Solid Mechanics

Lecture Notes
Oxford, Michaelmas Term 2013 Prof. Alain Goriely 14th October, 2013

Contents
1 Introduction: one-dimensional elasticity 1.1 A one-dimensional theory . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Balance of linear momentum . . 1.2.3 Constitutive laws . . . . . . . . . 2 Kinematics 2.1 Bodies, conguration, deformation . . . 2.2 Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 A digression about tensors . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Just vectors and tensors . . . . . 2.3.2 Tensor product . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Derivatives of tensors . . . . . . 2.4 The deformation gradient F . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Transformation of volume . . . . 2.4.2 Transformation of area: Nansons 2.4.3 Transformation of line element. . 2.4.4 Polar decomposition theorem. . . 2.4.5 Strain tensors. . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6 The displacement gradient. . . . 2.4.7 The velocity gradient tensor. . . 2.5 Examples of deformation . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Homogeneous deformation . . . . 2.5.2 Ination of a spherical shell . . . 3 Conservation Laws, Stress 3.1 Mass conservation . . . 3.2 Body and surface forces 3.2.1 Body forces . . . 3.2.2 Contact forces . and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 7 7 8 9 9 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 17 17 18

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Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS

3.3 3.4

Momenta and Eulers laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eulers law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Digression: the divergence theorem for tensors 3.4.2 More on the stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 The nominal and Piola Kirchho stress tensors

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18 18 20 20 21 22 22 22 23 23 25 25 26 26 27 29 29 30 30 31 32 36 36 36 37 38 38 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 43 43 43 44

4 Constitutive equations 4.1 3 types of assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Particular examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Elastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Objectivity or frame indierence . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Hyperelastic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Energy balance, elastic materials . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Objectivity of W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Material symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Hyperelastic isotropic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Hyperelastic incompressible materials . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Choice of strain-energy density for hyperelastic materials

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5 Examples of boundary value problems 5.1 Homogeneous deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 General method for semi-inverse problems, BVP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Ination of a spherical shell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Linear Elasticity 6.1 Innitesimal strain tensor . . . . 6.2 Constant relationships . . . . . . 6.3 Isotropic linear elasticity . . . . . 6.3.1 Equations: . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Incompressible linear elasticity . 6.5.1 General principles . . . . 6.6 Plane/Strain/Stress Solutions . . 6.6.1 Plane solutions . . . . . . 6.6.2 Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.3 Equations . . . . . . . . . 6.6.4 Compatibility conditions . 6.6.5 Application . . . . . . . . 6.7 Elasto-dynamics . . . . . . . . . 6.7.1 Planar waves . . . . . . . 6.8 Rayleigh waves . . . . . . . . . .

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HEALTH WARNING: The following lecture notes are meant as a rough guide to the lectures. They are not meant to replace the lectures. You should expect that some material in these notes will not be covered in class and that extra material will be covered during the lectures (especially longer proofs, examples, and applications). Nevertheless, I will try to follow the notation and the overall structure of the notes as much as possible.

INTRODUCTION: ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY

Introduction: one-dimensional elasticity

Overview We explore elasticity in one dimension to give a general ideas of the dierent steps necessary to develop a general theory of elasticity.

1.1

A one-dimensional theory

Here, we consider a one-dimensional continuum that can only deform along its length. Therefore, there is no bending, twisting, or shearing, just stretching. The emphasis here is on understanding the dierent steps that enter in the development of a full theory of continuum in the simplest possible context. The steps are 1) Kinematics: A description of the possible deformations. The denition of strains, given by geometry. In oour context, it is just the stretch along the line. 2) Mechanics: The denitions of stresses and forces acting on the medium. Then a statement of balance laws based on the balance of linear and angular momenta, this is applicable to all continuum media but for our problem, linear momentum is sucient. 3) Constitutive laws: A statement of the relationship between stresses and strains. This is where we describe the response of the material under loads. The results of these three steps is a closed set of equations whose solutions (with appropriate boundary conditions and initial data) is a description of the stresses and deformations in a particular body under a particular set of forces. 1.1.1 Kinematics

Consider a 1D continuum of length L. Any material point is labelled by X [0, L]. The motion or deformation is the mapping x = x(X, t), which is assumed smooth and invertible as there is no material separation, discontinuity or overlap. The kinematics is fully describe

by a the stretch and the velocity at one point. = x , stretch; X x = V (X, t) = x , velocity. t

Due to the assumption: > 0, and x = X corresponds to the stress-free (Langrangian) conguration. Motion: The velocity of a material point is V (X, t) = x = x/t. Since X = X (x, t) is invertible, we can write, v (x, t) = x (X (x, t), t), where v is the velocity at the spatial point x. The acceleration of a point is, x (X, t) = d2 x , dt2 or a= dv v v = +v , dt t x

INTRODUCTION: ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY

where d = +v , dt t x is the material time derivative.

1.2

Dynamics

We use two fundamental principles to obtain equations for the motion of a continuum: the conservation of mass and the balance of linear momentum (in a general theory we will also need the balance of angular momentum). 1.2.1 Conservation of mass

We dene to be the linear density in the current conguration (mass per unit length as measured in the current conguration) and 0 the linear density in the reference conguration (as measured in the initial conguration) . Assuming no mass is created, we have
X2 x2

0 dx =
X1 x1

dx,

with x1 = x(X1 , t), x2 = x(X2 , t). Since dx = dX , we have

X2 X2

0 dX =
X1 X1

dX,

which implies that = 0 , the Lagrangian conservation of mass. This is the rst conservation law. 1.2.2 Balance of linear momentum

d The general principle for the Balance of linear momentum is (linear momentum) = force dt acting on the system. Lets break this into the following pieces:

X1

X2

1) The linear momentum:

X2

0 x dX
X1

2) forces: themselves due to external (body) forces or internal (contact) forces: body forces,
X2

0 f dX
X1

wheref is the density of body force (force per unit mass).

