Physics GRE Summary

October 18, 2011

General Tips
Pick moderate statembents. Extreme statements are usually wrong.
Use Taylor expansion to deal with extreme cases, e.g. h kT, e
h/kT
1 +
h
kT
.
When knowing L
2
value, be careful to calculate l from
2
l(l + 1), two solutions.
Conservation of momentum (including angular momentum) should be checked before conservation of
energy.
Be careful about dimension of the problem, e.g. in 3D, radial wave, P =

||
2
dr =

||
2
4r
2
dr
Read underlined words carefully.
Calculate T
4
carefully.
Dont think too hard, the questions are easy enough to be solved in 2 minutes.
Use method of elimination.
Dimensional analysis is always useful.
Usually order of magnitude calculation is good enough.
In general, F = (potential energy), but in E&M notice V stands for potential, not potential energy,
so F = (q potential)
Usually it is convenient to set h = = c = = 1, but if ans diers from choices, thats a signal we
need to keep them.
When you get stuck, take limits
If some experimenter is involved in the question, it is usually a failed experiment.
Things to work on
1 Classical Mechanics
A worked example on velocity and acceleration in a curved path in a a plane: (the idea is to skillfully
use d(AB) = AdB +BdA. This applies to change of momentum as well.)
r =

i cos +

j sin ,

=

i sin +

j cos
v =
d(R r)
dt
=
dR
dt
r +R
d r
dt
=

R r +R

Similarly,
a = (

R R
2
) r + (R

+ 2

R

1
Firing rocket
(v
g
v)dM +d(MV ) = 0
M is rocket mass, v is speed, v
g
is relative speed of the waste red out.
Bernoullis equation
P +
1
2
v
2
+gy = const
(conservation of energy)
Torricellis Theorem: The outlet speed is the free-fall speed. For a barrel with water depth d, an outlet
at base has horizontal ow speed v =

2gd.
Stokes law: viscous drag is 6r
s
.
Poiseilles Law:
P =
8LQ
r
4
where L is length of tube, Q is volume rate. This describes viscous incompressible ow through a
constant circular cross-section.
Keplers laws.
An orbiting body travels in an ellipse
r() =
a(1 e
2
)
1 +e cos
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
d
dt
_
1
2
r
2

_
= 0
or
dA
dt
=
1
2
r
2

= constant
The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of its orbit.
P =
A
dA/dt
= 2
_

R
R
3/2
P
2
R
3
or
P
2
a
3
=
4
2
MG
Coriolis force:

F = 2m( v)
Diusion: Ficks law. The diusion ux is given by

J
r
= D
n

Frequency of a pendulum of arbitrary shape:

=
_
mgL
I
T = 2

I
mgL
where L is the distance between the axis of rotation and the center of mass.
2
Hamiltonian formulation:
H =

i
p
i
q
i
L, p =
H
q
, q =
H
p
Circular orbits exist for almost all potentials. Stable non-circular orbits can occur for the simple
harmonic potential and the inverse square law.
Orbit questions:
V
e
(r) = V (r) +
L
2
2mr
2
For a gravitational potential, V (r)
1
r
. The total energy of an object
E =
1
2
mv
2
+V
e
E < V
min
gives a spiral orbit, E = V
min
gives a circular orbit V
min
< E < 0 gives an ellipse, E = 0 is
a parabolic orbit, and E > 0 has a hyperbolic orbit.
If we want to approximate the equation of motion as a small oscillation about a point of equilibrium
V

(x
0
) = 0 we can Taylor expand to get
V (x) = V (x
0
) +
1
2
V

(x
0
)(x x
0
)
2
and then get the force
F =
dV
dx
= V

(x
0
)(x x
0
)
so that we can approximate small oscillations has harmonic oscillations with k = V

