMTEC cells has reached 16% in the laboratory and is predicted to approach 20%. A Stirling engine driven by the temperature difference produced by a radioisotope. New developments have led to the creation of a more efficient version, known as an Advanced Sterling Radioisotope Generator.

1.3.1.1 THERMAL CONVERTER A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a space charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization) to neutralize the electron space charge. A thermoelectric converter uses thermocouples. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials). A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference. By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends. In practice, many are connected in series

to generate a larger voltage from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies.

THERMOPHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

Thermophotovoltaic cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except that they convert infrared light (rather than Visible spectrum visible light) emitted by a hot surface, into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermoelectric couples and can be overlaid on thermoelectric couples, potentially doubling efficiency. The University of Houston Thermophotovoltaic TPV Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology development effort is aiming at combining thermophotovoltaic cells concurrently with [[thermocouple]]s to provide a 3 to 4-fold improvement in system efficiency over current thermoelectric radioisotope generators. ALKALI-METAL THERMAL TO ELECTRIC CONVERTER

The alkali-metal thermal to electric converter (AMTEC) is an electrochemical system which is based on the electrolyte used in the Molten salt battery sodium-sulfur battery, sodium beta-alumina. The device is a sodium concentration cell which uses a ceramic, polycrystalline -alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), as a separator between a high pressure region containing sodium vapor at 900 1300 K and a low pressure region containing a condenser for liquid sodium at 400 - 700 K. Efficiency of AMTEC cells has reached 16% in the laboratory and is predicted to approach 20%. STIRLING RADIOISOTROPE GENERATOR

A Stirling engine driven by the temperature difference produced by a radioisotope. New developments have led to the creation of a more efficient version, known as an Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator.

1.3.1.1.1 THERMIONIC CONVERTE A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a potential energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful electric power

output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization or electron impact ionization in a plasma) to neutralize the electron space 6

charge. From a physical electronic viewpoint, thermionic energy conversion is the direct production of electric power from heat by thermionic electron emission. From a thermodynamic view point, it is the use of electron vapor as the working fluid in a power-producing cycle. A thermionic converter consists of a hot emitter electrode from which electrons are vaporized by thermionic emission and a colder collector electrode into which they are condensed after conduction through the interelectrode plasma. The resulting current, typically several amperes per square centimetre of emitter surface, delivers electrical power to a load at a typical potential difference of 0.51 volt and thermal efficiency of 520%, depending on the emitter temperature (15002000 K) and mode of operation. The scientific aspects of thermionic energy conversion primarily concern the fields of surface physics and plasma physics. The electrode surface properties determine the magnitude of electron emission current and electric potential at the electrode surfaces, and the plasma properties determine the transport of electron current from the emitter to the collector. All practical thermionic converters to date employ caesium vapor between the electrodes, which determines both the surface and plasma properties. Caesium is employed because it is the most easily ionized of all stable elements. The surface property of primary interest is the work function which is the barrier that limits electron emission current from the surface and essentially is the heat of vaporization of electrons from the surface. The work function is determined primarily by a layer of caesium atoms adsorbed on the electrode surfaces.[7] The properties of the interelectrode plasma are determined by the mode of operation of the thermionic converter.[8] In the ignited (or arc) mode the plasma is maintained via ionization internally by hot plasma electrons (~ 3300 K); in the unignited mode the plasma is maintained via injection of externally-produced positive ions into a cold plasma; in the hybrid mode the plasma is maintained by ions from a hot-plasma interelectrode region transferred into a cold-plasma interelectrode region

1.3.1.1.2 RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR A thermoelectric converter uses thermocouples. Each thermocouple is formed from two wires of different metals (or other materials). A temperature gradient along the length of each wire produces a voltage gradient from one end of the wire to the other; but the different materials produce different voltages per degree of temperature difference. By connecting the wires at one end, heating that end but cooling the other end, a usable, but small (millivolts), voltage is generated between the unconnected wire ends.

Fig 2.2 RTG used on the Cassini probe

In practice, many are connected in series to generate a larger voltage from the same heat source, as heat flows from the hot ends to the cold ends. Metal thermocouples have low thermal-to-electrical efficiency. However, the carrier density and charge can be adjusted in semiconductor materials such as bismuth telluride and silicon germanium to achieve much higher conversion efficiencies. The design of an RTG as shown in fig2.2 is simple by the standards of nuclear technology: the main component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material (the fuel). Thermocouples are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each thermocouple connected to a heat sink. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat which flows through the thermocouples to the heat sink, generating electricity in the process. A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that converts thermal energy directly into electrical energy using the See beck effect. It is made of two kinds of metal (or semiconductors) that can both conduct electricity. They are connected to each other in a closed loop. If the two junctions are at different temperatures, an electric current will flow in the loop. 1.3.1.1.3 CRITERIA The radioactive material used in RTGs must have several characteristics:

1. It should produce high energy radiation. Energy release per decay is proportional to power production per mole.Alpha decays in general release about 10 times as much energy as the beta decay of strontium-90 or cesium-137. 2. Its half-life must be so long that it will release energy at a relatively constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy released per time (power) of a given quantity is inversely proportional to half-life. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will release power at half the rate per mole. Typical half-lives for radioisotopes used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although isotopes with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications. For spaceflight use, the fuel must produce a large amount of power per mass and volume (density). Density and weight are not as important for terrestrial use unless size is also restricted. The decay energy can be calculated if the energy of radioactive radiation or the mass loss before and after radioactive decay is known.

1.3.1.1.4 SELECTION OF ISOTOPES The first two criteria limit the number of possible fuels to fewer than 30 atomic isotopes within the entire table of nuclides. Plutonium-238, curium-244 and strontium-90 are the most often cited candidate isotopes, but other such isotopes as polonium-210, promethium-147, caesium-137, cerium144, ruthenium-106, cobalt-60, curium-242, americium-241 andthulium isotopes have also been studied.
238

Pu, 90Sr

Plutonium-238 has the lowest shielding requirements and longest half-life; its power output is 0.54 kilowatts per kilogram. Only three candidate isotopes meet the last criterion (not all are listed above) and need less than 25 mm of leadshieldingto block the radiation. 238Pu (the best of these three) needs less than 2.5 mm, and in many cases no shielding is needed in a 238Pu RTG, as the casing itself is adequate. 238Pu has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of plutonium (IV) oxide (PuO2). 238Pu has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable power density, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Strontium-90 also requires little shielding, as it decays by emission, with negligible emission. While its half life of 28.8 years is much shorter than that of 238Pu, it also has a much lower decay

energy. Thus its power density is only 0.46 kilowatts per kilogram. Because the energy output is lower it reaches lower temperatures than 238Pu, which results in lower RTG efficiency. 90Sr is a high yield waste product of nuclear fission and is available in large quantities at a low price.
210

Po

Some prototype RTGs, first built in 1958 by the US Atomic Energy Commission, have used polonium-210. This isotope provides phenomenal power density because of its highradioactive activity, but has limited use because of its very short half-life of 138 days. A kilogram of pure 210Po in the form of a cube would be about 48 mm (about 2 inches) on a side and emit about 140 kW.
242

Cm, 244Cm, 241Am

Curium-242 and curium-244 have also been studied as well, but require heavy shielding for gamma and neutron radiation produced from spontaneous fission. Americium-241 is a potential candidate isotope with a longer half-life than 238Pu: 241Am has a halflife of 432 years and could hypothetically power a device for centuries. However, the power density of 241Am is only 1/4 that of 238Pu, and 241Am produces more penetrating radiation through decay chain products than 238Pu and needs about 18 mm of lead shielding. Even so, its shielding requirements in an RTG are the second lowest of all possible isotopes: only 238Pu requires less. With a current global shortage of 238Pu, a closer look is being given to 241Am.

1.3.1.1.5 LIFE SPAN Most RTGs use 238Pu, which decays with a half-life of 87.7 years. RTGs using this material will therefore diminish in power output by 10.51/87.74 = 0.787% of their capacity per year. 23 years after production, such an RTG will have decreased in power by 16.6%, i.e. providing 83.4% of its initial output. Thus, with a starting capacity of 470 W, after 23 years it would have a capacity of 392 W. However, the bi-metallic thermocouples used to convert thermal energy into electrical energy degrade as well; at the beginning of 2001, the power generated by the Voyager RTGs had dropped to 315 W for Voyager 1 and to 319 W for Voyager 2. Therefore in early 2001, the RTGs were working at about 67% of their original capacity instead of the expected 83.4%.

