Psse and Digsilent Compare

UPTEC-F 13014
Examensarbete 30 hp September 2013
Comparison of PSSE & PowerFactory
Bjrn Karlsson
Abstract
Comparison of PSSE & PowerFactory
Bjrn Karlsson
Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet UTH-enheten Besksadress: ngstrmlaboratoriet Lgerhyddsvgen 1 Hus 4, Plan 0 Postadress: Box 536 751 21 Uppsala Telefon: 018 471 30 03 Telefax: 018 471 30 00 Hemsida: http://www.teknat.uu.se/student
In this thesis a comparison of PSSE (Power System Simulator for Engineering) from Siemens and PowerFactory from DIgSILENT is done. The two tools can be used in many ways to analyze power system stability and behavior. This thesis cover the use of load flow and dynamic stability simulation. Different modeling and definitions are used by the tools why differences in the results may occur. A network defined in PSSE can be imported to PowerFactory. The thesis presents what is need to be considered when moving a network from PSSE to PowerFactory. The work is also done to test if it is possible to have identical simulation results. The report indicates that it is possible to have identical load flow. The dynamic simulation will have similar behavior if the correct set-up is made. The generators use different modeling and can be tested in a step response. By tuning the generator parameters according to the step responses, will have a positive impact to the dynamic simulation results.
Handledare: Firew Dejene mnesgranskare: Mikael Bergkvist Examinator: Tomas Nyberg ISSN: 1401-5757, UPTEC-F 13014 Sponsor: ABB AB
Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics
Bjrn Karlsson
Sammanfattning
Dagens samhlle r i hg grad beroende av ett fungerande elektrisk ntverk. I takt med att ntverken blir allt strre och mer komplicerade krvs bra metoder fr att kunna analysera dess egenskaper. Att p frhand kunna simulera ett ntverk ger information om hur man p bsta stt optimerar effektiviteten bde elektrisk och ekonomiskt, samt hur man kan g till vga fr att uppdatera eller expandera ett redan existerande ntverk. Det r ven viktigt att frst hur strningar pverkar stabiliteten och om dessa kan hanteras av skerhets och kontrollsystemen. Dessa typer av simuleringar kan gras i program som !""# $!o%er "ystem "imulator for #ngineering& frn "iemens och !o%er'actory frn DIg"I(#)*. +lika typer av definition och modellering kan leda till att samma ekvivalenta ntverk ger olika resultat i programmen. ,enom att analysera modellerna kan man ta reda p vad man br ta hnsyn till d man flyttar ett ntverk mellan programmen. I den hr rapporten anvnds tv olika ntverk definierade i !""# och importerade till !o%er'actory. )tverken anvnds fr att analysera om och varfr skillnader uppstr och om dessa gr att rtta till. Identiska resultat kan fs d man utfr en s kallad -load flo%- som berknar ntverkets tillstnd i .mvikt. Det r m.ligt att f liknande resultat d man utfr en dynamisk tidsberoende simulering. ,eneratorerna anvnder olika modeller som kan vara en anledning till att man inte alltid fr identiska resultat d man utfr en dynamisk simulering.
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Content
1. Introduction 2. Aims 3. Theory
3.1 Program Operation Overview 3.2 ode!s
3.2.1 #oad ode!ing 3.2.2 Transmission #ines 3.2.3 Transformer ode!ing 3.2.% Shunt &evices 3.2." 'us(ar 3.2.) *enerators 2 " " 1$ 13 1% 1" 1" 1 2
%.
ethod
%.1 PSS+ to Power,actory Conversion %.2 Comparison ethodo!ogy
%.2.1 #oad ,!ow %.2.2 +.citation System %.2.3 *overning System 231 31 31 32
". /esu!ts
".1 0undur two area system
".1.1 +.citation System Step /esponse ".1.2 *overnor /esponse ".1.3 Three1Phase ,au!t ".1.% Tripping a *enerator 33 3% 3) 32 %2 "2 ") )$ )% 43
".2 3ordic 32 System

".2.1 +.citation System Step /esponse ".2.2 *overnor /esponse ".2.3 Three1Phase ,au!t ".2.% Tripping a *enerator
). &iscussion
).1 ode!ing
).1.1 #oad ).1.2 Transmission #ines ).1.3 Transformer ).1.% Shunts 5 'us(ars ).1." AC *enerators 22-$ -1 -1 -1 -3 -% -%
).2 0undur Two Area System

).2.1 #oad ,!ow ).2.2 +.citation System ).2.3 *overning System

).2.% Three1phase ,au!t ).2." Tripping A *enerator
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-" -) -) -2 -2 1$$ 1$2 1$2 1$% 1$" 1$4
).3 3ordic 32 System

).3.1 #oad ,!ow ).3.2 +.citation System ).3.3 *overning System ).3.% Three1phase ,au!t ).3." Tripping A *enerator
4. Conc!usions 2. ,uture 6or7 /eferences Appendi.
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1. Introduction
*he modern society is highly dependent on the electrical energy generation and distribution. *he generated po%er is distributed from its source of generation to the consumers in a po%er system. Different events could cause disturbances in the po%er system resulting in a ma.or black out. Affecting the society and its critical functions. It is important that the po%er system continuously can deliver po%er throughout the system. *o have the possibility to predict and simulate the po%er system stability for different types of disturbances. /akes it possible to design a system that is secure and can deliver the po%er. *he simulation can also help determine the best %ay to upgrade an existing system or expand it. 0omputer programs like !""# $!o%er "ystem "imulator for #ngineering& from "iemens and !o%er'actory from DIg"I(#)* are t%o tools used for simulating the behavior of a po%er system. *he theory for implementing a simulation is %ell kno%n and described in literature such as 123. 4o%ever, the implementation of the theory can differ %hich may result in different behavior. 5sing the same e6uivalent system, differences have been noted bet%een !""# and !o%er'actory. 7y analy8ing the tools and the mathematical models it is possible to understand %here and %hy differences may occur. It is important that the models are accurate and reflect the same type of behavior. *he analysis %ill also provide information if the systems are using the same settings and set up. *he tools can than be compared by simulating different types of events. 9here the differences in the modeling may be seen in the results.
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2. Aims
*he aim of the thesis %ork is: *o analyse and understand the differences observed bet%een the simulation results in !o%er'actory and !""#. *o understand if the differences in the simulation results arise due to fundamental modelling principle differences, or other issues such as incorrect model import or modelling representation. *o assess if the model parameters could be fine tuned to get similar behaviors in the simulation results from the t%o tools. 'or the cases %here the model behaviors can not be matched, analyse the mathematical models used to represent e6uipments in the t%o tools and come up %ith an explanation %hy this happens
3. Theory
3.1 Program Operation Overview
7oth !""# and !o%er'actory have a lot of functions and tools for po%er system analysis. *his thesis %ill cover the use of load flo% and dynamic stability simulation. 5sing load flo% simulation the program calculates the steady state, time independent state of the system. 9hen performing a dynamic simulation the aim is to analy8e the system under a period of time. 4ere you are using the
Bjrn Karlsson
results from the load flo% as initial data for the dynamic simulation. 7y introducing a fault or disturbance in the system you can run a dynamic simulation and study the effects. A po%er flo% system is a simplified model of po%er system and it is defined by its key components busbars, generators, A0;D0 transmission lines, transformers, loads and shunt devices.
Figure 3.1: "ingle line diagram for the <undur t%o area system. 'igure from 123.
An illustrative image of the <undur t%o area system is sho%n in Figure 3.1. All relevant data for the system is given in 123.
Figure 3.2: *ypical signs and their corresponding definition.
As seen in the single line diagram the system is using 22 buses, four transformers, four generators, t%o loads, t%o shunts and transmission lines
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connecting the busbars. *he typical signs used to mark different components are sho%n in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.3: "ingle line diagram for the )ordic => system.
*he )ordic => system is illustrated in Figure =.= and all relevant data for the system is given in 12?3. !""# use t%o different files to define a system, a .ra% file is used to define the fundamental information of the components in the po%er system. *he dynamic control parameters are stored in a separate .dyr file. 7oth the .ra% and .dyr file can be imported from !""# to !o%er'actory.
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!o%er'actory uses another approach, %here the pro.ect is saved in a single file. *he load flo% and dynamic data can be set in separate tabs named load flo% and @/" "imulation. 7oth the .ra% and .dyr files used to define the <undur t%o area and the )ordic => bus system can be found in the Appendix under A<undur- and A)ordic-. *he definition of all input data parameters can be found in 1>3. !o%er system analysis can be made in the symmetrical components called positive , negative and 8ero se6uence. *his thesis %ork %ould only consider the effects occurring in a balanced = phase positive se6uence net%ork. 5sually %hen dealing %ith po%er system it is convenient to convert the values to the per unit base system. In this thesis the per unit system is used %ithout any further notice. 9hen analy8ing po%er system stability it is common to use and refer to the subtransient, transient and steady state time period. *he first fe% cycles after a fault are acting %ithin the subtransient period. #ntering the transient period %hich lasts for a couple of seconds and ending up in the steady state %here the system has reached balance.
3.2
ode!s
*o understand %hy the differences occur bet%een the t%o tools and for discussion purposes it is important to understand ho% the components are modeled.
3.2.1 #oad
ode!ing
!""# represents each load as a mixture of constant /BA, current and admittance. 7oth the <undur t%o area and )ordic => systems used in this thesis
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are using constant ! C loads, constant /BA, sho%n in the .ra% files. 5sing the constant /BA load in dynamic simulation is not al%ays possible because the system may not be solvable. *his is because the load make the system of e6uations to become stiff. It is also generally not realistic because the constant /BA approach has no voltage dependency. In !""# this is commonly solved by converting the load active po%er to constant current %hich is having a linear voltage dependency. *he load reactive po%er is converted to constant admittance, having a s6uare voltage dependency. *he conversion is done %ith the 0+)( activity. S P= S p ( 2 a b ) aS S I= S i + p v bS S Y = S y + >p v a +b <2
(1)
*he final load type %ith the 0+)( activity is calculated according to e6uation $2&. 9here a and b are load transfer fraction set by the user and S p , S i and S y are original constant /BA, current and shunt admittance load. S P is the final constant /BA load, S I is the final nominal constant current load and S Y is the final nominal constant shunt admittance load. *he parameter v is the magnitude of the bus voltage. It is also possible to use other dynamic load models found in 1>3 or to construct your o%n model. At lo% voltages belo% a threshold value !""# modifies the load characteristic. *his is done to make the loads more realistic. *he load characteristic amplitude is simply decreasing as the voltages decreases from the threshold. *he threshold value can be set %ith a parameter called !C7@A< %hich by default is set to ?,D.
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!o%er'actory is using a general load model or a complex load model. *he complex load model is primarily made to be used as an industrial load %here induction motors are used.
P = P?( aP(
v e v e v e ) + b P ( ) +( 2 a P b P )( ) ) v? v? v?
a1 b1 c1
(2)
Q =Q ? ( a Q (
v e v e v e ) + bQ ( ) +(2 aQ b Q ) ( ) ) v? v? v?
a2 b2 c2
(3)
*he general load model for load flo% calculation is defined according to e6uation $>& and $=&. *he e6uations describes the load voltage dependency. *he parameters are defined as 2 a P b P =c P and 2 aQ bQ = cQ . 9here a P , b P , c P , a Q , bQ , c Q and the corresponding exponents e a1 , e b1 , e c1 , e a2 ,e b2 and e c2 are free to set depending of %hich characteristic is to be modeled. *he manual reveals that an exponent set to 8ero means constant po%er, set to one means constant current and by setting the exponent to t%o means constant impedance. In dynamic simulation the general load is represented as mixture of a static and dynamic load.
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Figure 3.3: "mall signal block diagram description of the linear dynamic load model. 'igure from 1E3.
Figure 3.4: "mall signal block diagram description of the nonlinear dynamic load model. 'igure from 1E3.
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Figure 3.5: Boltage approximations used in the dynamic load model. 'igure from 1E3.
*he dynamic load models sho%n in Figure 3.3 and Figure =.E are a representation of the small signal models. *he As- in the same figures represents the (aplace operator. *he active and reactive po%er input is given by P ext and Qext . *he dynamic active and reactive load transient fre6uency and voltage dependence is given by T pf ,T qf , T pu and T qu . *he static voltage dependency on active and reactive po%er is given by k pu and k qu . *he dynamic active and reactive load fre6uency dependence on active and reactive po%er is given by k pf and k qf . *he small signals models are only valid in a limited voltage range, illustrated in Figure 3.5. +utside the range given by u mi the standard settings %here u mi =?,F and u max =2,> . and u max the po%er is
modified by scaling it by the parameter k. *he range is set by the user, and have
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P = kP !ut Q= kQ!ut k =2 u mi < u < u max u u> k => > ? < u < mi > u mi uu mi > u mi k =2 > ( ) < u < u mi u mi > k =2 +( u u max )> u > u max
(4)
*he scaling parameter k is calculated according to $E&, found in1E3. If no fraction of dynamic model is used. !o%er'actory use a 2??G static load model in dynamic simulation. 5sing a 2??G static load means that !o%er'actory use a load %ith constant impedance. v> S
"=
(5)
*he impedance is calculated according to e6uation $H&. *he voltage magnitude is given by v. *he impedance is either calculated %ith the load flo% voltage or %ith the rated voltage, if the option A0onsider voltage dependency- is selected. " is the apparent po%er.
3.2.2 Transmission #ines