(x
0
) and
=
_
V

(x
0
)
m
.
2 Electromagnetism
Resistance is dened in terms of resistivity as
R =
L
A
Faradays laws of electrolysis
The mass liberated charge passed through
Mass of dierent elements liberated atomic weight/valence
m =
QA
Fv
where v is valence, A is atomic weight in kg/kmol, F = 9.65 10
7
C/kmol (Faradays constant)
Parallel plate capacitor C =
0
A/d or A/d for a dielectric. For a spherical capacitor,
C =
4
0
ab
a b
In charging a capacitor,
q = q
0
(1 e
t/RC
)
discharging
q = q
0
e
t/RC
3
Cyclotron/magnetic bending
r =
mv
qB
Torque experienced by a planar coil of N loops, with current I in each loop.
= NIABsin
where is the angle between B and line perpendicular to coil plane:
=

B
B-eld of a long wire
B =

0
I
2r
Center of a ring wire
B =

0
I
2r
Long solenoid
B =
0
nI
where n is the turn density.
Amperes Law:

B d =
0
I
enc
Conductors do not transmit EM wave, thus

E vector is reversed upon reecting, B vector is increased
by a factor of 2 (by solving propogation of EM wave).
Magnetic elds in matter:
B = H =
0
(H +M) =
0
(H +
m
H)
Diamagnetic
m
very small and negative. Paramagnetic,
m
small and positive, inversely pro-
portional to the absolute temperature. Ferromagnetic
m
positive, can be greater than 1. M is no
longer proportional to H.
For solenoid and toroid, H = nI, n is the number density.
Self inductance:
E = L
di
dt
L is in henries, 1H = 1V S/A = 1J/A
2
= 1 web/A
N = LI
is the ux linkage. Inductance of solenoid:
L =
N
2
A
c
Induced e.m.f
|E
s
| = N

d
B
dt

Time constant for R L circuit t = L/R. For an R C constant t = RC. For an L C circuit,

0
= 1/

LC.
4
X
L
= 2fL is the inductive reactance. X
C
= 1/2fC is the capacitive reactance. The impedance is
given by
Z =
_
R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2
series
1
Z
=
_
_
1
R
_
2
+
_
1
X
C

1
X
L
_
2
_
1/2
parallel
Current is maximized at resonance X
L
= L = X
C
= 1/C (there will be a lot of questions on this)
Larmor formula for radiation
P =

0
q
2
a
2
6c
q
2
a
2
where a is the acceleration. Energy per unit area decreases as distance increases (inverse square
relation).
Mean drift speed:
v =

J
ne
where n is the number of atoms per volume, J is current density I/A.
Impedance of capacitor
Z =
1
iC
Impedance of inductor
Z = iL
Magnetic eld on axis of a circle of current
B =

0
I
2
r
2
(r
2
+z
2
)
3/2
Bremsstrahlung: electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle.
For incident wave reecting o a plane, just set up a boundary value problem.
E

1
E

2
= E

1
= E

2
and remember the Poynting vector

S

E

B
points in the direction of propagation.
E
0
+E
reected
0
= E
transmitted
0
Lenzs law: The idea is the system responds in a way to restore or at least attempt to restore to the
original state.
Impedance matching to maximize power transfer or to prevent terminal-end reection.
Z
rad
= Z

source
I(X
g
) +I(X
L
) = IR
Generator impedance:
R
g
+jX
g
Local impedance:
R
L
+jX
L
Z = R +j(L + 1/C)
5
Propagation vector

k

E(r, t) =

E
0
e
i(

krt)

B(r, t) =
1
c
|

E(r, t)|
(

k n) =
1
c

k

E
No electric eld inside a constant potential enclosure implies constant V inside.
Hall eect
R
H
=
1
(p n)e
can be used to test the nature of charge carrier. p for positive, n for negative.
Lorentz force

F = q(

E +v

B)
(

H) = 0, (f) = 0
One usually has cycloid motion whenever the electric and magnetic elds are perpendicular.
Faradays law:
E =

E d

L =
d
dt
Visible spectrum in meters: Radio 10
3
(on the order of buildings); Microwave 10
2
; Infrared 10
5
;
visible 700-900 nm (10
6
); UV 10
8
(molecules); X-ray 10
10
(atoms); gamma ray 10
12
(nuclei)
Displacement eld

D =
0

E +

P =
0

E +
0

E =
0
(1 +
e
)

E =

E
Dielectric constant

r
= 1 +
e
=

b
=

P n

b
=

P
These are the bound charge densities. Also note

D =

P
is not necessarily zero.
We have

B =
_

0
nI z
0
inside a solenoid
outside a solenoid
where n is density per length.