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Fig. 2.3 90Sr-powered Soviet RTGs in dilapidated and vandalized condition

This life span was of particular importance during the Galileo mission. Originally intended to launch in 1986, it was delayed by the Space Shuttle Challenger accident. Because of this unforeseen event, the probe had to sit in storage for 4 years before launching in 1989. Subsequently, its RTGs had decayed somewhat, necessitating replanning the power budget for the mission. 1.3.1.1.6 EFFICIENCY RTGs use thermoelectric couples or "thermocouples" to convert heat from the radioactive material into electricity. Thermocouples, though very reliable and long-lasting, are very inefficient; efficiencies above 10% have never been achieved and most RTGs have efficiencies between 37%. Thermoelectric materials in space missions to date have included silicongermanium alloys, lead telluride and tellurides of antimony, germanium and silver (TAGS). Studies have been done on improving efficiency by using other technologies to generate electricity from heat. Achieving higher efficiency would mean less radioactive fuel is needed to produce the same amount of power, and therefore a lighter overall weight for the generator. This is a critically important factor in spaceflight launch cost considerations. A thermionic converter an energy conversion device which relies on the principle

of thermionic emission can achieve efficiencies between 1020%, but requires higher temperatures than those at which standard RTGs run. Some prototype 210Po RTGs have used thermionics, and potentially other extremely radioactive isotopes could also provide power by this means, but short half-lives make these unfeasible. Several space-bound nuclear reactors have used thermionics, but nuclear reactors are usually too heavy to use on most space probes.

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Thermophotovoltaic cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except that they convert infrared light emitted by a hot surface rather than visible light into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermocouples and can be overlaid on top of thermocouples, potentially doubling efficiency. Systems with radioisotope generators simulated by electric heaters have demonstrated efficiencies of 20%,[13] but have not been tested with actual radioisotopes. Some theoretical thermophotovoltaic cell designs have efficiencies up to 30%, but these have yet to be built or confirmed. Thermophotovoltaic cells and silicon thermocouples degrade faster than thermocouples, especially in the presence of ionizing radiation.Dynamic generators can provide power at more than 4 times the conversion efficiency of RTGs. NASA and DOE have been developing a next-generation radioisotope-fueled power source called the Stirling Radioisotope Generator (SRG) that uses free-piston Stirling enginescoupled to linear alternators to convert heat to electricity. SRG prototypes demonstrated an average efficiency of 23%. Greater efficiency can be achieved by increasing the temperature ratio between the hot and cold ends of the generator. The use of non-contacting moving parts, non-degrading flexural bearings, and a lubrication-free and hermetically sealed environment have, in test units, demonstrated no appreciable degradation over years of operation. Experimental results demonstrate that an SRG could continue running for decades without maintenance. Vibration can be eliminated as a concern by implementation of dynamic balancing or use of dual-opposed piston movement. Potential applications of a Stirling radioisotope power system include exploration and science missions to deep-space, Mars, and the Moon. The increased efficiency of the SRG may be demonstrated by a theoretical comparison of thermodynamic properties, as follows. These calculations are simplified and do not account for the decay of thermal power input due to the long half-life of the radioisotopes used in these generators. The assumptions for this analysis include that both systems are operating at steady state under the conditions observed in experimental procedures (see table below for values used). Both generators can be simplified to heat engines to be able to compare their current efficiencies to their corresponding Carnot efficiencies. The system is assumed to be the components, apart from the heat source and heat sink. The thermal efficiency, denoted th, is given by:

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Where primes ( ' ) denote the time derivative. From a general form of the First Law of Thermodynamics, in rate form:

Assuming the system is operating at steady state and

th, then, can be calculated to be 110 W / 2000 W = 5.5% (or 140 W / 500 W = 28% for the SRG). Additionally, the Second Law efficiency, denoted II, is given by:

Where th,rev is the Carnot efficiency, given by:

In which Theat sink is the external temperature (which has been measured to be 510 K for the MMRTG (Multi-Mission RTG) and 363 K for the SRG) and Theat MMRTG (or 41.37% for the SRG).
source

is the temperature of the MMRTG,

assumed 823 K (1123 K for the SRG). This yields a Second Law efficiency of 14.46% for the

1.3.1.1.7 RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION RTGs pose a risk of radioactive contamination: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the radioactive material may contaminate the environment. For spacecraft, the main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into the atmosphere; therefore their use in spacecraft and elsewhere has attracted controversy. However, this event is not considered likely with current RTG cask designs. For instance, the environmental impact study for the CassiniHuygens probe launched in 1997 estimated the probability of contamination accidents at various stages in the mission. The probability of an accident occurring which caused radioactive release from one or more of its 3 RTGs (or from its 129 radioisotope heater units) during the first 3.5 minutes following launch was estimated at 1 in

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1,400; the chances of a release later in the ascent into orbit were 1 in 476; after that the likelihood of an accidental release fell off sharply to less than 1 in a million.[19] If an accident which had the potential to cause contamination occurred during the launch phases (such as the spacecraft failing to reach orbit), the probability of contamination actually being caused by the RTGs was estimated at about 1 in 10.[20] In any event, the launch was successful and CassiniHuygens reached Saturn. The plutonium-238 used in these RTGs has a half-life of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110 year half-life of plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons and reactors. A consequence of the shorter halflife is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 (i.e. 17.3 curies (640 GBq)/g compared to 0.063 curies (2.3 GBq)/g). For instance, 3.6 kg of plutonium238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1 tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by weight than plutonium-239. The alpha radiation emitted by either isotope will not penetrate the skin, but it can irradiate internal organs if plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk is the skeleton, the surface of which is likely to absorb the isotope, and the liver, where the isotope will collect and become concentrated. There have been several known accidents involving RTG-powered spacecraft: 1. The first one was a launch failure on 21 April 1964 in which the U.S. Transit-5BN-3 navigation satellite failed to achieve orbit and burnt up on re-entry north of Madagascar. The 17,000 Ci (630 TBq) plutonium metal fuel in its SNAP-9a RTG was injected into the atmosphere over the Southern Hemisphere where it burnt up, and traces of plutonium-238 were detected in the area a few months later. 2. The second was the Nimbus B-1 weather satellite whose launch vehicle was deliberately destroyed shortly after launch on 21 May 1968 because of erratic trajectory. Launched from the Vandenberg Air Force Base, its SNAP-19 RTG containing relatively inert plutonium dioxide was recovered intact from the seabed in the Santa Barbara Channel five months later and no environmental contamination was detected. 3. In 1969 the launch of the first Lunokhod lunar rover mission failed, spreading polonium 210 over a large area of Russia.

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4. The failure of the Apollo 13 mission in April 1970 meant that the Lunar Module reentered the atmosphere carrying an RTG and burnt up over Fiji. It carried a SNAP-27 RTG containing 44,500 Ci (1,650 TBq) of plutonium dioxide which survived reentry into the Earth's atmosphere intact, as it was designed to do, the trajectory being arranged so that it would plunge into 69 kilometers of water in the Tonga trench in the Pacific Ocean. The absence of plutonium-238 contamination in atmospheric and seawater sampling confirmed the assumption that the cask is intact on the seabed. The cask is expected to contain the fuel for at least 10 half-lives (i.e. 870 years). The US Department of Energy has conducted seawater tests and determined that the graphite casing, which was designed to withstand reentry, is stable and no release of plutonium should occur. Subsequent investigations have found no increase in the natural background radiation in the area. The Apollo 13 accident represents an extreme scenario because of the high re-entry velocities of the craft returning from cislunar space (the region between Earth's atmosphere and the Moon). This accident has served to validate the design of later-generation RTGs as highly safe.

Fig. 2.4 A SNAP-27 RTG deployed by the astronauts of Apollo 14 identical to the one lost in the reentry of Apollo 13

To minimize the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is stored in individual modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of iridium metal and encased in high-strength graphiteblocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly insoluble. The most recent accident involving a spacecraft RTG was the failure of the 15

Russian Mars 96 probe launch on 16 November 1996. The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a northeast-southwest running oval 320 km long by 80 km wide which is centred 32 km east of Iquique, Chile.Many Beta-M RTGs produced by the Soviet Union to power lighthouses and beacons have become orphaned sources of radiation. Several of these units have been illegally dismantled for scrap metal resulting in the complete exposure of the Sr90 source, fallen into the ocean, or have defective shielding due to poor design or physical damage. The US Department of Defense cooperative threat reduction program has expressed concern that material from the Beta-M RTGs can be used by terrorists to construct a dirty bomb. 28 U.S. space missions have safely flown radioisotope energy sources since 1961.

