CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN SPATIAL PLANNING: CHALLENGES OF SLOVENE REGULATION AND EVENTUAL EXAMPLES OFFERED BY THE REFORMED SYSTEM OF SPATIAL

PLANNING IN ENGLAND
Miha Vrabec, Alenka Temeljotov Salaj, Ph.D. Miha Vrabec, doktorski tudent Evropske pravne fakultete v Novi Gorici Phone 031 32 2 ! e"#ail$ #iha%vrabec&'#ail%co# (lenka )e#el*otov +ala*, Ph.D. GE( ,olle'e, -akulteta .a pod*etnitvo, /una*ska 10 , 1*ubl*ana Phone 031 ! 1 230, fa3% 01 0441 333 e"#ail$ alenka%te#el*otov"sala*&'ea"colle'e%si

Summary Ever louder de#ands to chan'e the le'islation and policies in the field of spatial plannin' have been e#er'in' above all a#on' +lovene professional public% (s concluded b5 the conference 6hich took place in the National ,ouncil of the 7epublic of +lovenia in -ebruar5 2011, part of the proble#s of +lovene spatial plannin' is also a result of #odest citi.en participation% )his paper deals 6ith the 8uestion of ho6 to i#prove the situation and ho6 #uch 6e #a5 here be assisted b5 the e3periences of the e3tensive refor# of the En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' introduced in the first decade of the ne6 #illenniu# 6here considerable attention 6as paid to stren'thenin' of the citi.en participation% )he first part of this paper is dedicated to the theoretical ar'u#entation of 6h5 the citi.en participation in decision #akin' should be enhanced particularl5 in the field of spatial plannin'% +pecial attention is devoted to the si'nificance of citi.en participation for sustainable develop#ent and the develop#ent of local self"'overn#ent% 9e proceed to anal5se so#e of the #a*or 6eaknesses in +lovene spatial plannin' le'islation and 'overnance at the national and local level respectivel5% )he second part of this paper is focused on the refor# of the En'lish spatial plannin' s5ste# in the ti#e of the ne6 labour 'overn#ents 6ith special attention to the chan'es in the field of citi.en participation% 9e present various challen'es the refor# is facin', above all in the li'ht of seekin' balance bet6een ensurin' hi'her level of de#ocrac5 on one hand and of econo#ic efficienc5 and co#petitiveness on the other hand% )he paper is concluded 6ith the discussion of ho6 the En'lish e3perience in the relevant field #a5 be instructive for +lovenia 6hile considerin' the different cultural, historical, social and econo#ic back'rounds of both countries% Key !r"# Participation, spatial plannin', sustainable develop#ent, +lovenia, En'lish plannin' refor#, le'al fra#e6ork

$% Pre&a'e (s far as the researches carried out so far are concerned, 6e #a5 conclude that the public participation in various fields of 'overnance has in the last t6o or three decades beco#e #ore and #ore the sub*ect of intense scientific investi'ations :Vrabec, 200!; <a'ue and =enkins, 2000; >ro6nill and Parker, 2010, ?os, 2003@% )his is partl5 due to reco'nition that the historical 'ap bet6een the scientific A e3pert ar'u#entation and de#ocratic discourse 6here the broader :laic@ public #a5 participate #ore or less on e8ual ter#s #ust be surpassed :GolobiB, 2000@% )he #odernistic approach b5 adherin' to the scientific A e3pert ar'u#entation has beco#e obsolete as it creates a 'ap bet6een theor5 and practical i#ple#entation and is therefore not capable to offer solutions acceptable in a lon'"ter#% Moreover, it often produces conflicts in social relationships : ibidem@% )he e#er'ence of post" #odernistic paradi'# of participation is partl5 a result of a crisis in le'iti#ac5 of de#ocratic institutions and partl5 of tappin' the essence of prevailin' political paradi'#s of the 20th centur5 :the participative #odel of de#ocrac5 for e3a#ple as proposed b5 <eld in his Models of /e#ocrac5 of 1242, as surpassin' of division and of deficiencies of the e3istin' #odels of the then ne6 left and ne6 ri'ht political 6in'@% (ccordin' to 1avtar :200!@ the process of the 'lobali.ation caused the drop of authorit5 and co#petence of national 'overn#ent, at the sa#e ti#e the supra" national entities e%'% European Cnion are 'ainin' po6er% >5 #eans of a hi'h rate of bureaucrati.in', people are beco#in' alienated fro# the decision #akin' centres% Dn the other hand, the 'ro6th of the educational back'round and the 'ro6in' influence of the consu#eris# in societ5 have increased individuali.ation 6hich in turn contributes lar'el5 to non"politici.ation and reduces interest in co##on 'ood : bonum comune@% )his trend 6as established also in European ,ouncil in the 'reen book of 200E :)he -uture of /e#ocrac5 in Europe$ )rends, (nal5ses and 7efor#s, ( Green Paper for the ,ouncil of Europe@ forecastin' the decrease in election poll b5 2020 to 00 F in Eastern and ,entral Europe and 30 F in 9estern Europe% )his could ver5 6ell co#pro#ise the le'iti#ac5 of decisions taken b5 elected bodies :( Green Paper for the ,ouncil of Europe, 200E@% +a#e as in 'overnin' the countr5, the de#ocratic participation of citi.ens in decision #akin' on public issues is i#portant at the local level% Dne of the #ost si'nificant books on political science Makin' /e#ocrac5 9ork b5 7obert Putna# :1223@ 6hich defines the citi.en participation as the foundation of the develop#ent of social trust, reciprocit5, and cooperation :social capital@ and thereb5 of the stren'thenin' of de#ocrac5, 6as the result od the research of Gtalian re'ional institutions i.e. at local level% (ccordin' to >re.ovek :2000@, the local ad#inistration, 6hich has an i#portant role in creatin' the social capital because it deals 6ith issues in co##on interest and is capable of #obili.in' a considerable nu#ber of participants, is at the sa#e ti#e at least in principle #ore accessible to citi.ens% )he si'nificance of participative decision #akin' at the local level is discussed in further details under ite# 0 herein% +patial plannin' is one of the #ost i#portant issues 6hich are relevant for the local co##unities% 1e'al fra#e6ork of spatial plannin' in +lovenia has 8uite fre8uentl5 been #odified in the last 5ears :HCreP"1, HPNaBrt, HCPC/PP% )he acron5#s are e3plained later@, but conflicts arisin' in the procedures concernin' it are 'ro6in' and as a result thereof the civil initiatives opposin' the interventions in develop#ent plannin' have been #ultipl5in'% )his has often been e#phasi.ed b5 the professional and scientific co##unities as 6ell as b5 the non"'overn#ental or'ani.ations and other representatives of civil societ5% )he seriousness of the situation is further proved b5 the initiative of ,ha#ber for (rchitecture and +patial Plannin' or'ani.ed in -ebruar5 2010 entitled IGt is ti#e for chan'es in spatial plannin'J and b5 the conference in National ,ouncil of 7+ 6ith the sa#e #otto, 6hich 6as or'ani.ed in -ebruar5 2010% )he insufficient citi.en participation is fre8uentl5 #entioned a#on' nu#erous challen'es of +lovene spatial plannin'% )he troubles are of structural nature and ran'e fro# the le'islation coverin' the spatial plannin' to the ad#inistrative procedures and local 'overnance% )his paper anal5ses so#e of

the deficiencies and substantiates the assu#ption of 6h5 the citi.en participation is a sine qua non for the 8ualit5 of spatial plannin' at national and at the local level and for #ore sustainable and less conflict burdened public 'overnance% -urther, so#e of the #ost i#portant refor# #easures b5 the ne6 labour part5 in Great >ritain are presented 6hich in the first decade of 21st centur5 radicall5 chan'ed the En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' and introduced si'nificant novelties in the field of citi.en participation% Gn spite of nu#erous historical, cultural and econo#ic differences bet6een the +lovene and >ritish societ5 and also the differences in spatial plannin' s5ste# :for #ore on it see ite# ! herein@, 6e believe that an overvie6 of so#e of the chan'es in En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin', as one of the #ost developed and de#ocratic in the 6orld, offers a 'ood basis for consideration in ter#s of definin' the directions and the priorities for the possible a#end#ents in le'islation also in +lovenia% )o 'et ac8uainted 6ith the difficulties that i#peded the success of the refor#s and even caused 6ithdra6al of so#e of the#, #a5 be as useful as the e3a#ination of the contents of refor#s% ( fe6 su''estions for i#prove#ent of +lovene le'islation are 'iven in the conclusion but onl5 after 6e have discussed a fe6 theoretical foundations of the participative paradi'# of decision #akin'% (% Pr!&e##)!*a+ re#,e'-).e+y #')e*-)&)' !r "em!'ra-)' a,,r!a'/ -! ar0ume*-a-)!* a*" +e0)-)ma'y !& ,u1+)' "e')#)!* ma2)*0 )he #odern societ5 has ever since the (nti8ue :Greek@ ti#es kno6n t6o #ain for#s of ar'u#entation and seekin' solutions$ de#ocratic debate and science% +patial plannin' and #akin' decisions on spatial intervention function in the area 6here the t6o overlap 6hereb5 in the course of ti#e, the influence of each of the t6o has been chan'in' accordin' to the circu#stances in societ5% )hus in #odern ti#es, science has effectivel5 been put for6ard b5 #eans of the concept of inte'ral and rational plannin' :15le, 1240@, the pluralistic post"#odern societ5 ho6ever has b5 doubtin' the le'iti#ac5 of all traditional institutions put the role of science under 8uestion :GolobiB, 2000@% Gn the concept of the so called risk societ5 :>eck, 1222@, the scientific reco'nitions are increasin'l5 necessar5 but on the other hand the5 are less and less a condition sufficient to adopt decisions% (s ri'htl5 pointed out b5 GolobiB, referrin' to profession and professional criteria is convincin' and effective onl5 as lon' as 6e believe that 6e #a5 #ake decisions about our actions on the basis of our kno6led'e of realit5 as is enabled b5 science% Veneris :1223@ calls such an approach a KcohesiveL plannin' 6here solutions to technical proble#s are bein' sou'ht 6ithin societal consensus about values% Muite a fe6 proble#s in spatial plannin' are at least apparentl5 professionall5 eas5 to resolve% Gn such cases the decisions based #ore or less e3clusivel5 on professional kno6led'e #a5 prove to be entirel5 as le'iti#ate thou'h the5 actuall5 #ean the shift of decision #akin' to professionals :GolobiB, 2000@% ( professional approach should ensure e3pert solution i.e. a 8ualit5 solution and at the sa#e ti#e non"involve#ent of :private@ interest 6hich in turn #eans ob*ective solution : ibidem@% Dn the other hand ho6ever each spatial plannin' issue can be for#ed b5 different vie6s and therefore accordin' to MaruiB :2002@ referrin' to professionalis# as a sin'le aspect of decision #akin' is in principle 6ron' as it often leads to conflicts and thereb5 it i#pedes adoption of solutions% >eside rhetoric and ar'u#entation re8uired b5 open procedures :6here citi.ens are included@ place e3perts into a different less influential position, at the sa#e ti#e it re8uires a #ore open decision #akin' and different co##unication to 6hich #ost e3perts are not used% )hat is 6h5 in practice incorporatin' of e3pert kno6led'e 6ill often prove to be inefficient and producin' conflicts% (s such conflict 6ill often present itself as disa'ree#ent about facts, the decision #akers 6ill be induced to de#and #ore ne6, #ore IprofessionalJ and #ore Iob*ectiveJ kno6led'e :GolobiB, 2000@% Gndividuals often do not possess e3pert kno6led'e on the pheno#enon :>r5son, ,rosb5, 1222 in <eale5, 1224@, but kno6 ver5 6ell the situation in the local environ#ent% (s Marot :2010@ has it, the5 #a5 be able to conve5 a lot of practical kno6led'e of the characteristics of the areas, of difficulties, their possible solutions and of practical influences of the re'ulations and policies as adopted and

i#ple#ented% >esides bein' a source of infor#ation the public involved in decision #akin' also #eans the establishin' of confidence and increasin' of le'iti#ac5 of solutions 6hich are #ore custo# #ade for the local co##unit5 :<eale5, 1224@% 7ationalit5 and kno6led'e are i#portant, but accordin' to the #odern understandin' 6e kno6 three cate'ories of kno6led'e$ personal, social and positive% Personal kno6led'e e#bodies our sub*ective internalised e3periences and provides the root of individual co#petence% Gt is also the source of innovation% )hrou'h kno6led'e 6e are a6are of the self and our relationship 6ith the e3istential 6orld :/e6e5, 1222, 1234; <eide''er, 12E2; =aspers, 12E2 in 9eaver, =essop, /as, 1240, p% 1E @% )he social kno6led'e e#er'es as a social construction of realit5 :>er'er, 1uck#an, 12 in ibidem@% )he positive kno6led'e 6ill be ac8uired on the basis of a deductive reasonin', e#pirical observation and e3peri#entation :(5er, 120 ; 9erk#eister, 123!; Poincare, 1200 in ibidem@% Gt represents universal kno6led'e 6hose function is ob*ect appraisal, prediction and control and is popularl5 accepted Iscientific #ethodJ :9eaver, =essop, /as, 1240@% Gn plannin', the rationalit5 connected 6ith positive kno6led'e and abstract reasonin' applied ob*ectivel5 to the e3ternal 6orld i.e. functional rationalit5 of the Ends"Means calculus :9eaver, =essop, /as, 1240 in Marot, 2010@% <u#an reasonin' is also influenced b5 social conditions and then resultant assu#ptions and beliefs, re8uirin' the e3ercise of substantive rationalit5 : ibidem@% Gt see#s, ho6ever, that co#prehension of the hu#an 6orld lies be5ond behaviouris# and structuralis# and re8uires a #ultidi#ensional rationalit5 that balances different episte#olo'ies and various real#s of e3perience% Marot :2010@ thinks that one" di#ensional description of social events does not suffice for satisfactor5 presentation of all relationships and connections as the course of events in societ5 is not linear and does not have one sin'le cause to enable to obtain a sufficient e3planation of such events% )hat is 6h5, accordin' to her, it is absolutel5 necessar5 to disclose all aspects of the pheno#enon and in spatial plannin' onl5 the kno6led'e of planners does not suffice% )herefore the public, investors and politicians should be fa#iliar 6ith basic principles of spatial plannin' and #ana'e#ent as 6ell% Dften the for#al restrictions in spatial plannin' are considered as final, unchan'eable fact and 6e tend to for'et that the5 are a result of an a'ree#ent in a conte3t of specific values 6hich in turn is defined b5 historical, econo#ic, social and professional circu#stances% )he5 #a5 as such, accordin' to GolobiB :2000@, under the chan'ed conditions be le'iti#atel5 faced 6ith different startin' points and their validit5 checked% >eside the criteria defined in for#al docu#ents a nu#ber of other value cate'ories, validated in professional circles onl5 or not even there, 6ill enter the procedure of decision #akin'% )he #a*orit5 of criteria depend on 6hat individuals perceive as value and ho6 accordin' to their opinion the space should be utilised% )he vie6s of the individuals and 'roups are different, there are also si'nificant differences in vie6s dependin' on 6hether the people are #arket or professionall5 orientated% )herefore in spite of appl5in' the top level e3pertise, it often happens that solutions desi'ned on the basis of professional kno6led'e onl5 are not acceptable for the public and 6e cannot co#e #uch closer to solutions b5 #eans of i#provin' the 8ualit5 of infor#ation : ibidem@% (lread5 in the si3ties of the t6entieth centur5, the theor5 started to point out to several deficiencies in decision #akin' 6hich is based solel5 on e3pert ar'u#entation% (ccordin' to GolobiB :2000@ the critici.in' of technocratic plannin' and the 'ro6in' a6areness of individualNs ri'hts, especiall5 the ri'ht to the health5 environ#ent, have slo6l5 led to the idea of plannin' as procedure of cooperation bet6een the public :users@, profession :planners@ and politicians :decision #akers@ all the 6a5 to introduction of various for#s of participative approaches and the so called co##unicative theor5 of plannin'% )he paradi'# of participative plannin' as co##unication process 1 :<aber#as, 124E, 124!@ contributed one of the #ost po6erful criticis#s of the technocratic plannin' procedure% )hus <aber#as :12!0, p% E2@ in his theor5 on crisis of le'iti#ac5 #aintains that people #a5 in the profane as 6ell as in cos#ic environ#ent be located 6ith a d5na#ic #echanis# of identification, called a self" reflective s5#bolis# of identit5% )his represents the s5ste# of beliefs in self"identit5, collective identit5 and social function in le'iti#ate social s5ste#% )he link bet6een the interpretative s5ste# and realities of social e3istence accordin' to <aber#as le'iti#i.e the structure of an5 social s5ste#% <aber#as desi'ned this theor5 on the basis of anal5sis of nu#erous riots in the second half of the