B =
_
0nI
2s

0
inside a toroid
outside
Force per unit length between two wires:
f =

0
2
I
1
I
2
d
6
B =
0I
4s
(sin
2
sin
1
) looks like the magnetic eld due to a segment of wire, where
i
is the angle
from the normal.
Mutual inductance of two loops
M
21
=

0
4

d

l
1
d

l
2
r
ij
Radiation pressure
P =
I
c
=
S
c
cos
Its twice that for a perfect reector.


D =
f


H =

J
f
+

D
t
,

B = 0,

E =

B
t
.
Boundary conditions:

1

2

2
=
f

B

1


B

2
= 0

1


E

2
= 0,
1

1

2

2
=

k
f
n
Biot-Savart law:

B(r) =

0
I
4

l r
|r
3
|
B-eld at a center of a ring

B =

0
I
2r
H =
1
0
B M, J
b
=

M,

k
b
=

M n

B =

H, =
0
(1 +
m
)
3 Optics and Wave Phenomena
Speed of propagation for waves
Transverse on string, v =
_
T/
Longitudinal in liquid, v =
_
B/, B is bulk modulus
Longitudinal in solid, v =
_
Y/,Y is Youngs modulus
Longitudinal in gases, v =
_
P/
For open pipe, fundamental frequency is v/2L where v is the speed of sound. For a closed pipe it is
(2n 1)/4 = L. The idea is f = v.
Speed of sound in air is
v =
_
kT
m
=
_
RT
M

T
where m is the mass of a molecule, and M is the molar mass in kg/mole.
Resonant frequency of a rectangular drum
f
mn
=

2

_
m
L
x
_
2
+
_
n
L
y
_
2
7
Doppler eect
f

=
v
v +v
source
f
v is the velocity in the medium, v
source
is the source velocity w.r.t. medium. In general,
f
listener
v v
lis
=
f
source
v v
source
The can be determined by examining if the frequency received is higher or lower.
Lens optics:
1
p
+
1
q
=
1
f
Sign convention, real image has positive sign.
Lens makers equation:
1
f
(n 1)
_
1
R
1

1
R
2
_
If R
1
is positive, its convex, negative, concave. If R
2
is positive, its concave, if its negative, its
convex.
Youngs double slit:
d sin = m maxima
yd = mD d D, small
d sin = (m +
1
2
) minima
If we have a slab of material with thickness t and refractive index n
2
, and the other medium is n
1
.
2n
2
t
n
1

1
= m +
1
2
max
2n
2
t
n
1

1
= m + 1 min
Conversely: if we have three layers of material, n
1
, n
t
, and n
2
(top to bottom), then we have a couple
of dierent situations that would like to a maximum in intensity:
d =
m
2n
t
n
1
> n
t
> n
2
, n
1
< n
t
< n
2
d =
(m +
1
2
)
2n
t
n
1
< n
t
> n
2
, n
1
> n
t
< n
2
I think its fair to assume that the minima occur when you replace m+
1
2
with m and vice-versa.
Diraction grating
d sin = m
If incident at angle
i
d(sin
m
+ sin
i
) = m
The overall result is an interference pattern modulated by single slit diraction envelope. Intensity of
interference
I = I
0
sin
2
(N/2)
sin
2
(/2)
=
2

d sin
Minima occurs at N/2 = , . . . n where n/N / Z. Maxima occurs at /2 = 0, , 2, . . . . Single-slit
envelope,
I = I
0
sin
2
(

/2)
(

/2)
2

=
2

wsin
8
where w is the width of the slit. Overall,
I = I
0
sin
2
(

/2) sin
2
(N/2)
(

/2)
2
sin
2
(/2)
Braggs law of reection
m = 2d sin
Make sure that is a glancing angle, not angle of incidence (relative to the plane). This gives the
angles for coherent and incoherent scattering from a crystal lattice.
Index of refraction is dened as
n =
c
v
Again,
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
Brewsters angle is the angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly
transmitted, no reection.
tan =
n
2
n
1
Diraction again (more background info). The light diracted by a grating is found by summing the
light diracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diraction and interference
pattern. Fresnel diraction is near eld, and fraunhofer diraction is far eld.
Diraction limited imaging
d = 1.22N
where N is the focal length/diameter. Angular resolution is
sin = 1.22