INTRODUCTION: ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY

n(X1)

n(X2)

contact forces: force the material exerts on itself. This material exerts a force n(X2 ) on [0, X2 ] counted positive (tensile) if the force is in the direction of the axis, compressive otherwise. Therefore, from action=reaction, the contact force acting on the segment [X1 , X2 ] is n(X2 ) n(X1 ). Therefore, the Balance of linear momentum for a one-dimensional continuum implies d dt
X2 X2

0 x dX =
X1 X1

0 f dX + n(X2 ) n(X1 )

We can obtain an expression with a single integral by moving the derivative inside the integral and using,
X2 X1

n dX = n(X2 ) n(X1 ). X

That is
X2

0 x dX 0 f
X1

n X

dX = 0.

This relation is valid X1 , X2 , so that, we can localise the integral (assuming continuity of the integrand) to obtain 0 a = 0 f + n . X

This is an equation for the force n(X ) in the material (Cauchy rst equation). This equation is in the reference conguration (all quantities depend on the material variable X and time t). We can obtain an equation in the current conguration by using dX = 1 dx a = f + n . x

But what is n/x? We need a constitutive law to close the system. 1.2.3 Constitutive laws

To close the problem, we need to relate the stresses to the strains, that is a relationship between and such as Hookes law = K ( 1). (1)

This Hookean law is only typically valid for small deformations. For large deformations, we will assume in general that the material is hyperelastic, that is the constitutive law derives from a potential capturing the elastic energy associated with deformation so that n = f () = . (2)

INTRODUCTION: ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY

with the requirement that f (1) = 0 and that the derivative of f at = 1 exists. For such systems, the Hooke constant K = f (1) is then simply the linearised behaviour for small deformations around the stress-free state. The theory of three-dimensional elasticity developed in next Chapter when applied to the uniaxial extension of an incompressible rectangular neo-Hookean bar suggests the following nonlinear law n = K/3(2 1 ), (3)

Close to = 1, we recover Hookes law (as shown in Fig 1). More generally, materials

0.5 -5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

-10

Figure 1: Comparison between the linear (dash) and nonlinear (solid) Hookean response for K = 3. that show strain-stiening (increase in stiness for large deformations) or strain-softening (decrease in stiness) can be modelled by various functions of the stretch.

KINEMATICS

Kinematics

Overview We develop a completely general theory for the deformation of three-dimensional bodies with no assumptions on displacements. To do so, we introduce two congurations and relate them through the motion in time and the deformation gradient. The deformation gradient is naturally denes as a two-point tensors and its analysis require some tensor calculus.

2.1

Bodies, conguration, deformation

A body, B : set whose elements can be put into 1-1 correspondence with points in a region B E3 . we dene material points as the elements of B . Since the body moves or deforms it can change with time, t R. We denote by Bt the conguration of B at time t. (In particular if we look at static systems, we will use B0 for the initial conguration and B for the current one.) Possible terminology for B0 include initial/reference/material/Lagrangian conguration (here we will use the terminology reference conguration ). Similarly for Bt , you will nd the name current/actual/Eulerian/instantaneous conguration (we will use the terminology current conguration ).

p X E3

B0 x e3

Bt

E2

O E1

e2

O e1

Since both B0 , Bt are bijections of B = x such that x = (X, t), X B0 and X = 1 (x, t), x Bt ,

where is the deformation of B from B0 to Bt (also sometimes called motion.) This construction can be summarised as follows: Continuum assumption. We consider a body with reference conguration B0 R3 . At

B0

Bt

KINEMATICS

time t, the body occupies the current conguration Bt R3 . A material point, initially at X B0 is mapped to a point x Bt by the one-parameter mapping x = (X, t) so that : B0 Bt . The continuum assumption states that is a orientation-preserving bijection mapping for all time t (except possibly at the boundary for contact-problem). This implies that we can write x = 1 (X). We further assume that this mapping is twice continuously dierentiable in X and t. This last assumption can be relaxed in problems involving phase boundaries (with possible jumps in the rst derivative). In many instances and applications, we will assume that is actually smooth. Example Rigid motion. x = (X, t) = c(t) + Q(t).X Here c is a vector and Q is a proper orthogonal second-order tensor. Using Cartesian coordinates Q is a rotation matrix (a proper orthogonal matrix, that is a member of the special orthogonal group SO(3).) x = xi ei , X = Xi Ei ,

where we use the summation convention and i takes the values 1,2,3. Now choose Ei = ei , then xi = ci (t) + Qij (t)Xj , where c represents a translation and Q represents a rotation. Next, we wish to attach physical quantities to every point: mass (a scalar); velocity, traction (vectors); strain/stress (tensors),. . .. These dierent quantities are dened on all points of the body and are therefore called elds. Elasticity is a theory of elds (similar to electromagnetism, relativity, and uid mechanics).

2.2

Velocities

Velocity of a point P : (X, t), t 2 (X, t) A=V t2 V=x velocity acceleration

Now dene a eld (for instance, temperature or mass) at every point on B at time t, (x, t) = ((X, t), t) = (X, t). This change of variable allows us to dene this scalar eld on the reference conguration. We are interested in the rate of change of at a given material point P (xed X), = (X, t), t but (X, t) = (x, t) + t t = (x, t) + t xi (x, t) t xi xi D x (x, t) = , t Dt

KINEMATICS

where we have introduced D/Dt, the material time derivative, D = + v x , Dt t

and where (x )i x . Similarly, by applying the same idea component by component, we i have for a vector eld u(x, t) = U(X(x, t), t)

Du = u + (v x )u. U(X, t) U t Dt t In particular = v + (v x )v. A=V t Note that there is no possible confusion if all the derivatives are taken in the reference conguration since X, t are truly independent. Expressing X as a function of (x, t) introduces the extra convective derivative. To make any progress in the description of deformation we need to dene the relative change of length in all possible direction of space. That is we need to dene a quantity of the form x = F, X which naturally denes F as a the gradient of a vector, that is a tensor. Therefore, before proceeding with a proper denition of the deformation gradient, we need to review some basic notions of tensors and tensor calculus.

2.3
2.3.1

A digression about tensors

Just vectors and tensors

We consider a Euclidean vector space in 3D. We will rst restrict our attention to the usual Cartesion orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }, for which we have ei ej = ij . We dene rst vectors u = ui ei u ei = ui

and the space V as the vector space associated with all such vectors in E3 . A tensor is then simply a linear map from V V . That is S is a tensor = v = Su, another vector. One can think of tensors as matrices. But one must be careful as tensors can conveniently be written in a dierent non-Cartesian basis. So we really want to dene operation on tensors independent of the basis and carry the basis as part of the denition of the tensor. To properly dene tensors, we need the tensor product. 2.3.2 Tensor product

u v of two vectors u and v is a tensor such that (u v)a = (v a)u. In components, u = ui ei and v = vi ei so that, u v = ui ei vj ej = ui vj ei ej .

