1.

SQUID: SUPERCONDUCTING QUANTUM INTERFERENCE DEVICE

(Adapted from t e Mr. S!"#d Ma$"a% (Star Cr&otro$#'() *& +err& Go%%"*, -#t "pdate( *& S".a$$e Amador /a$e 012330)
We are used to thinking of quantum mechanics as a way of understanding the properties of small things: atoms, nuclei, etc. By contrast, the macroscopic world often follows the classical laws of Newtonian mechanics. The reason for this classical behavior on the macroscopic scale is that the quantum phases of the comple wavefunctions of different atoms are unrelated and can vary in comple ways from moment to moment. We say that there is no !"a$t"m p a(e 'o ere$'e for macroscopic ob!ects. "or e ample, electrons that travel by different paths in a piece of aluminum cannot interfere with each other. #owever, something ama$ing happens if the aluminum is cooled to below %&: it changes from a normal metal to become a ("per'o$d"'tor, a phase in which a large number of electrons condense into a single quantum state. 't then does have phase coherence on a macroscopic scale, and hence can show interference between electrons that travel by quite different paths. The superconducting state e hibits some remarkable effects by virtue of its quantum mechanical coherence: it can conduct electrical current with $ero resistance, it can completely e clude magnetic flu within the superconductor (the Me#(($er effe't ), and it enables the construction of novel electronic devices. We will study *macroscopic quantum interference+ in this e periment, using *high temperature superconductors+ discovered in the %,-./s that become superconducting above the temperature of liquid nitrogen (00 &). The difference in behavior of electrons in a metal below and above the superconducting transition temperature is analogous to that between coherent laser light and ordinary incoherent sunlight or light from a lightbulb. 'n both cases, a well1defined phase that is coherent over large distances allows interference effects to be seen on a macroscopic scale. 2uperconductivity was first discovered in %,%% in a sample of mercury metal that lost its resistance !ust four degrees above absolute $ero. The phenomenon of superconductivity has been a ma!or focus of research and applications even since, although until recently efforts were limited by the low temperatures required. The first e periments only revealed the $ero resistance property of superconductors, and more than twenty years passed before discovery of the 3eissner effect. 3agnetic flu quanti$ation 4 the key to 256'7 operation 4 was predicted theoretically only in %,8. and was finally observed in %,9%. his <./s. SQUIDs (("per'o$d"'t#$4 !"a$t"m #$terfere$'e de5#'e() were first studied in the mid1%,9.s, soon after the first :osephson !unctions were made. These sensitive magnetic field detectors are also important tools in quantum computing e periments and tests of the fundamental properties of quantum mechanics. ;ractical superconducting wire for use in moving machines and magnets also became available in the %,9.=s. "or the ne t twenty years, the field of superconductivity slowly progressed toward practical applications and to more profound understanding of The :osephson effects were predicted and e perimentally verified a few years after that by Brian :osephson, who won a Nobel ;ri$e for his work while still in

Semiconductor Diodes

the underlying phenomena.

> great revolution in superconductivity came in %,-9 when the era of high1

temperature superconductivity began. The e istence of superconductivity at liquid nitrogen temperatures has opened the door to applications that are simpler and more convenient than were ever possible before. Nevertheless, the product you have in your hands today was made possible by many aspects of the -. years of discovery that preceded it. ?ou can read about current applications of high temperature superconductors in the article *#igh Temperature @uprate 2uperconductors get to work+, Physics Today, pp.A%1A0, >pril <..8, Bol 8- (A), available in the lab binder.

Introduction to Superconductivity and SQUIDS

There are certain materials 4 actually, many thousands of them by now 4 that e hibit a remarkable transition in their ability to pass electrical currents: when they are cooled down to a sufficiently low temperature, their electrical resistance vanishes completely. #ow this behavior comes about was a mystery that occupied the minds of theoretical physicists for nearly half a century after it was first observed. The answer turned out to be tied to the quantum1mechanical nature of solids, in particular, to the tendency of electrons to form organi$ed collective quantum mechanical states. Cne instance of this is Cooper pa#r( of electrons that behave cooperatively in certain materials and form a single quantum1mechanical state. While it is hard to see why two particles of like charge would form a pair, the reason why is actually easy to understand intuitively. P o$o$( (the quantum mechanical version of sound waves in solids) can promote the pairing of electrons by creating a local concentration of positive electrical charge when two nuclei move closer together as a sound wave move past themD a nearby electron can both be attracted to this local charge concentration and further concentrate it. The resulting even greater positive charge imbalance can attract and bind the second @ooper pair electron. This process has been described as similar to how a depression in a bed will encourage a person to roll into the dent, thus creating an even deeper depression and encouraging a second person in the bed to roll toward the first. This e planation also helps one understand why electrical currents can flow without resistance in a superconductor. This is because in normal conductors resistance to electrical current is caused by electrons scattering off of vibrating atomic nuclei (in other words, off of phonons)D this scattering changes the electron/s direction and transfers energy from the electrical current to sound waves. pairs. 'n the following discussions, we can only e plain these concepts briefly and without theoretical rigor. "ortunately, many such books e ist and we refer you to some in the Eeferences in 2ection %. (of the full documentation). What this guide will try to do is give you some idea of the underlying physical principles behind 3r. 256'7 F. 'n superconductors, electrons also interact with phonons, but instead of scattering off of them and diminishing the flow of electrical current, the phonons actually promote the formation and movement of @ooper

Semiconductor Diodes

The Superconducting State

> fundamental aspect of physical systems is that they naturally seek a state of lowest free energy. >n e ample of this is that a ball will roll to the lowest spot on an uneven surface (the lowest potential energy). >n e ternal source of energy (such as kicking the ball) is required to raise it to a higher spot (energy level). 2imilarly, systems of particles, such as the electrons in a metal, will occupy a lowest1energy state known as the ground state, unless they are e cited by some e ternal source of energy. 'n certain materials, it is possible for electrons to achieve a ground state with lower energy than otherwise available by entering the superconducting state. 'n this ground state, all the electrons are described by the same wavefunction. What does this meanG 'n quantum mechanics, physical entities such as electrons are described mathematically by wavefunctions. Hike ordinary waves in water or electromagnetic waves such as light waves, quantum mechanical wavefunctions are described by an amplitude (the height of the wave) and a phase (whether it is at a crest or a trough or somewhere in between). When you are describing waves of any kind, these two parameters are all that is necessary to specify what part of the wave you are discussing and how large it is. 3oving waves oscillate both in time and in space. 'f we sit at one point in space, the wavefront will oscillate in time. 'f we look at one moment in time, the wavefront undulates in space. The quantum mechanical wavefunction is a mathematical entity that describes the behavior of physical systems such as electrons and light waves. 2o far, you have probably used a wavefunction required to describe each particle in a physical system. 'n the usual or *normal+ state, the wavefunctions describing the electrons in a material are unrelated to one another. 'n a superconductor, on the other hand, a single wavefunction describes the entire population of superconducting electron pairs. That wave function may differ in phase from one place to another within the superconductor, but knowing the function in one place determines it in another. ;hysicists call such a wavefunction a *many1body wavefunction.+ 2trictly speaking, electrons are indistinguishable particlesD there is no way to keep track of an individual electron in the population and it in fact has no meaning to speak of one. The pairs of electrons that inhabit the superconducting state are constantly forming, breaking, and reforming such that the wavefunction that describes the superconducting state remains the same. >s we will see, it is the e istence of this coherent wavefunction that accounts for the phenomena associated with superconductivity.

