David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Prctiques de Materials
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Assajos No Destructius (NDT)

01/04/2014 EPS Alcoi David Fenollar Belda

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Contingut
Prctica 1: Lquids Penetrants .................................................................................................... 2 Resum .................................................................................................................................... 2 Introducci ............................................................................................................................ 2 Objectius ............................................................................................................................... 2 1 Fase Experimental ................................................................................................................. 2 Resultats i Discussi .............................................................................................................. 6 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 7 Practice 2: Ultrasounds ............................................................................................................... 8 Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 8 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 8 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 8 Experimental ......................................................................................................................... 9 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................ 13 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 13 Practice 3: Magnetic Particles .................................................................................................. 14 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 14 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 14 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 14 Experimental ....................................................................................................................... 14 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................ 21 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 21 Practice 4: Infrared Camera ...................................................................................................... 22 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 22 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 22 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 22 Experimental ....................................................................................................................... 22 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................................ 23 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 2

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Prctic 1: Lquids Penetrnts

Resum
2 En la prctica segent el que es realitzar la comprovaci de les impureses o esquerdes duna pea escollida degudes a l's d'aquesta en servici. Es far servir el mtode dels lquids penetrants, un mtode que es troba dins dels assajos no destructius per a la detecci derrades superficials en peces.

Introducci
Es planteja una pea (la de la fotografia adjunta) per a determinar els seu estat desprs d'haver estat en servici durant un temps (tamb es pot donar el cas d'una pea durant el procs de producci). Considerant que es una pea que ha de continuar en servici posteriorment a lanlisi, es realitzar un assaig no destructiu (NDT) pel qual es determinaran les errades o impureses d'aquesta sense haver d'afectar a les seues propietats. En concret es realitzar lassaig de lquids penetrants, ja que es un assaig barat, en el que no cal un gran equipament ni fonts denergia i amb molt bons resultats. Aquest es un assaig basat en el principi de capillaritat dels lquids.

Objectius
Aconseguir la visualitzaci de les impureses i errades en una pea amb el mtode, dassajos no destructius, dels lquids penetrants.

Fase Experimental
Materials: o o o o o o Dissolvent orgnic potent Cetona Paper higinic o drap de cot Lquid penetrant Pols reveladora Elements de protecci (careta, guants, bata i si cal ulleres)

Dissolvent organic

Liquid penetrant

Revelant Netejant menys agressiu

David Fenollar Belda Desenvolupament Experimental:

01/04/2014

Neteja: s la primera fase, amb la qual seliminen grasses i xids procedents del servici del material o b del procs de producci de la pea. Aquesta etapa es la ms important ja que shan deliminar les restes dimpureses que puguem tenir en les esquerdes o en les imperfeccions. Normalment per a aquesta fase sutilitzen dissolvents orgnics ja que normalment les peces aquestes peces contenen restes de materials orgnics. Shaurien dutilitzar raspalls o altre tipus de dissolvents en el cas de tenir xids o altre tipus de brutesa. La pea quedar com segueix desprs dhaver-la netejat amb el dissolvent i un drap.

Aplicaci del lquid penetrant: es tracta daplicar una fina capa de lquid (suficient per a que penetri) b per deposici o per submersi de la pea en el mateix. Aquests lquids han dacomplir una srie de condicions que els faran aptes per a aquesta aplicaci (com baixa volatilitat, facilitat de penetraci, facilitat de neteja, o baixa toxicitat i que ser qumicament inert, entre altres). Desprs de laplicaci es deixar al voltant de 20 minuts (depenent de la morfologia de la pea) per afavorir la correcta penetraci daquest a totes les impureses i esquerdes superficials. Sha de tenir en compte que la utilitzaci dun o altre penetrant dependr de la morfologia i el material de la pea a analitzar, ja que un material qumicament inert (orgnic) no danyar el material mentre que un en dissoluci aquosa si es tracta de materials com lalumini si que pot ocasionar xicotets punts doxidaci que a la llarga afectaran de forma negativa la pea. En aquest cas sha utilitzat un dissolvent orgnic amb color roig intens com el que apareix a la fotografia, i com que es tracta duna pea duna geometria molt senzilla doncs no cal fer lespera de 20 minuts, per si suficients per a deixar penetrar el lquid.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Neteja del lquid de la superfcie: aquesta neteja ha de ser el menys agressiva possible, ja que no sha deliminar el lquid penetrant dels llocs a analitzar, per tant cal fer-la amb compte, utilitzant un drap i un dissolvent poc agressiu com la cetona. Si es tracts dun lquid en dissoluci aquosa caldria eliminar-lo mitjanant un xorro daigua aplicat amb certa inclinaci perqu no incideixi directament en lesquerda.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