si3ties of the t6entieth centur5, 6hich kept turnin' up in nu#erous countries of 9estern Europe and in C+( and 6hich 6ere stron'l5 connected 6ith social econo#ic circu#stances of the ti#e% Nevertheless the essential findin's of this theor5 #a5 be applied to the field of spatial plannin' toda5% )he concept of place identit5 that #ost fre8uentl5 underpins plannin' and desi'n, the genus loci vie6 of place :Norber'"+chul., 1240@ is derived fro# the sa#e assu#ption on hu#an identit5, 6hich is b5 nature relational% )he participative #odel of de#ocrac5 is a theoretical concept 6hich e#er'ed as a response to challen'es2 6hich several de#ocratic countries :above all of 9estern@ Europe faced to6ards the end of the ei'hties of t6entieth centur5, 6hen it ca#e to e3haustion of the social de#ocratic #odel of 'overnin' and of the atte#pts to re"define the 6elfare state% (ccordin' to 1avtar, the participative #odel in relation to representative de#ocrac5 6as particularl5 intensel5 and .ealousl5 developed b5 >en*a#in >arber% Gn his #odel of stron' de#ocrac5 he #aintains that politics in participative for# can develop the 6a5s ho6 to turn private interests to public 'ood b5 #ouldin' political tolerance :>arber in 1avtar, 200!, p%10@% <o6ever the participative for# of 'overnance is not a concept, useful onl5 in the field of national politics% E3actl5 the s5ste# of local self"'overn#ent 6here local co##unities, 6hich take over control of their destinies b5 #eans of effective and open institutions and hi'h level of political participation, has a special place in it% )his 6ill be further discussed in ite# 0 of this paper% 3% 4/a- )# ,ar-)'),a-)!* a&-er a++5 Participation, respectivel5 involve#ent of public in broader sense of the 6ord, can be defined as activit5 6here an individual is *ointl5 6ith others involved in so#e social processes% Political participation can be described as active en'a'e#ent in the process of 'overnin' and is an opportunit5 of individuals to be involved in polic5 desi'nin' sa#e as civil servants and elected representatives% )he authorities in #odern countries have to respond to the re8uests and 6ishes of their citi.ens% )hus, participation is first of all a co##unication process, 6here citi.ens conve5 their vie6s, su''estions and ob*ections to po6er holders% Gt is an atte#pt, a tendenc5, an effort of ordinar5 people in an5 political s5ste# to influence the activities of the 'overn#ent and its institutions% <ere the authors point out that it is nor#ativel5 neutral and can ran'e fro# debates and usual pollin' to riots% )he criteria 6ith 6hich 6e define an activit5 as participation are the follo6in'$ that the participants are individuals, that it is a voluntar5 activit5, that it refers to a specific activit5 and that this activit5 is directed to influencin' the authorities

Gt is an e#inentl5 politicall5 directed activit5 and not onl5 political activit5 6hich is intended to political positionin' i.e. an activit5 6hich refers to stru''le for po6er and for e3ercisin' it :>re.ovek, 1220, p% 202@% Gn the literature, a #ore precise definition of participation is often 'iven re'ardin' to the share of po6er dele'ated to the public in a particular case :see (rnstein, 12 2 3; Nelkin and Pollak, 12!2; 9iede#an and -e#ers, 1223; 7o6e and -re6er, 2000; ,rei'hton, 2000 et al.@% )he lo6est level of transfer is infor#in' E and consultin' :the public is invited to present opinions or re#arks 6ith 8uestionnaires, focus 'roups, public hearin's and si#ilar@% ( t6o 6a5 co##unication bet6een the public and those in po6er is the ne3t level% )he literature often uses here beside the ter# participation the ter#s Iactive involve#entJ, Iactive participationJ and others :von ?orff, 200 @% )here are #an5 definitions and classifications of different for#s of participation in literature :1avtar, 200!@0% )his paper is li#ited to the participation of individuals and 'roups accordin' to definition 'iven in the previous para'raph% Dpinions var5 as to the level 6here Ireal participationJ be'ins, 5et

present paper is based on a definition of participation 6hich in vast #a*orit5 of cases includes also the procedures of infor#in' but 'oes up6ards fro# the level of consultation% 6% S,a-)a+ ,+a**)*0 a# ,u1+)' a&&a)r a*" a #u17e'- !& ,u1+)' )*-ere#-8 ,ar-)'),a-)!* a*" #u#-a)*a1+e "e.e+!,me*+patial plannin' includin' utili.ation, #aintainin' and rene6al are a public issue and therefore sub*ect of co##on interest and public policies in several areas% )he spatial solutions are on the other hand a reflection of individualNs as 6ell as of the co##on needs% (ccordin' to the #odern understandin' of rationalit5 as #ultidi#ensional pheno#enon, it is necessar5 to associate personal e3perience, social and historical conditions and ob*ective realit5 and that is 6h5 public participation in spatial plannin' is inevitable% )he decisions concernin' the spatial plannin' influence the relationships as the planners as 6ell as the users, ad#inistration, investors, politicians and in certain cases the public are confronted 6ith proble#s of 6hich the5 have different perceptions% Gn spatial plannin' 6e can still speak of clear deli#itation bet6een the so called professional A scientific and de#ocratic approach :see above@% (lso the conflict situations bet6een private and public interest tend to turn up fre8uentl5% )he participative approach enables us to avoid such conflicts respectivel5 to resolve the# #ore 8uickl5 if the5 turn up and a sustainable spatial plannin' is carried out% )he ai# is active public participation at various sta'es of decision #akin' 6hich under certain conditions can considerabl5 contribute to de#ocratic le'iti#ac5 of the decisions in spatial plannin'% 9ith this paradi'# 6e can surpass the classic division to professional and de#ocratic approach and at the sa#e ti#e 6e can put li#its to prevailin' of private over the public interests% ( #ore intensive research of the possibilities of citi.en participation in decision #akin' in environ#ental and spatial decision #akin' 6as a#on' others sti#ulated b5 the reco'nition of the fra'ilit5 of our biosphere, the 'ro6in' intensit5 of cli#ate chan'e and of the reasons that spa6n the# and are connected to hu#an activities% 7eco'nition of inevitabilit5 of sustainable develop#ent e#er'ed and has turned into a re'ular #antra of the t6ent5"first centur5% Gt led to the reali.ation that natural resources 6ere not infinite and that a 'lobal chan'e in their #ana'e#ent 6as needed, above all in li#itin' their e3ploitation% Ph5sical space is a li#ited and non"rene6able resource and spatial plannin' is a s5ste# of rules and conditions for spatial develop#ent and land use that #an has forever kno6n% Gn the last t6o decades the bodies of Cnited Nations, European Cnion and nu#erous national 'overn#ents and non"'overn#ental or'ani.ations have elaborated nu#erous reports, plans and strate'ies for a lon' ter# sustainable environ#ental and spatial #ana'e#ent% /red'e :200 @ also dra6s attention to the fact that it is possible to approach to the ideal of sustainable develop#ent 6ith involve#ent, participation and cooperation% >5 adoptin' a 'lobal action pro'ra##e ('enda 21 and 6ithin it of 1ocal a'enda 21 :1ocal ('enda 21, ,hapter 24@, the conference of Cnited Nations on Environ#ent and /evelop#ent in 1222 :also kno6n as the 7io conference@ ackno6led'ed a stron' si'nificance of citi.en participation in decision #akin' at a local level% Gt stipulates sustainable develop#ent as a central ob*ective that the si'natories i#ple#ent at a local level 6ith hori.ontal and decentrali.ed net6orks of local actors above all of civil societ5, econo#ic 'roups, citi.ens, politicians and holders of po6er% )hese 'roups should b5 local authorities be included in the pro'ra##e of ensurin' the sustainable develop#ent b5 #eans of counsellin' the# and b5 sti#ulatin' the# to suppl5 incentives% ('enda 21 stipulates an active participation of civil societ5 in desi'nin' and i#ple#entation of policies respectivel5 pro'ra##es as a first condition for shift to sustainable develop#ent :Cnited Nations General (sse#bl5, 1222@% 9% C)-):e* ,ar-)'),a-)!* )* #,a-)a+ ,+a**)*0 a*" +!'a+ 0!.er*a*'e

)he citi.en participation in decision #akin' on public affairs is i#portant for the 8ualit5 and acceptabilit5 of decisions at all levels of ad#inistration but particularl5 in decision #akin' at local level% +o#e theorists e.g. /ahl and )ufte :12!3@ consider the local level to be a natural de#ocratic venue for citi.en participation% )he local level offers citi.ens the uni8ue possibilit5 of reali.ation of their freedo# and of e3pressin' their local identit5 is :-erfila, 2004@% >arber also sees such po6erful de#ocrac5 in local co##unities 6hich ever #ore fre8uentl5 undertake control over their destinies 6ith efficient and open institutions and hi'h level of political participation :>arber, 124E in 1avtar, 200!@% >aker, Van de 9alle and +kelcher :2011@ si#ilarl5 e#phasi.e the provisions of )he ,ouncil of EuropeNs European ,harter of 1ocal +elf Govern#ent that citi.en participation is an essential de#ocratic principle and that it can be #ost directl5 e3ercised at local level% +i#ilarl5 European ,o##ission strives to sti#ulate the participation at local level in the 9hite Paper on European Governance, as one of the 6a5s of solvin' the crisis of le'iti#ac5 of European institutions :,o##ission of the European Cnion, 2001, p% 10"20@% (ccordin' to +#ith :1240@ the s#aller territorial units are #ore suitable for develop#ent of de#ocratic values and innovative for#s of de#ocratic decision #akin'% Even thou'h the latter state#ent #a5 be considered as too 'eneralised , the local level is at least theoreticall5 #ore accessible to citi.ens, it is capable of #obili.in' a lar'er nu#ber of participants :>re.ovek, 2000@ and at the sa#e ti#e it is the level 6here decisions are often #ade 6ith direct i#pact on life of population% (bove all the decisions fro# the field of sustainable develop#ent and fro# the field of spatial plannin' 6hich is closel5 connected to it :see the previous ite#@ also belon' to the#% )hese decisions are sub*ect of the present paper% (t local level so#e of the #ost i#portant processes of spatial plannin' take place 6hich is accordin' to the 1a6 on 1ocal +elf"'overn#ent :H1+"CP>2, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 2EO200!; hereinafter referred as H1+@ ! one of the #a*or co#petences of +lovene #unicipalities% +patial Mana'e#ent (ct :HCreP"1, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 4O2003; hereinafter referred to as HCreP"1@ in 1st and 3rd para'raph of article 1 defines the spatial plannin' as perfor#ance of spatial plannin' and the enforce#ent of i#ple#entation #easures for the planned spatial arran'e#ents and ensures the buildin' land develop#ent and the #aintenance of a spatial data s5ste#% )he IHPNaBrtJ :+patial Plannin' (ct, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 33O200!@ that lar'el5 repealed the HCreP"1, above all the part related to spatial plannin' defines the latter as an interdisciplinar5 activit5 6ith 6hich interventions into space and spatial arran'e#ents are planned on the basis of develop#ent policies, 6hich take into account the public benefits of environ#ental protection, nature conservation, the protection of ani#als and natural 'oods, protection of propert5 and cultural herita'e :indent 12 para'raph 1 of the article 2@% Gn the present paper, 6e focus on the citi.en participation in spatial plannin' as adoptin' of plans for interventions into space and spatial arran'e#ents :develop#ent plannin'@ and 6here it is e3plicitl5 stated also in #akin' decisions on interventions into ph5sical space :develop#ent control@% (s #entioned, the spatial plannin' is one of the #ost i#portant co#petences of the local co##unities and as a rule their i#ple#entation 6ill have a decisive influence on their econo#ic and social develop#ent% (ccordin' to para'raph 2 of article 11 HPNaBrt the local self 'overnin' co##unities :hereinafter co##unities@ responsible for$ 1% deter#inin' references and 'uidelines for the spatial develop#ent of the #unicipalit5, 2% deter#inin' the use of space and conditions for placin' interventions in space and 3% plannin' spatial arran'e#ents of local i#portance% )he para'raph 2 of the article 12 :indents , and 4@ of HCreP"1 stipulates the follo6in' as co#petence of the #unicipalit5$ 1% keepin' the data bases on spatial issues that are 6ithin their co#petence;

2% follo6in' the situation in the field of spatial plannin' and takin' care to #aintain le'iti#ac5 and order in ph5sical space; 3% preparation and adoption of reports on situation in the field of spatial plannin'% 9e should not overlook the fact that #unicipalities pla5 an e3ceptional role b5 deter#inin' and protectin' the public interest in spatial develop#ent% )his is achieved b5 #eans of i#ple#entin' the relevant la6s, spatial acts :spatial plans and other spatial acts at the level of #unicipalit5@ and of active land use respectivel5 spatial polic5 :backed up b5 ta3, financial, #arket and urban plannin' instru#ents@% (ccordin' to 7ebernik :2010@ precise, efficient and consistent e3ecution of spatial la6s and plannin' docu#ents as 6ell as of the #easures of active land use polic5 is of crucial si'nificance for i#ple#entation of public interest and thereb5 of sustainable land develop#ent% ;% C)-):e* ,ar-)'),a-)!* )* S+!.e*e #y#-em !& #,a-)a+ ,+a**)*0 < a +!- !& r!!m &!r )m,r!.eme*Municipalities face nu#erous challen'es 6hile carr5in' out the tasks that are in their co#petence in the field of spatial #ana'e#ent% Dne of the #ost i#portant challen'es for 8ualit5 spatial develop#ent is ti#el5 and 6ell planned involve#ent of public :see above@% Gn +lovene professional and scientific literature the prevailin' position is that the e3istin' 6a5 of includin' the public in the procedures of spatial plannin' in +lovenia has nu#erous deficiencies :Marot, 2010; GolobiB, 2000; +i#oneti, 200!; ?le#enc, 2011; ?os, 2011@% /ue to the# the level of citi.ens participation in plannin' as 6ell as in public life 'enerall5 is lo6 :<aBek, >re.ovek, >aBli*a, 2004; Vla*, 2011; Marot, 2010; the ,enter .a politoloke ra.iskave -/V A ,entre for Political +cience at the -acult5 for +ocial +ciences at the Cniversit5 of 1*ubl*ana, 2003@%4 +i#ilarl5 the position of representatives of different stakeholders in spatial plannin' and spatial #ana'e#ent :citi.ens, local and national 'overn#ental level, investors and professionals@ has often been e3pressed publicl5% 2 )his is also confir#ed in the conclusions of the recent conference on stren'thenin' of participative culture 10 attended b5 !0 participants A representatives of civil societ5, 'overn#ental and local level ad#inistration and of professionals fro# the field of spatial plannin'% )he conference 6as held in the National ,ouncil of 7epublic of +lovenia% +i#ilarl5 as the participants of se#inar Pro#otion of participation in spatial decision #akin' at the local level :or'ani.ed b5 the Gntitut .a politike prostora :Gnstitute for the +patial Plannin' Policies@ on 22th =anuar5 2002 in the fra#e6ork of the pro*ect Po1ok 11@ and the round table on the role of civil societ5 in urban plannin', 6hich took place at the -acult5 of architecture at the be'innin' of (pril 2002, the conference in the pre#ises of National ,ouncil lar'el5 confir#ed and partl5 also e3panded the findin's of +lovene urbanis# science and spatial sociolo'ical science 6hich are su##arised hereinafter$ a%@ inade8uate re'ulation of public participation in spatial #ana'e#ent in the relevant la6s :HPNaBrt, HCPC/PP :1a6 on +itin' of +patial (rran'e#ents of National +i'nificance in Ph5sical +pace, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 40O2010 :No% 10 O2010 corr%@; hereinafter referred as HCPC/PP@, HVD"1 :1a6 on Environ#ent Protection, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 32O200 @, HGD"1 :,onstruction act, Dfficial Ga.ette of 7+, No% 102O200E :No% 1EO2000 corr%@@ A above all the hi'h deviations of nor#s in various la6s referrin' to the public participatin', inconsistent use of ter#s in different la6s, inconsistent le'al i#ple#entation of (arhus ,onvention and nonAe3istence of the responsibilit5 of the authors of spatial plannin' docu#ents and of the resp% of the decision #akers in the procedures of spatial plannin' to prepare the so called process plan 6hich 6ould clearl5 define ho6 the public is to be included in the procedure of preparation of plannin' docu#ents and of decision #akin'% )he le'islation should provide involvin' of public in earl5 sta'es of procedures 11 and stipulate lon'er ter#s for conve5in' the re#arks and proposals% Gt is necessar5 to stipulate in detail that such re#arks and proposals be considered and the obli'ation of the relevant authorit5 to define in detail the re*ection of such re#arks and proposals% E3actl5 the :too@ late involve#ent of public, 6hich in #ost cases represents onl5 a for#alit5 and the decisions have alread5 been #ade 6ithout an5 real influence of the public, is a cause of sproutin' of nu#erous civil initiatives% )his is a clear