*he electricity can be distributed in the grid %ith A0 or D0 technology. *he po%er systems used in this thesis are only using A0 technology. !""# uses a model to represent the transmission line called e6uivalent 1>3.
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Figure 3.6: !""#
e6uivalent circuit for a transmission line.
*he e6uivalent used by !""# is illustrated in Figure 3.#. *he impedance " ex and admittance Y ex are calculated according to
" ex = $ % sinh & Y ex = & > tanh $% >
( ) (!)
9here the propagation constant = "Y and the surge impedance $ %=
" Y
are fundamental properties of a transmission line. I is the series impedance, J is the shunt admittance and ( is the length of the line. #6uations $K& and $D& are derived from the matrix representation of the current and voltage magnitudes at the sender and receiver end.
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[ ] [ ][ ]
*he matrix representation of the e6uivalent is sho%n in e6uations $F&, derived in 123 and 1>3. 9here the voltage and current subscript r and s indicated receiver and sending end. In !o%er'actory you can choose bet%een t%o transmission line models. *he A(umped parameters model $ nominal&- or the ADistributed parameters model $ e6uivalent&-. *he (umped parameter model is actually a simplification derived from the Distributed parameters model. *he (umped parameters model is suited for shorter lines, approximate %here the length of line is less than >H? km using H? L K? 48 1H3.
'=cosh & ( =" % sinh & 2 )= sinh & "% *=cosh & vr v% = ' ( ) * ir i%
(")
Figure 3.7: !o%er'actory e6uivalent circuit for the three phase lumped parameters model. 'igure from 1H3.
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*he e6uivalent circuit for the three phase (umped parameters model is sho%n in Figure 3.+. 9here the subscriptions a, b and c represents the three phases for the sending s, or receiving end r. Y % represents the sum of all admittances connected to the corresponding phase. Y m is the negative value of the admittances bet%een t%o phases.
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
%, ' r, ' % , , " %, ( , r, ( = " m , % ,) r ,) m , , " m " % " m " m I ' " m I ( " % I ) " % Ym Ym , % ,' I % ,' Y I' 2 % Ym , % , ( + I( I % , ( = Ym Y > % , % ,) I % ,) Ym Ym Y I ) $2?&. *he receiving end current has a similar expression as e6uation $2?&. "ho%n in Figure 3.# and in e6uation $F&.
(#)
(1$)
*he corresponding voltage and current can be calculated %ith e6uations $M& and *he distributed parameters model used by !o%er'actory can be illustrated %ith the same e6uivalent circuit and %ith the same matrix representation as !""#.
3.2.3 Transformer
ode!ing
*he transformers used in this thesis are all t%o %inding tap changing transformers. *he analysis is made in the positive se6uence %hy the transformer positive se6uence models are of interest.
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Figure 3.8: !""# t%o %inding three phase positive se6uence transformer model %ith tap changer.
In !""# the transformer terminal voltages e i and e - both depends on the magneti8ing reactants x m , the tap position t and the e6uivalent reactance x eq . 9hich is illustrated in Figure 3... *he magneti8ing reactance x m and e6uivalent reactance x eq are calculated %ith the transformer data entered in the .ra% file according to 1=3. *he complete derivation of the transformer used in !""# can be found in 1>3.
Figure 3.9: !o%er'actory t%o %inding three phase positive se6uence transformer model %ith tap changer. 4ere the tap changer is positioned at the high voltage side , /0 . 'igure from 1K3.
*he t%o %inding three phase transformer in !o%er'actory is defined by Figure 3... *he terminal voltages , /0 and , &0 depends on the tap position given by t, copper resistance losses r )u , leakage reactances x % and shunt resistance r Fe .
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*he transformer data can also be entered in term of the positive se6uence impedance. 9here the data given in Figure 3.1 internally is converted. *he derivation of the transformer parameters used by !o%er'actory are made in 1K3.
3.2.% Shunt &evices

7oth the <undur t%o area and the )ordic => system use only the fixed shunt device. In !""# this is simply modeled as active and reactive components of shunt admittance to ground 1=3. In !o%er'actory, using positive reactive po%er this is e6uivalent %ith the 0 shunt type. 5sing negative reactive po%er the @ ( shunt is used 1D3.
3.2.) 'us(ars
A busbar is simply a connection in a substation. During load flo% simulation a busbar can have different boundary conditions depending of %hich type it is. *he most common types are load bus, generator bus and s%ing bus. *he load buses have no generator boundary condition. *he generators at the generator buses are set to hold their scheduled voltage as long as the reactive po%er limits are not reached. *he generator buses can also be controlled by a remote control. At least a single generator must be placed at the s%ing bus. During the load flo% calculation all generators located at the s%ing bus are held at constant voltage and phase angle.
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3.2.) AC *enerators
,enerators use a rotor to convert mechanical rotational energy to electrical energy by a stator. *he rotor has a field %inding provided %ith current %hich is necessary to generate output voltage at the terminals. *he stator contains the armature %inding %hich are three separate %indings for the three phase system. *here are t%o main types of generators, the synchronous and asynchronous generator. *he <undur t%o area and )ordic => bus system consists of only synchronous generators, %hich is the only type considered in this thesis. *here exist t%o synchronous generator types called round rotor and salient pole. *he t%o synchronous generator types have different properties. *he round rotor typically has a lot higher speed of rotation of the rotor than the salient pole. It is often used in thermal plants. *he salient pole machine is better suited as a hydro turbine.
Figure 3.9: *o the left is a plane cut for the round rotor generator and to the right for the salient pole generator. 'igure from 1F3.
*he standard coordinate system is defined %ith the three abc phases, 2>? degrees apart. Applying generator and electromagnetic theory one can derive the standard
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set of e6uations that completely describes the electrical performance of a synchronous generator. *his is made by !.<undur in 123 and %ill end up in the so called machine e6uations for the stator and rotor flux linkages
( a , b , c , f2 , k2 , kq ) and voltage e6uations ( u a , ub , uc , u f2 ) . *he
subscripts are the same that is used in 123, other literature may use other notation. *he subscript Afd- is for the field %inding located at the rotor. *he subscripts Akd- and Ak6-, $kN?,2,..& are for the amortisseur circuits for damping purposes and are referring to the d and 6 axis. A plane cut illustration %ith the locations of the damper circuits for the round rotor and salient pole machine is sho%n in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.10: "tator and rotor circuits of a synchronous machine. 'igure from 123.
*he performance e6uations contains inductive terms %hich depends on the angle
, Figure 3.13, %hich is varying in time. *his is introducing a high level of
complexity to the system. @.4 !ark solved this by using the d6? *ransformation. *his is leading to that the machine e6uations can be expressed in the d6? frame,
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%here the stator and rotor variables only vary %ith the currents through constant inductances 123.
2 q r 4 a i 2 2t 2 2 u q= q + 2 r 4a i q 2t 2 u ?= ? 4a i ? 2t u2= u f2 = ?= 2 + 4 f2 i f2 2t f2
(11)
2 +4 i 2t 2d 2d 2d 2 ? = 26 + 426 i 26 2t 2 ? = >6 + 4>6 i >6 2t 2 =( &a2 + &5 ) i 2 + & a2 i f2 + & a2 i 2d q=( &aq + &5 ) i q + &aq i 26 + &aq i >6 ?= &? i ? f2 = & ff2 i f2 + & f12 i 2d & a2 i 2 2d = & f12 i f2 + &22d i 2d & a2 i 2 26 = &51q i 26 + &aq i >6 &aq i q >6= & aq i 26 + &>>6 i >6 &aq i q
(12)
(13)
(14)
7y follo%ing !. <undur in 123 the stator voltage e6uation in the d6? transformation and per unit are sho%n in $22&. 7oth !""# and !o%er'actory neglect the stator flux transients.
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2 =? 2t q 2 =? 2t 2 )eglecting the flux transients leads to e6uation $2H&. u 2 =q r 4a i 2 u q=2 r 4 a i q
(15)
(1 )
7y inserting $2H& in $22& the generator terminal voltage is calculated as e6uation $2K&. *he per unit rotor voltage e6uations are expressed in $2>& and the stator and rotor flux linkage e6uations are sho%n in $2=& and $2E&. All of them in the d6? transformation. All the inductances in the e6uations are called the basic generator parameters. *he salient pole generator have the same generator e6uations $22& $2E& but %ithout the >6 circuit. *hus, it is made %ith a single 6 axis damper circuit sho%n in Figure 3.1. +ften the generator machine e6uations are expressed %ith the reactances and not the inductances. *his is valid %hen using the per unit system and base angular fre6uency, & = 6 %here =2 . 'urther in 123 it is told that in the early po%er system modeling days the inductances in e6uation $22& $2E& %ere not kno%n. Instead the generators behavior %ere fully described by the generator standard parameters consisting of the d and 6 axis reactances 6 2 , 6 q , 6 72 , 6 7q , 6 727 and 6 7q7 . *he open circuit time constants
7 7 and T 7q3 . *he stator leakage reactance 6 5 and stator resistance T 723 ,T 7q3 , T 723
4a . *he standard parameters are determined by measuring the generator behavior under controlled and %ell defined tests. 5sing 6 7 7 is referring to the subtransient reactance. 7y using 6 7 is referring to the transient reactance and 6 to the synchronous reactance.
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Figure 3.11: *o better understand the machine and its variables one can use the generali8ed synchronous machine circuit visuali8ing the currents, voltages and fluxes. *he upper circuit is the d axis e6uivalent and the lo%er circuit is the 6 axis e6uivalent. 'igure from 123.
*he circuits in Figure 3.11 are for a round rotor generator type. *he salient pole generator can be described %ith the same circuits but %ithout the >6 circuit. *he 2d and >6 circuit are called the subtransient circuits. *he field and 26 circuit are called transient circuits and the d and 6 circuit are the synchronous circuits. *hey are called subtransient, transient and synchronous circuits because each of the circuit is dominating in the corresponding time interval. During stability analysis the balance of each generators mechanical and electromagnetic tor6ue is of great importance. *his is described by the s%ing
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e6uation. *he s%ing e6uation can have different appearance but it does usually describe the acceleration of the rotor speed. Depending on a damping term, the rotor moment of inertia 4, mechanical and electromagnetic tor6ues T m and T e . *he damping term is used to account for some type of losses. *he moment of inertia is due to the rotor physical design. /echanical tor6ue is given by the input po%er acting on the rotor. 9hile the electromagnetic tor6ue, also kno%n as the air gap tor6ue is given by the current and flux linkages flo%ing in the d and 6 axis.
T e =2 i qq i 2 #6uation $2D& describes the definition of the electromagnetic tor6ue.
(1!)
*he generator behavior in the fre6uency range of ? L 2? 48 is highly dependent on the rotor flux transients and the magnetic saturation 1>3. *he magnetic saturation is used to account for the rotor and stator iron saturation. *he true representation of magnetic saturation is very complex. A number of methods to account for the saturation have been derived, but there is no standard %ay to do it. 5sually the saturation is modeled by varying some of the generator inductances.
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Figure 3.12: *ypical generator open circuit saturation curve. 'igure from 12>3
In both !""# and !o%er'actory the saturation is entered in terms of the t%o saturation parameters S 2.? and S 2.> . I '1.3 I (1.3 I (1.3 I I S 2.>= '1.2 (1.2 I (1.2 S 2.?=
(1")
*he t%o saturation parameters are defined according to e6uation $2F&. 9here the field currents are derived from the generator open circuit saturation curve sho%n in Figure 3.12.
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Figure 3.13: +vervie% of a synchronous generator excitation system. 'igure from 123.
In dynamic stability studies a generator is rarely operating %ithout any external excitation, governing and stabili8ing system. *he excitation systems is primarily used to provide current to the rotor field %inding. *he governor is used for controlling the speed of the machine. *he stabili8er is used to damp po%er system oscillations. +ften additional control and protection system are used. *he control system can for example be used to maintain the turbine po%er to predefined value. !rotection can be used as limiters for the generator active and reactive po%er and to limit the field voltage. A simple block diagram illustrating the generator and its external systems is sho%n in Figure 3.13.
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Figure 3.14: )orton e6uivalent of generator model defined in !""#.
*he !""# documentation in 1>3, reveals that all generator models are represented by a )orton e6uivalent current and reactance behind a generator step up transformer. 9hich is sho%n in Figure 3.18. *he current source is defined as I"+@0#. *he reactance y is given as the inverse of I"+@0#. *he step up transformer is given by I*@A) and ,*A!. *he dynamic impedance I"+@0# is either set to the generatorOs transient or subtransient impedance depending on %hich model to use for representing the rotor circuit flux linkages. *he impedance is defined as "S94): = "4+ "6 .
IS94): =( i q -i 2 )( cos + -sin ) ( 77 + -7q7 ) ( i q + -i 2 )= 2 ( ? ) "S94):
(1#)
A complete definition for the )orton e6uivalent is given by e6uation $2M&. *he variable is the angle that represents, by %hich angle the 6 axis leads the stator terminal voltage. It is referred as internal rotor angle or load angle. *he rotor speed is given by and ? is the base angular fre6uency. In the same e6uation 727 and 7q7 are the subtransient fluxes for the d and 6 axis respectively. In !""# 727 and 7q7 have different characteristic depending on
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Bjrn Karlsson
%hich generator type used. In the t%o systems used in this thesis the ,#)@+5 and ,#)"A( generator types are used, see Appendix. 9here ,#)@+5 is a model of a round rotor and ,#)"A( is a model for a salient pole generator, both represents the subtransient effects.
Figure 3.15: 7lock diagram representing a round rotor generator model $,#)@+5& in !""#. 'igure from 1M3. *he OsO is referring to the (aplace operator. & a2 is coming from the saturation and the other parameters are a part of the standard generator parameters.
25
Bjrn Karlsson
!""# uses the block diagram defined in Figure 3.15 to represent the ,#)@+5 generator type. *he block diagrams represents the rotor flux dynamics %ith the standard generator parameters. *he standard generator parameters are entered in the .dyr file. !""# does not explicitly model the stator resistance 4a this is the reason %hy it is not sho%n in the block diagram. *he block diagram models the electrical properties of the generator. *his type of generator representation is called by using the operational impedance 1>3, 1223. *he ,#)"A( generator model uses a similar block diagram. !""# neglects subtransient saliency. *his is leading to that !""# assumes that the d and 6 axis subtransient reactances are e6ual, 6 727 = 6 7q7 .
>4
2 r r = T m T e * e 2t r
2 =? r 2t !""# use the s%ing e6uation sho%n as e6uation $>?& 1>3, %here the variable
(2$)
r is the speed deviation of the machine. T m and T e are the mechanical and electromagnetic tor6ue of the machine. *he electromagnetic tor6ue is calculated %ith the current from $2M& and %ith the fluxes from the block diagram in Figure 3.15. *he inertia time constant is given as a user input parameter 4. * e is the speed damping factor also set by the user. *he speed damping gives an approximate representation of the damping effect contributed by the speed sensitivity of system loads 1>3. *he s%ing e6uation models the mechanical properties of the generator. !""# models the generator magneti8ing saturation to affect both the mutual and leakage reactance. !""# assumes that the saturation curve to be 6uadratic for the
2
Bjrn Karlsson
,#)@+5 and ,#)"A( model. 9hile other models may use exponential saturation curve. 'or ,#)"A( the model assume that the saturation affects only the d axis. 9here the mutual inductance vary as a function of the flux linkage behind a transient reactance. *he ,#)@+5 generator models the saturation in both the d and 6 axis. 9here the mutual inductance vary as a function of the flux linkage behind a subtransient reactance 1>3. *he saturation is then used by the generator model as &a2 i f2 1223. 9here the d axis saturation is scaled by the d axis subtransient flux and the 6 axis saturation is scaled by the 6 axis subtransient flux and synchronous reactances, see Figure 3.1#. *he term &a2 i f2 is actually the difference bet%een the air gap line and saturation curve from Figure 3.12 12>3. !""# is using the effective saturated parameters 1>3 to model the magnetic saturation. In !o%er'actory you can choose bet%een t%o main generator models, round rotor and salient pole. !o%er'actory lets you set the same generator parameters as in !""# except that the subtransient saliency not necessary has to be neglected. !o%er'actory use the machine e6uations derived in 123 and sho%n in $22& $2E& to model the electrical part of the generator. 9here the generator standard parameters are converted to the basic parameters, called the coupled circuit method 1223. *he basic parameters for a generator are often derived and provided by the manufacturer. 2 =k f2 f2 + k 2d 2d 7q7 =k 26 26 + k >6 >6
77
(21)
*he subtransient fluxes in !o%er'actory are calculated according to e6uation $>2&. 9here k f2 , k 2d , k 26 and k >6 are parameters internally defined by the standard generator parameters such as the reactances and time constants 1F3.
2!
Bjrn Karlsson
According to DIg"I(#)* support the constants are derived in 123. *he d axis parameters k f2 and k 2d are the same for the round rotor and salient pole machine. *he round rotor machine uses both k 26 and k >6 . *he salient pole machine %hich has only a single damper circuit in the 6 axis does only use k 26 and 26 for calculating the 6 axis flux. 9here k 26 have different definition depending on %hich generator type is used.
>4
2 r =T mT e * r 2t
2 =? r 2t
(22)
*he s%ing e6uation used by !o%er'actory is given as e6uation $>>&. 9here r is the speed of the rotor. *he damping term is defined by the product of the mechanical damping constant D and the speed of the machine r . *he damping term represents the actual frictional losses factor of the rotor.
6 a2 =k %at2 6 a23 6 aq=k %atq 6 aq3
(23)
In !o%er'actory the saturation is accounted by scaling the unsaturated mutual reactances by k according to e6uation $>=&. 9here k is defined by the saturation parameters. *he saturation of the leakage reactance is not modeled in !o%er'actory. !o%er'actory assumes that the saturation affects both the 6 and d axis for the round rotor and salient pole machines. 'or the round rotor generator the saturation is e6ual in d and 6 axis. 9hile the salient pole saturation characteristics is %eighted by the synchronous 6 and d axis reactance 6 q / 6 2 . *his type of saturation modeling is called total saturation method 1223.
2"
Bjrn Karlsson
%.
ethod
%.1 PSS+ to Power,actory Conversion

