Definitions. Immediate Properties: Lect - Dr. M.Chi S

Groups
Definitions. Immediate properties
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 1 / 33

Groups

Definition
A groupoid (G , ·) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
1) (∀)a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ (ab)c = a(bc);
2) (∃)u ∈ G : ua = au = a, (∀)a ∈ G ;
3) (∀)a ∈ G =⇒ (∃)a0 ∈ G : a0 a = aa0 = u.

Groups

Definition
A groupoid (G , ·) is called a group if it satisfies the following properties:
1) (∀)a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ (ab)c = a(bc);
2) (∃)u ∈ G : ua = au = a, (∀)a ∈ G ;
3) (∀)a ∈ G =⇒ (∃)a0 ∈ G : a0 a = aa0 = u.

Remark
0
may 0bedefined as an universal algebra (G , ·, u, ) of type
A group
· u
τ= defined by the polinomial identities
2 0 1
(xy )z = x(yz)
xu = ux = x
xx 0 = x 0 x = u

Proposition
A groupoid (G , ·) is a group if and only if
1) (∀)a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ (ab)c = a(bc);
20s ) (∃)u ∈ G : ua = a, (∀)a ∈ G ;
30s ) (∀)a ∈ G =⇒ (∃)a0 ∈ G : a0 a = u.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a semigroup. Then (G , ·) is a group if and only if for any
a, b ∈ G the equations ax = b and ya = b have solutions in G .

Proposition
A groupoid (G , ·) is a group if and only if
1) (∀)a, b, c ∈ G =⇒ (ab)c = a(bc);
20s ) (∃)u ∈ G : ua = a, (∀)a ∈ G ;
30s ) (∀)a ∈ G =⇒ (∃)a0 ∈ G : a0 a = u.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a semigroup. Then (G , ·) is a group if and only if for any
a, b ∈ G the equations ax = b and ya = b have solutions in G .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and a, b ∈ G . Then (a−1 )−1 = a and
(ab)−1 = b −1 a−1 .

Proposition
Let (M, ·, u) be a monoid and let
U(M) = {x ∈ M|(∃)y ∈ M : xy = yx = u}
be the set of all invertible elements of the monoid M. Then U(M) is a

submonoid of M and (U(M), ·) is a group.
Example
Let X be a nonempty set and (X X , ◦) the monoid of all functions
f : X −→ X . Then U(X X ) = SX is the symmetric group of the set X .

Proposition
Let (M, ·, u) be a monoid and let
U(M) = {x ∈ M|(∃)y ∈ M : xy = yx = u}
be the set of all invertible elements of the monoid M. Then U(M) is a

submonoid of M and (U(M), ·) is a group.
Example
Let X be a nonempty set and (X X , ◦) the monoid of all functions
f : X −→ X . Then U(X X ) = SX is the symmetric group of the set X .

Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and a ∈ G . The integer powers of the element a are
 n
 a , k = n ∈ N;
k
a = 1 , k = 0;
 −1 n
(a ) , k = −n, n ∈ N∗ .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group, a ∈ G , and k, l ∈ Z. Then ak · al = ak+l and
(ak )l = akl .

Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and a ∈ G . The integer powers of the element a are
 n
 a , k = n ∈ N;
k
a = 1 , k = 0;
 −1 n
(a ) , k = −n, n ∈ N∗ .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group, a ∈ G , and k, l ∈ Z. Then ak · al = ak+l and
(ak )l = akl .

Subgroups. The order of an element
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ⊆ G , H 6= ∅. H is called a subgroup of the
group G , and we write H ≤ G , if:
1) (∀)x, y ∈ H =⇒ x · y ∈ H;
2) (∀)x ∈ H =⇒ x −1 ∈ H.

Subgroups. The order of an element
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ⊆ G , H 6= ∅. H is called a subgroup of the
group G , and we write H ≤ G , if:
1) (∀)x, y ∈ H =⇒ x · y ∈ H;
2) (∀)x ∈ H =⇒ x −1 ∈ H.