D
where D is the lens aperture.
Thin-lm theory. Say the lm has higher refractive index. Then theres a phase change for reection
o front surface, no phase change for reection o back surface. Constructive interference thickness t:
2t = (n + 1/2). Destructive interference 2t = n.
The key idea for many questions is to scrutinize path dierence (optical)
Some telescopes have two convex lenses, the objective and the eyepiece. For the telescope to work the
lenses have to be at a distance equal to the sum of their focal lengths, i.e. d = f
objective
+ f
eye
:
M =

f
objective
f
eye

Magnifying power = max angular magnication = image size with lens/image size without lens.
Microscopy
magnifying power =

In Michelson interferometer a change of distance /2 of the optical path between the mirrors generally
results in a change of of optical path of light ray, thus potentially giving a cycle of brightdarkbright
fringes.
Mirror with curvature f R/2.
Beats: the beat frequency is f
1
f
2
:
sin(2f
1
t) + sin(2f
2
t) = 2 cos
_
2
f
1
f
2
2
t
_
sin
_
2
f
1
+f
2
2
t
_
9
4 Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
PV diagram plots change in pressure wrt to volume for some process. The work done by the gas is
the area under the curve.
If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then W will be positive, and it represents a heat
engine. If it moves counterclockwise, then W will be negative, and it represents a heat pump.
The most basic denition of entropy is
dS
dQ
T
Heat transfer
Conduction: rate
H =
Q
t
= kA
T
2
T
1
L
,
dQ
dt
= kA
dT
dx
where A is area, k is a constant.
Convection (probably not in GRE),
H =
Q
T
= hA(T
s
T

)
where T
s
is the surface temperature, h =convective heat-transfer coecient. There are both
natural and forced convections.
Radiation
Power = AT
4
=emissivity, [0, 1]. Net loss= A(T
4
emission
T
4
absorption
)
Wiens displacement law: The absolute temperature of a blackbody and the peak wavelength of its
radiation are inversely proportional:

max
T = 2.898 10
3
mK
Ideal gas law
PV = nRT = NkT
Kinetic theory of gas
P =
1
3
v
2
rms
v
rms
=
_
3kT
m
, v =
_
8kT
m
, v
most probable
= v
m
=
_
2kT
m
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (less likely to be in GRE), number of molecules with energy between
E and E +dE
N(E)dE =
2N

(kT)
3/2

Ee
E/kT
dE
f(v)d
3
v =
_
m
2kT
_
3/2
e
mv
2
/2kT
d
3
v
P(v) =
_
2

_
m
kT
_
3/2
v
2
e
mv
2
/2kT
(from which we can derive v
m
)
Mean free path of a gas molecule of radius b
l =
1
4Tb
2
(N/V )
10
Van der Waals equation of state
(P +an
2
/V
2
)(V bn) = nRT
(P +aN
2
/V
2
)(V Nb) = NkT
Adiabatic process
PV

= const
For an ideal gas to expand adiabatically from (P
1
, V
1
) (P
2
, V
2
), work done by the gas is
W =
P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2
1
derived from W =

V2
V1
PdV .
The greatest possible thermal eciency of an engine operating between two heat reservoirs is that of
a Carnot engine, one that operates in the Carnot cycle. Max eciency is
y

