Cellular Wireless Networks Cellular Wireless Networks

An Important Technology An Important Technology An Important Technology An Important Technology

So called Face of 21
st
century communication
Cellular telephony is one of the fastest growing technologies on the planet.
A new mobile generation has appeared every 10th year since
the first 1G analog system (NMT/AMPS) was introduced in 1981
the 2G (GSM) digital system started to roll out in 1992 the 2G (GSM) digital system started to roll out in 1992
the 3G (WCDMA/UMTS) digital system appeared in 2001
the 4G technology and 4G LTE smartphones/tablets appeared in 2011
W 5G f il f d d b i l d i ld lik l b f h Were a 5G family of standards to be implemented, it would likely before the
year 2020 as analysts estimate.
Abbreviations
NMT=Nordic Mobile Telephone // in Nordic countries
AMPS=Advanced Mobile Phone System // developed by Bell Labs in USA
GSM=Groupe Spcial Mobile Global System for Mobile Communications
WCDMA=Wideband Code Division Multiple Access WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
UMTS=Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
LTE = Long Term Evolution
Beyond Voice
St t t i f ti Store contact information
Send/receive short text messages
Send/receive email
Send/receive pictures p
E-commerce
Make task/to-do lists
Keep track of appointments
Calculator Calculator
Send/receive video clips
Get information from the internet
Play games
GPS services
Integrate with other devices (PDAs, MP3 Players, etc.)
Smartphones Smartphones
A modern smartphone coming out these days can easily incorporate an
impressive host of electronic features including
Ad l & hi f SIM d A dual-core processor & chips for two or more SIM cards
WiFi interface for wireless Internet connectivity
Touch screen for augmented reality
GPS for geo-location tracking g g
One or more Camera with CMOS sensor for video recording and mobile video
conferencing
Bluetooth for connectivity with other wireless devices
Java platform for developing and running software applications Java platform for developing and running software applications
A sophisticated communication technology such as spread spectrum for cellular
bandwidth access
Smartphones keep getting smarter and smarter and they could evolve in the
not-too-distant future to incorporate a variety of new sensors for measuring
temperature, ambient light, air quality, levels of hazardous chemicals, carbon
monoxide build-ups, and all other types of data that will enable a distributed
sensing revolution that is set to sweep the world.
Early Cellular Networks Early Cellular Networks
Cellular system developed to provide mobile telephony: y p p p y
telephone access anytime, anywhere.
First mobile telephone system was developed and First mobile telephone system was developed and
inaugurated in the U.S. in 1945 in St. Louis, MO.
This was a simplified version of the system used today.
First Mobile Telephone System First Mobile Telephone System
One and only one
high power base
station with which all
users communicate.
E ti C
Normal
Telephone
Entire Coverage
Area
Telephone
System
Wired connection Wired connection
Terminologies: Terminologies: Base Station and Mobile Station Base Station and Mobile Station Terminologies: Terminologies: Base Station and Mobile Station Base Station and Mobile Station
Base station (BS) Base station (BS)
downlink
Access point (AP)
Mobile station (MS) Mobile station (MS)
SS (Subscriber station)
uplink
SS (Subscriber station)
MT (mobile terminal)
MN (mobile node)
BS
MS
A logical channel used by a mobile
Downlink frequency Downlink frequency f
DL
Forward link
BSMS
A logical channel used by a mobile
phone consists of two physical
frequencies: a downlink frequency f
DL
and an uplink frequency f
UL
.
Uplink frequency Uplink frequency f
UL
Reverse link
MSBS
Channel Duplex Distance = f
DL
- f
UL
MSBS
Terminologies: Cell and Sector Terminologies: Cell and Sector Terminologies: Cell and Sector Terminologies: Cell and Sector
Cell Cell
Coverage area of a BS
Sector Sector
Partial area of a cell that is
served by a directional antenna
Terminologies: Terminologies: Tessellation Tessellation Terminologies: Terminologies: Tessellation Tessellation
A group of small shapes tessellate an area if they cover this
area without any gaps or overlaps area without any gaps or overlaps.
Three regular polygons that easily tessellate:
Equilateral triangle q g
Square
Regular Hexagon
Triangles
SSquares
Hexagons
Circular Coverage Areas Circular Coverage Areas
Original cellular systems were developed assuming that base
station antennas are omnidirectional i e they transmit in all station antennas are omnidirectional, i.e., they transmit in all
directions equally. Users located far away from the base station
receive weak signals or may not be covered. Ideally, a base
station has a circular coverage area.
Circles Dont Tessellate Circles Don t Tessellate