Example
1) For any group (G , ·) we have G ≤ G . Any subgroup H ≤ G , such
that H 6= G , is called a proper subgroup of the group G .
2) For any group (G , ·) we have {1} ≤ G . This subgroup is called the
trivial subgroup of the group G and is denoted by 1(Generally, one can
easily deduce from the context whether we are refering to the unit
element 1 or to the trivial subgroup 1). Any subgroup H ≤ G , such
that H 6= 1 is called a nontrivial subgroup of G . Any element
g ∈ G \ {1} is called a nontrivial element of G .

Example
3) If n ∈ N∗ is a nonzero natural number, then the set An of all even
permutations of degree n forms a subgroup of the symmetric group of
degree n, called the alternating group of degree n.

Example
3) If n ∈ N∗ is a nonzero natural number, then the set An of all even
permutations of degree n forms a subgroup of the symmetric group of
degree n, called the alternating group of degree n.

Remark
1) If H ≤ G , then
(∀)x ∈ H =⇒ x −1 ∈ H =⇒ 1 = x · x −1 ∈ H .
2) A subgroup of a group G may be defined as a subalgebra of the

universal algebra (G , ·, 1,−1 ).

Remark
1) If H ≤ G , then
(∀)x ∈ H =⇒ x −1 ∈ H =⇒ 1 = x · x −1 ∈ H .
2) A subgroup of a group G may be defined as a subalgebra of the

universal algebra (G , ·, 1,−1 ).

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ⊆ G , H 6= ∅. Then H ≤ G if and only if
(∀)x, y ∈ H =⇒ x · y −1 ∈ H.
Proposition
H · H = H and H −1 = H.

Proposition
(∀)x, y ∈ H =⇒ x · y −1 ∈ H.
Proposition
H · H = H and H −1 = H.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K ≤ G . Then HK ≤ G if and only if
HK = KH.

Proposition
(∀)x, y ∈ H =⇒ x · y −1 ∈ H.
Proposition
H · H = H and H −1 = H.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K ≤ G . Then HK ≤ G if and only if
HK = KH.

Proposition
T
Let {Hi }i∈I be a family of subgroups of a group G. Then Hi ≤ G .
i∈I
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and M ⊆ G . The subgroup of G generated by M is
\
hMi := H.
M⊆H≤G

Proposition
T
i∈I
Definition
\
hMi := H.
M⊆H≤G
Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group and M ⊆ G , then
hMi = {x1k1 · x2k2 · · · · · xnkn | n ∈ N, xi ∈ M, ki ∈ Z}.

Proposition
T
i∈I
Definition
\
hMi := H.
M⊆H≤G
Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group and M ⊆ G , then
hMi = {x1k1 · x2k2 · · · · · xnkn | n ∈ N, xi ∈ M, ki ∈ Z}.

Notation
If M = {a1 , a2 , . . . , al }, we write ha1 , a2 , . . . , al i in stead of hMi or
h{a1 , a2 , . . . , al }i.
Definition
A group G is called finitely generated if there are elements
a1 , a2 , . . . , al ∈ G such that G = ha1 , a2 , . . . , al i.

Notation
If M = {a1 , a2 , . . . , al }, we write ha1 , a2 , . . . , al i in stead of hMi or
h{a1 , a2 , . . . , al }i.
Definition
A group G is called finitely generated if there are elements
a1 , a2 , . . . , al ∈ G such that G = ha1 , a2 , . . . , al i.

Definition
Let (G , ·) un group and a ∈ G . The cyclic subgroup generated by a is
hai. G is called a cyclic group if there is an element a ∈ G such that
G = hai.
Remark
According to the proposition, which characterizes the elements of the
subgroup generated by a set, we have
hai = {ak | k ∈ Z} .

Definition
Let (G , ·) un group and a ∈ G . The cyclic subgroup generated by a is
hai. G is called a cyclic group if there is an element a ∈ G such that
G = hai.
Remark
According to the proposition, which characterizes the elements of the
subgroup generated by a set, we have
hai = {ak | k ∈ Z} .

Definition
The order of a group (G , ·) is the cardinal |G |. The order of an element
a ∈ G , denoted o(a) or |a|, is the order of the cyclic subgroup generated
by the element a:
o(a) = |hai| .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and a ∈ G . Then
o(a) = inf {k ∈ N∗ | ak = 1} .