The Quantum of Flux

'n quantum mechanics, it is common to find that, for e ample, the energy of a bound particle or the energy of a photon of light can only occur in discrete amounts called !"a$ta rather than being continuously divisible. We also see quanti$ation occurring in nature with respect to electrical charge, for e ample. To our knowledge, all electrical charge (e cluding quarks and some e otic solid state systems for the moment) occurs in units of e I %.9%.1%, @, the charge on a single electron. Therefore, nothing in nature has %.8 times this charge, for e ample. Jlectromagnetic energy is quanti$ed in units called photons, whose magnitude is set by the product of

Semiconductor Diodes

the frequency of the radiation times ;lanck=s constant. 'n general, quanti$ation is only readily apparent when we are dealing with microscopic ob!ects. 3acroscopic ob!ects are composed of enormous numbers of elementary particles whose energies, complicated interactions and chaotic thermal motion completely masks the discrete nature of the microscopic world. 2uperconductivity offers a unique opportunity to observe the quanti$ation of a physical quantity in a macroscopic, readily observable system. The key quantum property to be studied in this e periment is the quantization of the magnetic flux (field times area), , penetrating a hole in a superconducting ring (or penetrating any superconducting closed circuit). Eecall that flu is defined by the integral: = B da

Jq.%

over some loop enclosing an area a. The vector da points everywhere normal to the loop/s surface The unit of quanti$ation (or f%"6 !"a$t"m) is h/2e I <..0 %.1%8 Wb or weber, where h is ;lanck/s constant. (Note that the 2' unit of flu , is % weber I % Wb I % Tesla1m <.) 'f the flu through the hole changes (e.g. as a result of a change in a small magnetic field in the hole), circulating currents will arise in the ring that will precisely cancel the change. These circulating currents can be detected using a phenomenon called the +o(ep (o$ effe't , and hence, the small magnetic field can be measuredD this is the basis of 256'7 operation. The sensitivity to changes in flu is about ....% of one flu quantum, good enough to measure magnetic fields generated outside your skull by the process of thinking (e.g. thinking about this write1up). "or e ample, the magnetic field of the earth passing through the area of a typical 256'7 sensor corresponds to over %.. flu quanta.

Superconducting Rings
We will now e plore why superconducting rings e hibit this flu quanti$ation. @onsider the following

e periment. We cool a ring of superconductor in a small magnetic field that corresponds to one flu quantum threading the ring. We now have a superconducting ring threaded by a single flu quantum. 2uppose we now turn off the applied field. >ccording to "araday=s Haw of 'nduction, the moment that we change the field lines that thread the ring, a current flows in the ring. The current induced tries to oppose the change in magnetic field by generating a field to replace the field we removed. 'n an ordinary material, that current would rapidly decay away. 'n the superconductor, something entirely different happens. 'f the induced current decreased !ust a little bit in the ring, then the flu threading the ring would be a little less than a flu quantum. This is not allowed. The ne t allowable value of flu would be $ero flu . Therefore, the current would have to abruptly cease rather than decay away. Because the superconducting state is composed of an enormous number of electrons that are paired up and occupying the same quantum state, a current reduction of the sort needed would require all the electrons to !ump into another state simultaneously. This is an e traordinarily unlikely event. ;ractically speaking, it will never happen. >s a result, the current induced in a superconducting ring will flow indefinitely, and it prevents the magnetic flu through the loop from changing from its initial value. ;eople have actually tried this e periment for years on end. >s long as the ring is kept cold, the current flows without resistance.

Semiconductor Diodes

But why is the flu quanti$ed rather than simply constant at its initial valueG The answer lies in the long1range coherence of the superconducting wavefunction. >s we said before, the value of the wavefunction in one place in a superconductor is related to the value at any other place by a simple phase change. The case of a superconducting ring places special restrictions on the superconducting wavefunction. The wavefunction at the point marked by the black dot on the ring in "ig. % must have the same value as the wavefunction obtained by traveling around the ring one full circuit 4 it is the same spot. The phase change for this trip must be <K in order for the wavefunction to have a single value at a given point in space. 'n ordinary wave language, if the wave was at a crest at the starting point, it must be at a crest L9. (<K) around the circle.

(0) (2)

F#4"re 1: > superconducting ring showing the single1valued condition on the wavefunction/s phase. This condition of *single1valuedness of the wavefunction+ constrains the flu to quanti$ed values or f%"6o$(. >ccording to electromagnetic theory, applying a magnetic field to a superconductor induces a change in the phase of the wavefunction. 'n quantum mechanics, you learned that a free electron wavefunction can be written as ( )I > e ip
MN

, where p is the linear momentum along the 1direction. Now, advanced electricity and magnetism and

quantum mechanics e plain that you really should replace the linear momentum, p, in this relationship with what is called the 'a$o$#'a% mome$t"m, p O qA, where p is the mechanical momentum, q is charge (1<e for @ooper pairs) , and A is the ma4$et#' 5e'tor pote$t#a%. (The magnetic vector potential can be used to generate the magnetic field using the equation B = A.) This equation reveals why a given amount of magnetic field creates a specific phase change in the wavefunction, since now the phase depends upon the magnetic field through >:

(x) = eikx = eipx/ = eipcanonical x/

Eq. 2

This means that there is a term in the phase equal to not !ust (p MN) but (p M N 1 <e> M N). Now we again apply the single1valuedness condition for the phase to this new e pression. When the particle goes around a loop, the second phase term becomes a line integral of <e>M N around the loop, but that can be transformed into an area integral of the curl of > (same as the magnetic field) over the area enclosed by the loop, a quantity equal to the magnetic flu . This means that the change in phase, , as a particle goes around a loop as in "ig. % is :

Semiconductor Diodes

<e A ds <e = A da <e = B da = = <e

Eq. 3

2o, if we consider a loop within a superconductor, or any other quantum mechanical system containing magnetic flu , the phase includes a term proportional to the magnetic flu . (This is called the A aro$o578o m effe't and has been measured in many different e periments.) 2ince the phase change going completely around the ring must be some multiple of <K in order to maintain the single1valuedness of the wavefunction, the amount of flu contained within in the ring can only assume certain discrete values: I <eM N I < K . "rom this relationship, we derive the flu quantum as: . I N < K M<e I hM<e. This quantum mechanical property is the origin of flu quanti$ation.