5 CETONA

Aplicaci del revelador: Aquesta etapa s molt important realitzar-la correctament, ja que de la correcta realitzaci depn la trobada de les imperfeccions buscades. En aquesta etapa saplica una capa de pols blanca per a facilitar , pel fenomen de la tensi superficial, leixida del lquid aplicat amb anterioritat i que desprs de netejar-lo ja noms en queda en les esquerdes. Cal realitzar-la correctament perqu si es diposita excessiva pols reveladora en la superfcie de la pea aleshores no apareixeran les esquerdes xicotetes, mentre que si no es diposita la suficient aleshores una esquerda gran i moltes xicotetes tacarien de la mateixa forma la superfcie de la pols. Es poden encontrar dos tipus de reveladors: un en el que la pols es troba en dissoluci, per la qual cosa sevita la utilitzaci delements de protecci com caretes, i un altre que es tracta de pols seca, per al qual cosa cal la protecci, be amb caretes o be realitzant el procediment en una campana extractora.

2Aplicaci de la pols reveladora

1Vista de la pea una vegada aplicada aquesta pols

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Una vegada aplicat el revelador, el qual es tractava duna pols en dissoluci, sobserva com queda la pea amb una capa blanca. A continuaci cal deixar uns minuts per a que el lquid penetrant puge cap a la superfcie de la pols i el qual quedar com veiem en les fotos inferiors:

4 Cara A de la pea desprs d'aplicar el revelant

3 Cara B de la pea desprs d'aplicar el revelant

La inspecci de la pea sha fet baix llum natural, ja que el lquid penetrant escollit no es tracta dun lquid fluorescent, de la segona forma shauria hagut dinspeccionar-la amb llum ultraviolada. Neteja de la pea: Aquest pas s molt important per a garantir la continutat de la pea en el cas en qu la vulguem tornar a fer servir en la funci que feia, ja que en aquest pas hem dintentar eliminar totes les restes de dissolvent ja que si es troba en dissoluci aquosa tenim el perill que ens apareguin oxidacions puntuals que faran de detonant per a laparici de noves imperfeccions que ens poden trencar la pea. En el nostre cas hem escollit lquids orgnics, i per aquesta ra no existeix aquest perill, per encara aix hem de fer una correcta neteja amb dissolvents orgnics (nostre cas) i amb draps per a que puguem tornar a fer funcionar la pea i no tenir problemes a mitjan termini.

Resultats i Discussi
Com anteriorment es comenta, els resultats han segut, per una banda sha obtingut la cara A de la pea amb una xicoteta esquerda a la part dreta en el cant. En la cara B el que sha pogut observar son diverses esquerdes, en les que cal destacar una que es la que ix de la par inferior de la pea cap amunt i que es tracta de la ms gran o ms profunda. No se sap baix quins esforos estava treballant aquesta pea per el que si se sap es que la majoria de fallades i esquerdes son degudes a treballs sota esforos de fatiga, per aquesta ra es molt probable que aquesta pea treballs sota aquest esfor a ms de la forma de les esquerdes, esquerdes continues prpies de fallades per fatiga. Encara que tamb es pot trobar que es tracte dimperfeccions degudes al procs de producci de la mateixa pea, encara que no s probable pel desgast daquesta.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Conclusions
Tot i que el sistema utilitzat no indica de forma quantitativa els resultats es un procs rpid i sobretot s un procs barat, amb el qual es pot saber si la pea presenta alguna esquerda o alguna impuresa superficial, no se sabr mai els problemes que presenta a nivell intern, els quals els shauran dobservar amb altres processos. 7 Aquesta darrera limitaci s important a lhora daplicar el mtode, ja que no es podr aplicar a materials porosos, perqu no donaran cap informaci. Com que en aquest cas es tractava dacer, aleshores shan visualitzat les esquerdes que contenia la pea, aix com tamb sha estimat de forma aproximada la magnitud daquestes segons la quantitat de lquid que ha eixit a lexterior. Per tantes pot afirmar que els nostres objectius han quedat acomplerts, aconseguint visualitzar lestat superficial de la pea destudi. A ms, sha aconseguit la manipulaci i laplicaci correcta daquesta tcnica per part de lalumne aix com observar els avantatges i inconvenients dusar-la, ja que es tracta duna tcnica molt senzilla daplicar i rpida i a ms no es calen grans aparells costosos ni grans espais per aplicar-la, encara que no es pot aplicar a tot tipus de materials aix com tampoc detecta tot tipus dimperfeccions, sin noms les de la superfcie. .