indicator of 'ro6in' conflict situation in the space and that si'nificant chan'es are necessar5 in this field% )he spatial and environ#ental le'islation in +lovenia provides the involve#ent of public no earlier than in the sta'e 6hen drafts of acts have alread5 been prepared and then the public 6ill have a certain ti#e :usual 30 da5s are provided for in the HPNaBrt, but the period is decisivel5 too short 6hen a #ore co#plicated issue is in 8uestion@ to sub#it the re#arks and proposals of #odifications or a#end#ents% +patial plannin' docu#ent producers in #ost cases have to e3a#ine re#arks and proposals and take a position 6hich has to be #ade public, but absence of strin'ent le'al provisions allo6s that the re#arks or proposals are fre8uentl5 i'nored or re*ected 6ithout essential substantiation% Earl5 involve#ent of public, 6hich enables a #ore active participation at an earl5 sta'e of preparin' the drafts of spatial plannin' docu#ents, has been a #antra of nu#erous authors for #ore than a decade but the le'islature has not decided to appl5 it 6hen preparin' the relevant la6s% Partl5 HCPC/PP is an e3ception, 6hich in preparin' the national spatial plan foresees the participation of public :public announce#ent, possibilit5 of sub#ittin' re#arks, directions, and opinions; or'ani.in' of a consultation is unfortunatel5 *ust a possibilit5 and is not obli'ator5@ alread5 at the sta'e of initiative for plan adoption :article 21@% 1ike6ise the relevant le'islation needs to be #odified or a#ended to enable a #ore active en'a'e#ent of non 'overn#ental or'ani.ations% ( reco##endation to the co#petent #inistr5 as 6ell as to the 'overn#ent of 7+ to #ake sure that #ore openness to Ibroader interested publicJ be ensured, 6hen the relevant spatial plannin' docu#ents are prepared, 6as on the basis of the articles 2!2 and 111 of the +tandin' Drders of the National (sse#bl5 :Dfficial Ga.ette 7+, 22O0! " Dfficiall5 ,onsolidated 9ordin'@, adopted b5 the sa#e National (sse#bl5 in the session of 22th =anuar5 2002, 6hile discussin' the annual report of the o#buds#an of 7epublic of +lovenia% b%@ )he ne3t set of deficiencies refers to the functionin' of the 'overn#ent and #unicipal ad#inistration% )he5 often observe the citi.ens participation as a nuisance :?os" Grabar, 2010@% )hou'h the relevant le'islative fra#e6ork, as alread5 #entioned, contains nu#erous i#perfections, it does not prevent to appl5 various infor#al #ethods of involvin' the public% Gn the last decade a nu#ber of e3tensive studies have been elaborated in the field of e3ecutin' the spatial le'islation and of anal5sis of the functionin' of ad#inistration connected 6ith it% Gn the 5ear 2001 a research 6as carried out b5 #eans of a 8uestionnaire in the Gnstitute for environ#ental la6 :>la'a*ne and Pante*@% )he ai# of this research 6as to collect infor#ation on proble#s or difficulties 6hich the #unicipalities and ad#inistrative units 12 #eet in e3ecutin' the procedures of seekin' solutions referrin' to the spatial plannin' and #ana'e#ent% <ere 6e #ust also #ention the stud5 of 7avbar and >ole of 2003 6ho focused on s5ste#ic aspects of spatial plannin'% )he ai# of this stud5 6as b5 #eans of anal5sis and critical cross"section of the le'islative startin' points to investi'ate the possibilit5 of introducin' a s5ste# of spatial plannin'% ( co#parative anal5sis 6as also used to desi'n various possibilities of institutional or'ani.ation of the s5ste# :7avbar, >ole, 2003@% (s far as the anal5sis of functionin' of #unicipal ad#inistration is concerned, 6e should #ention the research carried out b5 the -acult5 for +ocial +ciences called (d#inistrative capacit5 and coalition buildin' in +lovenian #unicipalities :Pro*ect #ana'er >o'o#il -erfila, Ph%/%@, in 200! in the fra#e6ork of tar'eted research pro'ra##e I,o#petitiveness of +lovenia 200 A 2013J% )he research 6as carried out b5 usin' a 8uestionnaire for the tar'et population of #unicipal ad#inistration directors13% )he 8uestionnaire consisted of five sections 6ith the follo6in' topics$ personnel" or'ani.ational and financial aspect, aspect of cooperation a#on' #unicipalities, introducin' of entrepreneurial principles to #unicipal ad#inistration, and the aspects of ad#inistrational"political relationships in the fra#e6ork of a #unicipalit5 s5ste# :<aBek, >re.ovek, >aBli*a, 2004@1E% )he latest research fro# this field 6as carried out b5 Marot in 2010% >5 #eans of a 8uestionnaire and anal5sis fro# secondar5 sources she investi'ated the plannin' 'overnance capacit5 of +lovenian #unicipalities% +he defined thirteen indicators10 and used the# to produce the t5polo'5 of #ana'e#ent capacit5 in the field of plannin', i.e. capacit5 of #unicipalities for the i#ple#entation of spatial plannin' le'islation :Marot, 2010@% )he 8uestionnaires 6ere distributed to all 210 #unicipalities and 00

responses 6ere received% )he 8uestionnaires 6ere filled in b5 representatives of #unicipalities responsible for spatial plannin'$ heads of depart#ents of the environ#ent and spatial plannin', advisors, directors of #unicipal ad#inistration and others : ibidem@% )he findin's of the above #entioned researches are ver5 si#ilar% )he co##on points are above all personnel, financial and or'ani.ational Ishorta'esJ of institutions perfor#in' spatial plannin'% 7avbar points out the need for speciali.ed :interdisciplinaril5 conceived@ public research A applicative institution capable of preparin' the e3pertise, to i#ple#ent #odern ever chan'in' #ethodolo'ies in spatial plannin' 6hich 6ould perfor# advisin', various auditin' tasks and 6ould 'ive opinions on the contents and on technical 8uestions of spatial plannin' :see our proposal in the ,onclusion@% <e further su''ests introduction of re'ional plannin' and stren'thenin' of the 8ualit5 and nu#ber of personnel, 6hile i#provin' the financin' of the #unicipal ad#inistrations and conferrin' #ore autono#5 to lar'er #unicipalities :accordin' to the alle'ed cases fro# Europe ofJsupralocalJ spatial #ana'e#ent to 6hich the s5ste# of spatial #ana'e#ent is subordinated, 6ith #unicipalities havin' co##on instru#entation of decision #akin' on land use #ana'e#ent accordin' to its purpose@% Gn spite of the said li#itations, the central 'overn#ent continues to burden local co##unities 6ith increasin' a#ount of obli'ations, hence si'nificantl5 reducin' their 'overnance capacit5% >eside the deficient le'al fra#e6ork <aBek, >re.ovek and >aBli*a :2004@ e#phasi.e poor hu#an resources and li#ited fundin' as ke5 #ana'e#ent obstacles of +lovene #unicipalities% )he5 ar'ue that the #a*orit5 of #unicipal ad#inistrations are relativel5 s#all in si.e and lack le'al professionals and technicall5 educated personnel :#ostl5 en'ineers@% 1 <eads of #unicipal ad#inistrations are also not inclined to introduce entrepreneurial principles and 'ood business practices to the #unicipalit5 operations% Dn top of that the5 use ineffective re6ard s5ste#% Gnterestin'l5, ho6ever, accordin' to the said research, the directors consider acceptin' the proposals of the citi.ens b5 #unicipal ad#inistration as :the onl5@ acceptable entrepreneurial principle% )his is pro#isin' as it points to at least partial a6areness of the deficiencies in participation of public in ad#inistration of local co##unities and to perception of public involve#ent as a positive value% Marot :2010@ too points out the proble# of personnel and fundin' and to the inade8uate le'al fra#e6ork for operation of local ad#inistration in the field of spatial #ana'e#ent :HPNaBrt for instance, as opposed to HCreP"1, does not re8uire of a #unicipalit5 to e#plo5 an urban e3pert thou'h on the other hand it de#ands that the #unicipalit5 acts rapidl5 and efficientl5 about the spatial interventions :see belo6@@% +he ar'ues that staff deficiencies are associated 6ith the proble# of unified :6ithout internal divisions@ #unicipal ad#inistration :the #a*orit5 of the surve5ed #unicipalities@ and e#phasi.es the chan'ed role of planners in the #odern s5ste# of spatial plannin', 6hich e3ceeds elaboration of plan itself% +he also deter#ined a poor interdisciplinar5 cooperation of depart#ents and cooperation of the stakeholders in 'eneral and particularl5 the public% )he abilit5 of e3ecutin' the spatial le'islation b5 the ad#inistration of +lovene #unicipalities is therefore accordin' to her findin's relativel5 lo6, 6hich is also evident in the field of public participation, 6hich is, as proved b5 the research, at a ver5 lo6 level% Municipal ad#inistrations on avera'e use consultation :second but lo6est level as #easured 6ith five point scale of the Gnternational (ssociation for Public participation " G(P2 : ibidem@% Gt consists actuall5 of infor#ation to the public about the plans and of an invitation to the 6rittenOoral trans#ission of their vie6s and 6ishes durin' the period of the public hearin's :see ite# 3@% Gn the second place as per fre8uenc5 is the lo6est level " infor#ation, 6here the public 6ill onl5 be 'iven infor#ation on plans and pro*ects of spatial develop#ent and 'iven e3planations of the proble# and possible alternatives :C#anotera, 200!@% Dnl5 #unicipalities have opted for a #ore active public participation throu'h 6orkshops at the ver5 be'innin' of the plannin' process or throu'h the establish#ent of partnerships 6ith the co##unit5 :Marot, 2010@% )he alone #entioned deficiencies in functionin' of the +lovene local 'overn#ent s5ste#, 6hich has i#portant co#petences in the field of spatial #ana'e#ent are closel5 related to the level of the so

called ad#inistration culture and of the concept of local 'overnance% /urin' the last t6ent5 5ears traditional local 'overn#ent s5ste#s in countries of 9estern Europe and in C+( have been transfor#ed into ones of local 'overnance% ,oncepts like technocrac5, hierarchical structure and political #onopolis# have, at least on the declarative level, been replaced b5 participation, consensus buildin' and le'iti#ac5, efficienc5, responsiveness and i#partialit5 :Graha#, (#os, Plu#ptree, 2003@%1! )hese concepts are closel5 connected 6ith the public participation in spatial and public decision #akin' in 'eneral as it is al#ost i#possible to i#a'ine 'ood 'overnance 6ithout active citi.en participation% )he trends in the field of a#end#ents to le'islation and of i#provin' public ad#inistration and their i#pact on the position of public in the En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin', for the chan'es of 6hich the previous >ritish 'overn#ent e#phasised e3actl5 the #otto$ I1et us chan'e culture of plannin'QJ, 6ill be discussed in the follo6in' chapters% =% S+!.e*)a a*" E*0+a*": '!m,ara1+e #y#-em# !& #,a-)a+ ,+a**)*05 9hen En'land is #entioned in connection 6ith the s5ste# of spatial plannin' and #ana'e#ent #ost of us 6ill think of co##on la6 A le'al tradition and discretionar5 s5ste# of develop#ent control 6hich due to cultural, social, le'al and econo#ic circu#stances has developed differentl5 than in countries of continental Europe of 6hich also +lovenia is part% )he latter belon's to continental le'al tradition and its s5ste# of spatial plannin' is classified a#on' re'ulator5 plannin' s5ste#s 14% (ccordin' to ,ar#ona and +ieh :200!@, re'ulator5 s5ste#s are based on fi3ed le'al fra#e6orks and ad#inistrative decision"#akin', 6hile discretionar5 s5ste#s dra6 a distinction bet6een la6 and polic5, and are based on I'uidin'J plans and political decision"#akin'% -or /i#itrovska, (ndre6s, and Plota*ner :2000@, re'ulator5 or plan"oriented s5ste#s :such as +lovenian spatial plannin' s5ste#@ are tar'et oriented, 6ith Ilike to achieveJ ideal develop#ent sche#es, pre"planned and deter#ined in advance, 6ith prescribed land uses, desi'n standards and re'ulations% +uch s5ste#s are infle3ible as there is no place for discretion% )here is a plan and acco#pan5in' re'ulations and there is a clear divide bet6een 6hat is and 6hat is not allo6ed :7eade, 124!@% Dn the positive side re'ulator5 s5ste#s offer 'reater certaint5 and less dela5 in decision #akin', because provisions in the plan are bindin' upon the decision #aker and confer a ri'ht upon the lando6ner% Dn the ne'ative side, the plan #akin' is slo6er, there is little potential for ne'otiation and the s5ste# is unresponsive to develop#ent and co##unit5 needs% /iscretionar5 s5ste#s on the other hand allo6 responses to develop#ent proposals to reflect the circu#stances that e3ist at an5 ti#e, 6ithout havin' to revise entire polic5 fra#e6ork if circu#stances chan'e% -le3ibilit5 is therefore achieved and decisions on develop#ent can continue to be #ade in the absence of an up to date polic5 fra#e6ork 6ithout necessaril5 an5 loss in ri'our% Dn the ne'ative side, discretion can create an uncertaint5 for developers, an over"e#phasis on the efficienc5 rather than 8ualit5 of the process, and inconsistenc5 in decision"#akin' based on values that are not al6a5s full5 articulated :,ar#ona, +ieh, 200!@% En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' 6as fro# 12E! 12 until the nineties of the t6entieth centur5 perhaps the #ost t5pical representative of the 'roup of discretionar5 s5ste#s% >efore 1221 6hen the Plannin' and ,o#pensation (ct 6as adopted the role of a plan in develop#ent control had been less defined and in #ost local co##unities no local plans had been adopted% )he 1221 (ct a#ended the 1220 )o6n and ,ountr5 Plannin' (ct :+ection 0E(@ to introduce the plan"led s5ste# in En'land% )his si'nified an i#portant shift fro# the past practice and an atte#pt to increase predictabilit5 in spatial decision #akin'% +ieh :200!@ states that the #ove to a plan"led s5ste# in >ritain effectivel5 'ave pri#ac5 to plan polic5 in the #akin' of plannin' decisions; ho6ever, the s5ste# continued to be discretionar5 as the plan re#ains *ust one of the ran'e of #aterial considerations :includin' central 'overn#ent plannin' polic5@ that authorities need to consider% )hat is 6h5 in plannin' theor5 toda5