The critical current Ic and critical magnetic field, Bc

2uperconductors can only remain superconducting if their currents remain below a critical current, and if they are surrounded by magnetic fields less than a critical magnetic field magnitude. The origin of both effects is related to the 3eissner effectPthat is, the e clusion of magnetic fields from inside the superconductor. Now, recall from electricity and magnetism that the energy due to the presence of a magnetic field of magnitude B is: U = V B2/ Jq. A

where V I volume of the material. Now, to e!clude the magnetic field a region of space costs a corresponding amount of energy. The magnetic field is e cluded from the material when it is converted from a normal metal to a superconductor. This energy cost is offset by an overall lowering of the free energy of the system, which changes from the normal state free energy "n to that of the superconducting state with free energy "s. (Why free energy rather than !ust plain energyG There is an entropic change in going from one phase to another as well as an energy difference. # "n . The free energy takes into account both changes.) 'n the absence of a magnetic field and at sufficiently low temperatures, the material lowers its internal energy by going superconducting: in other words "s The balance between the energy cost of e cluding magnetic field ( V B2/ Q .) and energy lowering by going from normal to superconducting ("s $ "n # %) is e pressed as:

U = &"s $ "n' ( V B2/

Jq. 8

Now, for B I ., clearly the superconducting state is advantageous energetically. >s either T (temperature) or B increases, the energy difference, U reaches $ero, then becomes positive and the superconducting state is no longer

Semiconductor Diodes

favorable. The material becomes a normal conductor again. The threshold value of B at which this occurs is the critical field, Bc, and it is defined by:

U = &"s $ "n' ( V Bc2/ = 0

Jq. 9

2o, Bc is the highest magnetic field at which the superconducting state is energetically favorable. #igher field values cause the superconductor to *go normal+. Now we can understand why there is also a critical current, )c. >ssociated with a current in any wire is a magnetic field. "or a simple cylindrical wire of radius r, the highest current is at the surface of the wire, and its value is: B = 2 )/&c r' Jq. 0

#ere c is the speed of light. #owever, this magnetic field cannot e ceed Bc, so we also get a limit on the ma imum current that the superconductor can support before it goes normal: )c = Bc c r /2 Jq. -

#owever, if only the surface layer goes normal, then the current is !ust pinched down to smaller radius within the wire, giving an even higher magnetic field. By this reasoning, you can see that the entire wire must go normal, not !ust the region at the surface. The critical current limits current throughout the superconductor as a result.

Josephson Junctions
The :osephson effect is yet another manifestation of what we call the long1range quantum coherence of superconductors. 't also takes advantage of the critical current idea introduced above. The simplest picture of this effect is shown in "ig. <.

F#4"re 2 2chematic diagram of two superconducting regions separated by a thin gap, in which the phase, , differs between the two regions. Two regions of superconductor are placed very close to one another, but separated by a thin region of a normal conductor. The quantum mechanical phase on the left is % and the phase on the right is <. 'n an ordinary material, the phases at two different spots are unrelated. 'n a single piece of superconductor, the phases at two different places have a specific relationship to one another. This arrangement assures the superconducting lower energy ground state. 'n the picture above, what will the phases doG The surprising answer is that if the two

Semiconductor Diodes

regions of superconductor are close enough together, their phases will also be related, even though the intervening material is not superconducting. 'n other words, they will act like a single supercon ductor. (The origin of this effect isn/t really so mysterious. The superconducting wavefunction always e tends a very short distance into a surrounding normal metal, in a fashion similar to single particle wavefunctions undergoing e ponential decay in a classically forbidden region. The *osephson +unction (or weak link) is !ust formed by placing two such regions so close together that the wavefunctions haven/t decayed to $ero on either side before they meet in the center of the !unction.) "unctionally speaking, electrical currents can flow between the two regions with $ero resistance. 2uch currents are called *osephson currents and physical systems composed of two regions of superconductor that e hibit this property are called :osephson !unctions, #ow are such structures formedG ?ou might not know it, but most metals are actually crystals. That is, they are composed of atoms arranged in a regular lattice, as shown "ig. L(a). 3ost metal wires are polycrystallinePthey are made of multiple, randomly oriented tiny crystals called crystallites or domains. Within each domain, the atoms are ordered regularly. 7omains share walls between each region of local crystalline order. Cne way these walls can arrange themselves is so as to form part of each domain on either side. The resulting wall is called a 4ra#$ *o"$dar&, as shown in "ig. L(b). Jlectrical resistance can be thought of as due to scattering of electrons from vibrating atomic nuclei in the crystalline lattice. The e tra disorder induced by a grain boundary introduces more scattering and hence greater electrical resistance. 'n addition, the disorder caused by grain boundaries can destabili$e superconductivity at these points.

(a)

(b)

F#4"re 9: (a) 2chematic diagram of a crystal lattice. (b) Jlectron micrograph of strontium1titanate showing the two mismatched crystal lattices (top and bottom) meeting at a grain boundary (center line) 'mage sources: (a) http:MMwww.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.ukM3useumMJngineeringMJlectronicsMhistoryMTransistordetails.htm (b) http:MMpruffle.mit.eduMRccarterMN>NC>3MimagesM >ny weak electrical coupling between two regions of superconductor 4 such as tiny constrictions, microscopic point contacts, weakly conducting layers, or certain crystallographic grain boundaries 4 e hibit the :osephson effect. This can be e ploited to make :osephson !unctions. The :osephson !unctions in 3r. 256'7 F are grain

Semiconductor Diodes

boundary weak1link !unctions, as shown in "ig. A. >s a result, they have a lower critical current than the rest of the superconductiving ring. :osephson !unctions are the essential active devices of superconductive electronics, much as the transistor is the essential active device of semiconductor electronics. :unctions can be used in a variety of electronic circuits as switching devices, as sensors, as variable inductors, as oscillators (because of the ac :osephson effect), and for other applications. ;eople have built :osephson electronic circuits that contain up to tens of thousands of !unctions. >t the opposite e treme, one of the most useful circuits made from :osephson !unctions is the dc 256'7, which contains only two !unctions.

F#4"re :: 2chematic diagram of 3r. 256'7S showing the two grain boundaries (black lines) that constitute the :osephson !unctions. The superconducting loop is the center circuit, while two outer coils (coil % and coil <) are used for applying magnetic fields to the device. (2tar @ryotronics)

The dc SQUID
Now we will describe how 256'7s work. > dc 256'7 is a superconducting loop with two :osephson !unctions in it. ("ig. A) 2uppose we pass a constant current, known as a bias current, through the 256'7. 'f the 256'7 is symmetrical and the !unctions are identical, the bias current will split equally, half on each side. > dc 256'7 is generally represented schematically as shown in "ig. 8.