Ideally base stations have identical, circular coverage areas. y , g
Problem: Circles do not tessellate.
The regular polygon closest to a circle that tessellates well is The regular polygon closest to a circle that tessellates well is
the hexagon.
Thus, early researchers started using hexagons to represent the
coverage area of a base station, i.e., a cell.
Thus the Name Cellular Thus the Name Cellular
Withhexagonalcoveragearea,acellularnetworkisdrawnas
shownbelow:
B St ti =Base Station
Sincethenetworkresemblescellsfromahoneycomb,the
namecellularwasusedtodescribetheresultingmobile
telephone network telephonenetwork.
Terminologies: Handoff Terminologies: Handoff Terminologies: Handoff Terminologies: Handoff
Handoff Handoff
MS changes its serving BS due to movement or radio
channel variation
Architecture of Cellular Networks Architecture of Cellular Networks
BSC
BS
Wire-line WAN
.
.
BS
MSC
.
.
BSC
BSC
BS
MSC
BSC
.
.
BS
BS BS
.
BS
BS
BS
BS
MS = mobile station
Air-Um
MS
BS = base station
BSC = base station controller
MSC = mobile switching center
Cellular Network
BSC
BS
Wire-line WAN
.
.
BS
MSC
.
BSC
BS
BSC
MSC
.
.
BS
BSC
.
BS
BS
BS
BS = base station
BSC = base station controller
MSC = mobile switching center
Handoff Dropping
the cell does not have a free channel and declines to
accept the incoming handoff request; the call is
disconnected.
New Call Blockingg
the cell does not have a free channel and declines to
accept a new call generated inside the cell.
H d ff t i i it ll Handoff requests are given priority over new calls
BS2
BS1
Cellular Networks
BS1 BS2
BS3
BS4
LAN/WAN
of base
BS1 BS2
BS3
BS4
of base
stations
mobile
Channel Reuse Channel Reuse
Example of Frequency Reuse Example of Frequency Reuse
To prevent interference, cells that are near each other use different sets of radio
frequencies. A radio frequency can be used in two different cells if they are
separated by a sufficient distance called the channel reuse distance separated by a sufficient distance, called the channel reuse distance.
Cells using the same frequencies have the same color
I ll l t l di t d h l i t f In cellular systems, a large reuse distance reduces co-channel interference
while a small reuse distance can provide coverage to more users.
Adjusting Cell Size Adjusting Cell Size
Channel Reuse: Macro Micro and Pico Cell Channel Reuse: Macro, Micro and Pico Cell
Macro
(RuralTown)
BS1 BS2 BS3
Micro
(City)
Pico
(Downtown)
BS gets 2 types of requests new call request and handoff request
Cellular Networks
GSM(Global System for Mobile Communication) GSM(Global System for Mobile Communication) GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
In spite of the deployment of 3G and 4G, the 2G GSM technology is still In spite of the deployment of 3G and 4G, the 2G GSM technology is still
considered a good model for illustrating the basic concept of cellular networks. considered a good model for illustrating the basic concept of cellular networks.
GSM Frequency Bands GSM Frequency Bands
GSM 850 &1900 mainly in USA, Canada and most of South America
GSM 900 & 1800 mainly in Europe, Middle East, Africa, most of Asia
The GSM-850 and GSM-1900 Bands
In the United States, regulatory requirements determine which area can use which
band. band.
GSM-850 uses 824849 MHz for uplink transmission and 869894 MHz for
downlink. There are 124 channels numbered 128 to 251.
GSM-1900 uses 18501910 MHz for uplink transmission and 19301990 MHz for
d li k Th 299 h l b d 512 t 810 downlink. There are 299 channels numbered 512 to 810.
Channel Separation in GSM 1900 Channel Separation in GSM 1900 = 0.2 MHz
Channel duplex distance in GSM 1900 Channel duplex distance in GSM 1900 = 80 MHz
Uplink Downlink Control
1850 1910 1930 1990
Uplink Downlink
Ch 570
Ch 720
Ch 720
Ch 570
Control
Gap
GSM-1900
Cellular Networks
Dualbandphones
Duplex distance = f
DL
- f
UL
Cellular Networks
p
900 & 1800 or850 &1900
Tribandphones
GSM Band Duplex Distance No of Channels
1900 80 MHz 299
1800 95 MHz 374
900 45 MH 124
1800&850 &1900
Quadbandphones
900 45 MHz 124
850 45 MHz 124
900 & 1800 &850 &1900
3G Cellular Technology
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
UMTS i 3G t h l b d th I t ti l M bil T l i ti UMTS is a 3G technology based on the International Mobile Telecommunications
IMT-2000 standard.
UMTS is also referred to as 3GSM emphasizing the combination of the 3G nature UMTS is also referred to as 3GSM, emphasizing the combination of the 3G nature
of the technology and the GSM standard which it was designed to succeed.
Cellular Networks
4G Cellular Technology
Cellular Networks
4G Cellular Technology
4G is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology
succeeding 3G. In addition to usual voice and other 3G services, the 4G
system provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access for example to system provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access, for example to