the #a*orit5 opinion prevails that En'lish s5ste# can be desi'nated as plan"led discretionar5 s5ste# 6ith ele#ents of re'ulator5 as 6ell as discretionar5 s5ste#s% 20 )he specialities of different plannin' s5ste#s are ho6ever not 6ithout i#pact on the position and role of public participation and the characteristics of these connections should b5 all #eans be researched in depth% Gt is necessar5 to point out that an anal5sis of characteristics of such connections e3ceeds the ai# and the sub*ect of this paper% 9e focused rather on those e3a#ples of En'lish refor#s of the plannin' s5ste# :e#phasi.in' the participation of public@ that are not connected to the particularit5 of En'lish i.e. discretionar5 s5ste# and can therefore, in our opinion, also be en'a'in' for the continental point of vie6% >% S,a-)a+ ,+a**)*0 )* E*0+a*" )* -/e +)0/- !& #!')a+ a*" ,!+)-)'a+ '/a*0e# )his ite# concentrates on discussion about the refor#ed s5ste# of spatial plannin' in En'land% >efore the e3tensive 'overn#ental refor#s :2001 A 2002@ in En'land, to6n and countr5 plannin' 6as based on land use plannin' s5ste#% )he ter#, 6hich in Europe as 6ell as in En'land is ever #ore fre8uentl5 used to define the activit5, is spatial plannin', 6hich is also used in this paper% )he 'overn#ent of the Cnited ?in'do# defines the spatial plannin' as Ibe5ond traditional land use plannin' to brin' to'ether and inte'rate policies for the develop#ent and use of land 6ith other policies and pro'ra##es 6hich influence the nature of places and ho6 the5 functionJ :D/PM, 2000, para% 30@% )he #ain En'lish professional association for spatial plannin' the 7o5al )o6n Plannin' Gnstitute advocates an even broader definition$ Icritical thinkin' about space and place as the basis for action or interventionJ :7)PG, 2003@% <o6 the chan'e in definition reflects in En'lish le'islation and politics 6ill be e3plained in the follo6in' chapters% )he #odern"da5 plannin' s5ste# in En'land is a post"6ar invention, 6ith roots that #a5 be traced to the enact#ent of )o6n and countr5 plannin' (ct in 12E!% Gt introduced co#prehensive and universal approach to the land use control, 6hich #eant Inationali.ationJ of the ri'ht of private individuals to develop land b5 stipulatin' that plannin' per#ission 6ould be re8uired for certain t5pes of develop#ent% Gn return these IapplicationsJ 6ere afforded the auto#atic ri'ht of appeal :to a plannin' inspector or to the +ecretar5 of +tate@ should consent be refused% )he ne6l5 created s5ste# of to6n and countr5 plannin' should secure the interests of the co##unit5, in cases 6here a#enit5 6ould be har#ed% (#enit5 itself 6as never defined, and since 12E! to the present it has been interpreted :usuall5 b5 virtue of le'al interpretation in the ,ourts@ in #an5 6a5s 21 :7adclife, +tubbs, ?eepin', 2002, p% 3@% )he public interest 6ould, therefore, take precedence over the private ri'ht to develop land and use propert5 :Grant, 1222@% 7i'hts of :private@ land o6nership 6ould, therefore, not offer a carte blanche for i'norin' #atters of public la6 or polic5 :Needha#, 200 @% Nevertheless, the private interest should not be undul5 restricted or fettered, and in a variet5 of circu#stances various freedo#s, such as the ri'ht to e3tend a d6ellin' 6ithin a certain volu#e tolerance, 6ould be dee#ed to fall outside plannin' control% )oda5, such freedo#s fro# the need for plannin' per#ission are 'ranted b5 subordinate :i.e. laid before Parlia#ent@ le'islation :such as contained in General Per#itted /evelop#ent Drder or Cse ,lasses Drder, 6hich per#it certain buildin' 6orks and chan'es of use 6ithout plannin' per#ission@ :7adclife, +tubbs, ?eepin', 2002, p%3@% Gn spite of that, political ai#s to be i#ple#ented b5 the plannin' s5ste# chan'ed% Gn 12E!, it 6as a post"6ar reconstruction and in the first decade of 21st centur5 it 6as the sustainable develop#ent, 22 for the assurance of 6hich the s5ste# of spatial plannin' has developed strate'ies of adaptin' to cli#atic chan'es and abet#ent of the conse8uences thereof% )he 'ro6in' a6areness of the si'nificance of sustainable develop#ent in En'land has e#er'ed inter alia fro# the reco'nition b5 the 'overn#ents in four su##it conferences, 6hich 6ere or'ani.ed under the auspices of Cnited Nations$ in 1222 in 7io de =aneiro :the so called 7io conference@, in 1224 in ?5oto, 9orld su##it on sustainable develop#ent in 2002 in =ohannesbur' and ,li#ate ,han'e ,onference in 200! in >ali% )he reco'nition of the threat posed b5 cli#ate chan'e to life on the planet and of its anthropo'enic

causes tri''ered the adoption of a series of le'all5 bindin' ob*ectives 23 concernin' the reducin' of e#issions of 'reenhouse 'ases b5 the Govern#ent of Cnited ?in'do# :hereinafter called the 'overn#ent@% 1ike6ise, the 'overn#ent set a nu#ber of even #ore a#bitious but le'all5 non"bindin' tasks in order to reduce har#ful influences on environ#ent to, as -lanner5 :200 , )5ndall ,entre 200!@ has it, achieve a stabili.ation of the cli#ate sufficient to prevent e3tre#e 6eather and associated population #ove#ent across the planet% )his 'overn#ental polic5 is clearl5 reflected in the field of plannin'2E% Gn the 5ear 2000, in Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ent Dne the 'overn#ent presented a set of 'uidelines and principles on national spatial polic5 6hich clearl5 indicate the priorit5 'iven b5 the 'overn#ent to the stru''le a'ainst cli#ate chan'e as co#pared to other ob*ectives of land develop#ent polic5 :D/PM, 2000@20% )his co##it#ent is clearl5 reflected in the 6ordin' of one of the #ost i#portant la6s in the field of spatial plannin' in En'land$ )he Plannin' and ,o#pulsor5 Purchase (ct :200E@, 6hich in chapter 32 provides that spatial plannin' #ust at the re'ional and local level contribute to sustainable develop#ent% Ensurin' a sustainable develop#ent and reducin' of detri#ental i#pact of the cli#ate chan'e are not the onl5 reasons for the 'overn#entNs decision to initiate funda#ental refor#s to the En'lish plannin' s5ste#% Gn /ece#ber 2001 +thephen >5ers, the then +ecretar5 of +tate for transport, 1ocal Govern#ent and the 7e'ions2 assessed in the Green Paper, Plannin'$ /eliverin' and -unda#ental ,han'e2! previous En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' as unsatisfactor5 and e3posed its follo6in' deficiencies$ " " plannin' is co#ple3, re#ote, hard to understand and difficult to access, the plannin' process is too often perceived to be a set of rules ai#ed at preventin' develop#ent rather than #akin' sure 'ood develop#ent 'oes ahead% ,o##unities fre8uentl5 feel detached fro# the process and suffer fro# plannin' bli'ht% >usiness finds plannin' dela5s frustratin' and potentiall5 da#a'in' to their co#petitiveness, plannin' is not custo#er focused and local plannin' depart#ents are overstretched, there are too #an5 inconsistencies% )oo often local plans are inconsistent 6ith policies set out at re'ional or national level, the5 are too lon', infle3ible and slo6 and e3pensive to prepare :/)17, 2001@%

" "

>ased on the said findin's the I'reen paperJ announced an e3tensive refor# 24 of the s5ste# of spatial plannin' 6ith the follo6in' ob*ectives$ R R R R si#plif5 the plan hierarch5, reducin' the nu#ber of tiers and clarif5in' the relationships bet6een the#; deliver shorter, better focused plans at the local level, 6hich can be adopted and revised #ore 8uickl5; en'a'e the co##unit5 #ore closel5 in the process of plan preparation and i#prove inte'ration 6ith other local strate'ies and plans : ibidem@%

+i#ilar orientation is set out in the Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ent fro# =ul5 2002, entitled$ +ustainable co##unities$ deliverin' throu'h plannin'% )he docu#ent 6as prepared b5 the office of /eput5 Pri#e Minister, then responsible for spatial plannin' and #ana'e#ent, and is 6ith the five criteria fro# the I'reen paperJ that the rene6ed s5ste# should fulfil the superstructure to the ob*ectives of spatial plannin' rene6al in En'land$ deliver in a sustainable 6a5 the ke5 to the 'overn#ent ob*ectives such as housin', econo#ic develop#ent, transport infrastructure and rural re'eneration 6hilst protectin' the environ#ent; create and sustain #i3ed and inclusive co##unities; be transparent so that the ri'ht decisions are taken #ore 8uickl5, 6ith a set of rules that ever5one can understand;

enable local co##unities to be involved #uch #ore positivel5 than before and to deliver a hi'her 8ualit5 and better respected public service :D/PM, 2002, p% 2@%

)6o 5ears later in 200E, the parlia#ent of the Cnited ?in'do# adopted the Plannin' and ,o#pulsor5 Purchase (ct :200E@, 6hich, accordin' to (ll#endin'er and )e6d6r"=ones :2002, p% !0@, is the #ost si'nificant ele#ent of plannin' refor# in the first ten 5ears of 1abour, 6hich co#pletel5 refor#ed the plannin' polic5 and strate'5"#akin' function at national, re'ional, sub"re'ional, and local levels% )his la6 introduced a double"sta'e s5ste# of I7e'ional +patial +trate'iesJ :hereinafter 7++@, 6hich replaced the for#er 7e'ional Plannin' Guidance and the I1ocal /evelop#ent -ra#e6orksJ :hereinafter desi'nated 1/-@, 6hich in turn replaced the for#er I+tructure PlansJ, I1ocal PlansJ and ICnitar5 /evelop#ent PlansJ% )he so called 7e'ional Plannin' >odies 22 are co#petent for preparation of 7++, 6hereas local authorities are responsible for preparation of 1/- #akin' sure that the 'uidelines fro# 7++ are properl5 observed% 1/- represents an u#brella ter#, coverin' a raft of local develop#ent docu#ents :7atcliffe, +tubbs, ?eepin', 2010@% Gt #ust contain /evelop#ent Plan /ocu#ents,32 +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent, (nnual Monitorin' 7eport and +ustainabilit5 (ppraisal% +upple#entar5 Plannin' /ocu#ents 33 provide additional 'uidance to policies and proposals contained in /evelop#ent Plannin' /ocu#ents, but are not part of the statutor5 develop#ent plan% )he 'overn#ent reco##endations in the field of spatial plannin' " Plannin' Polic5 Guidance Notes replaced Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ents3E% -urther chan'es in the s5ste# of spatial plannin' in En'land 6ith a special e#phasis on the public participation 6ill be discussed ne3t% ?% Ne La1!ur8 ,+a**)*0 #y#-em !.er/au+ a*" ')-):e* ,ar-)'),a-)!* Gn 122!, the 'overn#ent in Cnited ?in'do# 6as for the first ti#e in ei'hteen 5ears in hands of labour part5% )he Ne6 7i'ht narrative that had underpinned polic5 thinkin' under previous 'overn#ents had e#phasised the i#portance of the #arket, the role of the individual, and conse8uentl5 had underpla5ed the role of participation in public polic5 deliver5 and decision #akin' :)hornle5, 1223@% Gn contrast, #uch of Ne6 1abourNs discourse in all polic5 arenas has e#phasi.ed rene6in' de#ocrac5 b5 e#po6erin' co##unities to be involved in decision #akin' about services that affect their lives :G#rie S 7aco, 2003; ,arpenter S >ro6nill, 2004@% -ro# 122! to 2010, )he Ne6 1abour Govern#ent had e#phasi.ed itNs co##it#ent to involvin' citi.ens in a 6ide ran'e of polic5 decisions, relatin' to health, education, e#plo5#ent and urban re'eneration% -urther#ore so#e authors, as for (lbrechts :2002@, even su''est that participation has beco#e inte'ral to the deliver5 of public services, as 'overn#ents atte#pt to involve citi.ens in decision #akin' throu'h processes of consultation and en'a'e#ent30% IGreen paperJ of 2001 inter alia e#phasi.es the need for stron'er involve#ent of citi.ens in procedures of decision #akin' on spatial develop#ent% Gn the introduction alread5 it assets$ IPeople feel the5 are not sufficientl5 involved in decisions that affect their lives% +o it is ti#e for chan'e%J :/)17, 2001, p% 1@% 1ater it is ad#itted that the previous s5ste# of spatial plannin' had been Iver5 consultative, but had despite that, too often failed to en'a'e the co##unitiesJ% Gt further concludes$ I)he result of all this is that the co##unit5 feels dise#po6eredJ : ibidem@% )he 'overn#ental appraisal of the situation, accordin' to ?itchen and 9hitne5, #akes an i#portant distinction bet6een the e3istence of the 8uantit5 of public participation e3ercises and the abilit5 of those e3ercises to en'a'e people effectivel5 in plannin' decision #akin' :?itchen S 9hitne5, 200E, p% 32 @% Gn respect of this, the said 'overn#ent docu#ent defines three deficiencies of the then s5ste#$ R procedures that lead to the adoption of a plan can be so protracted that fe6 co##unit5 or'anisations or businesses 6ith an interest can afford to sustain their involve#ent% )here is a perception that the s5ste# favours those 6ith the deepest pockets and the 'reatest sta#ina;

R R

plannin' co##ittees can #ake decisions on plannin' applications 6ithout the applicants or si'nificant ob*ectors havin' an opportunit5 to present their case; so#e plannin' procedures are le'alistic and effective participation tends to de#and at least so#e specialist kno6led'e% People 6ho are ine3pert in the 6orkin's of the s5ste# find this difficult and so#eti#es co##unit5 or'anisations can find it hard to present their case 6ithout access to professional advice :ibidem@%

>ased on these findin's the 'overn#ent pro#ises in the 'reen paper to deliver a Is5ste#, 6hich better en'a'es co##unities% 9e propose real co##unit5 participationTJ :/)17, 2001, p% @% )he Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ent of 2002, 6hich sets stakeholder participation in plannin' as one of the priorit5 ob*ectives of the plannin' refor#, 31 also announces sa#e concrete chan'es in plannin' le'islation such as introduction of +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent 32% >efore Plannin' and ,o#pulsor5 Purchase (ct entered into force, the 'overn#ent published another pro'ra##in' docu#ent in -ebruar5 200E, entitled ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent in Plannin'$ )he Govern#entUs Db*ectives% (s the introduction to the docu#ent, settin' out the 'overn#entNs ob*ectives for co##unit5 involve#ent in plannin', states$ IPlannin' shapes the places 6here people live and 6ork% +o it is ri'ht that people should be enabled and e#po6ered to take an active part in the process% +tren'thenin' co##unit5 involve#ent is a ke5 part of the Govern#entNs plannin' refor#s%J :D/PM, 200Ea, Gntroduction@% -urther in the te3t, the 'overn#ent presents the reasons for its endeavours for a #ore participative spatial plannin'$ Gnvolve#ent leads to outco#es that better reVect the vie6s and aspirations and #eet the needs of the 6ider co##unit5 in all its diversit5; Public involve#ent is valuable as a ke5 ele#ent of a vibrant, open and participator5 de#ocrac5; Gnvolve#ent i#proves the 8ualit5 and efficienc5 of decisions b5 dra6in' on local kno6led'e and #ini#isin' unnecessar5 and costl5 conVict; Gnvolve#ent educates all participants about the needs of co##unities, the business sector and ho6 local 'overn#ent 6orks; Gnvolve#ent helps pro#ote social cohesion b5 #akin' real connections 6ith co##unities and offerin' the# a tan'ible stake in decision #akin'% :D/PM, 200Ea, p% E@

)he refor#s set out a nu#ber of 6a5s throu'h 6hich 'reater involve#ent is to be achieved$ )hrou'h the preparation and i#ple#entation of +tate#ents of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent :+,Gs@ b5 all local plannin' authorities :1P(s@% )hese set out each 1P(Us polic5 on involve#ent in plan #akin' and develop#ent control 6hich #eet the statutor5 re8uire#ents as 6ell as settin' out proposals to #eet the needs of particular areas; )hrou'h other re'ulations and 'uidance on consultation on plannin' docu#ents, e%'% re'ional plans and 1/-s; )hrou'h I*oinin' up33J 6ith other relevant strate'ies, in particular the +ustainable ,o##unit5 +trate'5; )hrou'h capacit5 buildin', includin' invest#ent in the Plannin' (id service to ensure the en'a'e#ent of previousl5 e3cluded 'roups; )hrou'h culture chan'e a#on'st all parties :planners, developers and co##unit5 leaders@ to pro#ote 'reater involve#ent :D/PM, 200Ea@%