= 1
T
cold
T
hot
For the case of the refrigerator
=
Q
cold
W

Carnot
=
_
T
hot
T
cold
1
_
1
Carnot=adiabatic+isothermal, dS = 0. Otto=adiabatic+isobaric
y = 1
T
d
T
a
T
c
T
b
Daltons Law
P = P
1
+P
2
= (n
1
+n
2
)
RT
V
The critical isotherm is the line that just touches the critical liquid-vapor region
_
dP
dV
_
c
= 0
_
d
2
P
dV
2
_
c
= 0
with c the critical point. Equilibrium region is where pressure and chemical potential for the two states
of matter equal, usually a pressure constant region in the P V diagram.
In the Dulong-Petit law,
C
V
=
dE
dT
= 3R
Laws of thermodynamics
0th: If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
1st: U = QW (conservation of energy)
2nd: Entropy increases/heat ows from hot to cold/heat cannot be completely converted into
work.
3rd: As T 0, S constant minimum.
Change in entropy for a system where specic heat and temperature are constant;
S = Nk ln
V
V
0
11
Change in energy for an ideal gas:
U = C
V
T
Work done by ideal gas:
W =

PdV =
_
NkT ln
V2
V1
PV
Isothermal
Ideal gas, constant Pressure
Partition function:
Z =

i
e
Ei
=

dE (E)e
E
=

dE e
A(E)
where A(E) is the Helmholtz free energy and (E) is the degeneracy.
P(E
i
) =
e
Ei
Z
S = k ln = k

i
P
i
ln P
i
Equipartition Theorem: (1) Classical canonical and (2) quadratic dependence: each particle has energy
1
2
kT for each quadratic canonical degree of freedom.
Internal energy
dU = TdS PdV
Enthalpy
H = U +PV dH = TdS +V dP isobaric
Helmholtz
F = U TS, dF = SdT PdV isothermal
Gibbs free energy
G = U TS +PV, dG = SdT +V dP
Heat capacities:
C
V
=
_
U
T
_
V
= T
_
S
T
_
V
C
P
=
_
U
T
_
P
+P
_
V
T
_
P
= T
_
S
T
_
P
=
_
H
T
_
P
Fun stu:
E =

ln Z, F = kT ln Z
S = k ln Z +E/T, dS =

dQ
T
Gibbs-Helmholtz equation.
U = F +TS = F T
_
F
T
_
V
= T
2
_

T
_
V
_
F
T
_
Availability of system
A = U +P
0
V T
0
S
In natural change, A cannot increase.
12
Diatomic gas
U =
5
2
kT
Maxwell Relations
_
T
V
_
S
=
_
P
S
_
V
=

2
U
SV
_
T
P
_
S
=
_
V
S
_
P
=

2
H
SP
_
S
V
_
T
=
_
P
T
_
V
=

2
A
TV

_
S
P
_
T
=
_
V
T
_
P
=

2
G
TP
For ideal gas in adiabatic process, W = U =
3
2
NkT
Clockwise enclosed area in a P V diagram is the work done by the gas in a cycle.
Chemical potential
(T, V, N) =
_
F
N
_
T,V
At equilibrium is uniform, F achieves minimum.
P
boson
T
5/2
, P
classical
T, P
fermion
T
F
(very big). T
classical
T
boson
A thermodynamic system in maximal probability state is stable.
Both Debye and Einstein assume 3N independent Harmonic oscillators for lattice. Einstein took a
constant frequency
5 Quantum Mechanics
Uncertainty principle
xp

2
, Et

2
Schrodinger equation
i

t
=

2
2m

2
+V
Commutator relation:
[AB, C] = ABC CAB = ABC ACB +ACB CAB = A[B, C] + [A, C]B
De Broglie
=
h
p
=
hc
E
=
h

2mkT
(The last equality is thermal)
A one-dimensional problem has no degenerate states.
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle generalized:
AB
1
2
|[A, B]|
13
Innite square well

n
=
_
2
a
sin
nx
a
, E
n
=
n
2

2
2ma
2
, n 1
Delta-function well V = (x). Only one bound state, many scattering states.
(x) =
_
m

e
m|x|/
2
, E =
m
2
2
2
Shallow, narrow well, there is always at least one bound state.
Selection rule
l = 1, m
l
= 1 or 0, j = 1 or 0
Electric dipole radiation l = 0. Magnetic dipole or electric quadrupole transitions are forbidden
but do occur occasionally.
Stimulated and spontaneous emission rate |p|
2
where
p q
b
|z|
a