1.3.1.2

NON THERMAL CONVERTER

Non-thermal converters extract a fraction of the nuclear energy as it is being degraded into heat. Their outputs are not functions of temperature differences as are thermoelectric and thermionic converters. Non-thermal generators can be grouped into three classes. Non-thermal converters extract a fraction of the Nuclear binding energy|nuclear energy as it is being degraded into heat. Their outputs are not functions of temperature differences as are thermoelectric and thermionic converters. Non-thermal generators can be grouped into three classes.

1.3.1.2.1 DIRECT CHARGE GENERATOR In the first type, the primary generator consists of a [[capacitor]] which is charged by the current of charged particles from a radioactive layer deposited on one of the electrodes. Spacing can be either vacuum or dielectric. Negatively charged beta particles or positively charged alpha particles, positrons or Fission products fission fragments may be utilized. Although this form of nuclearelectric generator dates back to 1913, few applications have been found in the past for the extremely low currents and inconveniently high voltages provided by direct charging generators. Oscillator/transformer systems are employed to reduce the voltages, then rectifiers are used to transform the AC power back to direct current. English physicist Henry Moseley|H.G.J. Moseley constructed the first of these. Moseleys apparatus consisted of a glass globe [[silver]]ed on the inside with a radium emitter mounted on the tip of a wire at the center. The charged particles from

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the radium created a flow of electricity as they moved quickly from the radium to the inside surface of the sphere. As late as 1945 the Moseley model guided other efforts to build experimental batteries generating electricity from the emissions of radioactive elements.

1.3.1.2.2 BETAVOLTAICS Betavoltaics are generators of electrical current, in effect a form of battery, which use energy from a radioactive source emitting beta particles (electrons). A common source used is the hydrogen isotope, tritium. Unlike most nuclear power sources, which use nuclear radiation to generate heat, which then generates electricity (thermoelectric and thermionic sources), betavoltaics use a nonthermal conversion process, using a semiconductor p-n junction. Betavoltaics are particularly wellsuited to low-power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed, such as implantable medical devices or military and space applications.

1.3.1.2.3 ALPHAVOLTAICS Alphavoltaic power sources are devices that use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical particle from energetic alpha particles.

1.3.1.2.4 OPTOELECTRIC An optolectric nuclear battery has also been proposed by researchers of the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow. A beta-emitter (such as technetium-99) would stimulate an excimer mixture, and the light would power a solar cell|photocel. The battery would consist of an excimer mixture of argon,xenon in a pressure vessel with an internal mirrored surface, finely-divided Tc-99, and an intermittent Ultrasound ultrasonic stirrer, illuminating a photocell with a bandgap tuned for the excimer. The advantage of this design is that precision electrode assemblies are not needed, and most beta particles escape the finely-divided bulk material to contribute to the battery's net power. An optoelectric nuclear battery is a device that converts nuclear energy into light, which it then uses to generate electrical energy. A beta-emitter such as technetium-99 orstrontium-90 is suspended in a gas or liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the excimer type, constituting a "dust plasma." This permits a nearly lossless emission of beta electrons from the emitting dust particles. The electrons then excite the gases whose excimer line is selected for the conversion of the radioactivity into a surrounding photovoltaic layer such that a lightweight, low-pressure, high-

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efficiency

battery can

be

realised.

These nuclides are

relatively

low-cost radioactive

waste from nuclear power reactors. The diameter of the dust particles is so small (a few micrometers) that the electrons from the beta decay leave the dust particles nearly without loss. The surrounding weakly ionized plasma consists of gases or gas mixtures (such as krypton, argon, and xenon) with excimer lines such that a considerable amount of the energy of the beta electrons is converted into this light. The surrounding walls contain photovoltaic layers with wide forbidden zones as e.g. diamond which convert the optical energy generated from the radiation into electrical energy.

1.3.1.2.5 RECIPROCATING ELECTROMECHANICAL ATOMIC BATTERY Electromechanical atomic batteries use the buildup of charge between two plates to pull one bendable plate towards the other, until the two plates touch, discharge, equalizing the electrostatic buildup, and spring back. The mechanical motion produced can be used to produce electricity through flexing of a material or through a linear generator. Mill watts of power are produced in pulses depending on the charge rate, in some cases multiple times per second (35  Hz). A piezoelectric cantilever is mounted directly above a base of the radioactive isotope nickel-63. All of the radiation emitted as the millicurie-level nickel-63 thin film decays is in the form of beta radiation, which consists of electrons. As the cantilever accumulates the emitted electrons, it builds up a negative charge at the same time that the isotope film becomes positively charged. The beta particles essentially transfer electronic charge from the thin film to the cantilever. The opposite charges cause the cantilever to bend toward the isotope film. Just as the cantilever touches the thinfilm isotope, the charge jumps the gap. That permits current to flow back onto the isotope, equalizing the charge and resetting the cantilever. As long as the isotope is decaying - a process that can last for decades - the tiny cantilever will continue its up-and-down motion. As the cantilever directly generates electricity when deformed, a charge pulse is released each time the cantilever cycles. Radioactive isotopes can continue to release energy over periods ranging from weeks to decades. The half-life of nickel-63, for example, is over 100 years. Thus, a battery using this isotope might continue to supply useful energy for at least half that time. Researchers have demonstrated devices with about 7% efficiency with high frequencies of 120 Hz to low-frequency (every three hours) selfreciprocating actuators. 18

1.3.1.2.3 INDIRECT CHARGE GENERATOR Indirect conversion typically involves two steps of conversion. The radioactive decay consisting of either alpha or beta particles is impinged on some radio luminescent material like phosphor to produce photons and then is collected using photodiodes or 'solar cells'. Optimization has to be done on the structure of the photo diode, the phosphor filling, the method to collect photons and the placement of the radioactive material. Also, the optical properties of the conversion processes need to be matched. At best, we can expect an overall efficiency of 2% at 3.5V open circuit voltage. Theoretically this efficiency can be 25%.

19

CHAPTER 2 ENERGY PRODUCTION MECHANISM

2.1 BETAVOLTAICS
Betavoltaics is an alternative energy technology that promises vastly extended battery life and power density over current technologies. Betavoltaics are generators of electrical current, in effect a form of a battery, which use energy from a radioactive source emitting beta particles (electrons). The functioning of a betavoltaics device is somewhat similar to a solar panel, which converts photons (light) into electric current. Betavoltaic technique uses a silicon wafer to capture electrons emitted by a radioactive gas, such as tritium. It is similar to the mechanics of converting sunlight into electricity in a solar panel. The flat silicon wafer is coated with a diode material to create a potential barrier. The radiation absorbed in the vicinity of and potential barrier like a p-n junction or a metal-semiconductor contact would generate separate electron-hole pairs which in turn flow in an electric circuit due to the voltaic effect. Of course, this occurs to a varying degree in different materials and geometries. A pictorial representation of a basic Betavoltaic conversion as shown in figure 1. Electrode A (P-region) has a positive potential while electrode B (N-region) is negative with the potential difference provided by me conventional means.

Fig.2.1 Betavoltaic conversion

The junction between the two electrodes is comprised of a suitably ionisable medium exposed to decay particles emitted from a radioactive source.

20

The energy conversion mechanism for this arrangement involves energy flow in different stages show in figure 2.2.

Fig.2.2 Mechanism of energy flow

Stage 1 Before the radioactive source is introduced, a difference in potential between to electrodes is provided by a conventional means. An electric load RL is connected across the electrodes A and B. Although a potential difference exists, no current flows through the load RL because the electrical forces are in equilibrium and no energy comes out of the system. We shall call this ground state E0. Stage 2 Next, we introduce the radioactive source, say a beta emitter, to the system. Now, the energy of the beta particle Eb generates electron-hole pair in the junction by imparting kinetic energy which knocks electrons out of the neutral atoms. This amount of energy E1, is known as the ionization potential of the junction. Stage 3 Further the beta particle imparts an amount of energy in excess of ionization potential. This additional energy raises the electron energy to an elevated level E2. Of course the beta [particle dose not impart its energy to a single ion pair, but a single beta particle will generate as many as thousands of electron- hole pairs. The total number of ions per unit volume of the junction is dependent upon the junction material. Stage 4 Next, the electric field present in the junction acts on the ions and drives the electrons into electrode A. the electrons collected in electrode A together with the electron deficiency of electrode B establishes Fermi voltage between the electrodes. Naturally, the electrons in electrode A seek to give up their energy and go back to their ground state (law of entropy).