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Prctice 2: Ultrsounds
Abstract
8 An ultrasonic non-destructive method is used to determinate possible cracks and failures in different pieces, impossible to find using the last method (penetrant liquids). The aim of this work is explain this method. Now, the method and the process to find hide imperfections under the surface is going to be explained.

Introduction
To determinate the position and the deep of different slits in a piece, an ultrasound technique is used. Here there is a piece in which have made some subsurface slits. The goal of this article is to find it and determine the height of this using ultrasounds. Ultrasounds is a technique included on the non-destructive tests, based on a piezoelectric material who emits and receive sound waves which are converted in a potential difference, this is observed on a screen of cathodic rays tube. Depending on the received signal, it will be possible to determine both the site and the dimensions of the crack (slits in our case). Before the inspection of the working piece a calibration of the machine is needed. This process consists on inspecting a normalized piece knowing the results and adapt the 5. Calibration piece and cathodic ray tube machine cathodic rays tube screen to see the result we have to see (this is the main step we have to do when we have to inspect a piece). The process of calibrating the machine is possible to made with 3 kinds of probes. The first one is the normal probe, which sends the ultrasonic wave normal to the surface piece. The second one is the angular probe, that sends the wave forming a specific angle between probe and surface piece. The last one is normal and two glasses, first glass is used to send the wave and second to receive it. Behind the piezoelectric material we have a wave deadening to avoid the vibration of this.

Objectives
Finding the hided imperfections under the surface of a number of pieces and indicate the approximate height of this using the non-destructive test called Ultrasounds.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Experimental
Materials In the experimental phase of this pieces test, we are going to need the following materials: o o o o o o o Probe Cathodic rays tube machine Calibration piece Normative relating to Ultrasonic NDT Vaseline and spreader Pen A calliper gauge

Calliper Gauge Normative

Cathodic rays tube machine

Probes and Pencil Vaseline and Spreader

Testing Piece Spreader

6. Material used to do the ultrasound test

Calibrating Piece

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

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Experimental The first step, like it was commented previously, is to calibrate the machine which allow us to view the changing of material detected by the probe. Firstly the background noise of the machine must to be detected. Then its going to adjust the screen rank until convert the noise in a straight line (in the screen). Now its time to connect the probe and put the double glass mode (or any other), taking the calibrating piece and known the whole measures and that this piece hasnt got any imperfection, its known the results we have to view in the cathodic screen depending on the 7. Adjusting the noise position of the probe. Firstly, the Vaseline is put on the piece and then the probe will be put on the piece to verify and adjust the measures of the screen. If the expected results in the screen are viewed (according to the normative), the screen axes have to be adjusted to our results (because we need an impulse whenever the screen mark the piece thickness and we have to adjust the dimension of the screen to obtain this results, because if it is not adjusted we are obtaining a peak each 2 times the piece thickness), and then we are able to begin the Testing Piece test.