Definition
by the element a:
o(a) = |hai| .
Proposition
o(a) = inf {k ∈ N∗ | ak = 1} .
Remark
In case o(a) < ∞, the following characterization of the order is also
useful:
n
a =1
o(a) = n ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ (∀)k ∈ Z[ak = 1 ⇐⇒ n|k]
(∀)k ∈ Z : ak = 1 =⇒ n|k
Definition
by the element a:
o(a) = |hai| .
Proposition
o(a) = inf {k ∈ N∗ | ak = 1} .
Remark
In case o(a) < ∞, the following characterization of the order is also
useful:
n
a =1
o(a) = n ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ (∀)k ∈ Z[ak = 1 ⇐⇒ n|k]
(∀)k ∈ Z : ak = 1 =⇒ n|k
Cosets. Lagrange’s Theorem
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . On G one can define the relation λH
of left congruence modulo H and the relation ρH of right congruence
modulo H by
x λH y ⇐⇒ y −1 x ∈ H ,
x ρH y ⇐⇒ xy −1 ∈ H .

Definition
modulo H by
x λH y ⇐⇒ y −1 x ∈ H ,
x ρH y ⇐⇒ xy −1 ∈ H .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . The congruence relations modulo H are
equivalence relations on G .

Definition
modulo H by
x λH y ⇐⇒ y −1 x ∈ H ,
x ρH y ⇐⇒ xy −1 ∈ H .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . The congruence relations modulo H are
equivalence relations on G .

Remark
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . The equivalence class of an element
x ∈ G with respect to the left congruence relation λH is given by
[x]λH = {y ∈ G | x λH y } = {y ∈ G | x −1 y ∈ H} =
= {y ∈ G | y ∈ xH} = xH
and is called the left coset of the element x with respect to the subgroup
H. Similarly one can define a right coset with respect to the subgroup H:
Hx = [x]ρH = {y ∈ G | yx −1 ∈ H} .

Remark
[x]λH = {y ∈ G | x λH y } = {y ∈ G | x −1 y ∈ H} =
= {y ∈ G | y ∈ xH} = xH
Hx = [x]ρH = {y ∈ G | yx −1 ∈ H} .
The set of left cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H, denoted

(G /H)s , is the factor set
(G /H)s := G /λH = {xH| x ∈ G } .

Remark
[x]λH = {y ∈ G | x λH y } = {y ∈ G | x −1 y ∈ H} =
= {y ∈ G | y ∈ xH} = xH
Hx = [x]ρH = {y ∈ G | yx −1 ∈ H} .
The set of left cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H, denoted

(G /H)s , is the factor set
(G /H)s := G /λH = {xH| x ∈ G } .

Remark
A representative system T ⊆ G of the left cosets of G with respect to
the subgroup H is called a left transversal of G with respect to H. If
T ⊆ G is a left transversal of G with respect to the subgroup H, then
not
(∀)g ∈ G (∃)!t( = tg ) ∈ T : g ∈ tg H(⇐⇒ tg−1 g ∈ H) .
Obviously, |T | = |(G /H)s |.

Similarly, the set of right cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H,
denoted (G /H)d , is the factor set
(G /H)d := G /ρH = {Hx| x ∈ G } ,
and a representative system of the right cosets of G with respect to the

subgroup H is called a right transversal of G with respect to H.

Remark
A representative system T ⊆ G of the left cosets of G with respect to
the subgroup H is called a left transversal of G with respect to H. If
T ⊆ G is a left transversal of G with respect to the subgroup H, then
not
(∀)g ∈ G (∃)!t( = tg ) ∈ T : g ∈ tg H(⇐⇒ tg−1 g ∈ H) .
Obviously, |T | = |(G /H)s |.

Similarly, the set of right cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H,
denoted (G /H)d , is the factor set
(G /H)d := G /ρH = {Hx| x ∈ G } ,
and a representative system of the right cosets of G with respect to the

subgroup H is called a right transversal of G with respect to H.

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H ≤ G , then |(G /H)s | = |(G /H)d |.
Definition
The common cardinal |(G /H)s | = |(G /H)d | of the sets of left,
respectively right cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H is called
the index of the subgroup H in the group G and is denoted [G : H].