The lifetime of an excited state is = (

A
i
)
1
where A
i
are spontaneous emission rates.
Time-independent rst order perturbation
E
1
n
= E
0
n
+
0
n
|H

|
0
n
,
1
n
=
0
n
+

m=n

0
m
|H

|
0
n

E
0
n
E
0
m

0
m
Quantum approximation of rotational energy
E
rot
=

2
l(l + 1)
2I
Fermi energy
E
F
= kT
F

1
2
mv
2
Dierential cross-section
d
d
=
scattered ux/unit of solid angle
incident ux/unit of surface
Intrinsic magnetic moment
=

S, =
eg
2m
where g is the Lande g-factor. If m points up, points down.
Total cross section
=

D()d, D() =
d
d
Stark eect is the electrical analog to the Zeeman eect.
Born-Oppenheimer approximation: the assumption that the electronic motion and the nuclear motion
in molecules can be separated, i.e.

molecule
=
e

nuclei
In Stern-Gerlach experiment, a beam of neutral silver atoms are sent through an inhomogeneous
magnetic eld. Classically, nothing happens as the atoms are neutral with Larmor precession, the
beam would be deected into a smear. But it actually deects into 2s + 1 beams, thus corroborating
with the fact electrons are at spin
1
2
14
Know the basic spherical harmonics
Y
0
0
=
_
1
4
, Y
1
1
=
_
3
8
sin e
i
, Y
0
1
=
_
3
4
cos
Probability density current

J =

2mi
(

) =
_

im

_
Laser operates by going from lower state to high state (population inversion), then falls back on a
metastable state in between (not all the way down due to selection rule).
Neat identities:
O =

Odx, [f(x), p] = i
f
x
, p = i
Ehrenfests Theorem: expectation values obey classical laws.
m
d
2
x
dt
2
=
dp
dt
=
_

V
x
_
If V (x) is even, (x) can always be taken to be even or odd.
More identities:
H =

n=1
|c
n
|
2
E
n
, (x) =
1
2

e
ikx
dk
Tunneling shows exponential decay.
The ground state of even potential is even and has no nodes.
In stationary states, all expectation values are independent of t.
Harmonic oscillators:
H = (a

a
+

1
2
) = (a
+
a

+
1
2
), a

=
1

2m
(mx ip)
[a

a
+
] = 1, N a
+
a

, N
n
= n
n
a
+

n
=

n + 1
n+1
, a

n
=

n
n1

n
=
1

n!
(a
+
)
n

0
, x =
_

2m
(a
+
+a

), p = i
_
m
2
(a
+
a

)
Fourier transforms:
(p, t) =
1

e
px/
(x, t)dx
(x, t) =
1

e
ipx/
(p, t)dp
Operators changing in time:
dQ
dt
=
i

[H, Q] +
_
Q
t
_
Virial theorem, in stationary state
2T =
_
x
dV
dx
_
15
Hydrogen atom revisited:
E
n
reduced mass
Z
2
1/n
2
=
_
m
2
2
_
e
2
2
0
_
2
_
1
n
2
=
E
1
n
2
E
n
(Z) = Z
2
E
n
a(Z) =
a
Z
R(Z) = Z
2
R
Bohr radius a = 4
0

2
/me
2
= 0.528 10
10
meters.

100
(r, , ) =
1

a
3
e
r/a
Angular momentum
[L
i
, L
j
] = iL
k

ijk
where
ijk
= 1 for even permutations, -1 for odd permutations, zero otherwise.
L

= L
x
iL
y
, [L
2
, L
i
] = 0
L
2
f
m
l
=
2
l(l + 1), L
z
f
m
l
= mf
m
l
L

f
m
l
=
_
(l m)(l m+ 1)f
m
l
=
_
l(l + 1) m(m1)f
m
l
[L
z
, x] = iy, [L
z
, p
x
] = ip
y
, [L
z
, y] = ix, [L
z
, p
y
] = ip
x
L
z
=

i

Spin,
S
2
=
3
4

2
_
1 0
0 1
_

x
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
y
=
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
z
=
_
1 0
0 1
_

S =

2

(x)
+
=
_
1/

2
1/

2
_
,
(x)