21

Stage 5 The Fermi voltage derives electrons from the electrode A through the load where they give up their energy in accordance with conventional electrical theory. A voltage drop occurs across the load as the electrons give an amount of energy E3. Then the amount of energy available to be removed from the system is E3= Eb - E1 L1-L2 Where L1 is the converter loss and L2 is the loss in the electrical circuit. Stage 6 The electrons, after passing to the load have an amount of energy E4.from the load, the electrons are then driven into the electrode B where it is allowed to recombine with a junction ion, releasing the recombination energy E4 in the form of heat this completes the circuit and the electron has returned to its original ground state. The end result is that the radioactive source acts as a constant current generator. Then the energy balance equation can be written as E0=Eb E1 E3-L1-L2 Until now betavoltaics has been unable to match solar-cell efficiency. The reason is simple: when the gas decays, its electrons shoot out in all directions. Many of them are lost. A new Betavoltaic device using porous silicone diodes was proposed to increase their efficiency. The flat silicon surface, where the electrons are captured and converted to a current, and turned into a 3- dimensional surface by adding deep pits. Each pit is about 1 micron wide. That is four hundred-thousandths of an inch. They are more than 40 microns deep. When the radioactive gas occupies these pits, it creates the maximum opportunity for harnessing the reaction.

2.2 DIRECT CHARGING GENERATORS In this type, the primary generator consists of a high Q LC tank circuit as shown in figure 2.3. The energy imparted to radioactive decay products during the spontaneous disintegrations of radioactive material is utilized to sustain and amplify the oscillations in the high-Q LC tank circuit the circuit inductance comprises a coil wound on a core composed of radioactive nuclides connected in series with the primary winding of a power transformer.

22

Fig.2.3 LC equivalent resonant circuit

The core is fabricated from a mixture of three radioactive materials which decay primarily by alpha emission and provides a greater flux of radioactive decay products than the equivalent amount of single radioactive nuclei. Equitant circuit of the direct charging generator as shown in the figure 3.An LCR circuit 1 is comprised of a capacitor 3, inductor file, transformer T primary winding 9 and resistance 11 connected in series. It is assumed that the electrical conductors connecting the various circuit elements and forming the inductor file and primary winding 9 are perfect conductors; i.e., no DC resistance. Resistor 11 is a lump resistance equivalent to total DC resistance of the actual circuit components and conductors. The inductor 5 is wound on a core 7 which is composed of a mixture of radioactive elements decaying primarily by alpha particle emission. When the current flows in electrical circuit, energy is dissipated or lost in the form of heat. Thus, when oscillations are induced in an LCR circuit, the oscillations will gradually damp out due to the loss of energy in the circuit unless energy is continuously added to the circuit to sustain the oscillations. In the LCR circuit shown in figure 3, a portion of the energy imparted to the decay products such as alpha particles. During the radioactive decay of the materials inductor core 7 is introduced into the circuit 1, when the decay products are absorbed by the conductor which forms inductor 5. Once oscillations have been induced in the LCR circuit 1, the energy absorbed by the inductor 5 form the radioactive decay of the core7 material will sustain the oscillations as long as the amount of energy absorbed is equal to the amount of energy dissipated in the ohmic resistance of the circuit 1.If the absorbed energy is greater than the amount of energy lost through ohmic heating, the oscillations will be amplified. This excess energy can be delivered to a load 17 connected across the transformer T secondary winding 13. The process involved in the conversion of the energy released by the spontaneous disintegration of a radioactive material into electrical energy are numerous and complex. Materials that are naturally radioactive, decay by the emission of either an alpha particle or

23

a beta particle and gamma rays may accompany either process. Radioactive materials that decay primarily by alpha particle emission are preferred as inductor core 7 materials. Alpha particles are emitted a very high speeds, in the order of 1.6*107 meters per second (m/s) and consequently have very high kinetic energy. Alpha particles emitted in radium, for example, decays are found to consist of two groups, those with a kinetic energy of 48.79*105 electron volts (eV) and those having energy of 46.95*105 electron volts. This kinetic energy must be dissipated when the alpha particles are absorbed by the conductor forming inductor 5. During the absorption process, each alpha particle will collide with one or more atoms in the conductor knocking electron from their orbits and imparting some kinetic energy to the electrons. This results in increase number of conduction electrons in the conductor there by increasing its conductivity. Since the alpha particle is a positively charged ion, while the alpha particle is moving it will have an associated magnetic field. When the alpha particle is stopped by the conductor, the magnetic field will collapse thereby inducing a pulse of current in the conductor producing a net increase in the current flowing in the circuit 1. Also, there will be additional electrons stripped from orbit due to ionization reduced by the positively charged alpha particles.

Fig. 2.4 constructed nuclear battery

Referring to figure 2.4, the nuclear battery is constructed in a cylindrical configuration. Inductor 5 is constructed of copper wire wound in a single layer around the radioactive core 7. Decay products, such as alpha particles, are emitted radially outward from the core 7 as indicated by arrows 2 to be absorbed by the copper conductor forming inductor 5. Eight transformers are arranged in a circular

24

pattern to form a cylinder concentric with and surrounding inductor 5. The transformers have primary windings 9a-9h connected in series which are then connected in series with inductor 5 and capacitor 3 to form an LCR circuit. The central core 7, inductor5 and the eight transformers 15 are positioned within a cylindrical shaped container 19. Copper wire is wound in a single layer on the outside wall and the inside wall of cylinder 19 to form windings 23 and21 respectively. The transformers 15, secondary windings 13a-13h and windings 21 and 23 are connected in series to output terminals 25 and 27. The configuration of inductor 5 is designed to ensure maximum eradication of the copper conductor by the radioactive core source 7. The cylindrical configuration of the power transformer ensures maximum transformer efficiency with minimum magnetic flux leakages.

2.3 OPTOELECTRICS An optoelectric nuclear battery has been proposed by researchers of the kurchatov institute in Moscow. A beta emitter such as technetium-99 are strontium-90 is suspended in a gas or liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the exciter type, constituting dust plasma. This permits a nearly lossless emission of beta electrons from the emitting dust particles for excitation of the gases whose exciter line is selected for the conversion of the radioactivity into a surrounding photovoltaic layer such that a comparably light weight low pressure, high efficiency battery can be realized. These nuclides are low cost radioactive of nuclear power reactors. The diameter of the dust particles is so small (few micrometers) that the electrons from the beta decay leave the dust particles nearly without loss. The surrounding weakly ionized plasma consists of gases or gas mixtures (e.g. krypton, argon, xenon) with exciter lines, such that a considerable amount of the energy of the beta electrons is converted into this light the surrounding walls contain photovoltaic layers with wide forbidden zones as egg. Diamond which converts the optical energy generated from the radiation into electric energy. The battery would consist of an exciter of argon, xenon, or krypton (or a mixture of two or three of them) in a pressure vessel with an internal mirrored surface, finely-ground radioisotope and an intermittent ultrasonic stirrer, illuminating photocell with a band gap tuned for the exciter. When the electrons of the beta active nuclides (e.g. krypton-85 or argon-39) are excited, in the narrow exciter band at a minimum thermal losses, the radiations so obtained is converted into electricity in a high band gap photovoltaic layer (e.g. in a p-n diode) very efficiently the electric power per weight

25

compared with existing radionuclide batteries can then be increased by a factor 10 to 50 and more. If the pressure-vessel is carbon fiber / epoxy the weight to power ratio is said to be comparable to an air breathing engine with fuel tanks. The advantage of this design is that precision electrode assemblies are not needed and most beta particles escape the finely-divided bulk material to contribute to the batteries net power. The disadvantage consists in the high price of the radionuclide and in the high pressure of up to 10MPa (100bar) and more for the gas that requires an expensive and heavy container.

