!MAG!NAT!\ TRANSCR!

PTS X
V!LLAR SP!GLMAN
!MAG!NAT!\
TRANSCR!PTS
Selected Literary Essays
1
:oo
1
xlord Univcrsity Prcss
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!maginativc transcripts : sclcctcd litcrary cssays / Villard Spicgclman.
p. cm.
!ncludcs bibliographical rclcrcnccs and indcx.
!S8N 8o+68+o
+. Amcrican poctryHistory and criticism. :. nglish poctryHistory
and criticism. . Poctics. . Poctry. !. Titlc.
PSoS6 :oo
8++.oodc:: :oo8o::o6
8 6 : +
Printcd in thc Unitcd Statcs ol Amcrica
on acidlrcc papcr
v
FRVR X
G
ood criticism, built on a broad and dccp knowlcdgc ol litcraturc
and cnlivcncd by a capablc scnsibility is thc bcst lricnd a pocm
can havc. !n thc bcst criticism, thc rcadcr is also brought into that
circlc ol lricndship. Villard Spicgclman has givcn laithlul and dcvotcd criti
cal attcntion to a good numbcr ol contcmporary Amcrican pocts, but his
obscrvations arc always inlormcd with broadcr and dccpcr poctic knowlcdgc
ol classical and romantic poctry.
Tis book opcns in a movingly pcrsonal way in which thc rcadcr is lcd to
rccnact a sccnc ol awakcncd awarcncss to poctry: in its opcning chaptcr
a rcvicw ol Robcrt Faglcs translation ol thc eneid (prcccding an carlicr cssay
ol Spicgclmans on Vordsworths translation ol \irgil)thc author givcs us
an cngrossing bit ol almost Proustian recherche ol his own lcarning to rcad,
as a studcnt, a passagc lrom 8ook ! with its cclcbratcd linc forsan et haec olim
meminisse iu.abit (pcrhaps somc day wc will rcmcmbcr thcsc things with joy,
whcrc olimlikc our Januslaccd thcncan dcsignatc a momcnt in past
or luturc timc). Vc arc lcd to lccl that not only thc conscqucnccs but thc
cxpcricncc ol construing lincs ol poctryusually thought ol as thc dricst
lcvcl ol rcadingcan bc lastingly lruitlul.
Tc rclation ol past and prcscnt is always thcrc in Spicgclmans work.
His rst book, !ords.orths Heroes, was a nc piccc ol work, but its bcing
lollowcd by Te Didactic Muse, an absolutcly rstratc study ol contcmpo
rary Amcrican poctry indicatcs that a mind and scnsibility lying bcyond thc
narrowly prolcssional was at work. Combining sophisticatcd litcrary history
vi
vovvw~vb
and criticism ol cultural milicus, this book rcmains, in my opinion, onc ol
thc most important studics ol contcmporary Amcrican poctry during thc
past dccadc. His last book, Majestic Indolence, had rcturncd to thc mattcr ol
Romantic poctry, but with a complcx moral and acsthctic agcndaa dialcc
tic ol passivcncss and activc crcativc cngagcmcntpcrhaps occasioncd by
somc ol his thinking about thosc qucstions in his prcvious work on contcm
porary writcrs. And in Ho. Poets See !orld, Spicgclman cxplorcd thc ways
in which, lor a numbcr ol contcmporary poctsand pcrhaps lor truc poctry
itsclldcscription can ncvcr bc mcrcly mcrc.
Tc rangc ol thcsc conccrns marks thc cssays in thc prcscnt volumc, in
which Spicgclman cngagcs somc ol thc contcmporary pocts hc has prcvi
ously discusscdCharlcs Tomlinson (a 8ritish poct, but onc inucnccd by
strains in Amcrican poctry), Amy Clampitt, Charlcs Vright, John Ashbcry,
and Joric Grahamas wcll as shows morc unprcdictablc choiccs ol critical
locus lor him, in thc cssays on thc lcss widcly apprcciatcd onald Justicc,
!rving Fcldman, and 8cn 8clitt. Hc also writcs ol thc poctic origins and
a liations ol midtwcnticth ccntury opcra librctti likc Te Fakes Progress
and Peter Grimes. Critical gcncrosity and cxpansivcncss shown throughout
thcsc pagcs is always accompanicd by thc acutcncss ol his obscrvation.
!t sccms to mc to bc a truth by no mcans univcrsally acknowlcdgcd
today that thc morc onc knows and has cngagcd with thc poctry ol thc past,
thc bcttcr a position hc or shc will bc in to dcal with that ol thc prcscnt.
Villard Spicgclmans powcrlul, knowing, and scnsitivc discussions ol latcr
twcnticthccntury Amcrican poctry attcst to this, as thcy do to his prag
matic pcrspcctivc and lack ol any thcorctical ax to grind that might actually
blunt thc kccnncss ol his pcrccptions.