Probe and Vaselin

Calibrating Piece

8. Calibrating the cathodic tube machine

David Fenollar Belda The machine calibration is needed because its needed to know if the probe is worn down or if it is OK (the screen parameters have to be adjusted differently in order to have the same final results according to the normative). This are the expected results according to the normative UNE:

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Now, the test piece is going to be tested. At first its necessary to Alarm Peak measure the piece thickness to Surface know which is the maximum Peak distance between 2 consecutive impulses, after that, vaseline is put on the piece surface, then it will be able to put the probe on the surface and start testing (we put vaseline between surface and probe to avoid the wearing 9. One peak that shows an imperfection down). Now the probe is put through the whole piece surface, looking to the cathodic tube machine screen waiting for a peak before the peak which indicates the other surface (in the machine, we have the option to put an alarm when a peak appears in a delimited zone that we have delimited before). Now some peak not hope is being detected and this could be measured by looking to the screen and moving the probe in all directions being sure that the peak is still in the screen. While the peak is in the screen it means that the imperfection is still under the surface, so its possible to mark the beginning and the finish of the peak and we will have the dimensions of the imperfection. Here we have a picture showing the results:

David Fenollar Belda

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10. Tested piece and marks of the crack

Would have to be repeated this process along the surface to verify that the piece is free of imperfections. When its finished with the normal probe, its necessary to test the piece with an angular probe because may have angular imperfections or cracks, not possible to detect with a normal probe like shows the following picture:

11. Angular and normal probe comparison

*If its going to test melting, its recommended to do this with an angular probe. In order to avoid the wrong indications, its necessary to be careful with the test and do all steps according to the normative. Its needed to be careful with: electrical interferences or different kinds of parasites due to the probe or the piece.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Results and Discussion

As we can observe in picture number 11, a crack has been detected and we have been able to measure this. The objective of the article has been done, so its possible to conclude that this test allows us to test materials which are working with and needs a review, or materials which are manufacturing and needs a quality control. 13

Conclusions
This is a NDT technique that allows us not only to find the imperfection but also measure it. In addition, this technique is also used to evaluate the corrosion, chemical and physical properties and measure the thickness. Although ultrasounds is an expensive equipment technique (compared with penetrating liquids), this is very useful to measure the dimensions of the imperfection (this feature is not in the penetrating liquids, in which you arent able to measure imperfections). But you have to choose the method carefully because there is so much parameters that makes viable the method (accessibility, shape, accuracy). Besides, there has been achieved another objective. This objective is to get freedom with the method like an expert of non-destructive tests. So, in conclusion, there are some economic advantages to use NDT methods to evaluate imperfections of pieces in use and pieces that are in the productive process. We can say that ultrasounds is one of the best methods because gives us an accuracy information.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Prctice 3: Mgnetic Prticles

Abstract
14 The aim of this work is to determinate the cracks or imperfection both on the surface and subsurface (not under 20mm) on magnetic pieces. This is going to be possible using the NDT called magnetic particles. This test consists on magnetize the piece and then apply a quantity of magnetic particles which are going to be deposited most of them in the crack.

Introduction
Magnetism is a physical phenomenon which allows objects to attract or repulse by a magnetic field. Magnetic particles is a method based on the principle that if an object is magnetized, their imperfections behave as diamagnetic and expulse the field lines. This cause an accumulation of particles, magnetic powder, which are susceptible to be affected by the magnetic field in the imperfection zone. This is the principle used by the magnetic particles method, which allow us to find imperfections on pieces that can be affected by the magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials. This technique is used only to find surface and subsurface imperfections not under 20mm because these imperfections dont produce enough field deviation to affect the surface.

Objectives
Finding the surface and subsurface imperfections and cracks (up to 20 mm) using the magnetic particles method, and get skill using this method.

Experimental
Materials o o o o o o o o Magnetic yoke Dry powder Spray powder Spray ultraviolet powder Ultraviolet light Contrast lacquer Ethanol Permanent magnet Contrast lacquer Spray ultraviolet powder

Spray powder

Dry powder

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Magnetic yoke

15 Anode and catode Pieces Permanent magnet

Experimental The machine used for this kind of test is a magnetic yoke, this is a machine which is composed by 2 parts. The first one is the electric field generator. The second one is the anode and the cathode which is used to apply an electric field to the piece so that to create a magnetic permanent field on this. This test is based on 3 basic phases: magnetization, particles application and demagnetization. All phases is going to be explained then. First of all is needed to know the different way of magnetizing the piece depending on the orientation of the particles we hope found. The best way to magnetizing the piece is the one which makes more of the magnetic field lines pass through the imperfection. Because is not known the situation of the imperfection, is advisable magnetize the piece in all directions if it is big. The case of study is about small pieces, is for this reason that is not going to do an all directions magnetization.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Then, the next step is magnetize the piece. To do this step is needed the magnetic yoke. The magnetization of the piece have to be firstly in one direction and then in others to find all kinds and orientation of the imperfections. The magnetization is done with the magnetic yoke, putting both anode and cathode one in the opposite site of other on the piece. Then an electric field is applied. As a result of the electric field, a magnetic field is generated inside the piece and it will allow the magnetic particles to show the imperfections. 16