KINEMATICS

10

Denoting the components of a tensor T = Tij ei ej we have (u v)ij = ui vj . After one has dened the matrix [Tij ], all known linear algebra identities carry over to tensors. det T = det([Tij ]) tr T = tr ([Tij ]) T = T Tij = Tji Similarly ST is dened as (ST)v = S(Tv) and not surprising, [ST ] = [S ][T ] Note: I use for inner product and not for contraction, contraction is assumed in the product of tensors unless otherwise specied. 2.3.3 Derivatives of tensors
t

Tij = ei Tej ,

We need to dene basic operations on tensors. Let , u, T be scalar, vector and tensor elds respectively over x, = (x), We dene x or / x by, = ei , x xi u u grad u = = ej = u x xj (ui ei ) ui = ej = ei ej . xj xj grad = We recognise ui /xj as the Jacobian matrix here. grad T = T = (Tij ei ej ) ek xk Tij = ei ej ek . xk We can also contract tensors, div T = Tij ej (ei ej ) . xk u = ui (x)ei , T = Tij (x)ei ej .

This is the contraction on the rst index of Ti with index k (Note: this is not a universal choice and some authors contract w.r.t. the second index). Since ei ek = ik , div T = Tij ej , xi a vector.

So far, we have dened tensor in a single basis. However, the deformation gradient takes the derivative of a vector in one basis w.r.t. a vector in another basis, in which case we have mixed basis.

KINEMATICS

11

2.4

The deformation gradient F

To have a notion of local deformation, we dene, F(x, t) = x = Grad x = Grad (X, t). X

Notice the upper case on Grad to denote the fact that we take derivatives w.r.t. X. Explicitly, we have F= xi (xi ei ) Ej = ei Ej Fij ei Ej , xj Xj

so the last tensor product is indeed mixed. Geometrically, F is a linear map that transforms
F E3 V e3 v E1 E2 V e1 e2

B0

Bt

a vector v dened in the tangent space Tp B0 at a point p in the reference conguration to a vector in the tangent space Tp B at the same material point p but in the current conguration. 2.4.1 Transformation of volume

FE2

FE3 FE1 dV dv

Now consider the image of an innitesimal volume element of size d along three unit vectors E1 , E2 , E3 . Each unit vector transforms as FEk = Fij (ei Ej ) Ek = Fij (Ek Ej )ei = Fij kj ei = Fik ei .

KINEMATICS

12

Note that the column k of F is the image of the kth basis vector as found in regular matrix algebra. The innitesimal volume is dv = (d)3 det(FE1 , FE2 , FE3 ) = (d)3 det F det(E1 , E2 , E3 ) = det FdV. We dene J = det F and we see that it has a natural description as the change of volume at a material point p. 2.4.2 Transformation of area: Nansons formula.

The following rule is for the corresponding change in a local area element dened at a point p through the normal vector n (see Problem Sheets).

surface element NdA N n nda Bt

da = J FT dA

B0
nda = J FT NdA 2.4.3 Transformation of line element.

We have assumed F is a bijection = det F > 0, so that F1 is well dened. Now take a local innitesimal line element in B0 at p.

p material line dX

P dx same material line

= Let M be a unit vector along dX:

dx = FdX.

dX = MdS = M|dX| dx = mds = m|dx| = mds = FMds. Take the norm of each side: |ds|2 = (FM FM)|dS |2 = (FT FM) M|dS |2 ds = (FT FM) M (M ), dS

KINEMATICS

13

where ds/dS is the change of length of a material line in the direction M and is a stretch. This implies that ds =1 dS s = S, M FT F = 1.

A material is unstrained if FT F = 1. However, the converse is not true. Therefore, we cannot use F directly to measure the strain in a body. 2.4.4 Polar decomposition theorem.

The action of F is to rotate a vector along a direction M to a direction N , then stretch it to a size (M ). = stretch + rotation. This is contained in the polar decomposition theorem: Theorem Let F be a second-order Cartesian tensor such that det F > 0. Then unique positive denite symmetric tensors U, V and a unique proper orthogonal tensor R such that, F = RU = VR. Note FT F = U2 C, FF = V B, Explicitly, we have F = Fij ei Ej FT = Fk Ek e FT F = (Fki Ek ei ) (Fij ei Ej ) = FT F FFT = FFT 2.4.5 Strain tensors.
kj ij T 2

right Cauchy Green tensor left Cauchy Green tensor

E k Ej = U 2 kj Ek Ej ,
2 ei ej = Vij ei ej ,

Lagrangian

Eulerian

We need to dene a notion of strain. A strain tensor is a tensor that is identically zero if there is no stretch in any direction of the body. For instance, E= 1 T F F1 , 2 Green strain tensor

It is easy to check that for a global rotation, translation or rigid body motion we have E = 0. Only for stretching is E = 0 and depending on the direction of space, dierent stretches are obtained.

KINEMATICS

14

U eigendirections of U iui stretch unit ball then rotate the ellipsoid

rotate axes then stretch the ellipsoid

Other possible strain tensors can be constructed E() = E(0) or e() = e(0) 1 (V 1) , 2 = ln V. = 0, R+ 1 (U 1) , 2 = ln U. = 0, R+

These are, respectively, Lagrangian (upper case, they live in the reference conguration) and Eulerian strain tensors (lower case, they live in the current congurations). 2.4.6 The displacement gradient.

Displacement is an important notion in linear elasticity. It is dened as u=xX = x=X+u = F = Grad x = 1 + Grad u, where Grad u is the displacement gradient. 2.4.7 The velocity gradient tensor.

Another important kinematic quantity is the velocity gradient tensor, dened as L = grad v, Lij = vi , xj L = Lij ei ej .