*he files in the Appendix are defined to suit the !""# definition for a problem set up, found in 1>3. !o%er'actory is ho%ever able to import the !""# .ra% and .dyr files. As described in the "ection =.>.2 the t%o programs have a lot of different methods for load modeling. *he load flo% is solved %ith the constant ! C loads in !""#, as they are defined as in the .ra% file. In !o%er'actory this is the same as using the standard loads from the imported .ra% file. In dynamic simulation one usually convert the loads %ith the 0+)( activity in !""#. In !o%er'actory the loads in dynamic simulation are initially treated as a 2??G static load %ith constant impedance. It is important to use the same type of loads %hen comparing the t%o tools. It is necessary to find a %ay to change the loads in !o%er'actory as the 0+)( activity does in !""#. It is important to note if some of the generators defined in the .dyr are using a damping coefficient. *his is important because of the coefficient do not have the same definition in !""# and !o%er'actory. *he damping coefficient is not considered by !o%er'actory %hen importing a system from !""#.
Figure 4.1: a& #xplicit step up transformer representation. b& Implicit step up transformer representation.
2#
Bjrn Karlsson
It is also important to note if the generators defined in the .dyr file uses an implicit step up transformer, defined according to Figure 3.18 and Figure 8.1 b;. In !""# the step up transformers can be entered directly to the generator data as an implicit step up transformer. *his is done %hen using the generator P*@A) and ,*A! properties %hen defining the .ra% file. *he step up transformers can also be explicit defined by adding a specific transformer to the generator %ith the standard transformer data set. 5sing this method a separate generator bus is needed. *he explicit step up transformer is illustrated in Figure 8.1 a;. In !o%er'actory only the explicit step up transformer is supported. !o%er'actory has three options for handling the implicit step up transformers from the .ra% files. *he option must manually be entered as AAdditional !arameters- before the system is imported. Jou can chose to add an explicit step up transformer by adding the command A;stepup:?-. *his %ill ho%ever change the load flo% due to different definitions %ithin the tools. 9hen !""# use the implicit step up transformer the generator reactive po%er limits are defined directly at the bus. And the generator current is observed after the step up transformer sho%n in Figure 8.1 b; 1>3. 9hen using explicit step up transformers the reactive po%er limits and the generator current are defined at the generator terminals for both !""# and !o%er'actory. It is also possible to ignore the step up transformers %ith the command A;stepup:2-. *he last option is to add the step up transformer data to the saturated subtransient reactance 6 727 ( %at ) and stator resistance 4a , by using the command A;stepup:>-. !o%er'actory use the A;stepup:>- command as default. *he )ordic => system is using implicit step up transformers on all generators, see Appendix.
3$
Bjrn Karlsson
%.2 Comparison
%.2.1 #oad ,!ow
ethodo!ogy
In order to compare the dynamic results the load flo% in the t%o tools have to give similar results. *hus, it %ill be used as initial data to the dynamic simulation. 7oth tools are set to use the )e%ton @aphson method for solving the load flo%. 'or the dynamic simulation t%o events are analy8ed. *he first event is a three phase fault %ith a clearing time of 2??ms, applied at a certain bus. "econdly an event %here a generator is tripped. A tripping generator is simply the same as taking it out of service.
%.2.2 +.citation System

As mentioned in "ection =.>.K the generators are using exciters, governors and stabili8ers etcetera. *o test the excitation systems $see .dyr files in the Appendix& an excitation system step test is performed. *he test is made %ith the generators and the excitation system in complete isolation. 9here the regulator voltage reference signal is increased to 2,?> p.u at t N ? s. *he regulator voltage reference signal is illustrated in Figure =.2=. 7oth !o%er'actory and !""# have internal tools that is used to perform the test. A step response is made to test the models under the same circumstances and to make sure that exactly the same signals and no other disturbances are used in order to tune the parameters. *he goal is to analy8e if !""# and !o%er'actory have similar step response. It is of great importance that the t%o tools define the exciter and its parameters in the same %ay to be able to understand if and %here the programs are different. In the excitation system step response the exciter should be able to excite the field %inding producing a stable field and terminal voltage.
31
Bjrn Karlsson
%.2.3 *overnor
Figure 4.1: )et%ork set up %hen performing a governor response simulation.
A similar governor response simulation is done to analy8e if both tools %ill have similar results. *he governor response test is a %ay to test the response of a governor to a step change in the load of the generator. *he test is done by increasing the loading of a generator. *he initial system contains of a generator and a load connected to a bus. *he initial load is of the magnitude of FHG of the generator rated po%er. At t N ? an additional load is added, this load is of the magnitude of 2?G of the generator rated po%er. *he system is illustrated in Figure 8.1. *his test indicates the damping due to turbine and governor loop only 1>3. In the governor response simulation the governor control signals should be able to make the generator stabili8e the rotor speed and mechanical po%er. During a governor step response !""# is using a load of constant active po%er. In !o%er'actory you can choose %hich load characteristic to be used according to the load modeling in "ection =.>.2. If the exciter and governor can not successfully stabili8e the output the model parameters may have to be tuned. *he step responses are an early indicator if the dynamic simulation results %ill be the same or not. 7ecause if the results in !o%er'actory and !""# differ in a
32
Bjrn Karlsson
simple system %ith .ust an isolated generator. *he results are also likely to differ in the complete net%ork. It is possible that the information from the step responses can be used to compensate for differences due to the modeling. If the responses have different performance in the tools. *he parameters maybe can be tuned in order to make them e6ual. 4aving e6ual step responses indicates that the models %ill generate the same output data from the same input. 9hich is a criterion for having the same performance in the t%o tools.
". /esu!ts
".1 0undur Two Area System
Table 5.1: (oad flo% bus data for the <undur t%o area system in !""# and !o%er'actory.
!""#
7us Boltage 1p.u3 Angle 1degrees3
!o%er'actory
Boltage 1p.u3 $Boltage in p.u& Angle 1degrees3
2 > = E H K D F M 2? 22
2,?=?? 2,?2?? 2,?=?? 2,?2?? 2,??KH ?,MDF2 ?,MK2? ?,MEFK ?,MD2E ?,MF=H 2,??F=
>D,?D?D 2D,=?K= ?,???? 2?,2M>2 >?,K?DH 2?,H>>D >,22=H 22,DHKK >H,=HE? 2K,M=FD K,K>FE
2,?=?? 2,?2?? 2,?=?? 2,?2?? 2,??KH ?,MDF2 ?,MK2? ?,MEFK ?,MD2E ?,MF=H 2,??F=
>D,?D?D 2D,=?K= ?,???? 2?,2M>2 >?,K?DE 2?,H>>D >,22=H 22,DHKK >H,=HE? 2K,M=FD K,K>FE
*he bus voltage and angle for a load flo% from the t%o tools are sho%n in Tab5e 5.1.
33
Bjrn Karlsson
".1.1 +.citation System Step /esponse