The power of the electric field is measured as a percent. In the case of study, its going to find the percent of the total electric field looking at both the anode and cathode, searching for a spark. When a spark is viewed, it indicates the electric field is enough. The next step is the application of the magnetic particles. Magnetic particles can be found in 3 types: dry magnetic particles, wet m.p. and ultraviolet m.p. Usually wet m.p. are dissolved on an organic solution or water solution (in the water solution there is a problem related on the temperatures). One of the objectives of this article is determine advantages and disadvantages of using wet method in comparison with dry method. The application of the magnetic particles is very easy, only needs to spread the particles above the piece (wet particles will be spread in spray). When the particles are sloped on the piece, you must move the piece to allow the particles to spread correctly. The particles will take place on the magnetic field distortions caused by the imperfections. The following picture shows the crowding of the particles on the imperfections showing it:

David Fenollar Belda

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12. Firstly sloping the particles. Finally the piece with the particles showing the imperfections before shaking the piece.

The way to preceed with wet particles is the same, when the piece is magnetized the only thing is needed is to spray the wet particles above the piece. The result with wet particles is this:

13. Piece with wet magnetic particles.

The result of wet particles is easily to view, the cracks are viewed at the moment, without waiting. It may be possible at first the cracks cant be viewed, in this case is needed shake the piece.

David Fenollar Belda

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David Fenollar Belda

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The last variation of the method is to use ultraviolet particles, this particles becomes yellow when the ultraviolet light influence it. This is a good method because is not needed the contrast liquid, and is observed in the images below that the cracks are perfectly viewed.

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Finally the last step is demagnetizing the piece. This step will be done with the magnetic yoke, the only thing to do is magnetizing the piece with less power than 60%, downgrading about 10% per time, to finish in 0%. Then the piece will be demagnetized. Another way to demagnetize the piece is heating it to get the Curie temperature, which gives to the material the beginning properties.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Results and Discussion

The results are easy to view if the pictures above are looked. The cracks and imperfections in the pieces are looked on all cases, wet, dry and ultraviolet. There are some features in the magnetic particles that make it suitable to this test. For example the different sizes that is good to make the biggest lug the smallest. 21 Another feature, now in the piece, which are good for applying the test is the high retentivity of it (because are steel), which endures very good the magnetic field and are very good to magnetize. To view imperfections with wet and dry methods, a contrast applied above the piece is needed (this contrast normally is withe). This contrast is put before the magnetic particles and allows the expert to tell apart the magnetic particles. This contrast is usually given in spray format. If it isnt possible to apply the spray contrast, ultraviolet particles is a very good option because when the ultraviolet light is applied to the particles, it becomes yellow and it are very easy to tell apart from the piece. If the saturation power are exceeded all particles will be stuck to the piece surface and it will be impossible to determine where the imperfections are.

Conclusions
This is a technique which complements the penetrant liquids method, applicable in ferromagnetic materials, because this technique works under the surface (up to 20mm). The first objective of this work is done, this is the observation of surface and subsurface cracks, as it can be observed in the picture number 12 and 13, and is also easy to conclude that in dark pieces (pieces which are not applied the contrast lacquer) is better to use ultraviolet particles, otherwise it wouldnt able to view the magnetic particles shape recreating the crack. Another objective not included in the paragraph objectives, but not less important is to find the advantages and disadvantages of using the wet or dry method. It can be observed in the wet method the easiest movements of the particles as well as a quick evaporation of the liquid. The dry method is better in so far as the clean of the piece is easier. Finally, to find imperfections inside a cylindrical piece (larger and more thickness than ours), the better way to magnetize this will be a conductive bar (cooper is the most used), and generating an electric field inside of the bar will generate a magnetic field in the inside surface of the tube.