J1 Ibia s

J2

10

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F#4"re 0: > schematic representation of the dc 256'7. (2tar @ryotronics) > supercurrent (superconducting current) will flow through the 256'7, as long as the total current flowing through it does not e ceed the critical current of the :osephson !unctions. 2ince the critical current is the ma imum current the 256'7 can carry and remain superconducting, it is also the current at which a voltage across the 256'7 develops. ?ou could measure the critical current of a 256'7 by increasing the bias current up slowly from $ero until a voltage appears, then reading the current with an ammeter. determined in this way is the critical current of the 256'7. When the two !unctions in the 256'7 are identical, the loop is symmetrical, and the applied field is $ero, both !unctions will develop a voltage at the same time. 2o the critical current of the 256'7 is simply twice the critical current of one of its !unctions. 'f the critical current of each !unction is 8 microamps, for e ample, then the critical current of the 256'7 is %. microamps. The voltage1current characteristic, or B1' curve, of a 256'7, looks very much like the V-) curve of a bulk superconductor, e cept the value of the critical current is smaller. > typical V-) characteristic for 3r. 256'7F is shown in "ig. 9, where bias current is along the 1a is and voltage is along the y1 a is. The value of current

F#4"re ;: A typical Mr. SQUIDF V-) characteristic. (2tar @ryotronics) Now imagine what happens if a magnetic field is applied to the 256'7. "irst, let/s bias the 256'7 with a current well below its critical current. Then, if we apply a tiny magnetic field to the 256'7, the magnetic field wants to change the superconducting wave function. But the superconducting wavefunction doesn/t want to change P as discussed earlier, it must maintain an integral number of wavefunction cycles around the loop. 2o the superconducting loop does what you would e pect: it opposes the applied magnetic field by generating a screening

Semiconductor Diodes

11

current )s, that flows around the loop ("ig. 0(a)). The screening current creates a magnetic field equal but opposite to the applied field, effectively canceling out the net flu in the ring.

V Ibia s /2

V Ibia s /2

Ibia s

Is

Ibia s

Is

Ibia s /2

Ibia s /2

(a)

(b)

F#4"re <: (a) > dc 256'7 in the presence of an applied magnetic field. (b) The screening current )s has reversed its direction after one additional flu quantum enters the loop. The applied magnetic field has lowered the critical current of the 256'7 P in other words, it has reduced the amount of bias current we can pass through the 256'7 without generating a voltage. The reason is that the screening current superimposes itself on top of the bias current, but we still must have ' bias O 'screening T 'c for the !unction to stay superconducting. 2uppose the critical current of each !unction is 8 microamps and the screening current is % microamp. 2ince the bottom !unction has to carry % microamp of screening current, it can now carry only A microamps of bias current before it becomes resistive. When it carries a total of 8 microamps, it becomes normal and resistive. When the !unction on the bottom goes normal, all the current goes through the !unction on the top, which makes it go normal. That means both paths are now resistive, so a voltmeter will register a voltage across the 256'7. >s we increase the applied magnetic flu , the screening current increases. But when the applied magnetic flu reaches half a flu quantum, something interesting happens. :ust the !unctions momentarily go normal. The continuity of the superconducting loop is destroyed long enough for one quantum of magnetic flu to enter the loop. Then superconductivity around the loop is restored. @onsider what happens to the screening current to see why this is also energetically favorable. Eather than generating enough screening current to keep ..8% flu quanta out, now all the 256'7 has to do is generate enough screening current to keep ..A, flu quanta in, which is, of course, a little easier (that is, lower in energy.) Cf course, the screening current has to change direction, as shown in "ig. 0(b). Thus, the !unctions serve as gates that allow magnetic flu to enter (or leave) the loop. The voltage read with an oscilloscope is the average voltage across the 256'7. >lthough the e perimenter observes a non1$ero dc voltage (hence the 256'7 appears *resistive+ !ust above )c as shown in "igure and the left side of) the instantaneous

12

Semiconductor Diodes

voltage across the 256'7 and the circulating current are actually oscillating at high frequencies in the microwave range in response to an applied magnetic field. i Now we will see why the critical current (and hence the voltage measured across the 256'7) is periodic in magnetic flu . 'n the discussion above, we have assumed that an e ternal magnetic field Be!t is generating the magnetic flu in this discussion. (This could be caused by currents flowing within coil % or coil < in your 3r. 256'7S, as shown in "ig. A.) There is also a magnetic field generated by the total current, ), flowing in the 256'7. The total magnetic field Btotal inside the superconductor is thus: Btotal = Be!t ( 2 )/&cr' Jq. ,

#owever, this means that it is the total magnetic field, Btotal, that has to be below the critical field for superconductivity to e ist: Btotal = Be!t ( 2 )/&cr' Bc Jq. %.

This also means that when the total magnetic field equals the critical magnetic field, the resulting critical current is lower than before. >s a matter of fact, it/s equal to: )c = &rc/2'&Bc $ Be!t' Jq.%%

This is why the V-) curve below e hibits a lower )c values for greater magnetic flu esPthe critical current decreases as Be!t increases. ("ig. -) The critical current (and hence the B1' curve) are periodic because the entire cycle repeats every time one more flu quantum enters the 256'7 ring.

F#4"re =: 2chematic depiction of how the B1' curve of the 256'7 varies as the applied magnetic flu increases. 7ifferent B1' curves correspond to different values of flu . The greatest value of critical current occurs when the applied flu equals an integral number of flu quanta and no screening current is required

Semiconductor Diodes

13

"ig. - also illustrates why the 256'7/s voltage is periodic in the applied magnetic flu . The critical current goes through a ma imum when the applied magnetic flu is an integer multiple of the flu quantum, because that/s when the screening current is $ero. 't goes through minima when the applied magnetic flu is an integer of the flu quantum plus one half, because that/s when the screening current is largest. "or fi ed bias current through the device, the corresponding 256'7 voltage depends upon flu . Because the critical current of the 256'7 is periodic in the way you !ust saw, the V-) curve of a 256'7 oscillates periodically between two e tremes as shown in "ig. ,

F#4"re >: Periodic dependence of the SQUID voltage on applied flux. Note that the slope of each V-I curve is R N in the normal region. As a result, the maximum value of V (twice the amplitude of the V vs. curve) vs. is equal to IC RN. To make a magnetic field detector, we operate the 256'7 with a constant bias current slightly greater than the critical current, so the 256'7 !unctions are always resistive. 6nder these conditions, there is a periodic relationship between the voltage across the 256'7 and the applied magnetic flu , with a period of one flu quantum ("ig. ,). This flu vs. voltage curve will appear on your oscilloscope during your e periments with 3r. 256'7F, and it serves as the basis for magnetic flu measurements using 256'7/s. While it would be possible to obtain quite a sensitive measure of a magnetic signal simply by counting flu quanta, practical 256'7 systems involve control electronics that interpolates between whole numbers of flu quanta and greatly enhances their ultimate sensitivity. 256'7 sensitivity is finally limited by the intrinsic noise in the device, which in A.< & niobium dc 256'7s, for e ample, typically approaches a millionth of a flu quantum (corresponding to a few billionths of the earth=s field passing through a %..1Um diameter 256'7). The inherent periodicity of the 256'7 implies that it cannot distinguish between $ero applied field and any other field that generates an integral number of flu quanta. This allows the dynamic range of the 256'7 to be e tended almost indefinitely by re1$eroing the 256'7 in a controlled way. 't also means that in order to measure