Gn 200E another 'overn#ent docu#ent 6as published, 6hich a#ended and defined in detail the planned 'overn#ent #easures referrin' to the overhaul of the nor#ative fra#e6ork and policies in the field of participation in spatial plannin'% Gt 6as called Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ent 12, 6hich a#on'

others introduced the principle of the so called front loadin' 3E% (r'u#entation is hidden behind this ter# that if stron' e#phasis is placed upon 6ork at the earl5 sta'es of the plan #akin' process, later sta'es 6ill run #ore s#oothl5% )his involves a local authorit5 ensurin' a robust evidence base is collected% Gt also re8uires the earl5 and effective involve#ent of ke5 deliver5 stakeholders and the co##unit5% )his should ensure that there are fe6er ob*ections to the plan or issues arisin' at a late sta'e% -ront loadin' should also offer people and or'anisations an opportunit5 to influence plan content b5 sharin' their kno6led'e and vie6s 6ith planners% 9here consensus is difficult to achieve, front loadin' should allo6 the #a3i#u# opportunit5 for participants to understand each othersU positions and to ne'otiate% )his #eans that an5 issues are clearl5 understood b5 the ti#e docu#ents are sub*ect to e3a#ination% 9hile this increases the 6orkload in the earl5 sta'es of plan #akin', overall it should increase the efficienc5 of the process and the 8ualit5 of plans a local authorit5 produces :Plannin' (dvisor5 +ervice, 2002@% >esides the front loadin', the docu#ent also classifies the principle of continuin' involve#ent, the principle of transparenc5 and accessibilit5 and the principle of plannin' the participation alread5 at the be'innin' of preparation of spatial plan respectivel5 of the develop#ent approval process, as #ost i#portant principles re'ardin' the participation of public in spatial plannin'% <ere the need for adaptation of the level of intensit5 and of public involve#ent #ethods to the nature of the particular decision #akin' process and circu#stances, in 6hich it is carried out, is e#phasi.ed% )he docu#ent points out, it is i#possible to speak of Ione si.e fits allJ solutions% 9hilst seekin' an ade8uate #ethod and techni8ue for an individual case, the docu#ent advises that the decision #akers should contact an a'enc5 such as Plannin' (id :#ore about it hereinafter@% ?a% P+a**)*0 A)" 9riters have lon' reco'nised that participation in plannin' is influenced b5 structural ine8ualities in po6er, alon' the lines of class, inco#e, ethnicit5, 'ender and other di#ensions of diversit5% )herefore, an5 efforts to increase participation need to address e3istin' ine8ualities% 9a5s in 6hich the processes of participation can the#selves influence the construction of 'roups 6ithin the IpublicJ such as Ithe hard to reachJ30 or Iusual suspectsJ have been a further area of attention :>eebee*aun, 200E; G#rie, 1224@% )he 'overn#ent 6as obviousl5 a6are of the said debates as the ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent in Plannin'$ )he Govern#entUs Db*ectives of 200E concernin' the #ar'inali.ed 'roups states$ IDur ai# is that plannin' should provide opportunities for people irrespective of a'e, se3, abilit5, ethnicit5 or back'round%%% to #ake their vie6s kno6n and have their sa5 in ho6 their co##unit5 is planned and developedJ :D/PM, 200E, p% E@% (lread5 a 5ear before, b5 ensurin' public financin' of the Pro*ect (id +ervice, the 'overn#ent indicated that it is ada#ant to sti#ulate 6ith concrete #easures b5 providin' necessar5 fundin' for their fulfil#ent, a stron'er involve#ent of #ar'inal 'roups and individuals in the s5ste# of spatial plannin'% Gn 12!3, )o6n and ,ountr5 Plannin' (ssociation co##enced carr5in' out the Plannin' (id Pro*ect 6ith the ai# to Ie#po6er local co##unities b5 helpin' the# to effectivel5 en'a'e 6ith the plannin' process and influence decisions that affect their nei'hbourhoodJ :7)PG, 2002@% )he users of this service should above all be Ipeople 6ho 6ould other6ise be e3cluded fro# participatin' in local decision #akin'J :ibidem@% Gn the nineties of the t6entieth centur5, the #ana'e#ent of this independent or'ani.ation 6as assu#ed b5 7)PG 3 % )he En'lish 'overn#ent announced to *oin the fundin' of the Plannin' (id services in the above #entioned I'reen paperJ% Gn 2003 the 'overn#ent allocated W3%4 #illion for the period of further three 5ears, for the 5ears fro# 200 to 2004 fundin' a#ounted to W 3%3 #illion, for the 5ears 200! and 2004 W1%! #illion, for the 5ears 2004"2002 ho6ever W3%2 #illion% Gn the 5ears 2002 and 2010 the su# contributed b5 the /epart#ent for ,o##unities and 1ocal Govern#ent a#ounted alread5 WE%1 #illion, in 2010 and 2011 the su# rose to WE%0 #illion% )his fundin' 6ent on all the 6a5 to March 2011 6hen the ne6 coalition 'overn#ent abolished financin' of this t5pe of services3!%

)he operations of the Plannin' (id En'land #a5 be divided into t6o #ain fields% )he first one covers a free of char'e counsellin' to disadvanta'ed individuals and 'roups on their possibilities of participation in spatial plannin' processes% -or this purpose 7)PG has a special phone line served b5 e3pertUs volunteers% -or those individuals or 'roups that cannot afford to pa5 the counsellin' is free of char'e% )he Plannin' (id En'land follo6s individual cases throu'h lon'er periods of ti#e and assists the users 6ith e3pert advice and 6ith representin' of their interests in concrete decision #akin' procedures% (nother field is the so called co##unit5 plannin'% )his is defined b5 7)PG as I%%%the strate'ies, techni8ues and capacit5 buildin' re8uired to encoura'e and enable co##unities to take a full and active role in both the statutor5 and non statutor5 plannin' processesJ :7)PG, 200!@% Gn this area, Plannin' (id has a proactive, above all e#ancipator5 role, as 6ith stren'thenin' of bonds, buildin' of partnerships 6ith co##unities, their environ#ental and spatial education and trainin' sti#ulates the often e3cluded 'roups and individuals to #ore active participation in plannin' processes% (ccordin' to 7eeves and >urle5, the ob*ective of this t5pe of activities is that I%%%co##unities and individuals beco#e e#po6ered to act in their o6n best interests, ackno6led'in' their o6n perceptions and values rather than those of the professional planners%J :7eeves, >urle5, 2002, p% E13@% ?1% S-a-eme*- !& '!mmu*)-y )*.!+.eme*+tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent is probabl5 one of the #ost i#portant ne6 institutes of ensurin' better involve#ent of public in spatial plannin'% Gt re8uires fro# local plannin' authorities to set out their intentions and procedures to6ards participation in the local plan #akin' process and develop#ent control% )his is one of the 6a5s of pursuin' the principle of frontloadin', as a 6a5 of consensus seekin'; overco#in' differences earl5 on the plannin' process% Plannin' and ,o#pulsor5 Purchase (ct 200E had until the le'islatorial chan'es in 2004 provided that the +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent is a sub*ect of independent revie6 b5 a person appointed b5 the +ecretar5 of +tate% (s a rule this 6ould have been, accordin' to Moore :2010@, an Gnspector dra6n fro# the Plannin' Gnspectorate :see belo6@% )he 'overn#ent reco##endation in the Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ent 12 of 2004 a#on' others defines #ore in detail the purpose and the foreseen contents of the +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent$ R E3plain clearl5 the process and #ethods for co##unit5 involve#ent for different t5pes of local develop#ent docu#ents and for the different sta'es of plan preparation% )his needs to include details of ho6 the diverse sections of the co##unit5 are en'a'ed, in particular those 'roups 6hich have been underrepresented in previous consultation e3ercises% R Gdentif5 6hich u#brella or'anisations and co##unit5 'roups need be involved at different sta'es of the plannin' process, 6ith special consideration 'iven to those 'roups not nor#all5 involved% R E3plain the process and appropriate #ethods for effective co##unit5 involve#ent in the deter#ination of plannin' applications and 6here appropriate refer to Plannin' Perfor#ance ('ree#ents% R Gnclude infor#ation on ho6 the +,G 6ill be #onitored, evaluated and scrutinised at the local level% R Gnclude details of 6here co##unit5 'roups can 'et #ore infor#ation on the plannin' process, for e3a#ple, fro# Plannin' (id and other voluntar5 or'anisations% R Gdentif5 ho6 lando6ner and developer interests 6ill be en'a'ed% :/,1G, 2004@ )he introduction of +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent and e3tensive reco##endations sho6 the efforts on the part of the 'overn#ent for earl5 and planned involve#ent, 6ith active participation of

civil societ5 or'ani.ations such as non'overn#ental or'ani.ations and Plannin' (id% +i#ilar 'oals 6ere undoubtedl5 pursued b5 the other chan'es of policies and of nor#ative fra#e6ork% <o6 successful the said endeavours prove to be, 6hat obstacles 6ill still have to be surpassed and 6hat chan'es in the field of participation la5 ahead, 6ill be discussed in the ne3t chapter% $@% Pu1+)' ,ar-)'),a-)!*8 '!m,e-)-).e*e## a*" #,ee" < a me-a*arra-).e a0a)*#- -/e ,ra0ma-)' a,,r!a'/ +o#e anal5sts of the refor# of En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' believe that it actuall5 represents the transition fro# representative #odel of de#ocrac5 to deliberative resp% participative #odel : e.g. >arnes et al. 200E@% )his is also #aintained b5 the >ritish 'overn#ent, 6hich in its pro'ra##in' docu#ent of 200E called the ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent in Plannin'$ )he Govern#entUs Db*ectives :see above@ speaks of ITvibrant, open and participator5 de#ocrac5TJ :D/PM, 200E, p% E@% )he participative #odel of de#ocrac5 has e#er'ed in the field of spatial plannin' in the fra#e6ork of co##unicative and collaborative theories of spatial plannin' :<eale5, 122!@% >oth concepts, based on the principles of <aber#asUs Iideal speech situationJ attribute considerable si'nificance to dialo'ue, search for consensus and involve#ent of stakeholders% <o6ever, the position of so#e of theorists :?itchen, 9hitne5, 200E; >ro6nill, ,arpenter, 2004; 7aco, 2000, Ne6#an, 2001@ 6ho point out to the h5bridit5 as one of the i#portant characteristics of the ne6 labour politics, see#s to be #ore convincin'% Gn the field of plannin', this is #anifested in co#bination of 'overn#ental strate'ies, incentives and le'islational chan'es, 6hich are based on different, so#eti#es contradictin' principles% )hus for instance, the #a*orit5 of perfor#ance indicators, deter#ined b5 the En'lish 'overn#ent as criteria for 'rantin' of fundin' to local plannin' authorities in the fra#e6ork of the Plannin' /eliver5 Grant fund and the >est Value pro'ra##e relate to speed of decision #akin' and 8ualit5 of desi'n 34% 9ith re'ards to the participation, there are no incentives or re6ards for the activities of local authorities e3ceedin' the preparation of the +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent " +,G% )his ho6ever, chan'ed 6ith the adoption of 1ocal Govern#ent and Public Gnvolve#ent in <ealth (ct 200!, 6hich in section 134 re8uires that councils Ie#bed a culture of en'a'e#ent and e#po6er#entJ :<M+D, 200!@ and ensure consultation 6ith " and involve#ent of " representatives of local persons across all authorit5 functions% )his so called dut5 to involve, is a le'al foundation for 'rantin' of fundin' in the fra#e6ork of >est Value pro'ra##e also accordin' to the 8ualit5 of assurin' the public participation% <o6ever in (pril 2011 the coalition 'overn#ent announced the repeal of the dut5 to involve% Moreover the labour 'overn#ental docu#ents e.g. D/PM :200E@, D/PM :2000@ on one hand pro#ote a #ore active public participation and on the other hand the5 let the rate of participation to confor# to Iparticular local circu#stancesJ :I6hat 6orksJ approach@, 6hich, as 1each and 9in'field :1222@ 6arn, provides an opportunit5 to the authorities 6ho do not accept the i#portance of public participation to #ar'inalise it or pa5 lip"service :p% E!@% Gnstead of #ore specific instructions to the local plannin' authorities, the docu#ents pro#ote the e3chan'e of 'ood practices% )he lack of #ore detailed re8uire#ents referrin' to +,G in 200E Plannin' and ,o#pulsor5 Purchase (ct, accordin' to >re6er and (le3ander :200!@ 6ho had perfor#ed an e3tensive research on i#ple#entation of +,G, resulted in variable perfor#ance bet6een the local co##unities% +o#e local plannin' authorities are co##itted to #ore intensive, hi'h 8ualit5 consultin' procedures, #an5 a#on' the# ho6ever 6ill be satisfied 6ith +,G, prepared in accordance 6ith #ini#al le'al re8uire#ents% +uch oscillations are, accordin' to >ro6nill and ,arpenter :200!@, enhanced b5 the 200 le'islation chan'es, 6hich repealed the re8uire#ent for an independent revie6 b5 the co#petent Plannin' Gnspector% Dne of the #ain focuses of En'lish plannin' refor# is also the so called frontloadin', 6hich should #ean an earliest possible involve#ent of public in the plannin' docu#ents preparation procedures% )his is ho6 the :virtualX@ contradiction bet6een speed and participativeness in spatial plannin', the t6o #ost often e#phasi.edai#es of the said refor#, should be brid'ed% 9ith earl5 participation the differences in opinions should be ironed out and a consensus should be sou'htat at the ver5 be'innin'

