The travertine dams of Slade Brook, Gloucestershire: their formation and conservation

ALLAN PENTECOST, GEORGE F. PETERKEN & HEATHER C. VILES

Travertine dams along the Slade Brook, Gloucestershire, occur over a 700-m length of stream, making this the largest active site of its kind so far recorded in the British Isles. The dams have considerable conservation value owing to their unusual geomorphology and influence on water flow (ponding and cascades) and their specialized flora and fauna ne of the more intriguing features of karst river sytems is the occurrence of low-relief travertine dams. These consist entirely of autochthonously precipitated calcium carbonate which results largely from the degassing of CO2enriched karst waters below powerful karst springs. Perhaps the most spectacular examples are those forming significant lake systems along their course, such as Plitvice, Croatia, and Bande-Amir, Afghanistan. Karstic travertines become less evident at higher latitudes owing to the reduction of soil-derived CO2 as mean temperature falls. In northern Europe, travertine formation is less significant than in the humid tropics and dams are rarely found. In Britain, active dam sequences are limited to short lengths of stream and are known from just a handful of sites. We look here at the longest continuous series of active dams so far discovered in Britain and describe some of their characteristics. Conservation issues are important as the dam sequence is fragile and dependent upon the catchment hydrology.

Autochthonously: in the place where now found.

The Slade Brook dams

The dams are located in the Slade Brook, a short, first-order stream which flows via the Mork

Fig. 1. Sketch map of the Slade Brook and its catchment. s = sinkholes.

Brook into the River Wye at Bigsweir, Gloucestershire (Grid ref. 31/565055). The brook rises from a powerful spring in the Carboniferous Limestone (s1, Fig. 1) and receives minor input from two further sources (s2, s3). The initial gradient is moderate (about 10%) and the stream is partly braided over the first 50 m of flow. It then takes a sharp turn to the west, where it joins a minor stream from Bearse Farm and flows through a circular tunnel (t) beneath a forest road. Travertine first occurs about 50 m below the main source, just above the Bearse Farm stream. Here it forms irregular accumulations and a large cascade just above the tunnel. The dams begin just below the tunnel, but they are interrupted after about 50 m by an altered section of stream above and below an old mill dam, now disused and drained (d). Here the stream is split in two, the northern arm appearing natural and the southern excavated and aligned with the lower mill race (r, dry). These separate flows continue for about 50 m and contain little travertine. The main sequence of dams, which is about 300 m in length, begins immediately below the confluence of the watercourses and continues to the edge of the plantation below the footpath bridge (Fig. 1, b). Thereafter, the dams become more widely spaced and continue downstream to within 40 m of the derelict Leyshill Farm (558055). The total length of the sequence is 700 m including at least 60 separate dams, making it the largest system so far discovered in Britain. The travertine dams completely span the stream, which ranges from 1 to 10 m in width. Each consists of friable, nodular travertine (Fig. 2) with a slightly irregular crest, so at low discharge parts of the dam remain exposed. Most dams are slightly convex downstream and the dam pools, up to 60 cm deep, are filled with fine calcareous mud. The dropwalls (wall on the downstream side) frequently overhang below water level. The dams range in height from 2 to 46 cm (average 29 cm) and the average gradient along the main sequence is 3.5%. The Slade Brook and its presumed catchment originates in mixed arable farmland and mixed woodland underlain entirely by well-jointed Carboniferous Limestone at an altitude of 150 220 m. The soils are freely draining alkaline

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a)

b)

brown earths containing numerous limestone fragments. About 400 m north of the main spring is Orles Wood, adjacent to Bearse Common. Both the wood and the common contain sinkholes and caves, many receiving small surface streams (Fig. 1, inset) and this area is probably a major source of groundwater for the Slade Brook. The springs and main sequence lie within woodland managed by the Forestry Commission. Until the mid-20th century, this comprised a rim of semi-natural woods consisting principally of ash, elm, small-leaved lime, beech and sessile oak growing on narrow limestone outcrops and adjacent steep upper slopes. These were separated by scrub-filled pasture on the lower slopes from a band of alder, ash and hazel growing on the valley flats and the immediately adjacent lower slopes. Both types of woodland contain small-leaved lime which rarely colonizes secondary woodland, and were recorded on an early 17th century map, so they are likely to be ancient. Until about 1930, they were treated as coppice. Between 1960 and 1969, the Forestry Commission planted the pastures and some of the slope woodlands with conifers and beech, and poplars were planted in a few places on the alluvial flats. Most of the plantations have grown with abundant natural regeneration of ash and other native broadleaves. Although the area near Bearse Common has been farmed at least since the Mesolithic period, Slade Bottom and much of the surrounding catchment must have remained largely wooded since the early Holocene. In 1609, the valley known as Slade Bottom was part of the estate attached to Whittington Great House in Stowe. The Slade Bottom Mill, comprising part of the estate, was recorded at several dates in the 17th century (VCH Glos. 5, 1812: p.266). The mill appears on the 1840 Tithe map but the Ordnance Survey 1st Edition