14

Semiconductor Diodes

the absolute value of an applied field, it is necessary to reset the 256'7 in a known field, or to rotate the 256'7 with respect to the field. Nevertheless, it is very often the case that only changes in field are of interestD in which case no special measures are necessary. >lthough the model of 256'7s we !ust discussed is not rigorous, it is a good appro imation. This model doesn/t really connect quantum interference directly to the 256'7/s operation, though. > more complete e planation would describe how the curve showing the critical current of the 256'7 varies with applied flu is an interference pattern, analogous to an optical interference pattern. 'f you pass a current through a dc 256'7, you see ma ima and minima of critical current as you raise or lower the applied flu , because the macroscopic quantum wave functions at the two !unctions interfere with each other.

Experiment A. Magnetic susceptibility vs. Temperature of the YBCO SQUID (the Meissner Effect)
We own superconducting samples in which the high1T superconductor has been formed into a pellet embedded in a plastic casing. The compound used in your sample is called ?B@C for yttrium1barium1copper1o ide. Wrapped around the superconductor is a wire coil, or inductorD a thermocouple has also been included in the package to monitor temperature. Now, if the entire inside of the inductor were filled with superconductor, then no magnetic field could pass through that region due to the 3eissner effectD in other words, it would have $ero inductance. ?our wire coil actually has a diameter of %.L9 cm, while the superconductor pellet inside it has diameter %.<9cm, so it only partially fills the inductor coil. That means the coil/s inductance, ., is actually given by: . .o &/ ( f ' Jq.%<

Where f I the fraction of the coil volume occupied by the sample, .o is the coil inductance in vacuum, and is the called the magnetic susceptibility of the superconductor. >s a result, if you measure the coil/s inductance, you can measure the magnetic properties of the superconductor inside itV > sudden drop in the inductance at the superconducting transition is a direct measure of the 3eissner effect. (?ou can also watch the effect of flu e clusion by levitating a small high field magnet above a block of superconductor. 'f you have never seen this done, ask your instructor for help in doing this.) #ere is the circuit we will use to measure coil inductance:

Semiconductor Diodes

15

F#4"re 13: 2chematic of the induction measurement.

Ta*%e 1: @onversion from therm oco u ple voltage to &elvin. The >@ voltage will be a f I % kilo#$ sinewave taken from the low voltage output of a function generator. "rom intro physics you learned that:

16
<

Semiconductor Diodes

V < . = . 0 . )

Jq.%L

Where ) is current through the inductor (and resistor), 0. is inductor resistance, . is inductance, and I <f. 1T2P /: ?our thermocouple measured temperature by generating a 7@ voltage (in the millivolts range) that is depending upon temperature. @onnect up a 733 so it again reads 7@ millivolts from your thermocouple (red and blue wires). 3ake sure you are not on >@ mode. ?ou can convert between voltage and temperature using either Table % or by using the following calibration curve on the calibration curve (determined by Hindsay 2ubers and >manda 7illon in <..8):

where B is in milliBolts. (Note from the table above that the sign of the thermocouple voltage changes close to room temperature, so do not be surprised if your thermocouple voltage goes negativeP!ust change the polarity of the leads.) 1T2P 2: @onnect up a second 733 so it reads >@ volts across the 8. Chm power resistor. ?ou will use this to measure current through the entire circuit, ': ' I BM8. Chms. (3easure your power resistor/s actual resistance first.)

Semiconductor Diodes

17

1T2P 3: 3ake a quick reading of your inductor/s resistance, E H, at room temperature to use laterD do this using a A1point Chm measurement. (2ee >ppendi >.) 'deally you would measure this as a function of temperature, but that/s not feasible here. 'nstead, you should correct for temperature dependence using the temperature coefficient of copper, which is ..L,L W per degree @. 'n other words, if the temperature increases by % degrees @, the resistance will increase by ..L,LW. 1T2P 4: @onnect up a 733 so it reads >@ volts across your inductor. This is B H. 1T2P 5: @arefully place your sample in the *sand cryostat+ (foam container filled with sand) and pour sand around it until the sample is at the center of the container. Xet liquid nitrogen in a transfer 7ewar, being careful to wear eye goggles and gloves to shield your hands from spills or 7ewar glass breakage. ?our instructor can e plain where the nearest liquid nitrogen supply is located. @ool the sample down to 00 & by pouring liquid nitrogen in a little at a time and allowing it to boil off while cooling down the sand a little at a time. ?ou will need to keep adding liquid nitrogen as it boils offD you should try to keep the top of the sand !ust covered, while avoiding vigorous boiling that spills the sand over the table. Watch the thermocouple voltage to see when it stabili$es at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (00 &). Eecord a low temperature inductor resistance reading once it has appro imately stabili$ed. Ne t, allow the sample to warm up slowly while recording temperature, current (resistor voltage) and inductor voltage. 7o this by simply stopping adding the liquid nitrogen and allowing the sand cryostat O sample to come back to room temperature. (This will occur more rapidly if you do not have a large puddle of liquid nitrogen on top of the sand.) 1T2P 67 3ake a clearly marked table to keep track of all these different voltagesV Be especially careful to record data near the transitionV Eemember to use the inductor resistance that varies with temperature, interpolating between your room temperature and liquid nitrogen temperature readings. ?ou will see a dramatic increase in H (and hence inductor voltage) at the transition. Take data for a few degrees above the transition, but you do not have to take data all the way up to room temperature. ;lot up your data using a computer so as to display inductance . vs. TY&Z. 'ndicate and comment on the important features on your plot. 'n your lab report, be sure to e plain how the 3eissner effect and the magnetic properties of superconductors can e plain your sample/s inductance vs. Temperature curve. What would happen to your curve if the superconductor entirely filled the coilG

Experiment B: Interpreting Mr. SQUID s V-I curve

The 3r. 256'7F chip contains a dc 256'7 made with thin film high temperature ?B@C superconductor. The dc 256'7 is a simple circuit that can be schematically represented by our earlier :osephson !unction cartoon. ("ig. %%).