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CHAPTER 3 FUEL CONSIDERATIONS AND ENERGY PRODUCTION

3.1 FUEL CONSIDERATIONS Any radioisotope in the form of a solid that gives off alpha or beta particles can be utilized in the nuclear battery. The first cell constructed (that melted the wire components) employed the most powerful source known, radium-226, as the energy source. However, radium-226 gives rise through decay to the daughter product bismuth-214, which gives off strong gamma radiation that requires shielding for safety. This adds a weight penalty in mobile applications. The major criterions considered in the selection of fuels are: Avoidance of gamma in the decay chain Half life Particle range Watch out for (alpha, n)reactions

Radium-226 is a naturally occurring isotope which is formed very slowly by the decay of uranium238. Radium-226 in equilibrium is present at about 1 gram per 3 million grams of uranium in the earths crust. Uranium mill wastes are readily available source of radium-226 in very abundant quantities. Uranium mill wastes contain far more energy in the radium-226 than is represented by the fission energy derived from the produced uranium. Strontium-90 gives off no gamma radiation so it does not necessitate the use of thick lead shielding for safety.strrrontium-90 does not exist in nature, but it is one of the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission. The utilizable energy from strontium-90 substantially exceeds the energy derived from the nuclear fission which gave rise to this isotope. Once the present stores of nuclear wastes have been mined, the future supplies of strontium-90 will depend on the amount of nuclear electricity generated hence strontium90 decay may ultimately become a premium fuel for such special uses as for perpetually powered wheel chairs and portable computers. Plutonium-238 dioxide is used for space application. Half life of tantalum-180m is about 1015 years. In its ground state, tantalum-180 (180Ta) is very unstable and decays to other nuclei in about 8 hours but its isomeric state, 180m Ta, is found in natural samples. Tantalum 180m hence can be used for switchable nuclear batteries.

27

Fig. 3.1 relation between energy and power density

A current flowing through the device generates heat (I2R losses). As long as the temperature increase does not cause a phase change, nothing happens. However, if the current increases enough so that corresponding temperature rise causes a phase change, the polymers crystalline structure disappears, the volume expands, and the conducting carbon chains are broken. The result is a dramatic increase in resistance. Whereas before in the phase change a polymer-carbon combination may have a resistance measured milliohms or ohms, after the phase change the same structures resistance may be measured in mega ohms. Current flow is reduced accordingly, but the small residual current and associated I2R loss is enough to latch the polymer in this state, and the fuse will stay open until power is removed.

3.2 ENERGY FROM RADIOACTIVITY

Let us do a calculation to estimate the energy in 1000 kg of U-235. Its half life is 4.5 109years. The energy released in each alpha particle is 4.27 MeV. The decay constant is k = ln(2)/(half-life) ~ 4.9 10-18 sec-1. The number of nuclei is N = 1000 kg / (235 mass of proton) ~ 2.6 10 27. The activity is thus k N ~ 1.3 1010sec-1. Now, power is activity energy per particle, which is about 0.0085 W. If we convert all this energy to electricity, we might barely have enough to power an LED! If we

28

replace U-235 with Cs-137 with a half life of about 30 years, it would yield 1 MW of power, which is sizable, yet not even close enough to run a power plant. The conversion could be lossy too. This hints at the domains of operation: long lasting power supply, low power, high energy. Electrical technology being mature, we consider harnessing and/or storage in terms of electricity.

3.3 ATOMIC BATTERIES-ENERGY AND POWER

The family of devices that convert these radiations to electrical power is known as Atomic Batteries. Conversion is classified into two main types: Thermal and non-thermal. Thermal conversion uses the energy in the radiation to heat a target, which is then converted to electricity, for instance using a thermocouple. Non thermal converters do not depend on the thermal energy of radiation; for instance radiation can be used to induce charge which is then converted to electricity. The efficiency of these can be about 20% at best. To compare their performances, we consider the power and energy density of storage devices. Such a plot is known as a Ragone plot. [2,3] Fig.3.2 presents a Ragone plot of atomic batteries made of some commonly used radioactive materials and compares them to commonly used batteries. The sloped lines are constant-time lines. The numbers for atomic batteries were calculated as shown in the previous section, assuming an efficiency of 0.1. This shows that atomic batteries are high energy density and relatively low power density devices.

Fig.3.2 Ragone plot for various batteries including Atomic batteries.

29

The costs that matter are the cost per unit energy ($/kJ) and the cost per unit power ($/kW). The costs for various commonly used batteries were obtained from a market survey - by obtaining the cost per kilogram of the packaged product and using Fig. 1 to get to $/kJ of the storage system. The costs of atomic batteries were approximated to the cost of the radioactive material required to build it, since the $/kg of these materials are many orders of magnitude higher than the cost of processing or packaging. The cost of most of these substances were found to be about 105$/kg. Fig.3.3 shows the data obtained from this analysis. We observe that some of the atomic batteries, especially those of Sr-90 and Cs-137 are comparable in power density to chemical batteries and lower in cost.

Fig.3.3 Cost per unit energy ($/kJ) plotted against power density (W/kg) of various batteries.

3.4 APPLICATION
The applications follow from the position of these in the Ragone plot. These batteries have been employed to enable compact and high energy capacity power generators for applications ranging from implantable cardiac pacemakers to space stations. [4, 5] Currently, radioisotope power generators are being developed for realizing safe, compact, high energy capacity, and long lifetime batteries for remote wireless sensor microsystems in applications ranging from environmental health monitoring to structural health monitoring. [6, 7] These are also employed in a variety of industrial applications including electron capture devices for gas chromatography.

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3.5 ENERGY CONVERSION

The thermal atomic battery converts the atomic energy into heat first and then electricity. While thermal-to-electric conversion techniques has been studied extensively, there are many of them are available to be generalized to heat source powered by radioisotopes. To date, thermal converters include following forms, thermionic converter, radioisotope thermoelectric generator, thermo photovoltaic cell, alkali-metal thermal to electric converter and Sterling radioisotope generator. The conversion of atomic energy to heat is quite simple. In thermal conversion atomic battery, the radioisotope, called fuel, is placed in a container. Alpha particles generated by alpha decay or beta particles generated by beta decay can easily interact with atoms of shielding materials and lose energy. This part of energy is dissipated in the form of heat. Therefore, the container and the radioisotope itself are used as heat source in thermal conversion atomic battery. In thermionic converter, the heat generated from radioactive decay is used to heat a hot electrode to emit electron through thermionic emission at temperature 1500-2000 K. [1] The emitted electron is collected by a cold electrode. [1] Plasma, usually consisting of Cs vapor, is maintained between the two electrodes to reduce the work needed for electron emission, magnify the currency, which is favorable to increase efficiency and modify the electron conducting property between electrodes. [2-4]. the efficiency can also be increased by lowering the potential difference between the top of the potential barrier in the interelectrode space and the Fermi level of the anode. [5] However, the efficiency of the thermionic converter cannot exceed 90% of Carnot efficiency. [3] In practice, the efficiency of thermionic converter can be close to 20%. Radioisotope thermoelectric generator makes use of Seebeck effect to directly transfer the temperature difference between heat source and heat sink to electricity. Its structure is quite simple. The hot end of a thermopile is attached to the heat source, and its cold end is attached to the heat sink, usually the ambient temperature. Thermopile for power generation is usually made of pairs of connected P-type and N-type semiconductors. In presence of temperature difference, the velocity of charge carrier in both semiconductors is different, which forms current. Due to its simplicity, radioisotope thermoelectric generator is very reliable and can be made very small, and thus widely used in spacecraft. However, the efficiency of this converter is very low, about 7% in practical use. One possible way to improve efficiency is to hybridize the system with other converter. The working temperature of a typical radioisotope thermoelectric generator is much lower than that of thermionic converter. The hot end temperature is 811 K while

31

the cold end temperature is 394 K. Thermo photovoltaic cell is similar to other photovoltaic cell in that it converts the energy of photons generated by thermal emission of the heat source into electricity. Wien's Law gives out the relation between wavelength with peak light flux and the temperature as max = b T Where b is Wien's displacement constant and T is temperature. Considering that a reasonable temperature of radioisotope heater unit is around 1200K-1500 K, the peak wavelength of the thermal emission is within the infrared light spectrum and the band gap of the photovoltaic cell should be smaller than solar cell that mainly uses visible light for energy conversion. Several thermo photovoltaic techniques have been proposed with reported efficiency up to 23%. These pilot projects are encouraging to result in higher conversion efficiency than current state-of-the-art level.The alkali-metal thermal to electric converter is a relatively young technique. This converter is basically a concentration cell with sodium vapor at 600-1000 K and solid sodium at 100-500 K as electrode as well as solid beta-alumina as electrolyte. The reaction in the cell absorbs heat. Thus additional heat is required to maintain the cell at operating temperature. Some models have been reported with efficiency of 14-18% while the theoretical efficiency can reach 20%-40%. The Stirling radioisotope generator converts the heat from radioisotope to dynamic motion by a Stirling engine and then a generator converts the motion to electricity. A Stirling engine is a heat engine operating by cyclic compression and expansion of working fluid at different temperature levels. It is classified as an external combustion engine since the heat transfer take place through the engine wall and there is no mass exchange of working fluid with outside of engine, which is perfect for external heat source as radioisotope heater unit. NASA, DoE and Lockheed Martin have jointly launched project to develop this type of converter for the use of space craft.In this project, helium is used as working fluid and efficiency as high as 23% has been achieved in experiments. The greatest challenge to date of Stirling generator is its reliability. Compared to other form of converter, it has moving parts and its vibration may harm other facilities within the spacecraft.New technology is needed to overcome these disadvantages.