of the procedure, to #ake sure that it can then run #ore 8uickl5% )he case stud5 carried out b5 the D3ford >rooks Cniversit5 in 200E on the basis of a ,o6le5 7oad Matters pro*ect that took place for si3 #onths and 6here, 6ith substantial subsid5 of the /epart#ent of )ransport, 32 so#e innovative #echanis#s of public involve#ent 6ere tested : e.g. participator5 video, plannin' for real, 6orkshops 6ith #ar'inali.ed 'roups@ sho6s that frontloadin' #a5 in practice have un6anted effects% Gndividuals and 'roups 6ith #ore social po6er, above all the local entrepreneurs, 6aited for the official sta'e of preparation of spatial docu#ents and onl5 then presented their vie6s and succeeded to assert their solutions that the5 never #entioned at the introductor5 consultation 6ith the public% 7epresentatives of the co##unit5 later ad#itted the5 pa5ed less attention to the statutor5 ele#ents, thinkin' their vie6s had alread5 been taken into account throu'h e3tensive earl5 consultation : ibidem@% <ere 6e co#e upon a fre8uent trouble 6here participative decision #akin' collides 6ith restrictions represented b5 po6er and hierarch5% Plannin' (id 6hose data :National Plannin' (id Cnit, 200!@ sho6 that the share of representatives of ethnic #inorities and of coloured people 6ho turn to this supportive office is co#parativel5 s#all :appro3% 1 percent@ faces si#ilar barriers% )he reasons for it cannot be found on the part of Plannin' (id, but 6ith the e3cluded 'roups the#selves% >eebee*aun :200 , p% 10@ points out that$ ITencoura'in' 'reater participation of #ar'inali.ed 'roups 6ithout consideration of po6er relations bet6een and 6ithin 'roups does not safe'uard values of e8ualit5, nor should it be presu#ed to do so% Participation does not offer a panacea for e#bedded racial and ethnic ine8ualities% )hese ine8ualities are inter6oven into the fabric of our societies%J (s in the case of #an5 +lovene #unicipalities :see above@, one of the difficulties nu#erous En'lish 1P(s are facin' is Iculture chan'eJ% )he chan'e in fi3ed vie6s on the part of spatial planners is not an eas5 task 6hich inter alia is sho6n b5 the research of /urnin' and Glasson :200E@% Gn this research, 2E percent of the surve5ed representatives of local authorities attribute the difficulties in cooperation 6ith the co##unit5 to lack of kno6led'e and skills on the part of authoritiesN plannin' staff% ,arle5 and >a5le5 :2002, p% 22@ too, #aintain that one of the bi''est challen'es is that the or'anisational culture of local authorit5 bureaucracies is seldo# receptive to 'enuine participation and elected councillors #a5 vie6 s5ste#atic participation as threatenin' to their role% )he above clearl5 sho6s the contradictions inside the ob*ectives and policies in the field of spatial plannin' in the ti#e of ne6 labour 'overn#ents% )hese contradictions are also visible in other fields of 'overnance and reflect the d5na#ics of the ti#e 6e live in% )he develop#ental challen'es and ever #ore burnin' 8uestion of cli#ate chan'e cause the increased political re8uire#ents for speed and efficienc5 in plannin' procedures :(ll#endin'er, )e6d6r"=ones, 2002@% )his trend is also reflected in so#e of the recent chan'es to plannin' le'islation for #a*or infrastructure of national i#portance% )hus the >ritish Parlia#ent passed )he Plannin' (ct in 2004, 6hich contains a nu#ber of chan'es in the field of public participation in spatial plannin' of nationall5 si'nificant infrastructure pro*ects as for instance ports, ener'5 s5ste#s, airports and roads% ,otton :2010, p% 3@ ar'ues that the (ct 6as developed 6ithin the political conte3t of Govern#ent concerns over the len'th5 and costl5 arran'e#ents for approvin' )er#inal 0 at <eathro6 airport, 6hich 6as opened in 2004, follo6in' the lon'est plannin' in8uir5 in C? histor5% )he la6 established special independent Gnfrastructure Plannin' ,o##ission :hereinafter called GP,@, E0 6hich 6ould be co#petent for e3a#inin' applications for develop#ent consent for nationall5 si'nificant infrastructure pro*ects and for decidin' on such application, 6hen a relevant national polic5 state#ent 6ould be in force% )his procedure 6as prevoiousl5 a co#petence of local 'overn#ents% )here 6ould also have been a public e3a#ination, 6ith cross e3a#ination of 6itnesses and the +ecretar5 of +tate 6ould take the final decision after havin' all the infor#ation in front of the# and did not have to accept the reco##endations, #ade b5 the plannin' in8uir5 as the inspector provided, the5 'ave 'ood reason% Gn the ne6 s5ste#, evidence is considered b5 the GP, pri#aril5 in 6ritin', unless it chooses to hold an oral evidence session% )he introduction of GP, clearl5 sho6s 'overn#entNs rene6ed e#phasis upon deliver5% )he ne6 s5ste# should save ti#e and costs and enable a clear distinction bet6een polic5 #akin' and decision #akin'% )his chan'es #ean, accordin' to the nu#erous authors :,otton, 2010; (ll#endin'er and )e6d6r" =ones, 2002; (ll#endin'er and <au'hton, 2002@, the prevalence of the technocratic vie6s of spatial

plannin' and 'ivin' priorities to econo#ic co#petitiveness before the de#ands of social involve#ent and environ#ent protection and placin' the 6ill of the central 'overn#ent before the 6ill of local co##unities% -urther chan'es in En'lish s5ste# of spatial plannin' 6ere co##enced b5 coalition 'overn#ent 6ith takin' over of the office in sprin' 2010% (lread5 soon after elections the ne6 >ritish 'overn#ent announcesd radical chan'es in plannin' le'islation% )he #ost si'nificant chan'e is the so called 1ocalis# >ill, 6hich is in the last sta'e of parlia#entar5 procedure, and 6ill abro'ate the re'ional spatial plannin' and transfer so#e of the spatial plannin' co#petences fro# the 'overn#ent to local co##unities% )he la6 e3tends the possibilities of local referendu#, 6hich previousl5 could onl5 be issued under ver5 strict conditions% -urther#ore it offers so#e ne6 possibilities for participation of public in spatial plannin' at local level as for instance nei'hbourhood plannin', intended to the population of narro6er parts of #unicipalities :7)PG, 2011@% Gn vie6 of the fact that the le'al chan'es of the coalition 'overn#ent have onl5 recentl5 been #ade and no detailed scientific debates and researches on itNs i#pacts have been co#pleted, it 6ill onl5 beco#e clear in ti#e if the5 si'nif5 a step for6ard in the direction of better 8ualit5 of public participation%

$% C!*'+u#)!* Ma*a +i#oneti :/+7+, 2010, p% @, an urban e3pert fro# the Gntitut .a politike prostora :Gnstitute for the Ph5sical +pace Policies@ and one of the outstandin' authors in the field of citi.en participation in spatial plannin' in +lovenia, concluded the above #entioned conference in the <ouse of National ,ouncil of 7epublic of +lovenia in -ebruar5 2010 6ith the follo6in' 6ords$ IGt is ti#e for ,han'es of +patial Plannin'J :see above@ IT 6e appeal to those responsible to act at a different level to include citi.ens in spatial plannin' affairs in +lovenia both for#all5 and infor#all5 and thereb5 openin' a public discourse to such critical de'ree that it prevents the situation in spatial plannin' that 6e have no6%J (t least in the professional public this discourse is 'oin' on and the de#ands for chan'es in both the re'ulator5 fra#e6ork as 6ell as in functionin' of the public ad#inistration are 'ettin' louder and louder% )he5 ori'inate a#on' scientists and a#on' other e3perts in spatial plannin' as 6ell as fro# the local 'overn#ent level% )hus e.g. Vla* :2011@ sees the failure to ensure the participation of citi.ens in decision #akin' concernin' the local public affairs as one of the #a*or reasons for the crisis of +lovene self"'overn#ent% Dne of the basic challen'es raised before us b5 the ever #ore unpredictable and rapidl5 chan'in' econo#ic circu#stances in the countr5 as 6ell as abroad is the i#ple#entation of t6o apparentl5 inco#patible 'oals$ hi'her de'ree of de#ocrac5 in decision #akin' and sustainable develop#ent on one hand and econo#ic efficienc5 and co#petitiveness on the other% )he above revie6 of the refor# processes in the field of citi.en participation in spatial plannin' in En'land, 6hich is accordin' to the rate of de#ocrac5 in spatial plannin' considered one of the #ost developed in the 6orld, de#onstrated clearl5 that responses to these challen'es are not si#ple at all and are even less una#bi'uous% Cncritical trans"positionin' of institutes fro# different le'islations or social and econo#ic s5ste#s 6ill often fail to produce 'ood solutions% )he kno6led'e of ho6 these other s5ste#s 6ork ho6ever 6ill direct us to the ri'ht path in seekin' i#prove#ents that 6ill suit our de#ands% (nd obviousl5, there is a lot of space for i#prove#ents% Gf 6e co##ence at the top, one of the first conditions sine qua non for successful develop#ent of the s5ste# of spatial plannin' is reco'nition of its si'nificance at the level of the national polic5% Gnstead of listenin' #ore carefull5 to their su''estions, of attractin' the public and thereb5 for#in' a #odern le'al fra#e6ork 6hich 6ould last lon'er than each sin'le 'overn#ent or parlia#ent, nu#erous and not sufficientl5 deliberated a#end#ents of the le'al fra#e6ork create unnecessar5 confusion a#on'

the plannin' stakeholders% (s e#phasised b5 Marot :2010@, the le'islator, if 6ishin' to ensure successful i#ple#entation of the la6, #ust, 6hen preparin' it, consider the situation of the s5ste# A the 6a5 of its functionin' and the values of the stakeholders, the broader institutional environ#ent, the different lo'ic of ho6 the various re'ulator5 tools and strate'ies 6ork A and the chan'es of an5 sin'le part of the s5ste#% )he recent le'islative interventions for instance 6ere adopted 6ithout a thorou'h anal5sis of the e3istin' s5ste# of spatial plannin'% )he e3a#ination of so#e of En'lish le'al solutions sho6s that the for#er labour and the actual coalition 'overn#entUs opinion is that spatial plannin' and citi.en participation in it are rather i#portant for econo#ic develop#ent and develop#ent of de#ocratic culture and its institutions% )he le'islation itself as 6ell as 'uidelines and pro'ra##es issued b5 the co#petent #inistries point at it% Gn spite of the assu#ed increased si'nificance of 'overn#ental 'uidelines and instructions in the s5ste# of discretionar5 decision #akin', a fact re#ains that +lovene 'overn#ent is co#parativel5 passive E1% (lso #ore fundin' should be assi'ned to NGDs, above all for the pro*ects of education and sti#ulation of develop#ent of spatial plannin' culture% )he pro'ra##e as for instance Plannin' (id 6hich in the field of spatial plannin' offers a free of char'e assistance to the users a#on' the underprivile'ed persons is a 'ood e3a#ple of ho6 independent professional institutions #a5 on the 'overn#entNs initiative be involved in the i#provin' of the situation in spatial plannin' culture% ( si#ilar pro'ra##e as carried out b5 7o5al )o6n Plannin' Gnstitute #a5 on the basis of ade8uate fundin' be carried out b5 the CrbanistiBni intitut 7+ :Crban Plannin' Gnstitute of 7epublic of +lovenia@, Gntitut .a politike prostora :Gnstitute for the Ph5sical +pace Policies@ and others% Perhaps 6e should 'o even further and transfer so#e of the #andates in spatial plannin' fro# 'overn#ent to professional bodies e.g. to CrbanistiBni intitut or as proposed b5 +i#oneti :/+7+, 2010@ to for# a si#ilar bod5 at 'overn#ent level% (t the level of specific le'al arran'e#ents, it 6ould certainl5 be sensible to bind the producers of spatial plannin' docu#ents to take #ore active approach in involvin' citi.ens in the plannin' procedure% )hou'h so#e of the provisions of )he act re'ardin' the sitin' of spatial arran'e#ents of national si'nificance in ph5sical space :above all in ter#s of earl5 involvin' of citi.ens and of its plannin' in advance@, are a step in the ri'ht direction, E2 it 6ould probabl5 be necessar5 to introduce a si#ilar institute as the +tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent, under the condition ho6ever that at the sa#e ti#e a s5ste# of sti#ulations be introduced for those :above all at the local level@ 6ho de#onstrate #ore innovativeness in choosin' #echanis#s of includin' public and 6ho also other6ise practice approaches 6hich e3ceed #eetin' the #ini#al le'al re8uire#ents and 6ho in public participation see the possibilities of i#provin' the 8ualit5 of decisions and not onl5 a troubleso#e for#alit5 that needs to be fulfilled and left behind as soon as possible :tick bo3 approach@% +uch #echanis#s of sti#ulations are sub*ect of another set of actual difficulties of +lovene spatial plannin' s5ste#% Gt concerns the attitude of the 'overn#ent to local co##unit5Us 'overnance and the attitude of the latter to6ards spatial #ana'e#ent issues% Even thou'h the present paper does not deal specificall5 6ith En'lish local 'overn#ent refor# :the refor# took place in 1222 and a ne6 one of 6hich the nor#ative essence is the said 1ocalis# >ill, is on the 6a5@, 6e #a5, based on the above, dra6 a conclusion that in order to i#prove the 8ualit5 of spatial plannin' in +lovenia 6e #ust first i#prove the 8ualit5 of local 'overnance% Gnstead of centrali.ation, #ore fundin' should be allocated to the local co##unities to #ake sure that the5 are capable of properl5 fulfilin' their tasks% Much #ore e#phasis should be placed upon devolution and decentralisation% )he spatial plannin' le'islation na#el5 often re8uires the local co##unities to carr5 out activities, 6hich e3ceed their personnel, financial and or'ani.ational capabilities% Dne of the difficulties the current plannin' staff are facin' is lack of professional kno6led'e and the fact that the5 are not re8uired to e#plo5 at least one #unicipal to6n planner% <ere 6e #ust point out a'ain to the possibilit5 that support of kno6led'e and e3perience #i'ht be offered to the local co##unities b5 an independent a'enc5, :co@funded b5 the central 'overn#ent% 9e also propose co#prehensive trainin' of the plannin' personnel in conte#porar5 approaches to spatial plannin' 6ith special attention to public participation and stakeholder cooperation% )he >ritish 'overn#ent is a6are of it and sti#ulates

the so called culture chan'e% (ccordin' to so#e researchers :?itchen and 9hitne5, 200E@ even there 6ith #an5 stakeholders, a#on' the# urban e3perts the#selves, it is happenin' :too@ slo6l5% -or a #ore rapid i#ple#entation of principles of 'ood 'overnance, the 'overn#ent #i'ht do #ore b5 follo6in' the e3a#ple of ne6 localis# in En'land% (s in +lovenia 6here there is #ore and #ore criticis# of e3a''erated centrali.ation of the countr5 :Vla*, 2011; Mlinar, 2000@, si#ilar reproaches 6ere often addressed to the )on5 >lairNs 'overn#ent% )hat is 6h5, 6hen refor#in' the local 'overn#ent, the5 'ave priorit5 to the principle of subsidiarit5% )he central 'overn#ent started to re6ard #ore 'enerousl5 6ith the said pro'ra##es the activities of local institutions :>est Value resp% Plannin' /eliver5 Grant in the field of spatial plannin'@% >ased on these facts, 6e #a5 dra6 a conclusion that the i#prove#ent of the situation in the field of citi.en participation in spatial plannin' calls for an inte'ral approach% (s the e3a#ple of En'land sho6s, the le'islative activit5 does not suffice to #ake a substantial #ove in the desired direction and to chan'e culture% ( lot of attention and fundin' 6ill have to be allocated to public institutions as 6ell as to civil societ5 as the chan'e is necessar5 at all levels% )he approach, based on a 'reater citi.en participation in decision #akin' is usuall5 referred to as the botto#Aup approach, but the support to such efforts and the e3a#ples for it are ri'hteousl5 to be e3pected in the top"do6n direction%

N!-e#:

11

A propos, acordin' to 9eber :12 E@, a planner is above all a civil servant 6ho has to act rationall5, i#partiall5, and e8uitabl5%
2

Gt is above all the crisis of po6er le'iti#ac5% +eekin' ne6 paradi'# respectivel5 a ne6 de#ocratic #odel is ver5 #uch a conse8uence of crisis of the political left in European de#ocracies in the second half of ei'hties of t6ent5"first centur5 6hen a neo"liberal #odel in Europe often called Ithatcheris#J 6as on #arch%
3

Ma5be the #ost influential 6ork in this field is the #ono'raph b5 +herr5 7% (rnstein, ParticipationJ%
E

I( 1adder of ,iti.en

Public officials infor# the public 6ith press releases and briefin's etc%

1et us #ention for instance A fro# the standpoint of topics discussed in the present paper si'nificant A division, 6hich particularl5 for the local level deli#itates participative and deliberative de#ocrac5 :Greer, Murph5 and D'ard, 2000, in 1avtar, 200!@% )he said authors stipulated the division of the #odels of de#ocrac5 6hich differs fro# the <eldNs definition of #odels b5 the fact that different sorts of citi.en participation are classified in 'roups, the criterion ho6ever is for# and not contents% )he5 include a#on' others the s5ste# of vouchers, the supervision of users of public services, co#plaints, supervision of population, public #eetin's, public hearin's, panels, cit5 or cit5 8uarterN s debates, 8uestions and ans6ers of the e3ecutive bodies of local authorities% )o deliberative de#ocrac5 hearin's, public #eetin's and c5ber respectivel5 e" de#ocrac5 are classified% Gf 6e co#pare individual characteristics of the described #odels 6e #a5 'et the i#pression that the5 are often sa#e for#s 6ith different na#es% )he authors define the differences bet6een the participative and deliberative #odels b5 ascribin' ele#ents of direct de#ocrac5 to the first 6hich offer people the possibilit5 to e3press their positions and to contribute to decision #akin' either collectivel5 or individuall5% )he deliberative #odel ho6ever is focused on discussion on local proble#s in open, sincere and tolerant at#osphere% )he procedure itself is 6hat enables it to surpass the first #odel%

(s e#phasi.ed b5 >herer :2010@, such e3planation #i'ht lead to a :6ron'@ conclusion that local authorities in decision #akin' auto#aticall5 introduce participative #echanis#s% Gn practice ho6ever is their introduction often sub*ect to other factors 6hich are independent fro# the level of public ad#inistration% +o#e researches established even a ne'ative correlation$ develop#ent of participative #echanis#s of decision #akin' is stron'er in lar'er local co##unities as the5 have #ore resources :hu#an, financial and others@ :>err5, Portne5 S )ho#pson, 1223 in +cavo,1223@% +i#ilarl5 Dliver :2001@ also deter#ines that in s#aller local co##unities 6e #a5 find nu#erous civil initiatives but ver5 fe6 activities of the local authorities, 6hich 6ould enable institutionali.ed citi.en participation%
!