*he exciter model used in the <undur system is called #PA0E. #ssentially the same as the A0E model by I###.
Figure 5.1: ,enerator field voltage to an excitation system step response. 7lue graph indicates the !o%er'actory response, the green is the response in !""# and the red graph is from !o%er'actory %ith modified exciter parameters.
34
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.2: ,enerator terminal voltage to an excitation system step response. 7lue graph indicates the !o%er'actory response, the green is the response in !""# and the red graph is from !o%er'actory %ith modified exciter parameters.
*he results of the excitation system step response are sho%n in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2. *he step response %ith modified !o%er'actory exciter parameters is made in an attempt to better fit the step response from !""#. In the modified !o%er'actory step response, the exciter #PA0E parameters named measurement delay T r is scaled by ?,> and the controller gain < a is scaled by 2,?H. All four generators in this system have the same excitation step response because they are using the same models %ith the same parameters.
35
Bjrn Karlsson
".1.2 *overnor /esponse

*he governor model used in the <undur system is called I###,2. *his is essentially the same as the I### *ype 2 speed governing model.
Figure 5.3: ,enerator mechanical po%er to a governor step response simulation.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.4: ,enerator speed deviation to a governor step response.
In Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.8 the generator mechanical po%er and speed deviation from the governor step response simulation is sho%n. v ? ) v? v ? Q =Q ?2 ( ) v? P = P !2(
(24)
*he !o%er'actory simulation is done %ith a 2??G dynamic load type %here the voltage dependency from e6uation $>& and $=& are set as e6uation $>E&. All the other dynamic load parameters are set to 8ero. *he speed deviation from the !o%er'actory simulation does actually not become stabili8ed and continues to decrease.
3!
Bjrn Karlsson
".1.3 Three1Phase ,au!t

*o test the dynamic performance a = phase fault is implemented. *he fault is applied at bus M at t N ?.2s, and has a clearing time of 2?? milliseconds.
Figure 5.5: Boltage at bus 2, D, M and 2? after a = phase fault located at bus M. *he y axis indicates the per unit voltage.
3"
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.6: Active po%er flo% from bus H to bus K, D L F, M L 2? and 2? L 22 %hen using different load models.
In Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.# the green graphs represents the results in !""# using constant /BA loads. *he result %hen using the 0+)( activity in !""# and converting the loads to constant impedance are sho%n in the red. *he blue graphs are the !o%er'actory simulation %here the loads are 2??G static, hence constant impedance.
3#
Bjrn Karlsson
v > ) v? v > Q=Q ?2 ( ) v? P = P !2(
(25)
5sing the constant /BA approach, e6uation $>& and $=& end up as $>E& and using constant impedance $admittance& they end up as $>H&.
Figure 5.7: Boltage at bus 2, D, M and 2? after a = phase fault located at bus M. *he y axis indicates the per unit voltage. 5sing a current admittance load type.
4$
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.8: Active po%er flo% from bus H to bus K, D L F, M L 2? and 2? L 22 %hen using current admittance load model in both tools.
41
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.9: #lectrical fre6uency at bus 2,>,= and E %hen simulating a three phase fault.
42
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.10: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus =& at bus 2,> and E %hen simulating a three phase fault.
As mentioned in "ection =.>.2 the loads are usually not modeled as constant /BA sources. *he results in !o%er'actory and !""# %hen using a load %here the active po%er is converted to constant current and the reactive po%er to constant admittance are sho%n in Figure 5.+ to Figure 5.13. All dynamic load parameters in the load @/" simulation in tab !o%er'actory are set to 8ero.
43
Bjrn Karlsson
v 2 ) v? v > Q=Q ?2 ( ) v? P = P !2( 5sing the current admittance approach, e6uations $>& and $=& end up as $>K&.
(2 )
Figure 5.11: Detailed figure of voltage at bus 2 and bus D %hen using the standard and modified exciter parameters according the exciter step response in "ection H.2.2.
44
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.12: Detailed figure illustrating flo% of active po%er from bus H to bus K and from bus 2? to bus 22. 5sing standard and modified exciter parameters according to the exciter step response in "ection H.2.2.
45
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.13: Detailed figure illustrating the electrical fre6uency at bus 2 and >. 5sing standard and modified exciter parameters according to the exciter step response in "ection H.2.2.
*he results %hen using the modified exciter parameters T r and < a according to the exciter step response are sho%n in Figure 5.11 to Figure 5.13. In the same figures the current admittance load is used during the dynamic simulation.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.14: !o%er flo% and bus voltage %hen no other dynamic models than the ,#)@+5 generators are used. 0onstant field voltage.
*he po%er flo% and bus voltage %hen simulating a three phase fault in the <undur system %ithout any dynamic models besides the ,#)@+5 generator models are sho%n in Figure 5.18.
4!
Bjrn Karlsson
".1.% Tripping A *enerator

*he performance in the t%o tools is also compared by simulating a tripping generator. In this case the generator located at bus > is taken out of service at t N 2 s.
Figure 5.15: Boltage at bus 2, D, M and 2? %hen tripping the generator at bus >. @esults from !o%er'actory are sho%n in blue and !""# in green.
4"
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.16: !o%er flo% from bus H L K, D L F, M L 2? and 2? L 22. @esults from !o%er'actory are sho%n in blue and !""# in green.
4#
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.17: #lectrical fre6uency at bus 2, >, = and E. @esults from !o%er'actory are sho%n in blue and !""# in green.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.18: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus =&.
@esults of the bus voltages, po%er flo%s, fre6uency and rotor angles %hen tripping the generator located at bus > are sho%n in Figure 5.15 to Figure 5.1.. In !""# the 0+)( activity is used to convert the loads to current admittance loads. !o%er'actory is set to use a 2??G dynamic load %ith all dynamic load parameters set to 8ero, and using a voltage dependency as e6uation $>K&. 9here the active po%er is represented as constant current and the reactive po%er as constant impedance. In analogy %ith the 0+)( activity made in !""#.
51
Bjrn Karlsson
".2 3ordic 32 System

Table 5.2: (oad flo% bus data for the )ordic => system in !""# and !o%er'actory. 5sing the implicit step up transformer. !""# Implicit 7us E2 E> E= EK ED H2 K2 K> K= 2?22 2?2> 2?2= 2?2E 2?>2 2?>> 2?E2 2?E> 2?E= 2?EE 2?EH >?=2 >?=> E?22 E?2> E?>2 E?>> Boltage 1p.u3 Angle 1degrees3 ?,MMHD ?,MF>? ?,MD2F ?,MKFK 2,??22 2,???F ?,MKMK ?,MFEE ?,MD2F 2,2>>H 2,2=?? 2,2EH? 2,2K?? 2,2??? 2,?K== ?,MK=? 2,???? ?,MM>? ?,MFHK ?,MM>H 2,?H=> 2,2??? 2,?2?? 2,?2?? 2,??FK ?,MM=M EM,E>?F H>.HF?? HM,DF=F K?,FDKE HE,??M2 KD,2H>K H=,FMHM EM,E?=D EH,=>K> 2,?KFE E,K=KE D,M>=2 2?,H?HF F,FH=D 2?,DKDF DE,KMFK HF,2H=H KM,?DF2 K?,?K2? KE,=KDD >F,?M?E 2K,?H2K ?,???? 2,M=KD >D,KHH> 2>,FHHM !o%er'actory ;stepup:> Boltage 1p.u3 ?,MFHD ?,MF>? ?,MD2F ?,MKFK 2,??2> 2,???F ?,MKMH ?,MFEE ?,MD2F 2,2>>H 2,2=?? 2,2EH? 2,2K?? 2,2??? 2,?K== ?,MK=? 2,???? ?,MM>? ?,MFHK ?,MM>H 2,?H=> 2,2??? 2,?2?? 2,?2?? 2,??FK ?,MM=M Angle 1degrees3 EM,E>?F H>,HDMM HM,DF=F K?,FDK= HE,??2> KD,2H>K H=,FMHM EM,E?=D EH,=>K> 2,?KFE E,K=KE D,M>=2 2?,H?HF F,FH=D 2?,DKDF DE,KMFK HF,2H=H KM,?DF2 K?,?K2? KE,=KDD >F,?M?E 2K,?H2K ?,???? 2,M=KD >D,KHH2 2>,FHHM !o%er'actory ;stepup:? Boltage 1p.u3 ?,MFHD ?,MDM? ?,MKMD ?,MKD= 2,??2> 2,???F ?,MKDK ?,MF2F ?,MD2F 2,2>>H 2,2=?? 2,2EH? 2,2K?? 2,2??? 2,?HKD ?,MKE= 2,???? ?,MM?= ?,MM2E ?,MMM> 2,?H=> 2,2??? 2,?=2F 2,?2?? 2,???2 ?,MM2> Angle 1degrees3 HH,2MDM HF,E2EH KH,KEK= KK,DE?= HM,FK?2 D=,?E=> HM,KM>M HH,2FKH H2,?MEM E,EKEH ?,M?EF >,=FDE E,MKF> =,=2ED 2K,=KKF F?,EDHK K=,MM>? DE,F=>= KH,M>2F D?,>H=E ==,F>DM >2,DFM2 ?,???? =,K?H> ==,>KMK 2F,ED2=
52

E?=2 E?=> E?E2 E?E> E?E= E?EE E?EH E?EK E?ED E?H2 E?K2 E?K> E?K= E?D2 E?D> 2,?2?? 2,?2E? 2,?2?? 2,???? ?,MM22 ?,MM?= ?,MMF> ?,MM2= 2,?>?? 2,?>?? ?,MFKM 2,??>K 2,???? 2,?2?? 2,?2?? =2,?E?D =K,>E>K EK,=E>K EM,HEEE HK,?=== HK,KKMD K2,K?=D HK,KMHH H2,DKE= KE,??DD H?,???D EH,M2FE E2,FEHH ?,M2DK ?,M2DK 2,?2?? 2,?2E? 2,?2?? 2,???? ?,MM22 ?,MM?= ?,MMF> ?,MM2= 2,?>?? 2,?>?? ?,MFKM 2,??>K 2,???? 2,?2?? 2,?2?? =2,?E?D =K,>E>K EK,=E>K EM,HEEE HK,?=== HK,KKMD K2,K?=D HK,KMHH H2,DKE= KE,??DD H?,???D EH,M2FE E2,FEHH ?,M2DK ?,M2DK 2,?K?? 2,?22M 2,?2?? ?,MMD2 ?,MFM2 ?,MFD= ?,MMHH ?,MM?? 2,?>?? 2,?>?? ?,MFH? 2,???? 2,???? 2,?2?? 2,?2??
Bjrn Karlsson
>M,KEME E2,MF=H H>,22MD HH,=K22 K2,FF?= K>,H?F2 KD,ED>? K>,HEFK HD,K2H> KM,FMFE HH,DF>E H2,KF>M ED,K2E> E,K2M2 E,K2M2
All bus voltages in per unit and bus angels in degrees from a load flo% made in the )ordic => system are sho%n in Tab5e 5.2. *he system is e6uipped %ith implicit step up transformers. *he .ra% file is imported both by using the A;stepup:>- and A;stepup:?- option.
Table 5.3: (oad flo% bus data for the )ordic => system in !""# and !o%er'actory. 5sing the explicit step up transformer. 7us )umber E2 E> E= EK ED H2 K2 K> K= !""# #xplicit Boltage 1p.u3 ?.MMHD ?.MF2F ?.MD>= ?.MKFM 2.??2> 2.???F ?.MKDK ?.MF2F ?.MD2F Angle 1deg3 HH.=D?K HF.HFH= KH.DD>? KK.FKE2 K?.???> D=.2?HE HM.FH>H HH.=E?= H2.>EFD !o%er'actory Boltage 1p.u3 ?,MMHD ?,MF2F ?,MD>= ?,MKFM 2,??2> 2,???F ?,MKDK ?,MF2F ?,MD2F Angle 1deg3 HH,=D?H HF,HFH= KH,DD2M KK,FKE2 K?,???> D=,2?H= HM,FH>E HH,=E?> H2,>EFD
53