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H ≤ G , then |(G /H)s | = |(G /H)d |.
Definition
The common cardinal |(G /H)s | = |(G /H)d | of the sets of left,
respectively right cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H is called
the index of the subgroup H in the group G and is denoted [G : H].

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H ≤ G , then
|xH| = |H| = |Hx| , (∀)x ∈ G .
Proposition
(Lagrange’s theorem) Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . Then
|G | = [G : H] · |H| .

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H ≤ G , then
|xH| = |H| = |Hx| , (∀)x ∈ G .
Proposition
(Lagrange’s theorem) Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . Then
|G | = [G : H] · |H| .

Corollary
If (G , ·) is a finite group, and H ≤ G , then |H| | |G | and [G : H] | |G |.
Corollary
If (G , ·) is a finite group, and a ∈ G , then o(a)| |G |.

Corollary
Corollary
Corollary
If (G , ·) is a finite group, with |G | = p, a prime number, then G is cyclic
and is generated by any of its nontrivial elements.

Corollary
Corollary
Corollary
If (G , ·) is a finite group, with |G | = p, a prime number, then G is cyclic
and is generated by any of its nontrivial elements.

Normal subgroups. Factor groups. Homomorphisms of groups
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . The subgroup H is called normal
subgroup(or normal divisor, or invariant subgroup) of the group G , and we
write H E G , if the congruence relations modulo H, λH and ρH , coincide.

Definition
Example
1) In any group (G , ·), the subgroups G and 1 are normal. If these are
the only normal subgroups of G , the group G is called a simple group.

Definition
Example
2) For any nonzero natural number n ∈ N∗ we have An E Sn .

Definition
Example
2) For any nonzero natural number n ∈ N∗ we have An E Sn .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H ≤ G . Then the following statements are
equivalent:
a) H E G .

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.
c) x −1 Hx ⊆ H, (∀)x ∈ G .

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.
c) x −1 Hx ⊆ H, (∀)x ∈ G .
d) x −1 Hx = H, (∀)x ∈ G .

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.
c) x −1 Hx ⊆ H, (∀)x ∈ G .
d) x −1 Hx = H, (∀)x ∈ G .
e) xH = Hx, (∀)x ∈ G .

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.
c) x −1 Hx ⊆ H, (∀)x ∈ G .
d) x −1 Hx = H, (∀)x ∈ G .
e) xH = Hx, (∀)x ∈ G .
f) (G /H)s = (G /H)d .

Proposition
equivalent:
a) H E G .
b) x −1 hx ∈ H, (∀)x ∈ G , h ∈ H.
c) x −1 Hx ⊆ H, (∀)x ∈ G .
d) x −1 Hx = H, (∀)x ∈ G .
e) xH = Hx, (∀)x ∈ G .
f) (G /H)s = (G /H)d .

Remark
1) The product x −1 hx is called the (right) conjugate of the element h by
−1
the element x and is denoted hx . The conjugate hx = xhx −1 of h by
x −1 is called the left conjuge of h by x, denoted x h.
2) If (G , ·) is an abelian group, then any subgroup H ≤ G is a normal
subgroup of G .

Remark
−1
subgroup of G .
3) According to property f of the previous proposition, for a normal
subgroup H E G we can write
G /H := (G /H)s = (G /H)d .

Remark
−1
subgroup of G .
3) According to property f of the previous proposition, for a normal
subgroup H E G we can write
G /H := (G /H)s = (G /H)d .

Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H E G . If x, y , x 0 , y 0 ∈ G with x λH x 0 and
y λH y 0 . Then xy λH x 0 y 0 .
Definition
According to the previous proposition we deduce that we can define an
operation on G /H by
· : G /H × G /H −→ G /H : (xH, yH) 7−→ xyH .

Proposition
Definition
· : G /H × G /H −→ G /H : (xH, yH) 7−→ xyH .
Proposition
With respect to the operation defined above, (G /H, ·) is a group.

Proposition
Definition
· : G /H × G /H −→ G /H : (xH, yH) 7−→ xyH .
Proposition
With respect to the operation defined above, (G /H, ·) is a group.

Definition
The group G /H defined above is called the factor group of the group G
with respect to its normal subgroup H E G .
Definition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H E G a normal subgroup, the map
πH : G −→ G /H : x 7−→ xH
is called the canonical projection map of the group G onto its factor
group G /H.

