Building macromolecules requires energy Breaking them down releases energy

BUT activation energy may be required

Increasing the temperature will

Speed up exergonic reactions Allow endergonic reactions to occur

Active site: where reactants bind and react. Reactants are referred to as substrates. Enzymes are flexible, and change shape (conformation) after binding Substrates have a certain affinity (attraction) to the enzyme active site. Affinity is dependent on hydrogen bonds and ionic interactions with R-groups

Enzymes aid reactions by:

1. Bringing reactants together and holding them in correct orientation 2. In some cases, providing an additional burst of activation energy

Speed - Reactions would be far too slow to sustain life without catalysts ***Do not make rxns more ender/exergonic or change G Temperature - Allow reactions to occur at much lower temperatures Regulation - Allow cell to control where, when, and how fast a reaction takes place

Enzyme regulation
1. Production

of enzyme 2. Location of enzyme 3. Presence of cofactor, coenzyme, or partner 4. Competetive inhibition 5. Allosteric regulation
1. 2. 3.

- Turn it on - Turn it off - Change its speed (faster, slower)

If the enzymes active site is blocked, the enzyme ceases to function. A lot of drugs compete for active sites on enzymes.

Allosteric means different structure The binding causes the enzyme to change shape and accept the substrates

Endergonic: Building stuff: +H, -S +G

Exergonic: Breaking stuff down: -H, +S -G

Reactions tend to be spontaneous if:

The products are MORE disordered (have a higher entropy) The potential energy of the products is lower than the reactants

Spontaneous doesnt = rapid

When Temperature makes a difference:

Polymerization reactions are endergonic

Polymerization reactions are directional (linear)

Polymerization reactions use dehydration (aka condensation)

To break down a polymer: hydrolysis

Peptide bonds are only formed in one direction The beginning of a protein is the N-terminus The end of a protein is the C-terminus Proteins run from N to C

Where does the energy for polymerization come from?

Structure of DNA and RNA

Primary structure

Sequence of nucleotides Held together by covalent bonds Base pairing- hydrogen bonds

Secondary structure
DNA: two separate strands in a helical shape RNA: with itself!

Tertiary and Quaternary structures

Limited to RNA

Complimentary base pairing

Influenced by Nitrogenous base size Hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases

Phosphate

Deoxyribose

RNA secondary structure

Hydrogen bonds between N.bases NOTE: still antiparallel when binding. loops called hairpins

Which of these RNA folding patterns are NOT possible?

Carbohydrates

Generally have an n(CH O) formula

2

Galactose and Glucose: CH O

6 12 6

Lactose and sucrose: C H O

11 22 11

Monomer: monosaccharide Polymer: polysaccharide

To use energy from starch/glycogen:

Snip off as many glucose monomers as needed Use respiration to convert them CO and H O
2 2

Harvest potential energy to create ATP

Defining feature: they are largely

Nonpolar Hydrophobic Insoluble in water Mostly C and H

Fats,

oils, waxes Steroids Phospolipids

Properties of hydrocarbon chains