2?22 2?2> 2?2= 2?2E 2?>2 2?>> 2?E2 2?E> 2?E= 2?EE 2?EH >?=2 >?=> E?22 E?2> E?>2 E?>> E?=2 E?=> E?E2 E?E> E?E= E?EE E?EH E?EK E?ED E?H2 E?K2 E?K> E?K= E?D2 E?D> 2?2>Q2 2?2=Q2 2?2EQ2 2?>2Q2 2?>>Q2 2?E>Q2 2?E=Q2 >?=>Q2 E?22Q2 2.22KF 2.2=?? 2.2EH? 2.2K?? 2.2??? 2.?KDM ?.MD>F 2.???? 2.??=F ?.MFF? ?.MMED 2.?H=> 2.2??? 2.??=H 2.?2?? 2.???? ?.MMED 2.?2?? 2.?2>F 2.?2?? ?.MMMM ?.MM2K ?.MM2K ?.MMMD ?.MM2K 2.?>?? 2.?>?? ?.MFH? 2.???? 2.???? ?.MM?= 2.?2?? 2.2EFH 2.2K?H 2.2DMK 2.22>D 2.2K>= 2.?=KD 2.2?DE 2.2>MF 2.?2?? E.K?MM 2.?MKD >.>>>? E.DM=E >.ME=K 2K.K>M> F?.H>HH KE.2?MM DH.?>K2 KK.?=DM D?.=2FH =E.?2?> >2.MD2E H.KFK? =.F??M ==.H>FE 2F.D?D? =K.MK?E E>.2FD2 H>.>M>E HH.HEFM K>.?>HE K>.KHHD KD.HKFD K>.KFK? HD.DHH= KM.MK?H HH.ME>? H2.F=KD ED.DKF? E.KMK> E.F2?= =.FDKE H.EHDF M.D=ED D.K=?? 22.?F2? HK.K>DM KF.?H2? 2H.FHF? ?.???? 2,22KF 2,2=?? 2,2EH? 2,2K?? 2,2??? 2,?KDM ?,MD>F 2,???? 2,??=F ?,MFF? ?,MMED 2,?H=> 2,2??? 2,??=H 2,?2?? 2,???? ?,MMED 2,?2?? 2,?2>F 2,?2?? ?,MMMM ?,MM2K ?,MM2K ?,MMMD ?,MM2K 2,?>?? 2,?>?? ?,MFH? 2,???? 2,???? ?,MM?= 2,?2?? 2,2EFH 2,2K?H 2,2DMK 2,22>D 2,2K>= 2,?=KD 2,2?DE 2,2>MF 2,?2??
Bjrn Karlsson
E,K?MM 2,?MKD >,>>>? E,DM=E >,ME=K 2K,K>M> F?,H>HH KE,2?MM DH,?>K2 KK,?=DF D?,=2FH =E,?2?> >2,MD2E H,KFK? =,F??M ==,H>FE 2F,D?D? =K,MK?E E>,2FD2 H>,>M>E HH,HEFM K>,?>HE K>,KHHK KD,HKFD K>,KFK? HD,DHH= KM,MK?H HH,ME>? H2,F=KD ED,DKF? E,KMK> E,F2?= =,FDKE H,EHDF M,D=ED D,K>MM 22,?F2? HK,K>DF KF,?H2? 2H,FHF? ?,????
54

E?2>Q2 E?>2Q2 E?=2Q2 E?E2Q2 E?E>Q2 E?EDQ2 E?H2Q2 E?K>Q2 E?K=Q2 E?D2Q2 E?D>Q2 E?EDQ> E?H2Q> E?K=Q> 2.?=F? ?.MDDM 2.?EFH 2.?EH? 2.?K>E 2.?KE? 2.?EDK 2.??>F 2.?=2? ?.MFHH 2.?>>M 2.?KE? 2.?E>= 2.?=2? >.=HMH >K.2FE> >M.DH=K H>.>M>E EF.>ED> H?.K?MD K=.?EMH EE.>E=D E?.=FE= E.2?M2 2.22?K H?.K?MD KM.MK?H E?.=FE= 2,?=F? ?,MDDM 2,?EFH 2,?EH? 2,?K>E 2,?KE? 2,?EDK 2,??>F 2,?=2? ?,MFHH 2,?>>M 2,?KE? 2,?E>= 2,?=2?
Bjrn Karlsson
>,=HMH >K,2FE> >M,DH=H H>,>M>E EF,>ED> H?,K?MD K=,?EMH EE,>E=D E?,=FE= E,2?M2 2,22?K H?,K?MD KM,MK?H E?,=FE=
All bus voltages in per unit and bus angels in degrees from a load flo% made in the )ordic => system are sho%n in Tab5e 5.3. *he system is e6uipped %ith explicit step up transformers. 9here the implicit models manually have been converted in the .ra% file. *he AQ2- and AQ>- notation are used to represent the extra generator bus needed %hen using the explicit step up transformers.
55
Bjrn Karlsson
".2.1 +.citation System Step /esponse

In the )ordic => system the excitation model "#P" is used %ith t%o different sets of parameters $"ee )ordic.dyr data&. 9hy t%o excitation system step responses are made. *he "#P" model is a simplified excitation system.
Figure 5.19: ,enerator field voltage to an excitation system step response for the type 2 "#P" exciter.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.20: ,enerator terminal voltage to an excitation system step response for the type 2 "#P" exciter.
*he type 2 "#P" exciter is used by generators located at bus 2?E>, 2?E=, E?E>, E?ED, E?H2, E?K> and E?K= all of them round rotor machines. In Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.23 the field voltage and terminal voltage for !o%er'actory in blue and !""# in green are sho%n.
5!
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.21: ,enerator field voltage to an excitation system step response for the type > "#P" exciter.
5"
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.22: ,enerator terminal voltage to an excitation system step response for the type > "#P" exciter.
*he type > "#P" exciter is used by generators located as bus E?22, E?2>, E?>2, E?=2, E?E2, E?D2, E?D>, 2?2>, 2?2=, 2?2E, 2?>2, 2?>> and >?=>. All of them are salient pole machines. *he field voltage and terminal voltage of the generator to an excitation system step response is sho%n in Figure 5.21 and Figure 5.22. *he blue graphs represents the result from !o%er'actory and the green graphs represents the !""# simulation. All salient pole machines in the )ordic => system have the same dynamic generator data for the exciter, governor etc.
5#
Bjrn Karlsson
except for the generator located at bus E?E2. 9hich has similar excitation step response as the other salient pole machines.
".2.2 *overnor response

*he )ordic => system uses t%o different sets of parameters for the 4J,+B governor, see Appendix. 9hy t%o governor responses are made. *he 4J,+B model is used as hydro turbine governor.
Figure 5.23: ,enerator mechanical po%er to governor step response using the type 2 4J,+B governor model.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.24: ,enerator speed deviation to governor step response using the type 2 4J,+B governor model.
*he generator mechanical po%er and speed deviation to a governor step response using the type 2 4J,+B governor are sho%n in Figure 5.23 and Figure 5.28. *he type 2 4J,+B governor model is used by the generators located at bus E?22, E?2>, E?>2, E?=2, 2?2>, 2?2=, 2?2E, 2?>2, 2?>> and >?=> %here all of them are salient pole machines. *he !o%er'actory simulation %ith modified parameters $green&, is coming from a simulation %here the governor time constant T r is scaled by 2K to better fit the mechanical po%er from the !""# simulation.
1
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.25: ,enerator mechanical po%er to governor step response using the type > 4J,+B governor model
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.26: ,enerator speed deviation to governor step response using the type > 4J,+B governor model.
*he generator mechanical po%er and speed deviation to a governor step response using the type > 4J,+B governor model are sho%n in Figure 5.25 and Figure 5.2#. *he type > 4J,+B model is used by generators located at bus E?D2 and E?D> both salient pole machines. *he !o%er'actory simulation %ith modified parameters is made in an attempt to better fit the !""# simulation. *he governor time constant T r is scaled by 2K and the maximum gate limit = max is set to ?,ME== %hich is slightly belo% its initial value of ?,MH.
Bjrn Karlsson
".2.3 Three1phase fau!t

*he three phase fault is applied at bus E?=> at t N 2 s, having a clearing time of 2?? ms.
Figure 5.27: 7us voltages at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?K= simulating the three phase fault.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.28: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to E?ED, E?2> L E?D2, E?K> L E?K= and E?22 L E?D2 simulating the three phase fault.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.29: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?2> simulating the three phase fault.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.30: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus E?22& at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?2> simulating the three phase fault.
*he bus voltages, po%er flo%s, fre6uency and rotor angles simulating a three phase fault are sho%n in Figure 5.2+ to Figure 5.33. *he system is using the current admittance load. !""# is using the implicit step up transformers. *he
Bjrn Karlsson
files are imported to !o%er'actory %ith the A;stepup:?- option. *he results from !o%er'actory are sho%n in blue. *he !""# simulation is sho%n in green.
Figure 5.31: 7us voltages at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?K= simulating the three phase fault. *he implicit step up transformers are manually converted to explicitly modeling in !""#.
"
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.32: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to E?ED, E?2> L E?D2, E?K> L E?K= and E?22 L E?D2 simulating the three phase fault. *he implicit step up transformers are manually converted to explicitly modeling in !""#.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.33: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?2> simulating the three phase fault. *he implicit step up transformers are manually converted to explicitly modeling in !""#.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.34: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus E?22& at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?2> simulating the three phase fault. *he implicit step up transformers are manually converted to explicitly modeling in !""#.
*he bus voltages, po%er flo%s, fre6uency and rotor angles simulating a three phase fault are sho%n in Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.38. *he system is using the current admittance load. *he step up transformers in !""# are manually
!1
Bjrn Karlsson
converted to the explicit definition. *he results from !o%er'actory are sho%n in blue. *he !""# simulation is sho%n in green.
!2
Bjrn Karlsson
".2.% Tripping A *enerator

*his event is done by taking the second generator located at bus E?ED out of service at t N 2 s.
Figure 5.35: Boltages at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?K= %hen tripping the generator. Illustrating the difference %hen measuring voltage at the bus and at the generator terminals.
!3
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.36: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to bus E?ED, E?2> L E?D2, E?K> L E?K= and E?22 L E?D2 %hen tripping the generator. Illustrating the difference %hen measuring voltage at the bus and at the generator terminals.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.37: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?2>. Illustrating the difference %hen measuring voltage at the bus and at the generator terminals.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.38: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $E?22&. Illustrating the difference %hen measuring voltage at the bus and at the generator terminals.
*he results in Figure 5.35 and Figure 5.3. are sho%n to illustrate the difference in the simulation results. 9hen the generators in !o%er'actory are fed %ith signals from the generator terminals or buses. *he current L admittance load type is used.
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.39: 7us voltage at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?K= %hen tripping the generator.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.40: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to bus E?ED, E?=2 L E?=>, E?K> L E?K= and E?22 L E?D2.
!"
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.41: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?2> %hen generator tripping.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.42: ,enerator rotor angle %ith references to reference machine $bus E?22& at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?2> %hen generator tripping.
*he bus voltages, po%er flo%s, fre6uency and rotor angles %hen tripping a generator are sho%n in Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.82. *he voltage measurement is made at the generator terminals. *he system is using the current admittance load
"$
Bjrn Karlsson
type. *he !""# simulation is dons %ith the implicit step up transformers. *he A;stepup:?- option is used %hen importing the system to !o%er'actory.
Figure 5.43: Boltage at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?22 %hen tripping the generator. "tep up transformers in !""# are manually converted to explicitly modeling.
"1
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.44: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to bus E?ED, E?=2 L E?=>, E?K> L E?K= and from bus E?22 to bus E?D2 %hen simulating a tripping generator. "tep up transformers in !""# are manually converted to explicitly modeling.
"2
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.45: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?2> %hen simulating a tripping generator. "tep up transformers in !""# are manually converted to explicitly modeling.
"3
Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.46: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus E?22& at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?K= and E?2> %hen simulating a tripping generator. "tep up transformers in !""# are manually converted to explicitly modeling.
*he bus voltages, po%er flo%s, fre6uency and rotor angles %hen tripping a generator are sho%n in Figure 5.83 to Figure 5.8#. *he system is using the current admittance load type. *he simulations are done %ith the step up
"4
Bjrn Karlsson
transformers in !""# manually converted to explicitly modeling. 9ith the explicit transformer model the voltage measurement points not needs to be changed.
Figure 5.47: Boltage at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?K= using standard and tuned governor parameters.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.48: 'lo% of active po%er from bus E?EK to bus E?ED, E?2> L E?D2, E?K> L E?K= and E?22 L E?D2 using standard and tuned governor parameters.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.49: #lectrical fre6uency at bus E?ED, E?=2, E?22 and E?2> %hen using standard and tuned governor parameters.
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Bjrn Karlsson
Figure 5.50: ,enerator rotor angle %ith reference to reference machine $bus E?22& using standard and tuned governor parameters.
*he results %hen simulating a tripping generator %ith tuned governor parameters in !o%er'actory according to "ection H.>.> are sho%n Figure 5.8+ to Figure 5.53. 9here the governor time constant T r is scaled by 2K and the maximum gate limit =max is decreased by ?,??KD p.u, sho%n in red. *he results in blue
""
Bjrn Karlsson
represents !o%er'actory results %ith the standard governor. *he results in green are from !""#. *he implicit generators in !""# are used and converted to !o%er'actory %ith the A;stepup:?- option. *he voltage measurement is made at the generator terminals. *he current admittance load type is used.
). &iscussion
).1 ode!ing
).1.1 #oad
9hen importing a .ra% file to !o%er'actory the general load model is automatically chosen for the load flo% calculation. *he general load model is the best model to use in analogy %ith the 0+)( activity by !""#. 7ecause the general load model can be used to change the voltage dependency in both the load flo% and dynamic simulation. If the loads in the .ra% file are set to be ! and C loads they are imported to !o%er'actory as a ! and C load. 9here the load model e6uations $>& and $=& end up as $>E&. "imilarly %hen the loads in the .ra% file are set to I and J loads, e6uation $>& and $=& end up as $>K& etc. %hich is correct for the load flo%. 7ut initially in the load @/" simulation tab in !o%er'actory the loads are set to be modeled %ith a 2??G static load model. *his means that during dynamic simulation the loads are treated as constant impedance as e6uation $H&. *his is only correct if the 0+)( activity in !""# is used to convert the loads into constant impedances, see e6uation $2&. 9hich also is sho%n in Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.#. In !o%er'actory, by using a 2??G static load is the same as using a 2??G dynamic load and setting the voltage dependency according to e6uation $>H&. 9ith all the dynamic load parameters set to 8ero. *he dynamic load model is actually acting like a static load model %hen
"#
Bjrn Karlsson
setting all dynamic load parameters to 8ero. *his leads to the load only is modeled by the voltage dependency defined by e6uation $>& and $=&. *his can be seen in the small signal block diagrams in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.8. 9hen changing the load voltage dependency after the .ra% file has been imported it is important not to use the A0onsider voltage dependency- option in !o%er'actory. As described in "ection E.2 a constant /BA load does not have any voltage dependency. 9hen not using the voltage dependency option, !o%er'actory is using the rated voltage. 9hich gives the same load flo% results as using constant ! C loads %ith the voltage dependency enabled. 7esides the voltage dependency from the specific load type the loads in !""# are scaled according to the threshold value. "imilar in !o%er'actory according to Figure 3.5. In %ell designed po%er systems the voltage should not be as lo% as ?,D p.u %hich is the threshold value in !""#. If it occurs it is most likely during a fault. *he threshold value u mi in !o%er'actory is also set to ?,D to fit the threshold value !C7@A< from !""#. *he characteristic belo% the threshold value seems to be similar. "till, during this lo% voltages small differences may occur because of different scaling. *he upper threshold value u max is set to its default. *he loads used in this thesis do not have any dynamic data in the .dyr file.
).1.2 Transmission #ines