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3.6 SELETION OF RADIOISOTOPES

There are several criteria in selecting the radioisotope fuel. Firstly, the radioisotope should produce high energy decay. Alpha particle has a typical dynamic energy of 5 MeV while the figure of beta particle is typically 1 MeV. Secondly, the radiation must be easily absorbed and converted into heat. In general, alpha radiation has most significant heat effect; beta radiation can give off considerable amounts of gamma radiation through secondary radiation; gamma neutron radiation can easily penetrate common shielding material. Therefore, radioisotope of the type of alpha decay is favorable. Thirdly, the half-life of radioisotope must be long enough to release energy at a relatively constant rate for a reasonably long time. The life span of a thermal atomic battery is usually expected to be decades. Therefore, the half-life of radioisotope must be at least several decades. In the case of spacecraft, the energy density of radioisotope must be high to reduce the load of spacecraft. No more than 30 radioisotopes satisfy the first two criteria. Currently, Pu-238, Cm-244 and Sr-90 are most widely used radioisotopes. Other isotopes such as Po-210, Pm-147, Cs-137, Ce-144, Ru-106, Co-60, Cm-242 have also been studied for this use.Within these candidates, Pu-238 has the lowest shielding requirement and longest half-life. It needs less than 2.5mm of lead shielding to screen radiation. As a fuel for thermal atomic battery, it usually takes the form of PuO2 with a half-life of 87.7 years. Sr-90 has much lower energy density and produces gamma radiation. However, it is still used in some cases since it is relatively cheap. Am-241 has a half-life of 432 years but only 1/4 of energy density of Pu-238 and requires at least 18 mm lead shielding to screen the penetrating radiation it produced.

3.7 NUCLEAR FISSION

RTGs and nuclear power reactors use very different nuclear reactions. Nuclear power reactors use controlled nuclear fission. When an atom of U-235 or Pu-239 fuel fissions, neutrons are released that trigger additional fissions in a chain reaction at a rate that can be controlled with neutron absorbers. This is an advantage in that power can be varied with demand or shut off entirely for maintenance. It is also a disadvantage in that care is needed to avoid uncontrolled operation at dangerously high power levels. Chain reactions do not occur in RTGs, so heat is produced at an unchangeable, though steadily decreasing rate that depends only on the amount of fuel isotope and its half-life. An accidental power excursion is impossible. However, if a launch or re-entry accident occurs and the fuel is dispersed, the combined power output of the now radionuclides set free does not drop. In an

33

RTG, heat generation cannot be varied with demand or shut off when not needed. Therefore, auxiliary power supplies (such as rechargeable batteries) may be needed to meet peak demand, and adequate cooling must be provided at all times including the pre-launch and early flight phases of a space mission.

3.7.1 RTG FOR INTERSTELLER PROBES

RTG have been proposed for use on realistic interstellar precursor missions and interstellar probes. An example of this is the Innovative Interstellar Explorer (2003current) proposal from NASA. A RTG using 241Am was proposed for this type of mission in 2002. This could support mission extensions up to 1000 years on the interstellar probe, because the power output would be more stable in the long-term than plutonium. Other isotopes for RTG were also examined in the study, looking at traits such as watt/gram, half-life, and decay products. An interstellar probe proposal from 1999 suggested using three advanced radioisotope power source (ARPS).The RTG electricity can be used for powering scientific instruments and communication to Earth on the probes. One mission proposed using the electricity to power ion engines, calling this method radioisotope electric propulsion (REP).

3.8 NUCLEAR POWER SYSTEM IN SPACE

Known spacecraft nuclear power systems and their fate. Systems face a variety of fates, for example, Apollo's SNAP-27 were left on the Moon.Some other spacecraft also have small radioisotope heaters, for example each of the Mars Exploration Rovers have a 1 watt radioisotope heater. Spacecraft use different amounts of material, for example MS Curiosity has 4.8 kg of plutonium-238 dioxide, while the Cassini spacecraft has 32.7 kg.

Name and/or model

Launched

Fate/location

MSL/Curiosity rover MMRTG

2011

Mars surface

Apollo 12 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1969

Lunar surface (Ocean of Storms)

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Name and/or model

Launched

Fate/location

Apollo 13 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1970

Earth re-entry (over Pacific near Fiji)

Apollo 14 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1971

Lunar surface (Fra Mauro)

Apollo 15 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1971

Lunar surface (Hadley Apennine)

Apollo 16 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1972

Lunar surface (Descartes Highlands)

Apollo 17 SNAP-27 ALSEP

1972

Lunar surface (TaurusLittrow)

Transit-4A SNAP-3B

1961

Earth orbit

Transit 5A3 SNAP-3

1963

Earth orbit

Transit 5BN-1 SNAP-3

1963

Earth orbit

Transit 5BN-2 SNAP-9A

1963

Earth orbit

Transit 9

1964

Earth orbit

Transit 5B4

1964

Earth orbit

Transit 5B6

1965

Earth orbit

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Name and/or model

Launched

Fate/location

Transit 5B7

1965

Earth orbit

Transit 5BN-3 SNAP-9A (1) 1964

Failed to reach orbit[41]

Nimbus-B SNAP-19 (2)

1968

Recovered after crash

Nimbus-3 SNAP-19 (2)

1969

Earth re-entry 1972

Pioneer 10 SNAP-19 (4)

1972

Ejected from Solar System

Pioneer 11 SNAP-19 (4)

1973

Ejected from Solar System

Viking 1 lander modified SNAP-19

1976

Mars surface (Chryse Planitia)

Viking 2 lander modified SNAP-19

1976

Mars surface

Cassini GPHS-RTG (3)

1997

Orbiting Saturn

New Horizons GPHS-RTG (1)

2006

Leaving the Solar System

Galileo GPHS-RTG (2),

1989

Jupiter atmospheric entry

Ulysses GPHS-RTG (1)

1990

Heliocentric orbit

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Name and/or model

Launched

Fate/location

LES-8 MHW-RTG

1976

Near geostationary orbit

LES-9 MHW-RTG

1976

Near geostationary orbit

Voyager 1 MHW-RTG(3)

1977

Ejected from Solar System

Voyager 2 MHW-RTG(3)

1977

Ejected from Solar System

Fig.3.4 spacecraft nuclear power systems

3.9 INDUCED GAMMA EMISSION

In physics, induced gamma emission (IGE) refers to the process of fluorescent emission of gamma rays from excited nuclei, usually involving a specific nuclear isomer. It is analogous to conventional fluorescence, which is defined as the emission of a photon (unit of light) by an excited electron in an atom or molecule. In the case of IGE, nuclear isomers can store significant amounts of excitation energy for times long enough for them to serve as nuclear fluorescent materials. There are over 800 known nuclear isomers but almost all are too intrinsically radioactive to be considered for applications. As of 2006 there were five proposed nuclear isomers that appeared to be physically capable of IGE fluorescence in safe arrangements: tantalum-180m, osmium-187m, platinum186m], hafnium-178m2 and zinc-66m.