smartphones, tablets and laptops with USB wireless modems.
Th L T E l ti (LTE) t d d i id d t b 4G The Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard is considered to be 4G
technology and LTE smartphones have been available since 2011.
On Optimal Call Admission Control in
Cellular Networks
R. Ramjee, D. Towsley and R. Nagarajan j y g j
Handoff &Termination of a call Handoff & Termination of a call
As the Mobile Subscriber moves from one cell to another, the ,
active call needs to be allocated a channel in the destination cell.
This event termed the handover or handoff must be transparent This event, termed the handover or handoff, must be transparent
to the end subscriber.
f h d i i ll h il bl h l h ll i If the destination cell has no available channels, the call is
terminated; this disconnection in the middle of a call is highly
undesirable.
The Trade-off: handoff vs new call The Trade-off: handoff vs new call
One of the goals of the network designer is to keep the handoff g g p
blocking probability at a low value.
On the other hand reserving channels for handoff traffic could On the other hand, reserving channels for handoff traffic could
increase blocking for new calls.
S h i d ff b h Q S h So there is a trade-off between the two QoS measures, the
handoff blocking probability and the new call blocking
probability. p y
Call Admission Control (CAC) Call Admission Control (CAC) Call Admission Control (CAC) Call Admission Control (CAC)
CAC can be defined as the process of managing the arriving traffic CAC can be defined as the process of managing the arriving traffic
based on some predefined criteria. based on some predefined criteria.
CAC is usually used to: CAC is usually used to:
Preserve the signal quality of active calls Preserve the signal quality of active calls
Reduce the call dropping probability Reduce the call dropping probability
Give priority to some classes Give priority to some classes
Maximize revenue Maximize revenue
Achieve fair resource sharing Achieve fair resource sharing
Guarantee transmission rate Guarantee transmission rate
The Guard Channel Policy The Guard Channel Policy
The notion of guard channels was introduced as a call admission
mechanism to give priority to handoff calls over new calls mechanism to give priority to handoff calls over new calls.
In this policy, a set of channels called the guard channels are permanently
reserved for handoff calls reserved for handoff calls.
Another version of this policy is the Fractional guard channel policy
which effectively reserves a non-integral number of guard channels for y g g
handoff calls by rejecting new calls with some probability that depends
on the current channel occupancy.
Guard Channel (GC) Policy Guard Channel (GC) Policy
Guard Channel Policy
Consider a cellular network
if (NEW CALL) then
if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels < T)
with C channels in a given
cell. The Guard Channel
policy reserves a subset of
these channels C T for
admit call;
else
reject call;
if (HANDOFF CALL) then
these channels C -T for
handoff calls. If the channel
occupancy is equal to or
greater than a certain
if (HANDOFF CALL) then
if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels < C)
admit call;
threshold T, the Guard
Channel policy rejects all
new calls until the channel
occupancy goes below the
else
reject call;
occupancy goes below the
threshold T.
Analytical Model for the Guard Channel Policy
The analytical model is based on the cell decomposition approach. In this
approach, we assume that the cellular network is homogeneous and therefore we
can examine a single network cell in isolation and model the impact of
i hb i ll th ll d id ti b i t t neighboring cells on the cell under consideration by appropriate parameters.
Notations:
The arrival process of new and handoff calls is Poisson with rate 1 and 2
respectively.
1 = arrival rate of new calls
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
Let = 1 + 2 and 2 = o
The channel holding time in this cell for both type of calls is exponentially
distributed with mean 1/. Notice that the memoryless property allows us to
assume that all new calls and old (handoff) calls have the same average duration
for using the channel in this cell. Notice also that the authors have combined the
following two different events into a single event represented by the parameter : following two different events into a single event represented by the parameter :
1- Call termination event
2- Mobile migration event , i.e., handoff of a mobile to a neighboring base station.
State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram Guard Channel Policy Guard Channel Policy State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram -- Guard Channel Policy Guard Channel Policy
The Guard channel policy rejects all new calls
til th h l b l th h ld