Definition
The group G /H defined above is called the factor group of the group G
with respect to its normal subgroup H E G .
Definition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H E G a normal subgroup, the map
πH : G −→ G /H : x 7−→ xH
is called the canonical projection map of the group G onto its factor
group G /H.

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H E G , then the canonical projection map
πH : G −→ G /H is surjective and
(xy )πH = (x)πH · (y )πH , (∀)x, y ∈ G .
Definition
Let (G , ·) and (T , ) be two groups. A function f : G −→ T such that
(x · y )f = (x)f (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ G
is called a homomorphism of groups.

Proposition
If (G , ·) is a group, and H E G , then the canonical projection map
πH : G −→ G /H is surjective and
(xy )πH = (x)πH · (y )πH , (∀)x, y ∈ G .
Definition
Let (G , ·) and (T , ) be two groups. A function f : G −→ T such that
(x · y )f = (x)f (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ G
is called a homomorphism of groups.

Example
1) The function ln : (0, ∞) −→ R is a homomorphism of groups from
the group (R∗+ , ·) onto the group (R, +).
2) The function C∗ −→ R∗ : z −→ |z| is homomorphism of groups from
the group (C∗ , ·) onto the group (R∗ , ·).

Example
1) The function ln : (0, ∞) −→ R is a homomorphism of groups from
the group (R∗+ , ·) onto the group (R, +).
2) The function C∗ −→ R∗ : z −→ |z| is homomorphism of groups from
the group (C∗ , ·) onto the group (R∗ , ·).

Proposition
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is a homomorphism of groups, then (1G )f = 1T
and (x −1 )f = ((x)f )−1 , (∀)x ∈ G .

Proposition
Let f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) be a homomorphism of groups, H ⊆ G and
U ⊆ T . Then
1) H ≤ G =⇒ (H)f ≤ T .

Proposition
U ⊆ T . Then
1) H ≤ G =⇒ (H)f ≤ T .
−1
2) U ≤ T =⇒ (U)f ≤ G .

Proposition
U ⊆ T . Then
1) H ≤ G =⇒ (H)f ≤ T .
−1
2) U ≤ T =⇒ (U)f ≤ G .
−1
3) U E T =⇒ (U)f E G .

Proposition
U ⊆ T . Then
1) H ≤ G =⇒ (H)f ≤ T .
−1
2) U ≤ T =⇒ (U)f ≤ G .
−1
3) U E T =⇒ (U)f E G .
4) If f is surjective and H E G , then (H)f E T .

Proposition
U ⊆ T . Then
1) H ≤ G =⇒ (H)f ≤ T .
−1
2) U ≤ T =⇒ (U)f ≤ G .
−1
3) U E T =⇒ (U)f E G .
4) If f is surjective and H E G , then (H)f E T .

Definition
Let f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) be a homomorphism of groups. The image of
the homomorphism f is the set
Im(f ) = (G )f = {(x)f | x ∈ G } = {y ∈ T | (∃)x ∈ G : y = (x)f } .
The kernel of the homomorphism f is

−1
Ker (f ) = (1T )f = {x ∈ G | (x)f = 1T } .
Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is a homomorphism of groups, then Im(f ) ≤ T and
Ker (f ) E G .

Definition
Let f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) be a homomorphism of groups. The image of
the homomorphism f is the set
Im(f ) = (G )f = {(x)f | x ∈ G } = {y ∈ T | (∃)x ∈ G : y = (x)f } .
The kernel of the homomorphism f is

−1
Ker (f ) = (1T )f = {x ∈ G | (x)f = 1T } .
Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is a homomorphism of groups, then Im(f ) ≤ T and
Ker (f ) E G .

Proposition
1) If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) and g : (T , ) −→ (W , ∗) are two
homomorphisms of groups, then f · g : (G , ·) −→ (W , ∗) is also a
homomorphism of groups.
2) If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is a bijective homomorphism of groups, then
f −1 : (T , ) −→ (G , ·) is also a bijective homomorphism of groups.