9hen the transmission lines are converted from !""# to !o%er'actory the (umped parameter type in !o%er'actory is automatically selected. 9hich is the only model supported %hen no 8ero se6uence susceptance is enterd. 5sing a balanced positive se6uence net%ork the 8ero se6uence susceptance data is
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Bjrn Karlsson
excess. Actually the transmission lines do not need any special dynamic model or characteristic %hen %orking in positive se6uence.
).1.3 Transformer
In positive se6uence the transformer is basically treated as an impedance. *he information of the models found in the manuals and sho%n in "ection =.>.= indicates that the models are similar. 7y inspecting the conversion of a transformer from !""# to !o%er'actory one can note that the data in the .ra% file similarly is used by !o%er'actory. If the models have differences of significance the results %ill be seen in the load flo%. *he transformers used in this thesis do not use any dynamic data in the .dyr file.
".1.% Shunts 5 'us(ars

As for the loads and transformers the shunts and busbars do not have any particular dynamical data in the .dyr file. *he shunts are modeled %ith a static active and reactive shunt admittance. *he busbar is a connection point %ith a base voltage and bus type setting.
).1." AC *enerator
7oth !""# and !o%er'actory do essentially use the same e6uations for the generator models. "imilar generator theory is derived in 123. 'rom "ection =.>.K it is ho%ever seen that differences in the modeling occur. !o%er'actory do not neglect the subtransient saliency %hich is a simplification made by !""#. 9hen importing the .dyr file to !o%er'actory the d and 6 axis subtransient reactances are set to be e6ual. 9hy this have no significance moving a net%ork from !""# to !o%er'actory. !""# do not explicitly models the stator resistance as
#1
Bjrn Karlsson
!o%er'actory do. 9hen importing a net%ork from !""# to !o%er'actory this is approximated by setting the stator resistance to the real part of I"+@0#. *he t%o tools define their generator models in t%o different %ays. !""# using the operational impedances defined by the standard generator parameters. !o%er'actory uses the coupled circuit method and converts the standard generator parameters to the basic generator parameters. *he fact that !o%er'actory and !""# models the generators %ith different methods makes it hard to compare them and dra% any conclusions. 9ork presented by the I### Inc. does actually claims that the operational impedance and the coupled circuit method for generator representation are identical if the generator saturation is neglected 1223. *his seems to have some truth by looking at Figure 5.18 %here no saturation or dynamic control system or models beside the generators are used. It is also reasonable to think that this is correct because the generator models are derived from similar generator theory. "ome differences %ere also seen in the modeling of the generator iron saturation. 7y not modeling the saturation of the leakage reactance as !o%er'actory, may lead to that the short circuit currents are underestimated 1E3. 'or the ,#)"A( model !""# assume the saturation only to affect the d axis. )ot similar to !o%er'actory %here the saturation is both in the d and 6 axis for the salient pole machine. It is possible that this could be compensated by using the ,#)"A# model in !""# %hich assume that the saturation affects both d and 6 axis. *he ,#)"A# model assume an exponential saturation curve %hich could have a negative effect for e6ual system response. In 1223, it is ho%ever found that the choice of a 6uadratic or exponential saturation curve have little effect of the model accuracy.
#2
Bjrn Karlsson
*he ,#)@+5 model by !""# and the round rotor model by !o%er'actory both assume the saturation to affect the d and 6 axis but not %ith the same saturation model. 9hy the t%o models could have a behavior more similar to each other than the salient pole machines. *he s%ing e6uations used by the tools are more or less the same besides that !""# solves for the rotor speed deviation and !o%er'actory for the actual speed. *hey do also use different methods to account for the damping term. !""# uses
* e /r r and !o%er'actory use * r . 9hen contacting DIg"I(#)*
support they refer to the different definition of the damping term and tells that conversion of the damping constant from the .dyr files is not supported and compatible in !o%er'actory. *his is because the damping in !o%er'actory represents the actual frictional losses of the rotor. In !""# the damping term is used to represent the variations of electrical load %ith fre6uency. *his is for example used for motors that naturally respond to a reduction in fre6uency by reducing their load. *he generators in the t%o systems used in this thesis are not modeled %ith a damping constant.
).2 0undur Two Area System

).2.1 #oad ,!ow
As seen in *able H.2 the load flo% calculation in the t%o tools are exactly the same. 4aving exactly the same results from the loads flo% means that both tools are starting the dynamic simulation %ith the same initial data. *he results do also indicates that the load flo% models are similar or the same. *he <undur system use explicitly modeled step up transformers similarly to !o%er'actory.
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Bjrn Karlsson
).2.2 +.citation System

*he excitation system step response made in "ection H.2.2 reveals that the excitation system do not have exactly the same results. 4o%ever, it is possible to tune the exciter parameters to make the results to become more similar sho%n in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2. *he reason %hy the measurement delay T r and the controller gain < a %ere tuned, is simply because those parameters had the right type of impact to the test. If the actual differences are because of the exciter or the generator itself is hard to tell. As seen in "ection =.>.K !""# and !o%er'actory do model the generators in a different manner. 7y studying the block diagrams of the exciter given in the manuals the definitions seems to be identical. 7y looking at Figure 5.18 it is ho%ever reasonable to suspect that the exciters and governors etc. are introducing some of the differences. *he results sho%n in Figure 5.18 does not correspond to the dynamic properties of the actual <undur t%o area net%ork. *he simulation is done %ith fe%er models to easier understand %ere differences occur. 4ere the generators are only the dynamic models used. 9hen no excitation system is used the field voltage remains constant.
).2.3 *overning System

*he governor step response results are sho%n in "ection H.2.>. As mentioned in "ection E.> !""# is using a load of active po%er during the governor step response. In !o%er'actory the load type in dynamic simulation is changed from its default of constant impedance to have the voltage dependency as constant po%er. *his is done because it is important to perform the step responses %ith the same type of voltage dependency from the load.
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Bjrn Karlsson
*he generator mechanical po%er from the governor step response have exactly the same results sho%n in Figure 5.3. *he speed deviation in !o%er'actory is similar to the one in !""# during the first fe% seconds. !""# manage to stabili8e the speed %hile the speed in !o%er'actory slo%ly keeps on decreasing, Figure 5.8. *he reason %hy the speed deviation is not the same or become stabili8ed could occur because of some difference in the definition of the governor, generator or in the test itself. *his could affect the dynamic properties of the system. 7y studying the governor block diagrams in the manuals one can note that the same parameters and structure is used. Indicating that the different behavior in the speed deviation have its origin from the generator model.
).2.% Three1phase ,au!t

In Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.# the bus voltage and po%er flo% are sho%n simulating a three phase fault. 4ere a 2??G static load in !o%er'actory and a constant /BA and I load in !""# are used. 7y comparing !o%er'actory in blue and !""# in red one can note that the overall behavior is identical. *he t%o figures are sho%n to illustrate the differences in the voltage dependency for the different load types, previously discussed in "ection K.2. In Figure 5.+ to Figure 5.13 a simulation is done using a current admittance load. In !""# according to e6uation $2& and the 0+)( activity. In !o%er'actory this is done by setting the load exponents in the @/" simulation tab according to $>K& and all other dynamic load parameters to 8ero. 5sing this approach the results again are almost identical having the same behavior. 7y using the modified exciter parameters found in "ection H.2.2 the results are almost exactly identical %hich in detail is sho%n in Figure 5.11 to Figure 5.13. *he generator rotor angles %ere not affected by the tuned exciter.
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).2." Tripping a *enerator

*he results %hen simulating the event of a tripping generator are sho%n in Figure 5.15 to Figure 5.1.. 7y looking at the y axis scale one can note that the differences are very small and the behavior are exactly the same. *he tuned exciter parameters from "ection H.2.2 had no influence to the system %hen tripping the generator.
).3 3ordic 32 System

9hen the )ordic => system %ere imported to !o%er'actory, initially all the simulations got numerically unstable even though no fault %ere applied. *he reason %hy this occurred %ere found %ith help from DIg"I(#)* support, and had to do %ith the droop from the I###B0 voltage regulator control. *he ratio by using a droop of ?,2H and an exciter gain of H? %ere not valid in !o%er'actory. *his %ere solved by changing the droop to ?,?H in all simulations. 9hich is the only change made to the system in both !""# and !o%er'actory. *he reason %hy this %ere not valid could be found in the numerical time integration method. *he time integration method used by !""# could have a %ider stability region %hy no such instability %ere seen in !""#. *he exact cause of the instability %ere not ans%ered by DIg"I(#)* support.
).3.1 #oad ,!ow

*he load flo% results for the )ordic => system are sho%n in *able H.> and *able H.=. *he results in *able H.> are obtained %hen using the implicit step up transformer model in !""#. *he load flo% in !o%er'actory %hen using the default A;stepup:>- option is similar as in !""#. *he A;stepup:2- option should
Bjrn Karlsson
be used %ith care. 7ecause it is important to use the step up transformers in order to represent the correct dynamic properties of the system. *he load flo% result %hen the implicit step up transformers from !""# are modeled explicitly %ith the A;stepup:?- option in !o%er'actory differs from !""#. *he largest difference in voltage can be seen at bus E?=2 %here !o%er'actory has a value %hich is ?,?H p.u higher. *he other buses have a voltage magnitude close to each other. *he largest difference in angle can be seen at bus E?H2 %here it differ H,M degrees. *his is due to the different definition of %ere the generator reactive po%er limits and currents are defined. *he definitions are made %ithin the tools and are not possible to change. *he differences could also be seen because the slack bus. 5sing implicit step up transformer, the slack bus is defined at the high voltage side of the step up transformer. 9ith the explicit step up transformer the slack bus is defined at the generator terminals at the lo% voltage side of the step up transformer. *his is only a problem %hen the implicit step up transformer is used. 9hich can be solved by converting all the implicit step up transformers in !""# to explicit modeling. *he load flo% result in !""# and !o%er'actory are identical %hen all step up transformers are manually converted to explicit modeling in the )ordic => system. *his is sho%n in *able H.=. *his %ill ho%ever affect the dynamic properties in the system during the dynamic simulation. *his is probably for the same reason as the load flo% differs, %ith the reactive po%er limits and slack bus definition. /anually converting the step up transformers is ineffective and time consuming. 9hy it is of interest to be able to convert the implicit models to !o%er'actory and still have the same results. 5sing the default A;stepup:>option to add the step up data does not correspond to an actual step up transformer. *he option should be used %ith care.
#!
Bjrn Karlsson
).3.2 +.citation System

*he generator field and terminal voltage from the excitation system step response for the type 2 "#P" exciter are identical in !""# and !o%er'actory. 9hich is sho%n in Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.23. *his means that the generators using this exciter are likely to have similar impact to the system in !""# and !o%er'actory. *he excitation system step response for the type > "#P" exciter in !""# and !o%er'actory have similar results, sho%n in Figure 5.21 and Figure 5.22. *he generator field voltage seems to have the same characteristic but in !""# it starts at 2,2? p.u and in !o%er'actory at 2,?F p.u. It looks like it differs ?,?> p.u throughout the %hole simulation. *he same behavior can be seen in the generator terminal voltage %here !""# seems to have a voltage offset %hich is ?,?2 p.u larger than in !o%er'actory. It is notable that all the generators using the type > "#P" exciter are salient pole machines and the ones using the type 2 "#P" exciter are round rotor machines. It is possible that some difference in the salient pole machine models introduces this voltages offset %hy this is not seen for the type 2 "#P" exciter. /ultiple tests reveals that it seems not possible to compensate for the offset in the excitation system step response %ith the current models. *he fact that the terminal voltage for the salient pole machines %ith the type > "#P" exciter is higher in !""# could affect the po%er system overall performance. *he exciter block diagrams given in the manuals have the same parameters and structure.
).3.3 *overning System