=
_
1/

2
1/

2
_
S
2
x
= S
2
y
= S
2
z
=

2
4
Clebsch-Gorden coecients
|sm =

m1+m2=m
C
s1s2s
m1m2m
|s
1
m
1
|s
2
m
2

|s
1
m
1
|s
2
m
2
=

s
C
s1s2s
m1m2m
|sm
16
Continuity equation

J =

t
||
2

J da =
d
dt

V
||
2
d
3
r
Representation of angular momentum.
2s+1
L
J
where s =spin, L =orbital, J =total. Hunds rule: (1) State with highest spin will have lowest energy
given Pauli principle satised; (2) For given spin and anti-symmetrization highest L have lowest energy;
(3) Lowest level has J = |L S|, if more than half-lled J = L +S.
Fermi gas
k
F
= (3
2
)
1/3
, = Nq/V, v
F
=
_
2E
F
/m
Degeneracy pressure
P
5/3
m
1
e
m
5/3
p
Particle distributions
n() =
_

_
e
()
(e
()
+ 1)
1
(e
()
1)
1
Maxwell-Boltzmann
Fermi-Dirac
Bose-Einstein
Blackbody density
() =

3

2
c
3
(e
/kT
1)
Fine structurespin-orbit coupling. Relativistic correction = 1/137.056. Then Lamb shift is from
the electric eld, then Hyperne structure due to magnetic interaction between electrons and protons,
then spin-spin coupling (21 cm line)
Fine structure breaks degeneracy in l but still have j
Fermis golden rule is a way to calculate the transition rate (probability of transition per unit time)
from one energy eigenstate of a quantum system into a continuum of energy eigenstates, due to a
perturbation.
Full shell and close to a full shell conguration are more dicult to ionize.
Larmor precession:

=

B =

J

B
and we get = B, where is the torque, is the magnetic moment, and J is total angular momentum.
6 Atomic Physics
E = hf = = hc/. hc = 12.4 keV = 1240 eVnm, de Broglie wavelength = h/p.
Emission due to transition from level n to level m
1

= R
_
1
m
2

1
n
2
_
m = 1 Lyman series, m = 2 Balmer series.
R = 1.097 10
7
m
1
, E
n
=
13.6 eV
n
2
17
Hydrogen model extended, Z =number of protons, quantities scale as
E Z
2
,
1
Z
2
Reduced-mass correction to emission formula is
1

=
RZ
2
1 +m/M
_
1
n
2
f

1
n
2
i
_
where m is the mass of electron, M is the mass of the proton, m/M = 1/1836.
Bohr postulate L = mvr = n
Zeeman eect: splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic
eld.
k series refers to the innermost shell (K, L, M, N) so transition to innermost shell.
E = 13.6(Z 1)
2
_
1
1
n
2
i
_
eV
where the (Z 1)
2
is a shielding approximation.
Frank-Hertz Experiment: Electrons of a certain energy range can be scattered inelastically, and the
energy lost by electrons is discrete.
Spectroscopic notation is a standard way to write down the angular momentum quantum number of a
state,
2s+1
L
j
where s is the total spin quantum number, 2s + 1 is the number of spin states, L refers to the orbital
angular momentum quantum number but is written as S, P, D, F, . . . for = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and j is the
total angular momentum quantum number. So for hydrogen we could have things like
2
P3
2
,
2
P1
2
(since s = 1/2 and = 1, spin up versus spin down).
7 Special Relativity
Energy:
E
2
= (pc)
2
+ (mc
2
)
2
For massless particles, E = pc = h
Relativistic Doppler Eect
=

1
1

0
= v/c. Sign is determined by whether source is moving away or closer.
Space-time interval
s
2
= c
2
t
2
x
2
y
2
z
2
Lorentz transformation
_
_
_
_
ct

_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
ct
x
y
z
_
_
_
_
18
Relativistic addition of velocities
u

x
=
u
x
+v
1 +u
x
v/c
2
, u

y
=
u
y
(1 +u
x
v/c
2
)
, u

z
=
u
z
(1 +u
x
v/c
2
)
,
1
_
1
2
Lorentz-Transformation of EM, parallel and perpendicular to direction o motion.