)he tasks of #unicipalities are stipulated in 2nd para'raph of article 21 of the 1a6 on 1ocal Governance; re'ardin' the discussed sub*ect the #ost i#portant are the second, third, fourth, t6elfth, thirteenth and t6entieth indent of the said para'raph and article, a#on' the# the #ost i#portant are$ " providin' the conditions for the econo#ic develop#ent of the #unicipalit5; " plannin' of spatial develop#ent, carr5in' out tasks in the areas of activities affectin' the ph5sical space and the construction of facilities in accordance 6ith the la6 and ensurin' the public service of buildin' land #ana'e#ent; " creatin' of conditions for the construction of housin' and providin' for an increase in the rent :social 6elfare housin' fund@; " bein' responsible for preservin' cultural herita'e in its territor5 in accordance 6ith the la6; " constructin', #aintainin' and re'ulatin' local public roads, public 6a5s, recreational and other public areas, re'ulatin' traffic in the #unicipalit5 and perfor#in' tasks of #unicipal public order; " adoptin' the statute of the #unicipalit5 and other 'eneral acts%

)he 6ell spread position has it that +lovenia la's behind the si#ilar forei'n practice in this field and accordin' to the opinion of +i#oneti :2011@, +lovenia is even behind its o6n practice fro# the ti#es of Iself 'overnin'J social s5ste#%
2

)he stakeholders are enu#erated as e3a#ples onl5 as the5 #a5 differ accordin' to the nature of a specific spatial plannin' procedure% )his is true for the ter# Iciti.ensJ 6ho #a5 concern all the people in the area 6hich is sub*ect of a certain plannin' docu#ent :area of plannin'@, o6ners of the ad*acent real estates in cases of sitin' of interventions into certain areas% Dften 'eneral public and or'ani.ed civil societ5, :the latter above all b5 actin' throu'h NGD :non 'overn#ental or'ani.ations@ #a5 represent i#portant factors%
10

)he conference took place on 3rd -ebruar5 2011% Gt 6as or'ani.ed b5 the 7e'ional ,entre for Environ#ent in the fra#e6ork of the pro*ect ,ivil +ociet5 under auspices of -rench Gnstitute ,harles Nodier in 1*ubl*ana%
11

-ro# Dctober 2004 to Nove#ber 2002, the pro*ect 6as #ana'ed b5 Gnstitute for +pace Policies :GPoP@ in partnership 6ith the institute )ra*ekt :666%)ra*ekt%or'@ and a Nor6e'ian partner ,>N7M Net :666%cbnr#%net@% Gt 6as supported b5 a subsid5 of Gceland, 1iechtenstein, and Nor6a5 throu'h the -inancial Mechanis# of EGP and b5 Nor6e'ian -inancial #echanis#%
11

12

(d#inistrative units are territorial offices of the state ad#inistration, subordinated to a 'iven #inistr5, 6ith their o6n area of operation and tasks% )heir basic responsibilit5 is to decide on ad#inistrative #atters at a first instance, 6hile the co#petent #inistr5 or bod5 or or'anisation 6ithin the fra#e6ork of the #inistr5 is co#petent for decidin' on appeals a'ainst the decision of the ad#inistrative unit% Gn addition, the5 supervise the le'alit5 of local authoritiesN perfor#ance of their co#petencies and the e3pedienc5 of local authoritiesN perfor#ance of dele'ated state functions% )he supervision over spatial develop#ent activities is #ainl5 perfor#ed throu'h buildin' per#its, issued b5 ad#inistration units%
13

)he 8uestionnaire 6as addressed to the directors of 123 of #unicipal ad#inistrations :the 8uestionnaire 6as not sent to the ad#inistrations of 1! ne6l5 founded #unicipalities as in the opinion of the researchers these lack the necessar5 e3perience and develop#ent in ad#inistration to be able to participate relevantl5 in the surve5% 114 ad#inistrations : 1,1F@ sent the filled in 8uestionnaires%
1E

)he #ono'raph (d#inistrative capacit5 and coalition buildin' in +lovenian #unicipalities b5 <aBek, >re.ovek and >aBli*a is based on the findin's of this research surve5 :2004@%
10

)he indicators 6ere used, 6hich #easure the ade8uac5 of criteria for foundin' a #unicipalit5 and the foundin' of a #unicipalit5 b5 separation fro# an e3istin' one, ade8uac5 of personnel, and the de#and for ne6 staff available fundin', difficulties in understandin' the le'al fra#e6ork, 6hich all influence the e3ecution of the Ipro*ectJ and 6hat is #ost i#portant for the present article the level of public participation and influence, fre8uenc5 and 8ualit5 of participation%
1

+i#ilarl5 Vla* :2011@ too points out to inconsistencies of so#e of the solutions in force in +lovene local self" 'overn#ent :as an e3a#ple a#on' others 'ives the proble# of sources of financin' the local co##unities @ 6ith European ,harter of 1ocal +elf"'overn#ent :ME11+@, ratified b5 +lovenia in 122 , 6hich is considered one of the basic docu#ents in the field of de#ocrac5 in Europe%
1!

Gn #odern de#ocracies it is rather difficult to set a dividin' line bet6een ad#inistration and politics$ the political and ad#inistrative processes are intert6ined% )o find ne6 solutions, 6hich 6ould assist in i#provin' efficienc5 and rationalit5 of ad#inistration, the developed countries have ever since the ei'hties of t6entieth centur5 been introducin' e3tensive refor#s under a co##on deno#ination Ine6 public #ana'e#ent :NPM@J, puttin' stress on or'ani.ational :not onl5 in ter#s of personnel@ division of desi'nin' and e3ecutin' of politics, disa''re'ation and introducin' of principles of private sector #ana'e#ent% Gn the literature 6e 6ill also co#e upon the ter# ne6 public 'overnance% )hese t6o ter#s 6ill #ostl5 be used as s5non5#s% +o#e of the authors :Dsborne, 2010@ ho6ever think that the ter# ne6 public #ana'e#ent represents a transitional sta'e fro# traditional, bureaucratic #odel of ad#inistration to the ter# the ne6 public 'overnance%

14

/ivision on predo#inantl5 either re'ulator5 or discretionar5 s5ste#s of develop#ent control is #ade accordin' to >ooth :122 , 1222@% (lso the ter#s plan led s5ste#s versus discretional s5ste#s are 6ell reco'nised :European ,o##unities, 122!@% +o#e authors :/i#itrovska"(ndre6s S Plota*ner, 2000@ distin'uish bet6een Iplan"orientedJ and Ipro*ect" orientedJ s5ste#s% )oda5 the ele#ents of both s5ste#s in nu#erous countries are intert6ined and the division into the t6o #entioned above is, due to conver'ence, less and less distinctive%
12

)he 5ear 6hen the )o6n and ,ountr5 Plannin' (ct 6as adopted in En'land , a la6 6hich actuall5 #eant the be'innin' of #odern spatial plannin' in En'land :see above@%
20

(ll#endin'er :200 @ e#phasi.es that contradictor5 tendencies have been intert6inin' in En'lish plannin' polic5 of the #id nineties of t6entieth centur5 but plannin' oriented #odel 6hich is alluded b5 this #eanin'ful title of the article has a better chance to prevail$ Honin' b5 +tealthX )he /i#inution of /iscretionar5 Plannin'
21

Gt is an e3pression characteristic for the En'lish co##on la6 le'al s5ste# in 6hich so#e concepts are not le'all5 stipulated but can be of decisive i#portance for court *ud'e#ent in a particular case% Gt is a ter# taken fro# the plannin' practice the contents of 6hich 6ill in individual case considerin' the relevant circu#stances be stipulated b5 the court% Dr, as >ooth has it$ I%%% the practice of derivin' 'eneral concepts fro# practice, 6hich in turn #a5 be applied to cases in the future, has run the risk of obscurin' rather than e3posin' the value s5ste#s that underpin an approach to spatial plannin'% Gn this respect a catch"all concept like a#enit5 is classic$ it has covered, variousl5, aesthetic values, environ#ental protection and the ri'hts of people to be shielded fro# the activities of their nei'hboursJ :>ooth, 200!, p% 1E3@% (nd further$ I%%%application is the sa#e$ 6e reco'ni.e a#enit5 or #aterial considerations 6hen 6e see the# and successive e3a#ples allo6 decision"#akers, be the5 ad#inistrative or *udicial, to reYne and indeed #odif5 the initial concept%J :>ooth, 200!, p% 1E2@%
22

+uch case is, for instance, a 5earl5 ob*ective of the 'overn#ent that at least areas :/,1G, 200 @%
23

0F of ne6 buildin's are built in developed

-or instance, a co##it#ent, based on ?5oto Protocol :-ra#e6ork Protocol on ,li#ate ,han'e@, to reduce national production of 'reenhouse 'ases b5 a fi'ure of 12%0 percent, so that b5 the period 2004"2012 the volu#e of such e#issions 6ould be reduced to 1220 levels%
2E

1ocal 'overn#ent is responsible for the da5"to"da5 i#ple#entation of public interest in spatial plannin' b5 #eans of production of local polic5 and deter#ination of plannin' applications% National 'overn#ent dictates the overall structure and direction of the s5ste# b5 enactin' le'islation that dictates *ust e3actl5 6hat does need consent and ho6 local polic5 shall be produced as 6ell as producin' national polic5 'uidance to set out #ore detail on acceptable for#s of develop#ent% )hus, the national 'overn#ent does en*o5 a detailed level of intervention to set up the s5ste# :b5 le'islation@ and influence its outco#es :b5 plannin' polic5 state#ents"PP+@% National 'overn#ent depart#ents, in particular the +ecretar5 of +tate for ,o##unities and 1ocal Govern#ent, have responsibilit5 for the polic5 outco#es of the plannin' s5ste#% )he +ecretar5 of +tate issues a Plannin' Polic5 +tate#ents and ,irculars containin' the vie6s of the +ecretar5 of +tate on a 6ide variet5 of political areas% )hese docu#ents constitute i#portant #aterial considerations and #ust be taken into account in decisions on plannin' applications and appeals%
20

)he ob*ective of a lon' line of #easures a#on' others is accordin' to 7atcliffe, +tubbs and ?eepin' :2002@, the stabili.in' of carbon e#issions fro# develop#ent :#iti'ation@ and take into account the unavoidable conse8uences of cli#ate chan'e :adaptation@%
2

(s far as the na#e of the 'overn#ent depart#ent co#petent for spatial #ana'e#ent is concerned, there 6ere three #a*or #odifications in 2001 and 2002$ fro# the /epart#ent of the Environ#ent, )ransport and the 7e'ions the co#petence for spatial #ana'e#ent 6as transferred to the /epart#ent of )ransport, 1ocal Govern#ent and the 7e'ions and then fro# this one to the Dffice of the /eput5 Pri#e Minister% )oda5 the co#petence is in the /epart#ent for ,o##unities and 1ocal Govern#ent%

2!

)he D3ford dictionar5 for En'lish lan'ua'e 'ives us the follo6in' definition for a 'reen paper$ I:in the C?@ a preli#inar5 report of 'overn#ent proposals, published to sti#ulate discussion%J ( broader definition #a5 be found$ a Green Paper is a 'overn#ent publication that details specific issues and then points out possible courses of action in ter#s of polic5 and le'islation% Gt is co##issioned fro# the relevant depart#ent, if the 'overn#ent feels that there is an area 6here ne6 le'islation is re8uired or e3istin' le'islation needs to be rene6ed% ,ruciall5, a Green Paper contains no co##it#ent to action, it is #ore a tool of sti#ulatin' discussion, but it is often the first step to6ards chan'in' the la6 :accordin' to$ http$OO666%'uardian%co%uk@%
24

(lso the e3pressions used e.g. Ifunda#ental chan'eJ and Iradical overhaulJ reflect 'reat a#bitiousness of the 'overn#ent of C? in plannin' the spatial #ana'e#ent s5ste# rene6al%
22

Cntil 31st March 2010 there 6ere ei'ht re'ional (sse#blies indirectl5 elected fro# a#on' the #e#bers of the count5 and district councils and unitar5 authorities in each re'ion, the re#ainin' one"third 6ere appointees fro# other re'ional interest 'roups% 7e'ional (sse#blies 6ere abolished on the said date% )he co#petence for preparation of 7++ are, e3cept for ,it5 of 1ondon :their sui generis re'ional and local authorities act on the basis of the applicable provisions of the Greater 1ondon (uthorit5 (ct 1222 and the co#petence for preparin' the 7++ is on Greater 1ondon (uthorit5@, shifted to 7e'ional /evelop#ent ('encies, under the 'uidance of a ne6 1ocal (uthorit5 1eadersU >oard%
30

Gn respect of the 'reen book of the conservative part5 of -ebruar5 2010 :a fe6 #onths before parlia#entar5 elections in 6hich the part5 6on the #a*orit5 and for#ed a coalition 'overn#ent 6ith liberal de#ocrats@ <aseltineNs position :200!@ that co##it#ent to public participation has beco#e a per#anenc5 of En'lish politics, #i'ht be confir#ed% )he said docu#ent entitled Dpen +ource Plannin' containin' an outline of the s5ste# of spatial plannin' as conceived b5 the conservative part5, na#el5 specifies co##unit5 involve#ent and collaborative desi'n as one of the essential ele#ents of spatial plannin'% Gn the introductor5 chapter there are state#ents that Ito establish successful de#ocrac5, 6e need participation and social en'a'e#entJ and Iour conception of local plannin' is rooted in civic en'a'e#ent and collaborative de#ocrac5%%%J :Dpen +ource Plannin', 'reen paper, 2010@%
31

I%%%better co##unit5 involve#ent 6hich takes into account the needs of all those 6ith a stake in the s5ste#%J :D/PM, 2002, p% 2@% )his desi'nation is #ore definite than in the #a*orit5 of other 'overn#ental docu#ents on refor# of the spatial plannin' s5ste# as it does not speak of co##unities in 'eneral; #ost often these are local co##unities@ but of the stakeholders% 9hat is here i#portant is the interest that an individual or a 'roup of individuals or an5 other sub*ect : e.g. enterprises or non 'overn#ental or'ani.ations@ have in a certain plan or construction%
32

I%%%+tate#ent of ,o##unit5 Gnvolve#ent%%% 6ill set out bench#arks for co##unit5 participation in the preparation of 1/- docu#ents and si'nificant plannin' applicationsJ :ibidem@%
33

I=oinin' upJ is a ter# that 1in' :2002, p% 1!@ defines as a 'roup of responses to the perception that services had beco#e fra'#ented and that this fra'#entation 6as preventin' the achieve#ent of i#portant 'oals of public polic5% )his perception 're6 in pro#inence in the #id"1220s and has re#ained an i#portant part of the thinkin' behind public sector refor#% Gt is based on the vie6 that i#portant 'oals of public polic5 cannot be delivered throu'h the separate activities of e3istin' or'ani.ations but neither could the5 be delivered b5 creatin' a ne6 Isuper a'enc5J% Gt therefore seeks to ali'n the activities of for#all5 separate or'ani.ations to6ards particular 'oals of public polic5% )herefore, *oined"up 6orkin' ai#s to coordinate activities across or'ani.ational boundaries 6ithout re#ovin' the boundaries the#selves% )hese boundaries are inter"depart#ental, central" local, and sectoral :corporate, public, voluntar5Oco##unit5@% )o *oin up initiatives #ust ali'n or'ani.ations 6ith different cultures, incentives, #ana'e#ent s5ste#s and ai#s% )herefore, I*oined"up 'overn#entJ is an u#brella ter# describin' various 6a5s of ali'nin' for#all5 distinct or'ani.ations in pursuit of the ob*ectives of the 'overn#ent of the da5%
3E

)he said docu#ent substantiates the principle 6ith 6ords$ I1ocal plannin' authorities should take ke5 decisions earl5 in the preparation of local develop#ent docu#ents% )he ai# 6ill be to seek consensus on essential issues earl5 in the preparation of local develop#ent docu#ents and so avoid late chan'es bein' #ade%J:D/PM, 200Eb, p% 1@%

30

)here are #an5 ter#s 6hich are used in 'overn#ent docu#ents and in the relevant literature to desi'nate such 'roups and individuals% )he #ost fre8uent a#on' the# are$ Ihard to reachJ, Ie3cludedJ, Idisadvanta'edJ, IunderrepresentedJ and I#ar'inali.edJ% (s one can see in the present paper the definition of these 'roups b5 the for#er En'lish 'overn#ent is co#parativel5 6ide as the criterion inter alia takes into account 'ender, race, ph5sical #obilit5, a'e and social back'round% (ccordin'l5 the 7o5al )o6n Plannin' Gnstitute defines the Idisadvanta'ed 'roupsJ as Ipeople on lo6 inco#es, une#plo5ed people, #inorit5 ethnic co##unities, 6o#en and 6o#enNs 'roups, disabled people and disabilit5 'roups, older people, children and 5oun' people, tenants 'roups, co##unit5 'roups and voluntar5 or'anisationsJ :7o5al )o6n Plannin' Gnstitute :hereinafter 7)PG@, 2003, p% @%
3

-or the area of 1ondon a separate independent charit5 is in char'e of the pro*ect% Gn the present paper 6e focus on Plannin' (id En'land onl5, even thou'h the service is perfor#ed separatel5 b5 or'ani.ations in +cotland, Greland and 9ales% Plannin' (id En'land has professional staff and volunteers in all nine re'ions of En'land and in 1ondon%
3!