until the channel occupancy goes below threshold
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C-1
2 T (T+1) (T+2)
(C-1)
C
1/ = average channel holding time
1 = arrival rate of new calls
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
= 1 + 2
2 = o
Balance of Flow Equations
t
j
= (j+1) t
j+1
0 j T // using vertical cutsets
o
j-T
t = (j+1) t T j C // i ti l t t o
j T
t
j
= (j+1) t
j+1
T j C // using vertical cutsets
Normalization Condition:
1
0
=

=
C
n
n
t
Let = /. Solving the above equations, we get
0
!
t

t
j
j
j
=
0 j T
T j j
1
0
!
t
o
t
j
T j j
j

=
T j C

= + =

+
=
T
j
C
T j
T j j j
o
j j
0 1
! !
1
o
t
where
Blocking Probabilities for the Guard Channel Policy
The handoff blocking (dropping) probability is given by
B
h
(C,T) = t
C
0
!
t
o
C
T C C
=
The new call blocking probability is given by
C

=
=
C
T j
j
T C B
n
t ) , (
j
0
!
t

t
j
j
j
=
0 j T
o
T j j
0
!
t
o
t
j
j j
j
=
T j C
Fractional Guard Channel (FGC) Policy Fractional Guard Channel (FGC) Policy Fractional Guard Channel (FGC) Policy Fractional Guard Channel (FGC) Policy
Fractional Guard Channel Policy
In the Fractional Guard Channel
li ll d
if (NEW CALL) then
if (random(0,1) s
|(NumberOfOccupiedChannels))
policy, new calls are accepted
with a certain probability that
depends on the current channel
occupancy. When the systems is
admit call;
else
reject call;
if (HANDOFF CALL) th
occupa cy. W e t e syste s s
in state j, 1 s j s C, a new call is
accepted with probability
|( j) = | j.
if (HANDOFF CALL) then
if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels < C)
admit call;
else
|( j) | j
reject call;
/* random(0,1) returns a uniformly generated
random number in the interval [0,1] */
State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram Fractional Guard Channel Fractional Guard Channel
|0 +
State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram Fractional Guard Channel Fractional Guard Channel
Policy Policy
|1+ | + | + | + | +
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C 1

1
|0 +
2

1
|1+
2

1
|T-1+
2

1
|T+
2

1
|T+1+
2

1
|C-1+
2
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C-1
2 T (T+1) (T+2)
(C-1)
C ( ) ( )
( )

1/ = average channel holding time
1 = arrival rate of new calls
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
Redraw diagram using
l b i i l ti
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
|j = probability of accepting new calls in state j
= 1 + 2
2 = o
algebraic manipulation
on next slide
2 = o
j = o + (1-o) |j-1
State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram Fractional Guard Channel Fractional Guard Channel
For each state we have a randomization parameter which
denotes the probability of accepting a new call
State Transition Rate Diagram State Transition Rate Diagram Fractional Guard Channel Fractional Guard Channel
Policy Policy