David Fenollar Belda

01/04/2014

Prctice 4: Infrred Cmer

Abstract
22 The aim of this work is to find the manufacturing imperfections and cracks in metal pieces, which are performing and are going to continue performing after the test. Many times in industries is needed testing a piece which are performing, and will continue performing after the test if the failure are not big. To achieve this, non-destructive test are needed. There are many kinds of NDT, which are applicable to a lot of pieces and materials. Also there are some tests which are restricted to iron materials or non-porous materials. In this work is going to use infrared camera (belonging to NDT).

Introduction
The infrared camera test is based on the different conduction of the heat flow obtained depending on the material. Mainly the imperfections in pieces are air, but also titanium or aluminium or other solid materials are found on iron pieces. The property of different materials to conduce heat makes each material to have a different cooling. There are 2 kinds of infrared thermography: firstly passive thermography consists on analyse the different behaviour of the cracks or imperfections without an external heating or cooling. Secondly, active thermography is based on the previous heating of the piece in an oven, or cooling it on a fridge. Belonging to the active thermography, there are 3 different kinds of heating the piece: pulse, step heating and lock-in. Then while the piece are cooling, the infrared camera take the different cooling of the materials in the piece. In the case of this study, is going to use the active method of thermography camera to inspect the imperfections of the piece.

Objectives
In this work is going to analyse the imperfections of an iron piece using the infrared camera test belonging to non-destructive test.

Experimental
Materials Infrared camera Oven Pincers

David Fenollar Belda Experimental

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As it is aforementioned, the method which is going to be used in this work is active thermography. This method consists on heating the piece before the thermic observation. The temperature used to heat the piece is 160C in a laboratory oven. Then the piece is removed from the oven and is put in front of the infrared camera. While the piece is cooling down, the camera is having a shoot every 10 seconds because is the way to view the evolution of the cooling down. Finally with the camera software, we are going to be able to know the different temperatures with the different thermic images, as is viewed below in the results. Then, with the infrared camera, is going to view the different facilities which can be inspected by viewing the heat. This facilities are e.g. the distribution panel or the water heater. With the observation of this, is viewed the facilities which consumes more power and if there are any facility with overpower due to a wrong working.

Results and Discussion

There is the test piece which have been heated and cooled down. In the image below it is viewed the infrared camera which records the piece while it is cooling down. Moreover is viewed how the picture in the camera screen is a thermic image of the piece.

David Fenollar Belda

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In the image below is viewed the different temperatures on the surface of the testing piece, including the zones composed by air which have a lower cooling down. With the camera software is possible to create tables of points, lines or areas indicating the different temperatures like the tables below. Also is possible to create graphics showing the different temperature of the surface or how much zones are with the same temperatures. All kind of information is showed below: 24

Spot analysis SP01Temperature SP01Emissivity SP02Temperature SP02Emissivity SP03Temperature SP03Emissivity SP04Temperature SP04Emissivity SP05Temperature SP05Emissivity 113.0C 0.85

Value Line01Max Line01Min 68.6C 0.85 72.5C 0.85 100.4C 0.85 58.4C

Line analysis 112.6C 25.4C 64.7C 10.0m 113.9C 25.9C 64.2C 10.0m

Value

Line01Average Line01Distance Line02Max Line02Min Line02Average Line02Distance

0.85

David Fenollar Belda

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Area analysis Area01Max Area01Min Area01Average 125.5C 25.4C 63.9C

Value

There are some advantages and disadvantages on this method. On the one hand, this method is quickly and there is not needed to touch the piece. Also this technique allows the expert to find imperfections under the surface, is easy to translate the results and is applicable to a big kind of materials. This technique is not dangerous and is possible to inspect big and small zones depending on the needed. On the other hand there are some drawbacks which makes the technique not recommended depending on the situations. E.g. if the imperfection is far away from the surface, the camera is not going to detect it. If the material of the imperfection have a same emissivity that the piece material, this imperfection is not going to be viewed on the camera.

David Fenollar Belda

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Conclusions
As is viewed on the picture below, the zones which not contains steel have a different cooling down. It means that the zones with imperfections (which are constituted by air) are more hot than the zones composed by steel.

Thereby the objectives of this work are accomplished. Firstly we viewed the different cooling down in the imperfections and then with the inspection of the different facilities were able to take skill with the using of the infrared camera.