KINEMATICS

15

Since Grad u = (grad u)F by the chain rule, Grad v = (grad v)F = LF, but also, = Grad v = Grad x so that = LF F and (see Problem Sheets) = J div v J Another way to obtain this result is to use the formula for the derivative of a determinant. ) = (det F) tr(L), det F = (det F) tr(F1 F t So that, = = J tr(L) = J div v. J F , Grad x = =F t t

We dene an isochoric deformation to be one such that there is no change of local volume = 0 = div v = 0 , (this is the incompressibility conditions element, that is, J 1, J found in uids).

2.5
2.5.1

Examples of deformation
Homogeneous deformation x = FX + x, F constant

Simple elongation F = U = 1 U(1) U(1) + 2 U(2) U(2) + U(3) U(3) Dilation F = 1 Simple shear
(0, 1) (, 1)

x1 = X1 + X2 , which imply (homework), =

x2 = X2 ,

x3 = X3 ,

1 0 F = 0 1 0 , 0 0 1

1 0 U2 = 1 + 2 0 0 0 1

KINEMATICS

16

B a

2.5.2

Ination of a spherical shell

Symmetric ination Dene a function r = f (R) such that r(A) = a, r(B ) = b, and r = f (R), Then X = ReR , and x x x x = eR + e + e X R (rer ) (rer ) (rer ) = eR + e + e R r = r er eR + (e e + e e ) . R Therefore r F= 0 0 and so r = r , = r/R, = r/R. 0 0 r/R 0 , 0 r/R x = rer = f (R)er , = , = .

Note if we only consider isochoric deformation then det F = 1, which implies r r R

2

=1

r r 2 = R2

1 d(r3 ) = R2 3 dR

r3 = R3 + C.

Since r(a) = A, r(b) = B , C = b3 B 3 = a3 A3 = a3 = b3 B 3 + A3 = r= a 3 A3 + R 3

This is a one-parameter family of solutions.

CONSERVATION LAWS, STRESS AND DYNAMICS

17

Conservation Laws, Stress and Dynamics

Overview We use basic physical principles to derive local equations for the evolution of mass and stress in space. The requirement for localising the balance of linear momentum naturally leads to the denition of the Cauchy stress tensor.

3.1

Mass conservation

We start with a scalar eld , the mass density dened at each point of the body. Assuming that mass is additive and m 0 as the volume of 0, the mass of a given reference volume is m() =

dv.

We postulate conservation of mass, d d m() = 0 = dt dt dv.

Since changes during the deformation, the derivative cannot be taken directly inside the integral. Instead, we map the integral back to the reference conguration. That is, we apply a transport formula, d dt J dV = 0
0

=
0

(J ) dV = 0

(J + J div v) dV = 0.

This implies the continuity equation, + div v = 0. This is an example of transport and localization. An alternative way to derive this result is to dene the reference density 0 and realise that 0 = J = J div v. where we have used J = 0 = 0 = J ( + div v) .

3.2

Body and surface forces

Before proceeding with the Balance of linear and angular momenta we discuss the forces and torque acting in a body.. Consider B and dene F() a force and G(, 0) a torque with respect to a xed point 0. Both force and torque act on . F is due to body forces (external) and contact forces (internal). 3.2.1 Body forces Fbody =

b dv, (x (b) + c) dv,

b body force per unit mass c body torque per unit mass

Gbody =

CONSERVATION LAWS, STRESS AND DYNAMICS

18

3.2.2

Contact forces Fcontact () =

t da x t da

Gcontact () =

The action of the body outside on is given by t, and we use Cauchys stress principle that t depends smoothly on n (for a non-polar medium). We assume that there is no contact torque. Note t: traction vector force per unit area.

3.3

Momenta and Eulers laws

The linear momentum is dened as M() =

v dv.

The angular momentum with respect to 0 is H(; 0) =

x (v) dv.

3.4

Eulers law of motion

The laws of motion for a body simply state that the rate of change of linear momentum of an arbitrary material subset t Bt is equal to sum of all the forces acting on t . Similarly, the rate of change of angular momentum of an arbitrary material subset t Bt with respect to a given point is equal to sum of all the torques acting on t with respect to the same point. dM = F, dt dH =G dt

Interestingly in classical discrete point mechanics dH/dt = G is a consequence of dM/dt = F. However, for continuum bodies, these appear as distinct laws. Postulate: we further assume that we have non-polar media, that is the body is not subject to body or contact torques which in turn implies that c = 0. This leaves us with the following two equations, d dt d dt

v dv =

b dv +

t da, x t da.

()

x v dv =

x b dv +

CONSERVATION LAWS, STRESS AND DYNAMICS

19

Again we apply the idea of transport: d d v dv = dt dt =

0

vJ dV
0

d (vJ ) dV dt + J (Jv v + vJ div v) dV

=
0

+ v v + vdiv v dV
=0, continuity

dV v

Therefore () reads (a b)dv =

t da, x t da.

x (a b)dv =

Now a fundamental problem: if we want to localize this integral, we need to express t da

as

( ? ) dv

We could use the divergence theorem: div v =

v n da,

for any closed R3 , but then we need v n da not t da. This consideration naturally leads us to introduce a new fundamental object for the description of forces in a body, the stress. Cauchys theorem states that if (a b)dv =

t da,

then a second-order tensor, the Cauchy stress tensor, such that t = Tt n, Cauchys theorem.

We are now able to express all quantities appearing in the balance of linear momentum as a single integral (a b)dv =

t da =

Tt n da =

div T dv,

and we can localise this integral to obtain ((a b) div T) dv = 0,

= div T + b = a The balance of angular momentum follows the same basic steps and leads to a restriction on the Cauchy stress tensor Tt = T That is, T is a symmetric tensor.

CONSERVATION LAWS, STRESS AND DYNAMICS

20

3.4.1

Digression: the divergence theorem for tensors

Let v be a vector eld. Then div v dV =

v n dA

dV =

n dA.

(To see this, take v = c for c = 0, constant.) This implies dV = xi ni dA.

... ,

Apply this to each component of a Cartesian tensor, Tjk Tjk ... dV = xi Tjk

then

... ni dA,

In particular div T dV =

TT n dA,

or in index notation, Tij dV = xi Tij ni dA,

3.4.2

More on the stress tensor

Consider again the stress tensor T normal stress: tn = n (Tn) = n t If tn > 0 then this stress is tensile, and if tn < 0 it is compressive. shear stress: ts = |t Tn| Particular case Suppose ts = 0 and tn is independent of n. Then t = pn, = p1.

tn

This is hydrostatic stress. Tij is the j th component of the force in the ith direction.