18

Semiconductor Diodes

V J1 I J2

F#4"re 11: 2chematic representation of the dc 256'7 in 3r. 256'7 and actual 3r. 256'7.
The 3r. 256'7S dc 256'7 is simply a ring of superconductor containing two :osephson !unctions, which are marked by the [=s labeled :% and :< in the circuit diagram above. The actual device is mounted on a post that allows you to insert it into a bath of liquid nitrogen to cool it to superconducting temperatures. The 256'7 is also surrounded by a cylindrical mu1metal shield that partially screens it from outside magnetic fields. The small fraction of the earth=s field that is not attenuated by the magnetic shield on the 3r. 256'7 F probe is sufficient to shift the V1 curve by several flu quantaV The simplest e periment to perform with this circuit is to pass current ) from left to right across the ring and to measure the voltage V that appears across the ring. 'f the two !unctions in the 256'7 are identical, in the absence of any magnetic field, the current will divide evenly and half of it will pass through each !unction before recombining at the right side. The 3r. 256'7 F control bo allows you to perform this e periment quite easily. The instructions in the ne t section e plain how to set up your device so you are ready to try this voltage1current e periment.

Setting Up the Output Device & measuring V-I for an ordinary resistor
We assume that you are familiar with the operation of your oscilloscope. ?ou will be using your oscilloscope in 1 y mode. "or initial settings, try an sensitivity of ..< volts per division (or whatever value is closest to this on your instrument) and a y sensitivity of around 8. millivolts per division. The >utoscale feature should work once you have a signal. 8E SURE ?OU @AVE ?OUR OSCIAAOSCOPE C@ANNEAS 8OT@ SET TO DC COUPAINGB Ot er-#(e, &o"r V7I '"r5e( -#%% $ot proper%& retra'e, a$ effe't C$o-$ a( &(tere(#(. ?ou may want to ad!ust these values as needed later. Now refer to the diagram of the 3r. 256'7 F control bo ("ig. %<). 2TJ; %: 2ince you will be using an oscilloscope in the [1? mode, set the oscillator frequency toggle switch (0) to the C2@ (high1speed) position. Cnce again check that both \scope channels are set for 7@ coupling (NCT >@ coupling).

Semiconductor Diodes

19

2TJ; <: Before turning on the power, make sure the amplitude control (A) is at its minimum (fully counter1 clockwise) position and set the flu bias control (<) and the current bias control (L) to their %<1o=clock (straight up) positions.

VI 1
!N

FLUX BIAS

CURRENT BIAS

AMPLITUDE

!UTPUTS

2
!SC

!FF

7
XY

BATT C"#

Mr. SQUID CONDUCTUS 6

F#4"re 12: "ront panel of the 3r. 256'7F electronics bo .

2TJ; L:3ake sure the function switch (%) is in the B1' position. 'n this position, the BN@ cable connected from the [ output on the front panel (8) to the oscilloscope *[+ input reads the current being fed through the 256'7. The cable connected from the ? output (9) to the oscilloscope *?+ input reads the voltage across the 256'7. 2et the power switch (,) to the CN position. Cn the oscilloscope, there should be a small bright spot on the center of the screen. ?ou may have to ad!ust the offset controls to achieve this. 2TJ; A: "or starters, rather than looking at the complicated 256'7 outputs, we will !ust connect a simple resistor to your circuit and study its B1' behavior. "ind the 7B1, connect with the resistor soldered to it, and measure the resistance using a 733. @onnect this to the end of your 3r. 256'7S bo /s cable in place of 3r. 256'7S before proceeding.

Understanding the current and amplitude controls in VI mode

"irst, we will understand what is necessary to measure a B1' curve. The current bias control (L) varies the current being sent through the 256'7. 2lowly turn this knob in either direction. The spot on the oscilloscope screen will move in response to the changing current. >s you turn the knob back and forth, you will trace out a B1' curve representing the relationship between the current fed through the attached device and the voltage. This curve is called the V1) curve. 2ince you have attached a simple resistor for now, you will see this as a straight line. ?ou ideally would like to automatically collect a B1' curve without sweeping the current bias knob by hand. To do so, return the current bias control to the %< o=clock position and now slowly turn the amplitude control (A) in the clockwise direction. This function sweeps the current high and low between preset values, thus automating the procedure you performed by hand using the current bias control. > solid curve should now appear on the

20

Semiconductor Diodes

oscilloscope screen. (see "ig. %L) This is basically the B1' curve for Chm/s law for a resistorD the line/s slope is proportional to resistance.

F#4"re 19: > linear (Chmic) V1) characteristic.

'f you now turn the current bias control, the center point of the curve being traced on the screen will move. The current bias control sets a single value of current being passed through the 256'7 and the amplitude control sweeps the current back and forth about that set value.

Interpreting your V-I curve

?our output device acts like a voltmeter. The sensitivity settings on it determine how much voltage corresponds to a division on the screen. The current output on the 3r. 256'7 F bo (8) actually represents the voltage across a %.,... ] resistor in the electronics bo . >ccording to Chm=s Haw ( ) I VM0), the current flowing through the resistor is therefore equal to the voltage across it divided by %.,... ]. The typical voltage levels from the 256'7 are small enough that the 3r. 256'7 F control bo amplifies the small signals. Thus, to calculate the actual voltages, the measured value on the oscilloscope should also be divided by %.,.... ?ou can determine resistance by measuring the slope of the V1) curve. To obtain a resistance, you must convert the 1a is value into amperes from volts and take into account the amplification of the y1a is signal. T #( #( a%% 5er& (#mp%e (#$'e t e 'o$5er(#o$ fa'tor for ea' a6#( #( t e (ame 5a%"e of 13,333, (o t e(e fa'tor( 'a$'e% Dre(#(ta$'e #( E"(t t e (%ope of t e mea("red '"r5e o$ &o"r o('#%%o('ope. 3easure resistance for your simple resistor, and check that you are getting the same value as the resistance you measure direction using a 733. Be sure to check with your instructor if you have any problems at this pointV Now, disconnect the resistor and connect the cable to your 256'7 device. 't is at room temperature, so the entire 256'7 is normal and hence resistive. Hook at the 256'7+s room temperature B1' curve and measure its resistance.

Semiconductor Diodes

21

Cooling down Mr. SQUID

3ake sure the mu1metal magnetic shield is in place around your 256'7, and that you have the Hakeshore temperature probe connected to the 256'7 (This allows you to measure your sample/s temperature later.) @onnect your temperature probe to the display and make sure it reads room temperature (in &elvinV) Xet a dewar of liquid nitrogen (your instructor can help you) and prepare to cool down your device. "irst, make sure you have turned off all electronic devices around the 256'7, including your oscilloscope, the temperature display and the 3r. 256'7 control bo itself. (This eliminates the ma!or sources of stray magnetic flu near your 256'7, to help avoid trapping so much flu you kill its superconductivity.) Ne t, gradually lower your 256'7 into the liquid nitrogen a small section at a time. We have found a lowering rate of about ..8 cm per L. seconds is reasonable to avoid temperature shocks that can damage the device. Cnce your 256'7 is immersed in liquid nitrogen, you can lower the device more rapidly until it is close to the bottom of the dewar. Cnce the temperature sensor has stabili$ed at 00&, proceed to turn on your electronics, reconnect the 256'7 cable to the 256'7 and try to get a B1' curve for the 256'7 itself. 'f the settings on the 3r. 256'7 F bo and your output device are correct, and if the 256'7 is behaving properly, you will see a curve that looks more1or1less like "ig. %A on the screen.