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Fig. 3.5 Energetics of IGE from 115In. Arrows are photons, (up) absorption, (down) emission. Horizontal lines represent excited states of in involved in IGE

Induced gamma emission is an example of interdisciplinary research bordering on both nuclear physics and quantum electronics. Viewed as a nuclear reaction it would belong to a class in which only photons were involved in creating and destroying states of nuclear excitation. It is a class usually overlooked in traditional discussions. In 1939 Pontecorvo and Lazard reported the first example of this type of reaction. Indium was the target and in modern terminology describing nuclear reactions it would be written 115In (,')115mIn. The product nuclide carries an "m" to denote that it has a long enough half life (4.5 hr in this case) to qualify as being a nuclear isomer. That is what made the experiment possible in 1939 because the researchers had hours to remove the products from the irradiating environment and then to study them in a more appropriate location. With projectile photons, momentum and energy can be conserved only if the incident photon, X-ray or gamma, has precisely the energy corresponding to the difference in energy between the initial state of the target nucleus and some excited state that is not too different in terms of quantum properties such as spin. There is no threshold behavior and the incident projectile disappears and its energy is transferred into internal excitation of the target nucleus. It is a resonant process that is uncommon in nuclear reactions but normal in the excitation of fluorescence at the atomic level. Only as recently as 1988 was the resonant nature of this type of reaction finally proven.Such resonant reactions are more readily described by the formalities of atomic fluorescence and further development was facilitated by an interdisciplinary approach of IGE.

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There is little conceptual difference in an IGE experiment when the target is a nuclear isomer. Such a reaction as mX(,')X where mX is one of the five candidates listed above, is only different because there are lower energy states for the product nuclide to enter after the reaction than there were at the start. Practical difficulties arise from the need to ensure safety from the spontaneous radioactive decay of nuclear isomers in quantities sufficient for experimentation. Lifetimes must be long enough that doses from the spontaneous decay from the targets always remain within safe limits. In 1988 Collins and coworkers reported the first excitation of IGE from a nuclear isomer. They excited fluorescence from the nuclear isomer tantalum-180m with x-rays produced by an external beam radiotherapy linac. Results were surprising and considered to be controversial until the resonant states excited in the target were identified.[5] Fully independent confirmation was reported by the Stuttgart Nuclear Group in 1999.

3.9.1 DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

If an incident photon is absorbed by an initial state of a target nucleus, that nucleus will be raised to a more energetic state of excitation. If that state can radiate its energy only during a transition back to the initial state, the result is a scattering process as seen in the schematic figure. That is not an example of IGE. If an incident photon is absorbed by an initial state of a target nucleus, that nucleus will be raised to a more energetic state of excitation. If there is a nonzero probability that sometimes that state will start a cascade of transitions as shown in the schematic, that state has been called a "gateway state" or "trigger level" or "intermediate state". One or more fluorescent photons are emitted, often with different delays after the initial absorption and the process is an example of IGE. If the initial state of the target nucleus is its ground (lowest energy) state, then the fluorescent photons will have less energy than that of the incident photon (as seen in the schematic figure). Since the scattering channel is usually the strongest, it can "blind" the instruments being used to detect the fluorescence and early experiments preferred to study IGE by pulsing the source of incident photons while detectors were gated off and then concentrating upon any delayed photons of fluorescence when the instruments could be safely turned back on. If the initial state of the target nucleus is a nuclear isomer (starting with more energy than the ground) it can also support IGE. However in that case the schematic diagram is not simply the example seen for 115In but read from right to left with the arrows turned the other way. Such a "reversal" would require simultaneous (to within <0.25 ns)

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absorption of two incident photons of different energies to get from the 4 hr isomer back up to the "gateway state". Usually the study of IGE from a ground state to an isomer of the same nucleus teaches little about how the same isomer would perform if used as the initial state for IGE. In order to support IGE an energy for an incident photon would have to be found that would "match" the energy needed to reach some other gateway state not shown in the schematic that could launch its own cascade down to the ground state. If the target is a nuclear isomer storing a considerable amount of energy then IGE might produce a cascade that contains a transition that emits a photon with more energy than that of the incident photon. This would be the nuclear analog

of upconversion in laser physics. If the target is a nuclear isomer storing a considerable amount of energy then IGE might produce a cascade through a pair of excited states whose lifetimes are "inverted" so that in a collection of such nuclei, population would build up in the longer lived upper level while emptying rapidly from the shorter lived lower member of the pair. The resulting inversion of population might support some form of coherent emission analogous to amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) in laser physics. If the physical dimensions of the collection of target isomer nuclei were long and thin, then a sort of "gamma ray laser" might result.

3.9.2 POTENTIAL APPLICATION

1. ENERGY-SPECIFICDOSIMETERS Since the IGE from ground state nuclei requires the absorption of very specific photon energies to produce delayed fluorescent photons that are easily counted, there is the possibility to construct energy-specific dosimeters by combining several different nuclides. This was demonstrated for the calibration of the radiation spectrum from the DNA-PITHON pulsed nuclear simulator. Such a dosimeter could be useful in radiation therapy where X-ray beams may contain many energies. Since photons of different energies deposit their effects at different depths in the tissue being treated, it could help calibrate how much of the total dose would be deposited in the actual target volume. 2. AIRCRAFT POWER In February 2003, the non-peer reviewed New Scientist wrote about the possibility of an IGEpowered airplane, a variant on nuclear propulsion. The idea was to utilize 178m2Hf (presumably due to its high energy to weight ratio) which would be triggered to release gamma rays that would heat

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air in a chamber for jet propulsion. This power source is described as a "quantum nucleonic reactor", although it is not clear if this name exists only in reference to the New Scientist article. 3. FUSION BOMB IGNITION It is partly this theoretical density that has made the entire IGE field so controversial. It has been suggested that the materials might be constructed to allow all of the stored energy to be released very quickly in a "burst". The density of gammas produced in this reaction would be high enough that it might allow them to be used to compress the fusion fuel of afusion bomb. If this turns out to be the case, it might allow a fusion bomb to be constructed with no fissile material inside (i.e. a pure fusion weapon), and it is the control of the fissile material and the means for making it that underlies most attempts to stop nuclear proliferation. In fact, the possible energy release of the gammas alone would make IGE a potential high power "explosive" on its own, or a potential radiological weapon.

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CHAPTER 4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR BATTERIES

4.1 ADVANTAGES
The most important feat of nuclear cells is the life span they offer, a minimum of 10years! This is whopping when considered that it provides nonstop electric energy for the seconds spanning these 10long years, which may simply mean that we keep our laptop or any hand held devices switched-on for 10 years nonstop. Contrary to fears associated with conventional batteries nuclear cells offers reliable electricity, without any drop in the yield or potential during its entire operational period. Thus the longevity and reliability coupled together would suffice the small factored energy needs for at least a couple of decades. The largest concern of nuclear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive materials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final disposal, all radiation protection standards must be met. Balancing the safety measures such as shielding and regulation while still keeping the size and power advantages will determine the economic feasibility of nuclear batteries. Safeties with respect to the containers are also adequately taken care as the battery cases are hermetically sealed. Thus the risk of safety hazards involving radioactive material stands reduced. As the energy associated with fissile material is several times higher than conventional sources, the cells are comparatively much lighter and thus facilitates high energy densities to be achieved. Similarly, the efficiency of such cells is much higher simply because radioactive materials in little waste generation. Thus substituting the future energy needs with nuclear cells and replacing the already existing ones with these, the world can be seen transformed by reducing the green house effects and associated risks. This should come as a handy savior for almost all developed and developing nations. Moreover the nuclear produced therein are substances that dont occur naturally. For example strontium does not exist in nature but it is one of the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission.

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4.2 DISADVANTAGES
First and foremost, as is the case with most breathtaking technologies, the high initial cost of production involved is a drawback but as the product goes operational and gets into bulk production, the price is sure to drop. The size of nuclear batteries for certain specific applications may cause problems, but can be done away with as time goes by. For example, size of Xcell used for laptop battery is much more than the conventional battery used in the laptops. Though radioactive materials sport high efficiency, the conversion methodologies used presently are not much of any wonder and at the best matches conventional energy sources. However, laboratory results have yielded much higher efficiencies, but are yet to be released into the alpha stage. A minor blow may come in the way of existing regional and country specific laws regarding the use and disposal of radioactive materials. As these are not unique worldwide and are subject to political horrors and ideology prevalent in the country. The introduction legally requires these to be scrapped or amended. It can be however be hoped that, given the revolutionary importance of this substance, things would come in favor gradually. Above all, to gain social acceptance, a new technology must be beneficial and demonstrate enough trouble free operation that people begin to see it as a normal phenomenon. Nuclear energy began to loose this status following a series of major accidents in its formative years. Acceptance accorded to nuclear power should be trust-based rather than technology based. In other words acceptance might be related to public trust of the organizations and individuals utilizing the technology as opposed to based on understanding of the available evidence regarding the technology.