=

E

,

E

= (

+v

B

=

B

,

B

= (

v

E

/c
2
)
Relativistic energy/momentum
E = mc
2
, p = mv
In every closed system, the total relativistic energy and momentum are conserved.
Spacelike separation means two events can happen at the same time, which requires
s
2
= c
2
t
2
x
2
< 0
Transverse Doppler shift:
f =
f

_
1
2
or f = f

_
1
2
Four-vectors can be useful. We can dene
P =
_
E
c
, p
_
and the dot product
P
2
=
E
2
c
2
p
2
= m
2
c
2
to get
E
2
= m
2
+p
2
.
Remember, this mass is invariant, so we can equate the P vector at dierent times.
8 Laboratory Methods
If measurements are independent (or intervals in a Poisson process are independent) both expected
value and variance increase linearly with time, so longer time can improve uncertainty, which is usually
dened as

R

1

t
In Poisson distribution, =

x.
Error analysis, estimating uncertainties. If you are sure the value is closer to 26 than to 25 or 27, then
record best estimate 26 0.5.
Propagation of uncertainties for sum of random and independent variables
x =

i
(x
i
)
2
If multiplication or divisions are involved, use fractional uncertainty:
q
|q|
=

i
_
x
i
x
i
_
2
19
Experimental uncertainties can be revealed by repeating the measurements are called random errors;
those that cannot be revealed in this way are called systematic errors.
If the the uncertainties are dierent for dierent measurements, we have
x =

(x
i
/
2
i
)

i
(1/
i
)
2

2
x
=
1

i
(1/
2
i
)
9 Specialized Topics
Photoelectric eect.
E
photon
= +K
max
(or the sum of the work function and the kinetic energy).
Compton scattering:

=
h
m
e
c
(1 cos )
where m
e
is the mass of the atom: h/m
e
c is the Compton wavelength of the electron, and

is the
new wavelength.
X-ray Bragg reection
n = 2d sin
(compare to diraction grating n = d sin )
1.602 10
19
J= e(1 V) = 1 eV.
In solid-state physics, eective mass is
m

=

2
d
2
E/dk
2
Electronic lters: high pass means , V
in
= V
out
. Usually look at I = V
in
/Z, Z = R+i(X
L
X
C
),
X
L
= L, X
C
= 1/C.
Band spectra is a term that refers to using EM waves to probe molecules.
Solid state:
primitive cell =
unit cell
# of lattice points in a Bravais lattice
Simple cubic 1 point, body-centered 2 points, face-centered 4 points.
Resistivity of undoped semiconductor varies as 1/T.
Nuclear physics: binding energy is a form of potential energy, convention is to take it as positive. Its
the energy needed to separate into dierent constituents. It is usually subtracted for other energy to
tally total energy.
Pair production refers to the creation of an elementary particle and its antiparticle. Usually need high
energy (at least the total mass).
At low energies, photoelectric-eect dominates Compton scattering.
Radioactivity: Beta decay
X
A
Z
X

A
Z+1
+
0
1
+
Alpha:
X
A
Z
X
A4
Z2
+ He
4
2
Gamma
X
A
Z
X
A
Z
+
20
Deuteron decay (not natural)
X
A
Z
X
A2
Z1
+ H
2
1
Radioactivity usually follows Poisson distribution.
Coaxial cable terminated at an end with characteristic impedance in order to avoid reection of signals
from the terminated end of cable.
Human eyes can only see things in motion up to 25 Hz.
In magnetic eld, e are more likely to be emitted in a direction opposite to the spin direction of the
decaying atom.
Op-amp (operational ampliers): if you only have two days to prepare for the GRE, this is not worth
the eort, maximum one question on this. Read The Art of Electronics to check this out.
The specic heat of a superconductor jumps to a lower value at the critical temperature (resistivity
jumps too)
Elementary particles: review the quarks, leptons, force carriers, generations, hadrons.
Family number conserved
Lepton number conserved
Strangeness is conserved (except for weak interactions)
Baryon number is conserved
Internal conversion is a radioactive decay where an excited nucleus interacts with an electron in one of
the lower electron shells, causing the electron to be emitted from the atom. It is not beta decay.
21