T13

T12 e3 e2 T11 e1

T11 : normal stress; T12 , T13 : shear stresses.

CONSERVATION LAWS, STRESS AND DYNAMICS

21

3.4.3

The nominal and Piola Kirchho stress tensors

The Cauchy stress tensor is dened in the current conguration. We can ask the following question, which tensor dened in the reference conguration gives the traction when applied to an local area element? To answer this question we usese Nansons formula: n da = JFt N dA and apply it to the traction vector = t da = Tn da = (JTFt )N dA,

where S is the nominal stress tensor, S = JF1 T ST is the PiolaKirchho force per unit undeformed area. Since T is symmetric, T = Tt , J1 FT ST = J1 FS,

FT ST = FS

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

22

Constitutive equations

Overview We close the system of Cauchy equations for stress, density, and velocity by introducing a relationship between stresses and strains, the constitutive equations. Depending on the choice of constitutive equations, the continuum equations can describe a uid, a solid, or a gas.

So far, we have obtained through conservation of mass and balance of momenta, the following three equations + div v = 0, , div T + b = v T = T,
t

mass linear momentum angular momentum

There are 10 unknowns: 1 in , 3 in vector v and 6 in the symmetric tensor T. But there are only 4 equations. We need 6 extra relationships to close this system. These will be given by the constitutive equations.

4.1

3 types of assumptions

1) Possible deformations. e.g. Only rigid motions are allowed (F = R, 3 parameters). = rigid body mechanics. e.g. Only isochoric motion = Incompressible material. 2) Constraining the stress tensor e.g. T = T (F) e.g. T = p1 3) Relate stress to motion e.g. pressure function of density, (for a gas). 4.1.1 Particular examples

1) Ideal uids (a) det F = 1 (Isochoric) (b) = const (c) T = p1 Note: the pressure is not determined by the motion (ball under uniform pressure). (Lagrange multiplier for the pressure.) 2) Elastic uids (a) T = p1 (b) p = p() Here = P (0 ) and p is the sound speed. N.B.: both uids are inviscid (do not exert shearing forces!) A particular case of an elastic uids is an ideal gas : p = , for > 0, > 1. 3) Newtonian uids. Shear stress through friction. Take L = grad v which gives relative motion of particles, velocity gradient.

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

23

(a) det F = 1, incompressible (b) T = p1 + C [L] where C is a linear function of L. Note C [0] = 0 = T = p1, A Newtonian uid at rest is ideal Note C [L] has 40 independent constants (once we have removed arbitrariness of p1. However objectivity (independence from observer) implies C [L] = 2D, 1 D = (L + LT ), 2

which has a single constant, viscosity . This implies = div T + b v div v = 0 T = p1 + 2D After some algebra, v + v grad v = v grad p + b, t div v = 0,

which are the NavierStokes equations. (N.B. = / is the kinematic viscosity.) Stokes ow : 1) steady, 2) neglect acceleration. v = grad p b div v = 0. N.B. for more general uids, T = p1 + N (L).

4.2

Elastic materials

For elastic materials, we have the simple relationship T = Z (F) This implies that the stress in B at x depends on F and not on the history of the deformation (path-independent). Also, by the denition of the reference conguration (assuming that it is stress free), we have Z (1) = 0. This relationship denes a Cauchy, elastic material. 4.2.1 Objectivity or frame indierence

Material properties are independent of the frame in which they are observed (or the observer). x = (X, t), The two descriptions are related by x = Q x + c , x = (X, t), t = t.

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

24

x e3 B0 e2 O e1 e 2

x e 3 O e 1

u u

where Q = Q(t) is orthonormal and c = c(t). F = x x x = = QF. X x X u = y x = Q(y x) = Qu

u = y x, Therefore

u is objective if u = Qu . If u is the traction vector or normal t = Qt, but t = Tn, which implies QTn = T n = T Qn. This is true n, which implies T Q = QT, T = QTQT t = T n , n Qn

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

25

More generally a tensor T is objective if T = QTQT which implies that , u, T are objective if = , u = Qu, T = QTQT .

=c Care! v, a are not objective (unless Q = 0), but (grad ) = Qgrad is objective.

4.3
4.3.1

Hyperelastic materials
Energy balance, elastic materials dE = P, dt

where P is the rate of working, the power of the forces. E () = K() + S (), where K is the kinetic energy, K() =

1 v v dv, 2

and S is the internal energy of the system S () =

dv,

where the internal energy density for an isothermal process, i.e.assuming no dissipation. P () =

b v dv +

t v da

dK() P () = ... = many steps dt

tr(TD)dv, stress power.

(Hint: use TT = T, divergence theorem, equation of motion and continuity.) Therefore d dt d dt dv =

tr(TD)dv

J dV
0 W 0

Jtr(TD)dv = 0

dW = p Jtr(TD), dt where p is the stress power.

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

26

Assume hyperelasticity that W = W(F) only. ) J tr(TD) = tr(SF and d W(F) = tr dt where W W ei ej , = F Fji We have tr This must be true for all motion. = S = where Sij = W , Fji T = J 1 F W . F W F W = 0. S F F W F =
ij

W F , F

W . Fji

An hyperelastic material is one whose stress derives from a scalar energy density function. 4.3.2 Objectivity of W W scalar = W = W. F gradient = F = QF. = W (F ) = W(QF) = W(F) = W(QF) = W(F), 4.3.3 Material symmetry F=FP Now T = T (F) = T (F ) = T (F P) = T (F ), rotations Q.

in general T = T . If T (F P) = T (F ), F , then P is a symmetry of the body. The set of all P for which this is true form a group, the symmetry group of the material.