Fig. 2. (a) A series of five travertine dams ranging from 10 to 25 cm in dropwell height and separated by shallow pools. The pools contain loose travertine fragments eroded from the dams and carbonate mud. The irregular dam surfaces are caused by the growth of Vaucheria. Site located 100 m above the footbridge looking upstream. (b) Two travertine dams, the nearest of which is just over 4 m in width and about 5 cm in height. In the left foreground an accumulation of woody debris can be seen spanning the brook. Such debris may initiate dam formation. Site is about 50 m above the footbridge, looking upstream.

shows no sign of it. However, there is clear evidence on the ground of the former mill race and dam.

Methods
The brook was monitored over a 14-month period to gain an understanding of the hydrology and investigate the relationship between calcium carbonate loss and discharge. Monthly water samples were taken from two sites, the first just above the first dam near the forest road bridge (Fig. 1, a) and the second below the main dam sequence at the edge of the afforested section, about 430 m downstream (Fig. 1, b). The samples were filtered after collection then preserved with a few drops of 5 N HCl prior to calcium analysis using a compleximetric titration. Springwater analyses of total carbon dioxide and other major ions were also undertaken. Water temperature was measured at sites a and b, and an estimate of the discharge obtained from the depth and speed of water in the cyclindrical pipe at the forest bridge road. Basic survey and floristic work was also undertaken.

Results and discussion

Hydrology The composition of major ions is shown in Table 1. The total CO2 concentration is higher than the European mean (about 5.2 mM/l [millimoles per litre]), probably due to the partially wooded catchment with high soil-respired CO2. The remaining determinands are well within the range of other European sites. The calcite saturation quotient for the springwater was calculated as 1.58, which is close to unity, indicating that the groundwaters were close to

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equilibrium with limestone on emergence. The sidestreams had a similar composition to the main spring, suggesting similar groundwater sources. Water temperature above and below the main dam sequence varied seasonally by only a few degrees. The water became 12 C warmer downflow during summer and usually about 1 C cooler during winter (Fig. 3a). These minor differences are attributed to the sheltered position of the upper stream and shading by trees, precluding most direct irradiance. Dissolved calcium levels above the first dam and close to the main spring do not show the seasonal pattern evident in some karst waters caused by warmer summer soil temperatures. The decline in April coincided with flood conditions. An estimate of the total quantity of travertine precipitated between sites a and b can be obtained from the difference in dissolved Ca. The difference was always positive, suggesting Ca loss to travertine throughout the year. A plot of the difference (C) in Fig. 3(a) is a measure of the total amount of calcium carbonate deposited per second using the discharge estimates prevalent at the time. Again, there is no seasonal pattern and the minimal rates in August and September are the result of low discharges. Evaporation of water between a and b could reduce the value of C, but this would be insignificant except under low discharge when the precipitation rate of travertine appears to be negligible in any case. The discharge estimates for the Slade Brook varied greatly and ranged from 2 l/s [litres per second] (August, September) to 150 l/s (October). With few data, a meaningful average discharge cannot be estimated, but it probably lies between 10 and 40 l/s. If one considers the fall of Ca concentration between a and b (Ca) rather than the rate of precipitation, then a significant negative correlation (r = 0.63, P < 0.05) is found with discharge (Fig. 3b). Thus the greatest relative Ca loss occurs at lowest discharge. This is probably the result of the longer period of gas evasion, the transit time of water being increased as the water passes through numerous dam pools under low discharge. Throughout the wooded section, small accumulations of twigs and tree branches form temporary structures across the stream (Fig. 2b). It is easy to imagine these structures becoming encrusted with travertine and developing into dams, but intermediate stages were not observed. Flora Plants are abundant on some parts of this travertine. The main spring is colonized by Cardamine pratense, Chrysosplenium oppositifolium and Poa trivialis. The travertine above the forest road tunnel is colonized with bryophytes Pellia epiphylla,

Table 1. Water chemistry (main spring 18.2.99). In mM unless stated. Determinand t pH total CO2 HCO3 CO2(aq) pCO2 Ca Mg Sr Na Cl SO4 9.6 C 7.30 7.31 6.47 0.83 1.6% 2.58 0.63 0.001 0.90 0.74 0.24