Proposition
1) If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) and g : (T , ) −→ (W , ∗) are two
homomorphisms of groups, then f · g : (G , ·) −→ (W , ∗) is also a
homomorphism of groups.
2) If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is a bijective homomorphism of groups, then
f −1 : (T , ) −→ (G , ·) is also a bijective homomorphism of groups.

Definition
A homomorphism of groups f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is called isomorphism
of groups if there is a homomorphism of groups g : (T , ) −→ (G , ·)
such that f · g = idG and g · f = idT .
Proposition
A homomorphism of groups f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is an isomorphism if and
only if it is bijective.

Definition
A homomorphism of groups f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is called isomorphism
of groups if there is a homomorphism of groups g : (T , ) −→ (G , ·)
such that f · g = idG and g · f = idT .
Proposition
A homomorphism of groups f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ) is an isomorphism if and
only if it is bijective.

Definition
Let (G , ·) and (T , ) be two groups. Then we say that the group (G , ·)
is isomorphic to the group (T , ) if there is an isomorphism of groups
f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ). In this case we write (G , ·) ∼
= (T , ), or, if the
operations are implicit, simply G ∼ = T.
Remark
1) The isomorphism relation is an equivalence relation on the class of
all groups.

Definition
Remark
all groups.
2) If (G , ·) ∼
= (T , ), then |G | = |T |. The converse of this implication is
not necessarilly true.

Definition
Remark
all groups.
2) If (G , ·) ∼
Example
1) |Z4 | = 4 = |V4 |, but (Z4 , +) ∼6 (V4 , ·).
=
(V4 = {id, (1, 2)(3, 4), (1, 3)(2, 4), (1, 4)(2, 3)} is the Klein 4−group.)

Definition
Remark
all groups.
2) If (G , ·) ∼
Example
1) |Z4 | = 4 = |V4 |, but (Z4 , +) ∼ 6 (V4 , ·).
=
2) |Z6 | = 6 = |S6 |, but (Z6 , +) ∼6 (S6 , ·).
=

Definition
Remark
all groups.
2) If (G , ·) ∼
Example
1) |Z4 | = 4 = |V4 |, but (Z4 , +) ∼ 6 (V4 , ·).
=
2) |Z6 | = 6 = |S6 |, but (Z6 , +) ∼6 (S6 , ·).
=

Definitions. Immediate Properties: Lect - Dr. M.Chi S

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Definitions. Immediate Properties: Lect - Dr. M.Chi S

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Groups

Definitions. Immediate properties

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 1 / 33

Definitions. Immediate properties

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 1 / 33

Definitions. Immediate properties

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 1 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 2 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 3 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 3 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 4 / 33

be the set of all invertible elements of the monoid M. Then U(M) is a

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 5 / 33

be the set of all invertible elements of the monoid M. Then U(M) is a

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 5 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 6 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 6 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 7 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 7 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 8 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 8 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 8 / 33

2) A subgroup of a group G may be defined as a subalgebra of the

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 9 / 33

2) A subgroup of a group G may be defined as a subalgebra of the

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 9 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 10 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 10 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 10 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 11 / 33

hMi = {x1k1 · x2k2 · · · · · xnkn | n ∈ N, xi ∈ M, ki ∈ Z}.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 11 / 33

hMi = {x1k1 · x2k2 · · · · · xnkn | n ∈ N, xi ∈ M, ki ∈ Z}.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 11 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 12 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 12 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 13 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 13 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 14 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 15 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 15 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 15 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 16 / 33

The set of left cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H, denoted

(G /H)s := G /λH = {xH| x ∈ G } .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 16 / 33

The set of left cosets of G with respect to the subgroup H, denoted

(G /H)s := G /λH = {xH| x ∈ G } .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 16 / 33

Obviously, |T | = |(G /H)s |.

(G /H)d := G /ρH = {Hx| x ∈ G } ,

and a representative system of the right cosets of G with respect to the

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 17 / 33

Obviously, |T | = |(G /H)s |.

(G /H)d := G /ρH = {Hx| x ∈ G } ,

and a representative system of the right cosets of G with respect to the

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 17 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 18 / 33

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 18 / 33

|xH| = |H| = |Hx| , (∀)x ∈ G .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 4 2009 19 / 33

|xH| = |H| = |Hx| , (∀)x ∈ G .