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

27

B0 P B0

4.4

Hyperelastic isotropic materials

Isotropy is a particularly important material symmetry. If T (FQ) = T (F), Q, proper orthonormal, then the material is isotropic and SO(3) is its material symmetry group. Response of the material independent of its orientation (this is a pointwise notion!) there is no physical way to distinguish the orientation of a local element. For a hyperelastic material (isotropic), we have W(FP) = W(F), So we have W(QF) = W(F), Use P = RQT , then W(QF) = W(PRT RUP) = W(F) = W(U) = W(PT UP), and W(QF) = W(QFRQT ) = W(QVQT ) = W(V) = W(QFQT ) = W(V), W(PVPT ) = W(U) P, W(FP) = W(F). P, rotations.

W is an isotropic function of V or U. See linear algebra: det(QMQT ) = det(M) and tr(QMQT ) = tr(Q). There exist only three functionally independent invariant functions of a 3 3 second-order tensor. Let 1 , 2 , 3 , be the eigenvalues of V, i.e.the principal stretches.
2 2 I1 = tr(V2 ) = 2 i > 0 1 + 2 + 3 , 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 I2 = I tr(V4 ) = 2 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 I3 = det(V2 ) = 2 1 2 3 = J

I1 , I2 , I3 are symmetric functions of stretches. Of course 6 I1 4 + I2 2 I3 = 0, Cayleys theorem. = W(F) = W(I1 , I2 , I3 ) = W(1 , 2 , 3 ).

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

28

Contradiction, W(1) = 0 = W(3, 3, 1) = 0, W(1, 1, 1) = 0. Let us now express the stress tensors in terms of W and its derivatives. S= Let W = W(V2 ) = W(B), = S = W(B) W = 2F = J F 1 T F B W F F W F

T = 2J 1 F1

T = J 1 FS S=2 W T F , C T = 2J 1 F1 W T F C

S = 2J 1 FFT Now for W/ B,

W W = 2J 1 B B B

W = W(I1 , I2 , I3 ) tr(B2 )) and I3 = Det(B). where I1 = tr(B), I2 = Some interesting results trB I1 =1= B B det B I3 = det B B1 = B B I2 1 trB2 trB = .2 (trB) 1 = (trB) 1 2B = I1 1 B C 2 B B = S = 2J 1 B where W0 = 2 W , I3 W1 = 2J 1 W W + 2 J 1 I1 , I1 I2 W2 = 2J 1 W I2 W W W 1+ (I2 1 B) + J B1 = W0 1 + W1 B + W2 B2 , I1 I2 I3
1 2 2 (I1

and Wi = Wi (I1 , I2 , I3 ). Note that we can also write T= t i vi vi ,

since T is coaxial with V. (vi principal direction.) Then ti = J 1 i Similarly S= si u(1) v(1) , si = W i W , i W = W(1 , 2 , 3 ), J = 1 2 3 .

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

29

4.5

Hyperelastic incompressible materials

In general assume that we want to restrict the set of possible deformations. C (F) = 0 e.g. det F 1 = 0, incompressibility. We introduce a Lagrangian multiplier, p, W W pC Again by variational calculus, tr =0 (W pC ) S F F C W p F F

= S = e.g. C = det F 1, so that S=

C F

= det F F1 = J F1 and = T = J 1 FS = J 1 F W p1 F

W J F1 F

4.6

Choice of strain-energy density for hyperelastic materials

if f (J ) = 0 W= 2 (I1 3) + f (J ) W = c1 (I1 3) + c2 (I2 3) + f (J ) W = 2(1 + 2 + 3 3) + f (J )

Incompressible neo-Hookean MooneyRivlin Varga Ogden Fung Gent

W=
p=1

p (1 p + 2 p + 3 p ) + f (J ) e(I1 3) 1 + f (J ) where 3 < < 20

W=

1 2

W = 21 ln [1 (I1 3)] + f (J ) where 0.4 < < 3

Possible choices for f (J ): 1 (I3 1), 2 (J 1)2 , 2 ln I3 , 2 ln J , . . .

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

30

Examples of boundary value problems

Overview For a given strain-energy density function, we can write a full system of equations which can be solved for given boundary conditions. We give some simple solutions for homogeneous and semi-inverse problems.

5.1

Homogeneous deformations

In the compressible case, of the deformation is homogeneous than F = const matrix = W F constant tensor. Then S= are both constant. = Div S = 0, That is, the Cauchy equations identically satised. div T = 0. W F and T = J 1 F W F

Consider, as an example, the diagonal transformation T = diag(t11 , t22 , t33 ) and F = diag(1 , 2 , 3 ) = tii = i W , J i i = 1, 2, 3.

The solution is fully specied by the boundary conditions (Ericksens theorem). For instance, uniaxial extension is obtained by the choice t33 = N and t11 = t22 = 0, = t11 = W= 1 W1 = 0, 2 3 t22 = 1 W2 = 0, 3 1 t33 = 1 W3 = N 1 2

1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 (I1 3) (I3 1) = (1 + 2 ( 1) 2 + 3 3) 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 tii = i W J i

t11 = t22

1 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 = 0 J 2 3 = 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 = 0 J

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

31

1 = 2 (so that tii = 0 when i = 1).

2 1 (1 2 2 3 ) = 0 2 2 (1 2 1 3 ) = 0,

J = 2 1 = 3 = .

2 2 2 = = 1 = 2 = 1 , 2 = 3 = 1

t33 =

2 4 2 J J

=N

J= Now

= 1 2

N 1 4 1 = 3 =

N ()

=
=1

3 +

1 2

= 4.
=1

5.2

General method for semi-inverse problems, BVP

1) Describe your material Elastic? Static? Any particular geometry (thin, long. . .)? Incompressible? Isotropic? Strain - Energy (Dene or keep undened as long as needed.) 2) Describe the deformation. Semi-inverse method.

r = f (R ) x = X Y X r = f (X ) = g (Y ) z = Z

Choose variables in B0 , B suitable for you problem. Dene , F, i . i is a function of a few parameters, functions, (f, a).

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

32

3) Dene the boundary conditions. There are loads to choose from! T n on B ? Or ? b? 4) Write down Cauchy equation plus constant. div T + b = 0 (static), W 1 T = J F F p1 Incompressible is J = 1, compressible p = 0. To solve write W = W(I1 , I2 , I3 ), then W = W(1 , 2 , 3 ), then = T = T(f (x), x),
W F .

or S = S(f (x), x).

5) Insert into div T + b = 0 or Div S + 0 b = 0. Obtain dierential equation for f (x) or p = p(x). Solve the equation with the correct boundary conditions.