Rhynchostegium riparioides and Thamnium alopecurum. The lower dams possess a sparser macrophyte vegetation except near the footbridge where more light penetrates, and includes the moss Cratoneuron commutatum. Algae were evident throughout the system, especially Phormidium incrustatum, P. ambiguum and Vaucheria sessilis with numerous diatoms. The filamentous alga Vaucheria sessilis is of particular interest as it grows abundantly on the dam crests in spring before the trees break leaf. The dense network of filaments develop into small keelshaped mounds about 5 cm in length which become well incrusted with travertine during summer and autumn. They appear to be a major constituent of the dam travertine but are friable and easily damaged by trampling. Conservation of travertines From a conservation standpoint, the travertines may be divided into two groups, the old and inactive deposits and the fresh, actively forming deposits. Both share interesting sedimentological and geomorphological features such as dams and impounded ponds, travertine cave systems and annual laminations. In addition, inactive deposits are often valued for their unique fossil assemblages and the active travertines for their diverse and specialized biota. In Britain, the conservation value of inactive travertine deposits has been recognized for some time and some of the larger deposits are Sites of Special Scientific Interest e.g. Caerwys and Ddol in Clwyd. Unfortunately, many active sites in Britain are not widely recognized and have not been systematically surveyed for their biological interest. This is in contrast with many continental deposits, several of which are protected nature reserves (e.g. the crons of the Ardennes in Belgium). Indeed, EC Directive 92/43/EEC, Annex 1 (Conservation of Natural Habitats) specifies petrifying springs with tufa (travertine) formation (Cratoneurion) as a priority habitat type for conservation. Slade Brook, along with many other UK travertine sites, qualifies under this heading alone. Some British sites possess unique fauna and flora, such as the North Yorkshire mound-springs and crons. The communities also include one of Britains rarest freshwater algae, Oocardium stratum. A specialized invertebrate fauna is also found along travertine streams, but little has so far been published on British sites. In addition, sites such as the Slade Brook are of considerable value to geologists interested in the evolution of river systems and catchment sedimentation. Active travertines in particular are vulnerable to environmental change. Travertine dams are fragile as they are poorly cemented and are rapidly degraded once deposition stops. This can be

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Fig. 3. (a) Seasonal changes in water temperature at site a (filled circles) and b (open circles). Centre: calcium concentration (mM) at site a. Below, the estimated loss of calcium carbonate in mM/second (C) between sites a and b. (b) Scattergraph showing the relationship between the stream discharge and the loss of calcium carbonate (mM/l) between sites a and b (Ca).

caused by a change in water chemistry (pollution, increased suspended load, groundwater diversion) and physical damage due to trampling. Examples of all of these effects have been observed, and in most cases documented. We have recently obtained evidence suggesting that dam formation is assisted by accumulation of large woody debris in streams. Deforestation may therefore be damaging, not just by altering the hydrology but by reducing debris dam development upon which the travertine grows. The accumulation rate of karst-water (meteogene) travertine is known to be low. Although the rate was not measured in the Slade Brook, it is probably similar to the Nash Brook dams (about 3 mm/year). Thus dams which are lost would take a considerable time to reform. There may also be a long initiation stage where formation is negligible. For example, the altered section of the Slade Brook above the mill, which is at least 200 years old judging by tree development, still contains little travertine, though large dams are present above and below this section along unaltered stream sections.

Suggestions for further reading

Emeis, K.-C., Richnow, H.H. & Kempe, S. 1987. Travertine formation in Plitvice National Park, Yugoslavia: chemical versus biological control, Sedimentology, v.34, pp.595610. Minckley, W.L. 1963. The Ecology of a Spring Stream Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Wildlife Monographs No. 11, 124pp. Pentecost, A. 1981. The tufa deposits of the Malham disrict, North Yorkshire, Field Studies, v.5, pp.365387.

Pentecost, A. 1991. A note on the vegetation of some English crons, Naturalist, v.116, pp.125131. Pentecost, A. 1992. Carbonate chemistry of surface waters in a temperate karst region: the southern Yorkshire dales, U.K., Journal of Hydrology, v.139, pp.211232. Pentecost, A. 1995. The Quaternary travertine deposits of Europe and Asia Minor, Quaternary Science Reviews, v.14, pp.10051028. Pedley, H.M. 1993. Sedimentology of the late Quaternary barrage tufas in the Wye and Lathkill valleys, north Derbyshire, Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, v.49, pp.197206. Pitty, A.F. 1968. Calcium carbonate content of Karst water in relation to flow-through time, Nature, v.217, pp.939940. Preece, R.C., Turner, C. & Green, H.S. 1982. Field Excursion to the Tufas of the Wheeler Valley and to Pontnewydd and Cefn Caves. Quaternary Research Association Field Guide. pp.19. Viles, H.A. & Pentecost, A. 1999. Geomorphological controls on tufa (travertine) deposition at Nash Brook, South Wales, United Kingdom, Cave and Karst Science, v.26, pp.6168. Allen Pentecost is at Kings College London, George F. Pederken lives in Lydney, Gloustershire, and Heather C. Viles is at the University of Oxford.

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