*he results for the governor step response for the type 2 and type > 4J,+B governor are sho%n in "ection H.2.>. 9ithout any modification to the governor both the type 2 and type > 4J,+B governor in !o%er'actory stabili8es the mechanical po%er and speed deviation earlier than in !""#. *his occurs at a
#"
Bjrn Karlsson
value different from the one stabili8ed in !""#. In Figure 5.23 and Figure 5.28 the !o%er'actory type 2 4J,+B model time constant T r is scaled by 2K, sho%n in green. *his is done to make the step response better fit the mechanical po%er from the !""# step response simulation. *his scaling do also affects the speed deviation, that is higher. *he type > 4J,+B governor has the same characteristic as the type 2 governor, sho%n in "ection H.2.>. In Figure 5.25 and Figure 5.2# a !o%er'actory simulation sho%n in red is done %ith tuned governor parameters to better fit the mechanical po%er from the !""# simulation. 4ere the governor time constant T r still is scaled by 2K and the maximum gate limit =max is decrease by ?,??KD units. *he governor time constant T r is changed because it corresponds to behavior seen in the !""# step response test. *he maximum gate limit =max is decreased to make !o%er'actory converge to the same value of the mechanical po%er as !""#. 9ith this changes !o%er'actory is no longer able to stabili8e the speed deviation. *his could negatively affect the dynamic properties of the system. 7y studying the block diagrams of the 4J,+B governor model in the t%o tools one can actually see that they are using different inputs. !o%er'actory are using a variable called Apref- and the speed deviation as input. 9here Apref- is the po%er reference. !""# uses the speed deviation and the speed reference as input. *he 4J,+B model block diagram used by !""# is given in 1=3. *he block diagram used by !o%er'actory is given in the Appendix. All the generators that are using the 4J,+B governor are of salient pole type. *he governor step response tests reveals that some differences are to be expected due to different input to the governor. As mentioned in "ection E.> the governor test indicates the damping due to turbine and governor loop only. 9hy it is reasonable to think
##
Bjrn Karlsson
that the differences seen in "ection H.>.> can be seen in the results in terms of the damping.
).3.% Three1phase ,au!t

*he results of three phase fault are sho%n in Figure 5.2+ to Figure 5.33. In !o%er'actory the implicit step up transformers are modeled explicitly %ith the A;stepup:?- option. *he voltage and po%er flo% behavior are identical and the results converges to the same steady state value. *he electrical fre6uency have similar behavior and converges to the same steady state value. *he deviations in the fre6uency are very small. *he rotor angle have identical performance. *he initial rotor angle at the generator located at bus E?=2 differs by > degrees %hich is seen throughout the %hole simulation. *his is probably seen because the initial data have different results. *o test the effect in the dynamic simulation of the different load flo% results. *he three phase fault simulation is done using manually converted step up transformers. 9here the transformers are explicitly defined in the .ra% file %hich is imported to !o%er'actory. As sho%n in *able H.= the load flo% results are identical. 7y simulating a three phase fault the characteristic again is identical. 9hich is sho%n in Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.38. *he overall performance is similar both using identical load flo% data and explicit step up transformers or not. 5sing the tuned governor parameters had no significant effect %hen simulating the three phase fault. In the )ordic => system the high voltage and lo% voltage side of the step up transformer have the same voltage magnitude. *his is the case %hen the generator ,*A! data is set to one. As it is defined for all generators in
1$$
Bjrn Karlsson
the )ordic => system. *his means that the step up transformer only acts like an impedance. 9hen importing a system to !o%er'actory the generators usually are fitted %ith voltage measurement devices. *he voltage measurement device is used to measure the voltage that for example can be fed as signal into a controller. *he )ordic => system has voltage measurement devices to the exciter and stabili8er. *he devices are set to measure the voltage at the system buses. *his ho%ever seems to be incorrect by studying Figure 5.35 and Figure 5.3.. 7y changing the voltage measurement points the results become more similar. 4ere the voltage measurement is done directly at the generator terminals. *his is probably because of the different definition in the implicit step up transformer modeling from the explicit. *his could also be a bug in !o%er'actory %here the definitions have been mixed. @esulting in different behavior. 7y changing the measurement points to the generator terminals the results again are having similar behavior, sho%n in Figure 5.31 to Figure 5.82. *he placement of the voltage measurement device had no significant impact %hen simulating a three phase fault. *he results %hen using the manually converted step up transformers are sho%n in Figure 5.83 to Figure 5.8#. Instead of defining the step up transformers to the generator data in the .ra% file, implicitly. *hey have been added as a separate transformer branch using the transformer data set, explicitly. 9ith this definition the voltage measurement devices do not have to be changed. *he characteristic is identical to the simulations %hen using the implicit model. 9ith the same characteristic %hen using implicit and explicit step up transformers. It seems of less significance if the load flo%s results to the initial conditions are exactly identical or not. 7ecause the initial value of the rotor angle does not exactly match using identical load flo% data or not. 'or a deeper understanding the
1$1
Bjrn Karlsson
initial conditions could be studied. *his is ho%ever not supported %ith the current license.
).3." Tripping a *enerator

"ome of the results %hen the generator trips in !o%er'actory seems to have a lo% fre6uency oscillation. *he oscillations are %ithin the limit of ? L 2? 48 %here the rotor flux transients and magnetic saturation are dominant. *he effects of the magnetic saturation could introduce some of the differences seen in results. 9hy the results in the <undur t%o area system %here no saturation is used in the models, are more or less identical. *he oscillations do actually disappear by using the tuned governor parameters. *his is sho%n in Figure 5.8+ to Figure 5.53. *he results may become even more identical by using a better tuned governor. *hat is able to stabili8e the generator speed in the governor test. +r to use another governor that uses the same input as in !""#. As sho%n in the results the exciters and governors %ith the generators have different performance in the step responses. *his means that the stabili8ers and limiters also could have different impact to the systems %ithin the tools. *his %ere seen %ith the I###B0 voltage control %here !o%er'actory got unstable.
4. Conc!usions
In order to compare the models in more detail, more information is needed. *he information of the models given in the manuals are not al%ays sufficient. 7oth "iemens and DIg"I(#)* keep some model details %ithin the company. *he overall mathematical models used to describe the po%er system components are similar. *he s%ing e6uation in !""# is solved for the speed deviation %here
1$2
Bjrn Karlsson
!o%er'actory uses the actual speed of the machine. *he damping terms in the s%ing e6uations have different definition and are used to model different type of damping. #ven thou the same generator and excitation system are used they do not have exactly the same behavior. 9hich is sho%n in the excitation and governor step response tests. 7y studying the block diagrams one can note that !""# and !o%er'actory uses different input to the 4J,+B governor model. 7y tuning the governor and exciter parameters according to the step responses %ill have a positive impact to the system behavior. *hat often makes them more identical. 9ith the right set up the results %hen importing the <undur t%o area system from !""# to !o%er'actory are more or less identical. *he )ordic => system has similar performance %hen importing the .ra% and .dyr files from !""# to !o%er'actory. All of the results in the )ordic => system does not have the same initial data and do not converges to exactly the same value. *o use the right set up it is important to set the correct type of voltage dependency from the load during the simulations. In !""# the 0+)( activity is often used to convert the loads for the dynamic simulation. *he default load %hen importing a .ra% file to !o%er'actory is the general load model. *he general load model can be represented as a fraction of static and dynamic model. *he general load model voltage dependency can be controlled in analogy %ith the 0+)( activity. *his is done by using a 2??G dynamic model. 9ith all the dynamic load parameters set to 8ero. 9ith this set up the dynamic load model is acting as a static load. *he type of voltage dependency by the loads have great impact on the overall system behavior.
1$3
Bjrn Karlsson
9hen importing .ra% and .dyr files to !o%er'actory it is also important to note if the generators are using implicit step up transformers. *he implicit step up transformers are defined in the generator data. *he implicit step up transformer is not modeled by !o%er'actory. *he implicit step up transformers can ho%ever be modeled in !o%er'actory explicitly by using the A;stepup:?- option %hen importing the files. *his %ill due to different definition %ithin the tools make the load flo% differ. *he load flo% results %ill be the same if all implicit step up transformers are converted to explicit transformers in the .ra% file and then imported to !o%er'actory. It is important to model the step up transformers to represent the correct behavior. *he voltage measurement points in !o%er'actory seems to be misplaced during the import of a system using implicit step up transformers. *he results become more similar if the measurement is made at the generator terminals and not the buses.
2. ,uture wor7
*o test the exciters, governors, stabili8ers and the other control systems in complete isolation %ithout the generator to understand if most of the differences are coming from the generator or the control systems itself. *his is for the moment ho%ever not supported by the tools. 7y studying the initial conditions one could make sure that the tools starts the simulations %ith exactly the same data or not. *he 4J,+B model had different input, %hy similar test should be performed in a similar system using another governor model. !o%er'actory have a single round rotor and salient pole generator model. !""# have multiple generator models. 9hy it %ould be useful to find out %hich models that are most similar to each other bet%een !o%er'actory and !""#. 7oth %ith and %ithout
1$4
Bjrn Karlsson
magnetic saturation. *he exact effects to the generator of the magnetic saturation maybe could be tested by define or use an existing benchmark. A further investigation needs to be done %ith the implicit step up transformer and to understand %hy the measurement points have to be changed. +r if it is .ust a bug during the import. 7y testing systems %ith 4BD0 components one could compare another commonly used techni6ue that re6uire accurate modeling. ,enerally the theory for both static and dynamic load flo% simulation contains simplifications and assumptions %hich can be found in 123. *o test the actual performance of both tools one could implement a system and compare the simulation results %ith real measurements. *he performance could also be tested by using another simulation tool such as !"0AD $!o%er "ystems 0omputer Aided Design& or @*D" $@eal *ime Digital "imulator&. 7y using another tool it is possible to test common features and considerations %hen moving a system bet%een multiple simulation tools.
/eferences
123 !. <undur, A!o%er "ystem "tability and 0ontrol-, /c,ra% 4ill, 2MME, I"7) ? ?D ?=HMHF P. 1>3 "iemens !*I, A!""# !rogram Application ,uide v.=2-, "iemens !o%er *ransmission R Distribution Inc., !o%er *echnologies International, >??D.
1$5
Bjrn Karlsson
1=3
"iemens !*I, A!""# !rogram +peration /anual v.=2-, "iemens !o%er *ransmission R Distribution Inc., !o%er *echnologies International, >??D.
1E3
DIg"I(#)* *echnical Documentation, A,eneral load model-, DIg"I(#)* ,mb4, >??F, !o%er'actory v2E.2.
1H3
DIg"I(#)* *echnical Documentation, A+verhead (ine /odels-, DIg"I(#)* ,mb4, >?22, !o%er'actory v2E.2.
1K3
DIg"I(#)* *echnical Documentation,- > 9inding *ransformer = phase-, DIg"I(#)* ,mb4, >?22, !o%er'actory v2E.2.
1D3
DIg"I(#)* *echnical Documentation, A'ilter;"hunt-, DIg"I(#)* ,mb4, >??F, !o%er'actory v2E.2.
1F3
DIg"I(#)* *echnical Documentation, A"ynchronous ,enerator-, DIg"I(#)* ,mb4, >?2?, !o%er'actory v2E.2.
1M3
I### "tandard 7oard, AI### ,uide for "ynchronous ,enerator /odeling !ractices in "tability Analyses-, I### Inc, 2MM2.
12?3
0I,@# *ask 'orce, A(ong *erm Dynamics !hase II-, 0I,@#, /arch 2MMH.
1223
I### Africon, A#ffect of Bariation in /odelling of ,enerator "aturation on #lectromechanical /odes-, I### Inc, >??M.
1$
Bjrn Karlsson
12>3
I### Africon, AAssessment of 0ommercially Available "oft%are *ools for *ransient "tability: #xperience ,ained in an Academic #nvironment-, I### Inc, >??E.
Appendi.
'ile: <undur.ra%
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
1$!
Bjrn Karlsson
M, 2?,O2 O, 2.?????# =, 2.?????# >, ?.?2DH?, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? 2?, 22,O2 O, >.H????# =, >.H????# >, ?.?E=DH, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? ? ; #)D +' 7@A)04 DA*A, 7#,I) *@A)"'+@/#@ DA*A 2, H, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?, ?, >,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.KKD??# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, M??.??, M??.??, M??.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, MMM, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? >, K, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.KKD??# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, M??.??, M??.??, M??.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, MMM, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 22, =, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.KKD??# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, M??.??, M??.??, M??.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, MMM, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?, E, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.KKD??# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, M??.??, M??.??, M??.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, MMM, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? ? ; #)D +' *@A)"'+@/#@ DA*A, 7#,I) A@#A DA*A ? ; #)D +' A@#A DA*A, 7#,I) *9+ *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A ? ; #)D +' *9+ *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A, 7#,I) B"0 D0 (I)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' B"0 D0 (I)# DA*A, 7#,I) I/!#DA)0# 0+@@#0*I+) DA*A ? ; #)D +' I/!#DA)0# 0+@@#0*I+) DA*A, 7#,I) /5(*I *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A ? ; #)D +' /5(*I *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A, 7#,I) /5(*I "#0*I+) (I)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' /5(*I "#0*I+) (I)# DA*A, 7#,I) I+)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' I+)# DA*A, 7#,I) I)*#@ A@#A *@A)"'#@ DA*A ? ; #)D +' I)*#@ A@#A *@A)"'#@ DA*A, 7#,I) +9)#@ DA*A ? ; #)D +' +9)#@ DA*A, 7#,I) 'A0*" D#BI0# DA*A ? ; #)D +' 'A0*" D#BI0# DA*A, 7#,I) "9I*04#D "45)* DA*A ? ; #)D +' "9I*04#D "45)* DA*A
'ile: <undur.dyr
2 O,#)@+5O 2 F.???? ?.=????# ?2 ?.E???? ?.H????# ?2 K.H??? ?.?????#S?? 2.F??? 2.D??? ?.=???? ?.HH??? ?.>H??? ?.>???? ?.?????#S?? ?.?????#S??; 2 O#PA0EO 2 ?.2????# ?2 MMM.?? MMM.?? ?.???? ?.??? >??.?? ?.?????#S?? MMM.?? MMM.?? ?.?????#S??; 2 O"*A72O 2 >?.?? 2?.?? >.H? ?.?>? ?.HHHH H.E??? MMM.??; 2 OI###,2O 2 ? ? 2H.??? ?.?2?? ?.???? ?.?>H? ?.22E? 2.2=M ?.MH?? ?.???? ?.???? ?.???? ?.???? ?.>??? ?.=??? ?.???? K.???? ?.=??? ?.???? ?.E??? ?.E??? ?.????; > O,#)@+5O 2 F.???? ?.=????# ?2 ?.E???? ?.H????# ?2 K.H??? ?.?????#S?? 2.F??? 2.D??? ?.=???? ?.HH??? ?.>H??? ?.>???? ?.?????#S?? ?.?????#S??; > O#PA0EO 2 ?.2????# ?2 MMM.?? MMM.?? ?.???? ?.??? >??.?? ?.?????#S?? MMM.?? MMM.?? ?.?????#S??; > O"*A72O 2 >?.?? 2?.?? >.H? ?.?>? ?.HHHH H.E??? MMM.??;
1$"