5.3

Ination of a spherical shell.

1) Elastic, incompressible, isotropic spherical shell with strain-energy W(I1 , I2 , I3 ).

2) Symmetric ination A R R, x (see 2.5) X r = f (R)R. F= r = r (R), a = a/A, b = b/B, r r/R r/R = r/R = r=
3

x = f (R)X, F= r

a3 A3 + R3

where a is the single unknown parameter. Therefore = = = r/R, r = 2

Tn=

P 0

on r = a on r = b

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

33

pn n

ST N = JP FT N (mapping of traction vector) Tn = P n ST N = P J FT N, on B on B

= Trr = or Srr =

P 0

on r = a on r = b

1 2 P r = P 0

on R = A on R = B

Note that the boundary condition depends on the deformation. 3) b = 0 and div T = 0, = or dSrr 2 + (Srr S ) = 0. dR R Constitutive equations, S= or T=F Then Srr = which are functions of (R). 4) Solve the equation. Take div S = 0. Srr S = W W . r W 1 p r , r S = W 1 p W p1. F W pF1 , F 2 dTrr + (Trr T ) = 0, dr r

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

34

We are going to choose as a variable. Dene h() = W(2 , , ), then dSrr Srr S h () = 2 = 3 , 2 d 1
a

= P =
b

h () 3 1

tr 2 + (tr t ) = 0, r r tr = r Wr p = 2 Wr p, t = W p, t = t .

tr t = 2 Wr W 2 tr + (2 Wr W ) = 0. r r

Introduce auxiliary function, h() = W(2 , , ), h () = h = Wr .(23 ) + W .1 + W .1 = 21 (2 Wr W ) tr tr = r r = r , R(r) 1 rR = 2 r R R R R2 = 3r3 , R = r2 = 2 . R2

R3 = r3 a3 + A3 ,

1 = (1 3 ) r R = tr 1 h () tr = (1 3 ) = . r R r

tr h () = , 1 3 At = b , tr = P ,
b

= tr =
a

h ( ) d 1 3

P =
a

h () d, 1 3

P =
a

h () d = f (a ). 1 3

Note a = a/A, b = 1 B
3

a 3 A3 + B 3 =

1 B

(a 1)A3 + B 3 .

EXAMPLES OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

35

For a given P , we nd a, hence the deformation and the value of tr at all points.
2 2 2 Note that W = 2 (r + + ),

= h = Note the nonlinearity in the 1/4 term. =

1 + 2 2 . 4

h = 2(2 + 5 ), 1 3 1 1 + 4 4
b (a )

P = 2

.
a

tr (b) P>0 blowing a 1 P P<0 sucking compressive

LINEAR ELASTICITY

36

Linear Elasticity

Overview We show how to obtain the equations of linear elasticity by linearising the general nonlinear equations of elasticity for small displacements. We also consider the solution of simple problems.

6.1

Innitesimal strain tensor

The central object is not the mapping but the displacement.

u = x X = (X, t) X = u = Grad 1 = H = F 1, the displacement gradient. Assumptions: Displacement gradient is small. Now consider the strain tensor, E= F = 1 + H = E = 1 T F F1 2

1 (1 + H) 2

1 + HT 1 = (H + HT ) + O(H2 )
E

1 2

1 1 E = (H + HT ) = u + (u)T 2 2

6.2

Constant relationships
S = S (F), T = T (F).

We assume S (1) = 0 (no residual stress). = S = S (1 + H) = S (1) + DS (1)[H] + O(H2 ),

0 C [H ]

LINEAR ELASTICITY

37

where C is linear in H. T = T (1) + DT (1)[H] + O(H2 )

0

Which one to use? T = J 1 FS = T = J 1 FS and T = DT [H] = J 1 (1 + H)DS (1)[H] = det(1 + H)(1 + H)DS (1)[H] + O(H2 ) = DT [H] = DS [H] = DS [H] = C [H] C elasticity tensor, Tij = Cijk Hk Major symmetries: Cijk = Ck Minor symmetries: Cijk = Cij
k ij

= Cjik = Cji

= from 81 components to 36 independent components. Note also 1 1 (H + HT ) + (H HT ) Tij = Cijk 2 2

E

Tij = Cijk Ek constant relationship for linear elasticity.

6.3

Isotropic linear elasticity

If the material is isotropic: Sij = Tij = 2eij + (tr E)ij where Cijk = ij k + 2ik j for and the Lam e coecients. From the symmetry of C and positive deniteness, we have > 0, Note: C is positive denite means E.C(E) > 0, E Sym. 2 + 3 > 0.

Material hyperelasticity C is positive denite = C is symmetric. If the body is homogeneous, then 0 , , are constant.

LINEAR ELASTICITY

38

6.3.1

Equations:

u = ()(X) X. 1 e = ( u + uT ) 2 = 0 a Div S + b0 = 0 u S = C[E], Assume homogeneity and isotropy, S = 2E + (tr E)1. Div S = 2 Div 1 1 (u + uT ) + Div tr (u + uT )1 2 2 = u + Grad Div u + Grad Div u = u + ( + )Grad Div u Therefore we have the Navier equation, u + ( + )Grad Div u + b0 = 0 u Note that u = u(X) implies that x does not appear any more (we can replace X by x if we want I dont). In components, u = u(X, t) = ui Ei implies 2 ui 0 2 = bi + t
3 j =1

2 uj 2 ui + ( + ) 2 Xi Xj Xj

6.4

Examples

To understand the meaning of the elastic moduli, we consider simple deformations. 1) Pure shear, u = (X2 , 0, 0) [pic] 0 0 1 [ E] = 0 0 , 2 0 0 0

0 0 [ ] = 0 0 , 0 0 0

= = = is the shear modulus. (Care! Normal stresses vanish... and remember the condition > 0!) 2) Uniform compression, u = X and u = x X = ( + 1)X X E = 1, We use E= 1 (tr )1 2 2 + 3 = p1

LINEAR ELASTICITY

39

12 = p at

11 = p

1 =

1 p1 + 3p1 2 2 + 3 1 (2 + 3) + 3 = p 2 2 + 3 p = 2 + 3

= p = (2 + 3) = 3

2 + 3 , 3

where is the Modulus of Compression. Remember the condition 2 + 3 > 0! 3) Uniaxial tension, = tE1 E1

11

[E] = diag(, , ), E= (2 + 3) , +

t , E

= .