Figure 14: Typical Mr. SQUID V-I characteristic. Compare with Fig. 6. The central region has low resistance because the current is less than the Josephson junctions critical current there. For currents greater than the critical current, the SQUID is Ohmic, with a normal state resistance given by the slope.
't is important that there is a flat, low resistance region in the center of the curve as shown above, although its width may vary from device to device. (?our 256'7 may have a noticeable slope in the central section, even though superconductors really do have $ero resistance. This is due to a non$ero contact resistance between the superconductor and its leads.) 'f what you see looks like a straight line, as in "ig. %L, then either you don=t have enough liquid nitrogen in the dewar, you have not let the probe get cold, or there may be trapped magnetic flu in the 256'7. The latter is a very common occurrence because the 256'7 is very sensitive to e ternal magnetic fields. ?ou may need to bring the 256'7 back to normal and recool it. Eefer to the discussion on trapped flu in 2ection 9.L of the full documentation, 3agnetic "lu Trapping in 256'7s, if this appears to be the problem. >ssuming you see the proper curve, how can we understand its shapeG

22

Semiconductor Diodes

What you are looking at is the V1) characteristic of two :osephson !unctions connected in parallel with one another. >ssuming they are identical !unctions (in practice, they are at least very similar), the V1) characteristic you see is the same as for a single !unction. The most important feature of the curve is the flat spot in the middle, corresponding to currents less than the critical current. 'n this region, there is current flowing with no voltage 4 it is a supercurrent. This is the dc :osephson effect: a resistanceless current that flows through a superconductor :osephson !unction. >t this point, you might want to ad!ust the flu bias control (<) on the control bo . This control feeds current into a small gold coil placed above the 256'7 and this current applies a magnetic field upon the loop the 256'7. >s e plained earlier, a magnetic field will modulate the critical current in the 256'7 in a very specific manner. By turning the flu bias control knob, the critical current in the !unction will change visibly on the oscilloscope screen or on your plotter page. >t this point, try to ad!ust the flu bias current such that the flat region of the V1) curve is widest. The response to these changes may be quite sensitiveD it may take some practice to tune the critical current to its ma imum value. This procedure may be especially useful if some small amount of magnetic field was already present in the 256'7 loop. > $ero applied field will yield the largest critical current through the !unction.

Determining the critical current of your device

?ou can determ#$e t e 'r#t#'a% '"rre$t of the !unctions in 3r. 256'7 F by measuring the width (in volts) of the flat part of the V1) curve and dividing that number by %.,... ] to convert your answer into amperes of current. (2ee "ig. %8.) 'f the flat region is % volt wide, for e ample, then the corresponding current is %.. microamps. #owever, you are looking at the current through both of the !unctions in the 256'7, not !ust one. Therefore, assuming the !unctions are identical, the current through one !unction is half the value you are measuring (in our e ample, 8. microamps). 's this the critical current of the !unctionG Not quite. The curve you are looking at drives the current symmetrically about $ero (marked in "ig. %8Pcompare "ig. 9). The current you have measured is actually composed of a contribution in the positive direction and a contribution in the negative direction. 'f the curve is symmetric, they are equal. >s a result, the real critical current of the !unction is half the value you infer from the measurement. Thus, in our e ample, the critical current is <8 microamps, %MA of the original measurement. The flat region on the curve corresponds to A times the !unction critical current.

There is also a parameter of the !unction known as the $orma%F(tate re(#(ta$'e or RN. ?o" 'a$ determ#$e #t *& mea("r#$4 t e (%ope of t e V7I '"r5e o"t at t e e$d( - ere #t #( e((e$t#a%%& a (tra#4 t %#$e. To obtain a resistance, you must convert the 1a is value into amperes from volts and take into account the amplification of the y1a is signal. This is all very simple since the conversion factor for each a is is the same value of %.,.... Eemember that the dc 256'7 contains two !unctions in parallel, so that the measured resistance corresponds to half the resistance of a single !unction (assuming they are identical.) Thus, simply taking the slope numbers in volts off your oscilloscope will give you one1half the normal4state resistance in ohms. The product of the critical

Semiconductor Diodes

23

current and the normal state resistance ( )c08) is a voltage that is an important parameter for the operation of a 256'7. MaCe a $ote of #t $o- for &o"r report. This value sets the ma imum voltage change in the 256'7 by an individual magnetic flu quantum, and is discussed later in this sectionD to see why this is so, look at "igs. - ^ ,. Note that )c08 for one of the !unctions has the same value for the 256'7, which has two !unctions in parallel. "or the !unctions in 3r. 256'7 F operating in liquid nitrogen, you will probably obtain a value between %. and %.. microvoltsD this is !ust a ball park number that can vary from device to device.

Slope = RN /2 0

4x Junction Critical Current

"igure %8 7etermining the !unction parameters from the V1) characteristic.

Experiment C: Observing the V- curve of Mr. SQUID

6p to this point, we have been looking at the properties of :osephson !unctions. Now we will turn our attention to the flu 1measuring of the dc 256'7 itself. The 3r. 256'7F control bo will allow you to observe the periodic oscillations in the V1 curve on your oscilloscope and hence measure the flu quantum. ?ou have already observed the effects of a magnetic field on the V-) characteristics of the 256'7 by ad!usting the flu bias control current. The V1 characteristics are basically an automatically plotted version of this behavior. >s we saw before, in the V-) operating mode one can apply a magnetic field to the 256'7 using the flu bias control. This dial controls a current that is applied to the *internal+ modulation coil, simply a LMA turn gold or silver coil that creates a magnetic field inside the loop of the 256'7, as shown in "ig. %9. (The second coil shown in the photograph is the *e ternal+ modulation coil that allows you to couple other sources of current to the 256'7.) 'n this e periment, you will use your 256'7 control bo to send a time1varying current through this internal coil. That in turn e poses your 256'7 to a time1varying magnetic flu . ?our control bo fi es the bias current flowing through the 256'7 at a set fi ed value, and measures the behavior of 256'7 voltage, B, vs. magnetic flu , .