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
Bjrn Karlsson
'ile: )ordic.ra%
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Bjrn Karlsson
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11$
Bjrn Karlsson
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111

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Bjrn Karlsson
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112
Bjrn Karlsson
E?K2, E?K>,O2 O, >.?????# =, >.?????# >, ?.K????, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? E?K>, E?K=,O2 O, =.?????# =, =.?????# >, ?.M????, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? E?K>, E?K=,O> O, =.?????# =, =.?????# >, ?.M????, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? E?D2, E?D>,O2 O, =.?????# =, =.?????# >, =.?????, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? E?D2, E?D>,O> O, =.?????# =, =.?????# >, =.?????, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????, ?.?????,2,2, ?.??, 2,2.???? ? ; #)D +' 7@A)04 DA*A, 7#,I) *@A)"'+@/#@ DA*A E2, E?E2, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2???.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, E2, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.???EF, ?.MD?EF, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? E>, E?E>, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.=????# >, DD?.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, E>, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MMKEH, ?.MKKEH, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? E=, E?E=, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, D.?????# =, 2E=?.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, E=, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MFD2?, ?.MHD2?, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? EK, E?EK, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2???.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, EK, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MF=2D, ?.MH=2F, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? ED, E?ED, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, E.?????# >, >H?.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, ED, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.?2K2K, ?.MFK2K, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? H2, E?H2, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, D.?????# =, 2E=?.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, H2, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.?2K2K, ?.MFK2K, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? K2, E?K2, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.=????# >, DD?.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, K2, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MDFFM, ?.MEFFM, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? K>, E?K>, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, >.?????# >, H??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, K>, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MMD>>, ?.MKD>>, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? K=, E?K=, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2???.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, K=, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, ?.MFKDM, ?.MHKDM, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?22, E?22, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, F.?????# =, 2???.?? 2.2>???, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, ==, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?2>, E?2>, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, F.?????# =, 2???.?? 2.2>???, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, ==, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?>>, E?>>, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.>????# >, 2???.?? 2.?D???, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, ==, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?EE, E?EE, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, 2?EE, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.??=??, ?.MDE??, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.?????
113
Bjrn Karlsson
2.?????, ?.??? 2?EE, E?EE, ?,O> O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, 2?EE, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.??=??, ?.MDE??, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?EH, E?EH, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, 2?EH, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.?22??, ?.MF?M?, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? 2?EH, E?EH, ?,O> O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.?????# >, 2??.?? 2.?????, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, 2, 2?EH, 2.2>???, ?.FF???, 2.?22??, ?.MF?M?, >H, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? >?=2, E?=2, ?,O2 O,2,2,2, ?.?????#S?, ?.?????#S?,>,O O,2, 2,2.???? ?.?????#S?, 2.>????# >, 2???.?? 2.?H???, ?.???, ?.???, ?.??, ?.??, ?.??, ?, ?, 2.2????, ?.M????, 2.2????, ?.M????, ==, ?, ?.?????, ?.????? 2.?????, ?.??? ? ; #)D +' *@A)"'+@/#@ DA*A, 7#,I) A@#A DA*A ? ; #)D +' A@#A DA*A, 7#,I) *9+ *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A ? ; #)D +' *9+ *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A, 7#,I) B"0 D0 (I)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' B"0 D0 (I)# DA*A, 7#,I) I/!#DA)0# 0+@@#0*I+) DA*A ? ; #)D +' I/!#DA)0# 0+@@#0*I+) DA*A, 7#,I) /5(*I *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A ? ; #)D +' /5(*I *#@/I)A( D0 DA*A, 7#,I) /5(*I "#0*I+) (I)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' /5(*I "#0*I+) (I)# DA*A, 7#,I) I+)# DA*A ? ; #)D +' I+)# DA*A, 7#,I) I)*#@ A@#A *@A)"'#@ DA*A ? ; #)D +' I)*#@ A@#A *@A)"'#@ DA*A, 7#,I) +9)#@ DA*A ? ; #)D +' +9)#@ DA*A, 7#,I) 'A0*" D#BI0# DA*A ? ; #)D +' 'A0*" D#BI0# DA*A, 7#,I) "9I*04#D "45)* DA*A ? ; #)D +' "9I*04#D "45)* DA*A
'ile )ordic.dyr
E?E> O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?ED O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?ED O,#)@+5O > D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?H2 O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?K> O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?K= O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?K= O,#)@+5O > D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?E> O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?E= O,#)@+5O 2 D.? ?.?H 2.H ?.?H K. ?. >.>? >.?? ?.=? ?.E? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?22 O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?2> O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?>2 O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?=2 O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?E2 O,#)"A(O 2 D.? ?.?H ?.2? >. ?. 2.HH 2.?? ?.=? ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?D2 O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?D> O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?2> O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?2= O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?2E O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?>2 O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; 2?>> O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; >?=> O,#)"A(O 2 H.? ?.?H ?.2? =. ?. 2.2? ?.D? ?.>H ?.>? ?.2H ?.2 ?.= ; E?22 O"#P"O E?2> O"#P"O E?>2 O"#P"O E?=2 O"#P"O 2 ?.>? >?. 2 ?.>? >?. 2 ?.>? >?. 2 ?.>? >?. H?. H?. H?. H?. ?.2? ?.? ?.2? ?.? ?.2? ?.? ?.2? ?.? E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?;
114

E?E2 O"#P"O E?D2 O"#P"O E?D> O"#P"O 2?2> O"#P"O 2?2= O"#P"O 2?2E O"#P"O 2?>2 O"#P"O 2?>> O"#P"O >?=> O"#P"O 2?E> O"#P"O 2?E= O"#P"O E?E> O"#P"O E?ED O"#P"O E?ED O"#P"O E?H2 O"#P"O E?K> O"#P"O E?K= O"#P"O E?K= O"#P"O E?22 O4J,+BO E?2> O4J,+BO E?>2 O4J,+BO E?=2 O4J,+BO E?D2 O4J,+BO E?D> O4J,+BO 2?2> O4J,+BO 2?2= O4J,+BO 2?2E O4J,+BO 2?>2 O4J,+BO 2?>> O4J,+BO >?=> O4J,+BO E?22 O"*A7>AO E?2> O"*A7>AO E?>2 O"*A7>AO E?=2 O"*A7>AO E?E2 O"*A7>AO E?D2 O"*A7>AO E?D> O"*A7>AO 2?2> O"*A7>AO 2?2= O"*A7>AO 2?2E O"*A7>AO 2?>2 O"*A7>AO 2?>> O"*A7>AO >?=> O"*A7>AO E?K> O"*A7>AO E?K= O"*A7>AO E?K= O"*A7>AO E?H2 O"*A7>AO E?ED O"*A7>AO E?ED O"*A7>AO E?E> O"*A7>AO 2?E> O"*A7>AO 2?E= O"*A7>AO 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.>? 2 ?.2? 2 ?.2? 2 ?.2? 2 ?.2? > ?.2? 2 ?.2? 2 ?.2? 2 ?.2? > ?.2? >?. >?. >?. >?. >?. >?. >?. >?. >?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. H?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. 2>?. ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.2? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? ?.? E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; E.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?; H.?;
Bjrn Karlsson
2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?F 2.K? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?F 2.K? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 ?.?E ?.F? H.? ?.?H ?.>? ?.2? ?.MH ?.?? 2.?? 2.?? ?. ?. ; 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? > 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? > 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? 2 2.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? E.? 2. 2. 2. 2. ?. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? >.? ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.? ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= ?.= 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; $note: gain is ? 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ; 2. ?.?H ?.?H ;
2?E= OI###B0O 2 ? E?E> OI###B0O 2 ? E?22 OI###B0O 2 ? E?>2 OI###B0O 2 ? E?=2 OI###B0O 2 ? 2?E> OI###B0O 2 ? E?K> OI###B0O 2 ?
?.?H; ?.?H; ?.?H; ?.?H; ?.?H; ?.?H; ?.?H;
115

E?K= OI###B0O 2 ? ?.?H; E?K= OI###B0O > ? ?.?H; E?E>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?ED, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?ED, O/AP#P>O > , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?H2, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?H2, O/AP#P>O > , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?K>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?K=, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?K=, O/AP#P>O > , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?E>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?E=, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, =.2 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?=2, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?E2, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.H 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?D2, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E E?D>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?2>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?2=, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?2E, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?>2, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E 2?>>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E >?=>, O/AP#P>O 2 , ?, >.= 2.2 2>? 2.> E? 2.H 2H 2 ?.??E .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H; .H;
Bjrn Karlsson
11
Bjrn Karlsson
!o%er'actory 4J,+B governor model block diagram
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UPTEC-F 13014

Examensarbete 30 hp September 2013

Comparison of PSSE & PowerFactory

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

".2 3ordic 32 System

).2 0undur Two Area System

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

).3 3ordic 32 System

4. Conc!usions 2. ,uture 6or7 /eferences Appendi.

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Figure 3.2: *ypical signs and their corresponding definition.

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

3.2.2 Transmission #ines

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Figure 3.6: !""#

e6uivalent circuit for a transmission line.

" ex = $ % sinh & Y ex = & > tanh $% >

9here the propagation constant = "Y and the surge impedance $ %=

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

3.2.% Shunt &evices

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

2 =? 2t q 2 =? 2t 2 )eglecting the flux transients leads to e6uation $2H&. u 2 =q r 4a i 2 u q=2 r 4 a i q

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

T e =2 i qq i 2 #6uation $2D& describes the definition of the electromagnetic tor6ue.

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Figure 3.14: )orton e6uivalent of generator model defined in !""#.

IS94): =( i q -i 2 )( cos + -sin ) ( 77 + -7q7 ) ( i q + -i 2 )= 2 ( ? ) "S94):

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

6 a2 =k %at2 6 a23 6 aq=k %atq 6 aq3

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

%.1 PSS+ to Power,actory Conversion

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

%.2.2 +.citation System

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics

Figure 4.1: )et%ork set up %hen performing a governor response simulation.

Uppsala University Degree Project in Engineering Physics