-ro# no6 on 7)PG #ust put up a candidature at 5earl5 invitations to appl5 for fundin' fro# bud'et to proceed 6ith the pro*ect Plannin' (id En'land% )hus on 1Eth (pril 7)PG released infor#ation that the5 6ere 'ranted fundin' in the a#ount of one #illion b5 /epart#ent for ,o##unities and 1ocal Govern#ent in partnership 6ith Plannin' (id for 1ondon to carr5 on the pro*ect for a period of one 5ear :7)PG, 2011@%
34

E#phasi.in' the speed of decision #akin' is, accordin' to the appraisal of nu#erous representatives of local plannin' authorities, a hu'e barrier for successful participation procedures% ?itchen and 9hitne5 :200E@ carried out a surve5 a#on' the representatives of five En'lish plannin' authorities and the opinion of !1 percent of the respondents 6as that it is Inot ver5 eas5J resp% Inot eas5 at allJ to i#ple#ent the 'overn#ent re8uire#ents to accelerate the procedures of decision #akin' and increasin' the participation of public in the#%
32

)he ai# of the pro*ect 6as b5 #eans of #odern innovative #echanis# of participation to har#oni.e the opposin' interests concernin' the use of one of D3ford roads% )he accent 6as si#ilarl5 as 6ith the ne6 spatial le'islation in En'land on the frontloadin', seekin' of consent of all stakeholders and in involve#ent of #ar'inali.ed 'roups and individuals :#ore on pro*ect in D3ford >rooks Cniversit5, 2000, 200 @%
E0

)he coalition 'overn#ent announced the5 6ere to abolish the GP, in (pril 2012, as a co##ission is co#posed of non" elected #e#bers and is therefore considered not de#ocratic b5 the coalition 'overn#ent% Gt is proposed that the acceptance and e3a#ination of applications for develop#ent consent 6ill be dealt 6ith b5 a ne6 unit 6ithin the Plannin' Gnspectorate%
E1

Dn the 6eb site of the Ministr5 for Environ#ent and +patial Plannin' of 7+ 6e 6ill find one publication onl5 6ith the sub*ect of public participation in spatial plannin' and even this one is hi'hl5 superficial 6ithout concrete reco##endations to partiesU concerned :stakeholders@% )he >ritish 'overn#ent on the other hand re'ularl5 publishes reco##endations and their contents are #uch #ore concrete, providin' clear 'uidelines to civil servants 6ho i#ple#ent le'islation concernin' spatial procedures%
E2

En'lish la6, 6hich re'ulates this sub*ect, the Plannin' (ct :see above@, adopted onl5 t6o 5ears before our counterpart la6 HCPC/PP, is " contrar5 to +lovene la6 " accordin' to the prevailin' opinion of >ritish professional public, a step back in ter#s of public participation, 6hich re#inds us of the fa#ous Gtalian philosopher Gienbattista Vico and his thou'ht on corsi e ricorsi storici.

Re&ere*'e# (lbrechts, 1% :2002@ )he plannin' co##unit5 reflects on enhancin' public involve#ent, Planning Theor ! Practice, 3:3@, pp% 332"3E!% (ll#endin'er, P% S <au'hton, G% :2002@ ,ritical 7eflection on +patial Plannin', "nvironment and Planning A, E1:11@, pp% 20EE"20E2%

(ll#endin'er, P% S )e6d6r =ones, M% :2002@ E#bracin' ,han'e and /ifference in Plannin' 7efor#$ Ne6 1abourUs 7ole for Plannin' in ,o#ple3 )i#es, Planning Practice ! #esearch, 2E:1@, pp% !1"41% (ll#endin'er, P% :200 @ Honin' b5 +tealthX )he /i#inution of /iscretionar5 Plannin', $nternational Planning Studies, 11:2@, pp% 13!"1E3% (rnstein, +% 7% :12 2@ ( 1adder of ,iti.en Participation, %ournal o& the American Planning Association , 30:E@, pp% 21 "22E% >aker, ?%, Van de 9alle, +% S +kelcher, ,% ?% :2011@ ,iti.en support for increasin' the responsibilties of local 'overn#ent in European countries$ ( co#parative anal5sis, 'e( 'ocalis ) %ournal o& 'ocal Sel&*+overnment , 2:1@, pp% 1"21% >arnes et al% :200E@ )he #icro politics of deliberation$ ,ase studies in public participation, ,onte#porar5 Politics, 10:2@, pp% 23"110% >eebee*aun, Z% :200E@ 9hatUs in a nationX ,onstructin' ethnicit5 in the >ritish Plannin' +5ste#, Planning Theor and Practice, 0:E@, pp% E3!"E01% >eebee*aun, Z% :200 @ )he Participation )rap$ )he 1i#itations of Participation for Ethnic and 7acial Groups, $nternational Planning Studies 11:1@, pp% 3A14% >herer, 1% :2010@ +uccessful and unsuccessful participator5 arran'e#ents$ 6h5 is there a participator5 #ove#ent at the local levelX, %ournal o& ,rban A&&airs, 32:3@, pp% 24!A303% >la'a*ne, /%, Pante*, >% :2001@ -tudija i.vajanja prostorske .akonodaje o urejanju naselij, stavbnih .emlji/0 in graditve objektov, elaborat, Gntitut .a pravo okol*a :1*ubl*ana$ Gntitut .a pravo okol*a@% >ooth, P% :1220@ Honin' or /iscretionar5 (ction$ ,ertaint5 and 7esponsiveness in G#ple#entin' Plannin' Polic5, %ournal o& Planning "ducation and #esearch, 1E :2@ ,pp% 103"112% >ooth, P% :200!@ )he control of /iscretion$ Plannin' and the ,o##on"1a6 tradition, Planning Theor , :2@, pp% 12!"1E0% >re6er, ?% S (le3ander, /% :200!@ (ccessin' the e#er'in' +,Gs, To1n and 2ountr Planning, !0:2@, pp% E!" 0E% >re.ovek, M% :2000@ Po*#ovno"teoretiBni okvir ra.vo*a lokalne de#okraci*e, Gn$ 3re.ov/ek, M., 4a0ek, M., in 5ra/ovec, A. 6ed.7, 'okalna demokracija $$. :1*ubl*ana$ -akulteta .a dru[bene vede@% >ro6nill, + S ,arpenter, =% :200!@ Gncreasin' Participation in Plannin'$ E#er'ent E3periences of the 7efor#ed Plannin' +5ste# in En'land, Planning Practice ! #esearch, 22:E@, pp% 12" 3E% >ro6nill, +% S Parker, G% :2010@ 9h5 >other 6ith Good 9orksX )he 7elevance of Public Participation:s@ in Plannin' in a Post"collaborative Era, Planning Practice ! #esearch, 20:3@, pp% 2!0A242% ,arle5, M% S >a5le5, 7% :2002@ ,rban e(tensions, planning and participation8 'essons &rom Der1enthorpe and other ne1 communities :Zork$ =oseph 7o6ntree -oundation@% ,ar#ona, M%, +ieh, 1% :200!7 Measuring qualit in planning :1ondon, Ne6 Zork, )a5lor S -rancis@% ,arpenter, =% S >ro6nill, +% :2004@ (pproaches to /e#ocratic Gnvolve#ent$ 9idenin' ,o##unit5 En'a'e#ent in the En'lish Plannin' +5ste#, Planning Theor ! Practice, 2:2@, pp% 22!"2E4% ,enter .a politoloke ra.iskave :2003@ Stali/0a o lokalni demokraciji :1*ubl*ana$-akulteta .a dru[bene vede@% ,otton, M% :2010@ Public Participation in ,5 $n&rastructure Planning8 Democrac , Technolog and "nvironmental %ustice :unpublished@% ,ouncil of Europe :200E@ +reen paper on 9The &uture o& Democrac in "urope:, Trends, anal ses and re&orms, :+trasbour'$ ,DE@. ,rei'hton, =% 1% :2000@ The Public Participation 4andbook8 Making 3etter Decisions Through 2iti.en $nvolvement :+an -rancisco$ =osse5 >ass@% /ahl, 7%, )ufte, E%7% :12!3@ Si.e and Democrac , The Politics o& the smaller "uropean democracies :+tanford ,($ +tanford Cniversit5@ /i#itrovska"(ndre6s, ?% S Plota*ner, H% :2000@ 1ocal effects of transfor#ation processes in +lovenia, $n&.#aument1icklung !:4@, pp% E30"EE2% /red'e, /% :200 @ Net6orks, ,onflict and ,ollaborative ,o##unities, %ournal o& sustainable tourism 1E: @, pp% 0 2"041% /r[avni svet 7epublike +loveni*e :/+7+@ :2010@ \as *e .a spre#e#be v ure*an*u prostora, ;bornik re&eratov in ra.prav, /t. <=>?@? :1*ubl*ana$ /+7+@% /urnin', >% S Glasson, =% :200E@ Skills 3ase in the Planning S stem, Vol.@, literature revie6 for 1G( :1ondon$ E#plo5ersU Dr'anisation and Dffice of /eput5 Pri#e Minister@%

European ,o##ission :2001@ Ahite Paper on "uropean +overnance, :>russels$ ,DM@% -erfila, >% :2004@ ,pravljavska sposobnost in koalicijsko pove.ovanje v slovenskih ob0inah, kon0no poro0ilo :1*ubl*ana$ -akulteta .a dru[bene vede, Gntitut .a dru[bene vede, ,enter .a politoloka ra.iskovan*a@% -lanner5, )% :200 @ The Aeather Makers8 The 4istor and Buture $mpact o& 2limate 2hange :1ondon$ (llen 1ane@% GolobiB, M% :2000@ +o vetrne elektrarne proble#atiBen pro*ectX, ,rbani i..iv, 1 :1@, pp% E2"E2 Graha#, =%, (#os, >%, Plu#ptree, )% :2003@ Principles o& good governance in the >@ st centur :Dtta6a$ Gnstitute on Governance@% Grant, M% :1222@ Plannin' 1a6 and the >ritish Plannin' +5ste#, To1n Planning #evie1, 3, pp% 3"12% <aber#as, =% :12!0@ 'egitimation 2risis :>oston$ >eacon Press@ <aber#as, =% :124E,124!@ The Theor o& 2ommunicative Action, Vol. @8 #eason and the #ationali.ation o& Societ C Vol. >8 'i&e1orld and S stem8 A 2ritique o& Bunctionalist #eason :>oston$ >eacon Press@% <aBek, M%, >re.ovek, M%, >aBli*a, G% :2004@ Cpravl*avska sposobnost in koalici*sko pove.ovan*e v slovenskih obBinah, :1*ubl*ana$ -akulteta .a dru[bene vede@% <a'ue, ,% S =enkins, P% :2000@ Place identit , participation and planning :1ondon and Ne6 Zork$ 7outled'e@ <aseltine, M% :200!@ 2ities #enaissance8 2reating 'ocal 'eadership, +ub#ission to the +hado6 ,abinet ,ities )askforce :1ondon$ ,onservative Part5@% <eale5, P% :122!@ 2ollaborative planning. Shaping places in &ragmented societies :1ondon$ MacMillan@% <eale5, P% :1224@ >uildin' institutional capacit5 throu'h collaborative approaches to urban plannin' "nvironment and Planning A 30:2@, pp% 1031 A 10E % <ull ,it5 ,ouncil"</- Plannin' +ervices :200!@ 3rie&ing Dote @8 The De1 Development Plan S stem :<ull$<ull /evelop#ent -ra#e6ork@% G#rie, 7% :1224@ Disabilit and the 2it :1ondon$ Paul ,hap#an@% =ones, M% :200!@ )he European 1andscape ,onvention and the 8uestion of public participation, 'andscape #esearch, 32:0@, pp% 13" 33% ?itchen, )% S 9hitne5, /% :200E@ (chievin' More Effective Public En'a'e#ent eith the En'lish Plannin' +5ste#, Planning Practice ! #esearch, 12:E@, pp% 323"E13% ?le#enc, (% :2011@ 5repitev participativne kulture v sloveniji :1*ubl*ana$ 7e'ionalni center .a okol*e +loveni*a@% ?os Grabar, =% :2010@ ,rejanja prostora v Sloveniji na .acetku EE$. stoletja , .apis in nad'radn*a ustne'a prispevka, ki 'a *e avtor podal na novinarski konferenci +lovenske'a drutva evalvator*ev dne 20% 2% 2002 v ,entru Evropa v 1*ubl*ani :1*ubl*ana$ +lovensko drutvo evalvator*ev@% ?os, /% :2003@ Post#oderno prostorsko planiran*eX, Teorija in praksa, E0:E@, pp% E!" 0! ?os, /% :2011@ 5repitev participativne kulture v Sloveniji prispevek na posvetu, :1*ubl*ana$ /r[avni svet 7+@% 1avtar,7% :200!@ Sodelovanje prebivalcev v slovenskih ob0inah 8 participacija prebivalcev pri odlo0anju o javnih .adevah na lokalni ravni v Sloveniji :Maribor $ Gntitut .a lokalno sa#oupravo in *avna naroBila Maribor@% 1in', )% :2002@ /eliverin' *oined"up 'overn#ent in the C?$ di#ensions, proble#s and issues, Public Administration 40:E@, pp% 10" E2% 15le =% )%, :1240@ Design &or 4uman "cos stems :Ne6 Zork$ Van Nostrand 7einhold ,o%@% Marot, N% :2010@ Presoja vloge prostorske .akonodaje v slovenskem sistemu prostorskega planiranja , doktorska disertaci*a :1*ubl*ana$ -akulteta .a 'eode.i*o in 'radbenitvo Cniver.e v 1*ubl*ani@% MaruiB G% :2002@ Planiran*e, Gn$ Poli0 M. et al. 6ed.7, Spo.navni .emljevid Slovenije :1*ubl*ana$ Hnanstveni intitut -ilo.ofske fakultete@% Mlinar, H% :2000@ IGlokali.aci*aJ ali 'etoi.aci*a lokalne de#okraci*e$ ?oper, +lovenska Gstra in dr[ava, Teorija in praksa, 3!:3@, pp% E13"E3 % Moore, V% :2010@ A practical approach to planning la1 6eleventh edition7 :D3ford$ D3ford Cniversit5 Press@% National Plannin' (id Cnit :200!@ Fear < Dational Guarterl Monitoring #eport April >??H* March >??I :unpublished@% Needha#, >% :200 @ Planning 'a1 and "conomics8 An $nvestigation o& the #ules Ae Make &or ,sing 'and :1ondon$ 7outled'eO7)PG@% Nelkin,/% S Pollak, M% :12!2@ Public participation in technolo'ical decisions$7ealit5 or 'rand illusionX Technolog #evie1 41:4@, pp 00" E%

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