24

Semiconductor Diodes

'f you slowly turn the flu bias control knob, you will see the change in the critical current and the changing V-) curve that occurs as the magnetic flu threading the loop of the 256'7 is varied. 'f you e periment carefully with the flu bias control, you will see that the critical current of the 256'7 oscillates between a ma imum value (the flat region of the V-) curve is at its widest) and a minimum V-) curve may be more1or1less linear. The 3r. 256'7F control bo allows you to view this periodic behavior of the 256'7/s B curve as a function of magnetic flu in a convenient, automated way. To obtain the V1 plot, the bias current is set so that the 256'7 voltage is most sensitive to changes in applied magnetic field. This occurs at the _knee_ of the V-) curve, the area highlighted in "igure below. value at which point the

F#4"re 1;: ;hotograph of the 3r. 256'7F version A chip showing the two modulation coils. 2ee full documentation for 3r. 256'7F dimensions and specifications.
To find this point, first ad!ust the flu bias control so that the critical current is at its largest value. Then, turn down the amplitude control all the way so that only a point is visible on the oscilloscope screen or so that the pen is stationary on the plotter page. 'n this mode, you can then sweep the point up and down the V1) curve by ad!usting the current bias control, as you did initially. 2et the current bias level so that the point rests at either knee in the V-) curve. Now turn the flu bias control, which controls the amount of magnetic flu through the hole in the 256'7 loop. ?ou should see the point move back and forth vertically on the screen or page. This periodic motion arises because the screening currents in the 256'7 body depend on the applied magnetic flu in a periodic manner. The period is determined by the magnetic flu quantum ( .). This phenomenon is a manifestation of the macroscopic quantum nature of superconductivity.

Semiconductor Diodes

25

F#4"re 1<: The *knee+ in the V-) characteristic.

To automate this procedure, switch the function switch from V-) to V1. 'n this new mode, all of the controls on the 3r. 256'7F control bo work the same way as before, e cept for the amplitude control. 'nstead of controlling the sweep of the drive current through the 256'7, it now controls the amplitude of the current t ro"4 t e mod"%at#o$ 'o#% $ot t ro"4 t e SQUID #t(e%f, which is linearly related to the magnetic field applied to the 256'7. Thus, amplitude now sweeps magnetic flu , . To view as many V1 periods as possible, turn the amplitude control in the clockwise direction. ?our oscilloscope/s >utoscale feature may be able to find this curve for you. 'f not, you can use your previously computed value of )c08 to !udge how large B should be, using the amplification factor e plained below. The voltage amplification provided by the 3r. 256'7 F bo is unchanged from before. To determine the actual voltage across the 256'7, you must divide by %.,.... #owever, since the 256'7 modulation signals are smaller than the !unction voltages you e amined earlier, you will need to increase the sensitivity of the vertical scale on your display device. The ma imum peak1to1peak voltage swing of the 256'7 modulation in 3r. 256'7 F (`V) typically is between %. and L. UB (or %.. to L.. mB output from the front panel of the 3r. 256'7 F control bo ). 7epending on the setting of the amplitude control, you may wish to change the sensitivity to more conveniently view the oscillations of the 256'7.

'n addition, it may be necessary to use the position knob on your output device to center the curve. 'f your oscilloscope can be operated in an >@1coupled mode on the vertical channel, you can use this mode for more convenient viewing of the V1 curve (never use the >@ mode to look at the V-) curve, or it will be completely distorted on the oscilloscope screen.) ?ou should see a curve that resembles the one shown in "ig. %-. 7epending on the particular device and on the settings on the control bo , you may see many more periods than shown here. >t this point, you can try to ma imi$e the signal by fine1tuning the current bias control (L) to the most sensitive part of the V-) curve (!ust keep your eye on the V1 curve as you _tweak_ the current bias control until you get the ma imum modulation). There will be some setting of the current bias control that gives the largest modulation amplitude. Notice the effect that the flu bias control has on the V1 curve. 't allows you to set the central value of applied flu about which the amplitude control sweep varies. 'n other words, this control allows you to apply a static magnetic field to the 256'7 on top of the oscillating field applied with the amplitude control. Turning the flu

26

Semiconductor Diodes

bias control will therefore allow you to move left and right along the V1 curve and thereby e plore more of it than the amplitude sweep permits. The voltage change that occurs due to the influence of the magnetic field appears now on the vertical a is of your display device. SCet' &o"r 5o%ta4e7f%"6 '"r5e a$d mea("re VG 'ompare to &o"r mea("red IcRN. No- mea("re t e f%"6 !"a$t"m "(#$4 &o"r 5o%ta4e7f%"6 '"r5e. The 256'7 control bo is sending current through the internal coil surrounding the 256'7. 'f you flow electrical current, ' coil, through the internal coil, you create magnetic flu through your device according to the equation:

F#4"re 1=: > typical 3r. 256'7F V1 characteristic. The ma imum `V may range (appro imately) from %. to L. UB, depending upon your value of )c08, The voltage B is displayed on the y1a is, flu on the 1a is.
I 3 'coil

Jq. %8

where 3 is the mutual inductance of the internal coil and 256'7. (@omputing this value is pretty complicated because of the many contributions from the device geometry. The 256'7 manufacturer/s manual quotes the mutual inductance of the internal coil as L0 p# (that/s pico1henry, the unit of inductance) on page %,.) This allows you to compute the change in magnetic flu that corresponds to one cycle of voltage change in the measured B1 curve in "ig. %-. "irst, however, you need to know how to interpret the a is ( 1a is on your display and their output). The output in the B1 mode has the 1a is displaying the current, ', through the internal coil. The conversion between voltage out and current is: %.,... BM> for this measurement. 2o, you can compute the change in magnetic flu through the device using this conversion and the mutual inductance. 6se this to compute the flu quantum for your device to undergo one voltage cycle.

Semiconductor Diodes

27

Experiment D. Resistance vs. Temperature of Mr. SQUID (OPTIONAL: DO ONLY IF THE SQUID IS NOT WORKING!)
This e periment will allow you to observe the superconducting transition of the ?B@C film that forms the 256'7 in 3r. 256'7F. By tracking the resistance of the 256'7 while measuring its temperature, you can watch the ?B@C undergo its superconducting transition. ?ou will start at the temperature of liquid nitrogen, 00&, and allow your 256'7 to slowly warm up to room temperature while recording both T and E, the resistance in the superconducting region. The transition temperature for ?B@C superconductors is very near 00&, so take as much data as possible as the sample begins to warm up. ?ou do not have to continue taking data once your sample has heated up to several degrees above its transition temperature. ?ou should see a very noticeable increase in resistance once you hit the transition temperature (since your sample has non$ero resistance at the contacts between the ceramic high1T superconductor and its metal leads, your lowest temperature resistance won/t be truly $ero here.) >lso, given the nature of the B1' curve, you will have trouble measuring the resistance to high accuracy. Cnce your sample has gone normal (that is, the entire B1' curve becomes Chmic) you may use a computer to plot up your data as a graph of E vs. T, indicating the superconducting transition temperature. This graph and an e planation of your e periment should form part of your final report.

An article which describes this is Ryhnen et al, "SQUID Magnetometers for Low-Frequency Applications," Journal of Low Temperature Physics 76, 287 (1989).
i