1

2

T

T+1

T+2

C-1

C

denotes the probability of accepting a new call

0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C-1
2 T (T+1) (T+2)
(C-1)
C
Th l ti f th
1/ = average channel holding time
The solution of the
above diagram is
similar to the case of
the basic Guard
1 = arrival rate of new calls
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
= 1 + 2
2 = o
Channel Policy and is
given in the paper.
|j = probability of accepting new calls in state j
j = o + (1-o) |j-1
Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy
Limited Fractional Guard Channel Policy
In the Limited Fractional Guard
if (NEW CALL) then
if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels < T) then
admit call;
Channel Policy:
When the system is in state T,
new calls are accepted with a
else if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels == T)
AND (random(0,1) s | )
admit call;
probability |.
When the system is in state
T+1 through state C, hand off
ll d b
;
else
reject call;
if (HANDOFF CALL) then
calls are accepted but new
calls are rejected.
When the system is in state 0
th h t t T 1 b th
if (NumberOfOccupiedChannels < C)
admit call;
else
through state T-1, both
handoff and new calls are
accepted.
reject call;
Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy
In state T, new calls are accepted with probability |.
(+(1- ) )
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C-1
2 T (T+1) (T+2)
(C-1)
C
1/ = average channel holding time
1 = arrival rate of new calls
2 = arrival rate of handoff calls
= 1 + 2
2 = o
| = probability of accepting new calls in state T
Comparison between GC and LFGC Comparison between GC and LFGC
(+(1- ) )
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C 1
(+(1- ) )
0 1 2 T T+1 C T+2 C-1
2 T (T+1) (T+2)
(C-1)
C
For GC in state T, new calls are blocked, i.e., | = 0.
( ) ( )
(C )

For LFGC in state T, new calls are accepted with probability | > 0.
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

GC uses discrete values
of T and gives discrete
points on the
desirable
o
c
k
i
n
g

p
r
o
b
po s o e
performance curves.
LFGC allows smoother
fi t i f th
desirable
point
C-T
10 11 12 13
b
l
o
fine tuning for the
tradeoff between new
calls and handoff calls.
The Three Optimization Problems The Three Optimization Problems
In this paper, the authors consider the optimal admission control policies for
three problems based on the two QoS measures, the handoff blocking
probability and the new call blocking probability.
MINOBJ: Minimize a linear objective function of the two blocking Minimize a linear objective function of the two blocking MINOBJ: Minimize a linear objective function of the two blocking Minimize a linear objective function of the two blocking
probabilities. probabilities.
MINBLOCK: Minimize the new call blocking probability given a certain Minimize the new call blocking probability given a certain
number of channels and subject to a hard constraint on the handoff blocking number of channels and subject to a hard constraint on the handoff blocking
probability. probability.
MINC: Minimize the number of channels subject to hard constraints on the Minimize the number of channels subject to hard constraints on the
new and handoff call blocking probabilities. new and handoff call blocking probabilities.
Problem MINOBJ: Finding an admission control policy that minimizes a linear
objective function of the new and handoff call blocking probabilities.
Among all call admission control policies , an optimal policy for the MINOBJ
problem is of the threshold type (i.e., a Guard Channel policy).
Problem MINBLOCK: Given C channels, minimize the new call blocking
probability B
n
(C) such that the handoff blocking probability satisfies the constraint
B
h
(C) s Threshold
h
The Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy is optimal for the
MINBLOCK problem. The paper gives the details of Algorithm MINB that
minimizes the new call blocking probability subject to the constraint on the handoff minimizes the new call blocking probability subject to the constraint on the handoff
call blocking probability.
Problem MINC: Minimize the number of channels C such that the following two
t i t ti fi d constraints are satisfied
B
h
(C) s Threshold
h
and B
n
(C) s Threshold
n
The Limited Fractional Guard Channel (LFGC) Policy is optimal for the MINC e ed c o Gu d C e ( GC) o cy s op o e NC
problem. The paper gives the details of Algorithm MIN that finds the minimum
number of channels that satisfies the above two constraints.