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CHAPTER 5 APPLICATIONS
Nuclear batteries find many fold applications due to its long life time and improved reliability. In the ensuing era, the replacing of conventional chemical batteries will be of enormous advantages. This innovative technology will surely bring break-through in the current technology which was muddled up in the power limitations.

8.1 SPACE APPLICATIONS

In space applications, nuclear power units offer advantages over solar cells, fuel cells and ordinary batteries because of the following circumstances: When the satellite orbits pass through radiation belts such as the van-Allen belts around the Earth that could destroy the solar cells. Operations on the Moon or Mars where long periods of darkness require heavy batteries to supply power when solar cells would not have access to sunlight. Space missions in the opaque atmospheres such as Jupiter, where solar cells would be useless because of lack of light.. At a distance far from the sun for long duration missions where fuel cells, batteries and solar arrays would be too large and heavy. Heating the electronics and storage batteries in the deep cold of space at minus 245 F is a necessity. So in the future it is ensured that these nuclear batteries will replace all the existing power supplies due to its incredible advantages over the other. The applications which require a high power, a high life time, a compact design over the density, an atmospheric conditions-independent it is quite a sure shot that future will be of Nuclear Batteries. NASA is on the hot pursuit of harnessing this technology in space applications.

8.2 MEDICAL APPLICATION

The medical field finds a lot of applications with the nuclear battery due to their increased longevity and better reliability. It would be suited for medical devices like pacemakers, implanted deep fibrillators or other implanted devices that would otherwise require surgery to replace or repair the best out of the box is use in cardiac pacemakers. Batteries used in implantable cardiac pace makers-present unique challenges to their developers and manufacturers in terms of high levels of safety and reliability and it often poses threat to the end-customer. In addition, the batteries must have longevity to avoid frequent replacement. The technological advances in leads/electrodes have 44

reduced energy requirements by two orders of magnitude. Microelectronics advances sharply reduce internal current drain, concurrently decreasing size and increasing functionality, reliability and longevity. It is reported that about 600,000 pacemakers are implanted each year worldwide and the total number of people with various types of implanted pacemaker has already crossed 3,000,000. A cardiac pacemaker uses half of its battery power for cardiac stimulation and the other half for housekeeping tasks such as monitoring and data logging. The first implanted cardiac pacemaker used nickel-cadmium rechargeable battery, later on zinc-mercury battery was developed and used which lasted for over two years. Lithium iodide battery, developed in 1972 made the real impact to implantable cardiac pacemakers and is on the way. But it draws the serious threat lasts for about ten years and this is a serious problem. The life time solution is nuclear battery. Nuclear batteries are the best reliable and it lasts lifetime. The definitions for some of the important parts of the battery and its performances are parameters like voltage, duty cycle, temperature, shelf life, service life, safety and reliability, internal resistance, specific energy (watt-hour/ kg), specific power (watts/kg), and in all that means nuclear batteries stands out. The technical advantages of nuclear batteries are in terms of its longevity, adaptable shapes and sizes, corrosion resistance, minimum weight, excellent current drain that suits to cardiac pacemakers.

8.3 MOBILE DEVICE

Xcell-N is a nuclear powered laptop battery that can provide between seven and eight thousand times the life of a normal laptop battery-that is more than five years worth of continuous power. Nuclear batteries are about forgetting things around the usual charging, battery replacing and such bottlenecks. Since chemical batteries are just near the end of their life, we cant expect much more from them, in its lowest accounts, a nuclear battery can endure at least up to five years. The Xcell-N is in continuous working for the last eight months and has not been turned off and has never been plugged into electrical power since. Nuclear batteries are going to replace the conventional batteries and adaptors, so the future will be of exciting innovative new approach to powering portable devices.

8.4 AUTOMOBILES
Although it is on the initial stages of development, it is highly promised that the nuclear batteries will find a sure niche in the automobiles replacing the weary conventional iconic fuels there will be

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no case such as running out of fuel and running short of time. Fox valley auto association, USA already conducted many seminars on the scopes and they are on the way of implementing this. Although the risks associated the usage of nuclear battery, even concerned with legal restrictions are of many, but its advantages over the usual gasoline fuels are overcoming all the obstacles.

8.5 MILITARY APPLICATION

The army is undertaking a transformation into a more responsive, deployable, and sustainable force, while maintaining high levels of lethality, survivability and versatility. In unveiling this strategy, the final resource that fit quite beneficial is nuclear battery.TRACE photonics, U.S. Army Armaments Research, Development and Engineering Centre has harnessed radioisotope power sources to provide very high energy density battery power to the men in action. Nuclear batteries are much lighter than chemical batteries and will last years, even decades. No power cords or transformers will be needed for the next generation of micro electronics in which voltage-matched supplies are built into components. Safe, long-life, reliable and stable temperature is available from the direct conversion of radioactive decay energy to electricity. This distributed energy source is well suited to active radio frequency equipment tags, sensors and ultra wide-band communication chips used on the modern battlefield.

8.6 UNDERWATER SEA PROBES AND SEA SENSORS

The recent flare up of Tsunami, Earthquakes and other underwater destructive phenomenon has increased the demand for sensors that keeps working for a long time and able to withstand any crude situations. Since these batteries are geared towards applications where power is needed in inaccessible places or under extreme conditions, the researchers envision its use as deep-sea probes and sensors, sub-surface, coal mines and polar sensor application s, with a focus on the oil industry. And the next step is to adapt the technology for use in very tiny batteries that could power microelectro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) devices, such as those used in the optical switches or the free floating smart-dust sensors being developed by the military.

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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION
The world of tomorrow that science fiction dreams of and technology manifests might be a very small one. It would reason that small devices would need small batteries to power them. The use of power as heat and electricity from radioisotope will continue to be indispensible. As the technology grows, the need for more power and more heat will undoubtedly grow along with it. Clearly the current research of nuclear batteries shows promise in future applications for sure. With implementation of this new technology credibility and feasibility of the device will be heightened. The principal concern of nuclear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive materials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final disposal, all radiation protection standards must be met. The economic feasibility of the nuclear batteries will be determined by its applications and advantages. With several features being added to this little wonder and other parallel laboratory works going on, nuclear cells are going to be the next best thing ever invented in the human history.

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CHAPTER 7 LEARNING AND OUTCOMES

Nuclear batteries are designed for todays demanding electronic and electrical industries.

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REFERENCES

White Papers [1] G. Griaznov et al., "Thermoemission Reactor-Converters for Nuclear Power Units in Outer Space," Atomnaya Energiya, 66, 371 (1989). [2] N. Rasor and C. Warner, "Correlation of Emission Processes for Adsorbed Alkali Films on Metal Surfaces," J. Appl. Phys. 35, 2589 (1964). [3] J. Houston, "Theoretical Efficiency of the Thermionic Energy Converter," J. Appl. Phys. 30, 481 (1959) [4] N. Rasor, "Thermionic Energy Conversion Plasmas," IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 19, 1191 (1991). [5] J. Ingold, "Calculation of the Maximum Efficiency of the Thermionic Converter," J. Appl. Phys. 32, 769 (1961). [6] V. Wilson, "Conversion of Heat to Electricity by Thermionic Emission," J. Appl. Phys. 30, 475 (1959). [7] D. Anderson et al., "An Overview and Status of NASA's Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology NRA," U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA/TM-2005-213980, November 2005. [8] D. J. Anderson, "NASA Radioisotope Power Conversion Technology NRA Overview," U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA/TM-2005-213981, November 2005. [9] H. Nakata et al,"Ceramic Electrodes for an Alkali Metal Thermo-Electric Converter (AMTEC)" J. Appl. Electrochem. 23, 1251 (1993). [10] S.-Y. Wu et al., "A Review on Advances in Alkalai Metal Thermal to Electric Converters," Int. J. Energy Res. 33 868 (2009). [11] L. G. Thieme and J. G. Schreiber, "NASA GRC Stirling Technology Development Overview," AIP Conference Proc. 654, 613 (2003).

Websites [1] http www.cbrneworld.com convergence201

[2] http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic battery [3] http:// www.slideshare.net/pratikpatilee/nuclear-battery-seminarreport-17015751

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[4] http:// phys.org/news/2013-03-revolutionary-nuclear-battery-closer.html [5]http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/116853-mits-photonic-crystals-lead-towards-a-nuclearreactor [6] http:// arge.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/kumar1/

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