2( + )

Here E is equated to the innitesimal Youngs modulus and is equated to Poissons ratio. E= an alternative form for E. Expect > 0 (Care! Its an auxetic material!) Now = 2 + 3 E = , 3 3(1 2 ) 1 ((1 + ) (tr )1) E

so that as 1/2, , and we would need an innite force to change the volume. Therefore incompressible materials have = 1/2.

LINEAR ELASTICITY

40

6.5

Incompressible linear elasticity

Recall: Incompressibility: det F = 1, = det(1 + H) = 1 + tr H + O(H2 ) = 1

Therefore tr H = 0 = Div u, and Div u = 0 tr E = 0 Also T = p1 + J 1 F For isotropic material,

  = 2E +  (tr E )1 p1

W , F

= p1 + Cijk ek

but = Therefore = b Grad p + u u and = N.B. Boundary conditions u = u (t), n = t (t), 6.5.1 General principles

E E = . 2(1 + ) 3

E 3

on 1 B displacements on 2 B traction

1) Linear superposition 2) Stresses, strains and displacements are proportional to the loads (or displacements) applied to the solid. 3) If 2 B = then there exists one unique solution, only displacements. 4) If only traction and tractions are in equilibrium, then stresses and strains are unique. For initial conditions, there exists one unique u(t). Some nomenclature about loading 1) Plain strain u = (u(X, Y ), v (X, Y ), 0) = e13 = e23 = e33 = 0, 13 = 23 = 31 = 32 = 0.

LINEAR ELASTICITY

41

no displacement no stretching but stresses

2) Plane stress ast ast 0 = ast ast 0 0 0 0

13 = 23 = 33 = 0,

3) Antiplane strain u = (0, 0, w(X, Y )) 4) Pure torsion u = (Y Z, XZ, (X, Y )) (see problem sheet 6)

6.6
6.6.1

Plane/Strain/Stress Solutions
Plane solutions

(stress or strains) In cartesian coordinates, 1+ 1 ij kk ij eij = (ui,j + uj,i = 2 E E ij + bj = 0 xi Assume that b derives from a potential, bi = V , Xi i = 1, 2, b3 = 0.

Plane stresses or strain 13 = 23 = 0. 6.6.2 Let 11 = V, X2 22 = V, X1 12 = 2 , X1 X2 33 = (11 + 22 ), Idea

= 0 is plane stress and = 1 is plane strain.

LINEAR ELASTICITY

42

6.6.3

Equations 11 12 + + b1 = 0, X1 X2 12 22 + + b2 = 0. X1 X2

Therefore X1 X1 2 2 V + + b 1 = 0, 2 X2 X1 X2 X2 2 2 + V + b 2 = 0, 2 X1 X2 X2 X2

and the equations of motion are satised. But we do not have an equation for . We have equations for ij or eij , that is, 6 elds but ui is 3 components. 6.6.4 Compatibility conditions

Recall: conditions for F: Curl F = 0. For eij = Compatibility conditions: Curl Curl E = 0, 2 emn =0 Xp Xq 1 2 uj ui + xj xi

ipm jqn

2 ejk 2 eij 2 ek 2 ei + =0 Xk X Xi Xj Xj Xk Xi X

These are 6 relations (but only 3 are independent). For planar problems: e13 = e23 = 0, eij /X3 = 0, = 2 e12 2 e11 2 e22 + 2 =0 2 2 X1 X2 X2 X1 (ast)

Now for plane stress we have 33 = 0 and from plane strain we have 33 = (11 + 22 ), 33 = (11 + 22 ), which implies e11 = e22 e12 1+ 11 E 1+ = 22 E 1+ = 12 E (1 + )(11 + 22 ) E (1 + )(11 + 22 ) E

LINEAR ELASTICITY
2 2 X1

43

Insert these into (ast) and use 11 = =

V, 2V 2V + x2 x2 1 2

4 4 1 2 4 + 2 + = 2 1 2 2 x4 x2 x4 1 1 2 2

4 = C V ,

C =

1 2 . 1 2 2

Here 4 is the biharmonic operator and is the Airy potential. If = 0, we have plane stress and = 1 is plane strain. 6.6.5 Application

6.7

Elasto-dynamics
u + ( + )Grad Div u = u (ast)

6.7.1

Planar waves u(x, t) = a sin(k x ct)

Here a is the amplitude, k is the direction and c is the velocity. We normalize such that |k| = 1. 2 interesting cases: a k longitudinal primary, pressure, P-waves. a k transverse shear, secondary, S-waves.

direction of wave

Pwaves

Swaves

Let (x, t) = k x ct. Note that Div u = a k cos Curl u = a k cos Div u = 0 is transverse, Curl u = 0 is longitudinal. Substitute u = a sin in (ast). Then u = a sin Grad Div u = Grad(a k cos ) = (a k)k( sin ) = c2 a sin and Therefore u a + ( + )(a k)k = c2 a

LINEAR ELASTICITY

44

This is a linear operator on a. Dene A the acoustic tensor, A= 1 1 (1 + ( + )k k) [A]ij = (ij + ( + )ki kj )

so that we have the eigenvalue problem Aa = c2 a 1) a = k Aij kj = 1 (ki + ( + )kj kj ki ) = c2 ki

1

= 2) a k, ai ki = 0.

+ 2 = c2 ,

cL =

+ 2

Aij aj =

1 (ai + ( + )ki kj aj ) = c2 ai

= c2 = i.e. slower than cL . Note also

cT =

<

+ 2 ,

cL =

E (1 ) , (1 + )(1 2 )

where 1 2 = 0 for an incompressible material. Therefore cL as 1/2. Also note c2 T = / c2 + 2c2 L = T, = = = c2 T

2 c2 L 2cT

2 2 = c2 = u T u + (cL cT )Grad Div u

(astast)

6.8

Rayleigh waves
Aeby exp(ik (x ct)) Beby exp(ik (x ct)) 0 u=

A, B C, b R+ 0.

LINEAR ELASTICITY

45