John Hollandcr
vii
ACKNVLGMNTS X
S
omc ycars ago Hclcn \cndlcr casually rcmarkcd that ! should try to
publish a sclcction ol my cssays and rcvicws. At thc timc, ! didnt
think such a thing would bc possiblc. A bit latcr, Shannon McLach
lan, my cditor at xlord Univcrsity Prcss, madc a similar rccommcndation,
so with hcr cncouragcmcnt thc projcct wcnt lorward. ! am gratclul to hcr,
and to hcr assistant 8rcndan Ncill, lor thcir cnthusiasm and attcntion.
! wish to acknowlcdgc, as wcll, thc thrcc rcadcrs rcports that also supportcd
this cntcrprisc, and thc gcncrous introduction providcd by John Hollandcr.
Rcading through oncs own work lrom ycars past can bc a complicatcd
cxpcricncc. nc sucrs somc cmbarrassmcnt rcvicwing idcas and scntcnccs
about which onc now has sccond or third thoughts. 8ut onc also takcs satis
laction in sccing othcr articulations that sccm judicious and truc. !n any casc,
it will ultimatcly bc not my job but my rcadcrs to asscss thc accuracy ol my
litcrary cxplorations and judgmcnts.
Tc work containcd in thcsc pagcs appcarcd originally in thc lol
lowing journals: Unlorccd Marchcs, Tc Rakc, Tc on, Tc Flutc:
Audcn as Librcttist, All thc Vorlds Plcnty, All thc 8razcn Particulars,
and Tc Comcdian as thc Lcttcr !, or thc Pcrils ol \audcvillc in a Post
Modcrn Agc in Parnassus: Poetry in Fe.ie.; Rcpctition and Singularity,
Joric Graham Talking, Nakcd Vithout My Lincnds: Robcrt Lowcll
in His Lcttcrs, and Tc Achicvcmcnt ol Robcrt Lowcll in thc Kenyon
Fe.ie.; Poctry in Rcvicw: n Te Collected Poems of Donald Justice, and
Poctry in Rcvicw: n A. R. Ammons and John Ashbcry in Te Yale Fe.ie.;
viii
~cxxowivbc:vx:s
Landscapc and Knowlcdgc: Tc Poctry ol lizabcth 8ishop, and !n thc
Mash ol thc Uppcr and Ncthcr: 8cn 8clitts Placcs in Modern Poetry Stud-
ies; Vordsworths eneid, and Somc Lucrctian lcmcnts in Vordsworth
in Comparati.e Literature; Kcatss Coming Muskrosc and Shakcspcarcs
Prolound \crdurc in ELH; Pctcr Grimcs: Tc cvclopmcnt ol a Hcro in
Studies in Fomanticism; Rita ovc, ancing in !irginia Quarterly Fe.ie.;
and Tc Ninctics Rcvistcd in Contemporary Literature.
! am indcbtcd to thc cditors ol thcsc journals lor thcir support ol my
work. At thc bcginning ol my carccr Robcrt 8oycrs (who is still at thc hclm
ol Salmagundi ) and Jcromc Mazzaro ol thc now dclunct Modern Poetry
Studies acccptcd my rst cssays on contcmporary poctry. To avid Lynn
(Kenyon Fe.ie.), J. . McClatchy (Te Yale Fe.ie.), and 8cn owning and
Hcbcrt Lcibowitz (Parnassus), ! owc a grcatcr dcbt, ol many ycars standing,
lor thcir cncouragcmcnt, thcir kccn cditorial cyc and high standards, thcir
honcsty, and thcir judgmcnt. Mcssrs. owning and Lcibowitz, cspccially,
havc hclpcd mc honc my critical and litcrary skills and to bccomc a morc
clcarsightcd rcadcr and writcr.
CNTNTS X
Forcword v
!ntroduction xi
+ Unlorccd Marchcs: A \irgilian
Mcmoir (:oo)
: Vordsworths eneid (+) :
Somc Lucrctian lcmcnts
in Vordsworth (+8)
Kcatss Coming Muskrosc and Shakcspcarcs
Prolound \crdurc (+8) 8
Pctcr Grimcs: Tc cvclopmcnt
ol a Hcro (+86) :
6 Tc Rakc, Tc on, Tc Flutc: V. H. Audcn
as Librcttist (+8:) o
Landscapc and Knowlcdgc: Tc Poctry ol lizabcth
8ishop (+) +o
x
cox:vx:s
8 !n thc Mash ol thc Uppcr and Ncthcr: 8cn 8clitts
Placcs (+6) +:+
All thc Vorlds Plcnty, All thc 8razcn
Particulars (+8): n 8cn 8clitt +
+o Tc Comcdian as thc Lcttcr !, or thc Pcrils
ol \audcvillc in a PostModcrn Agc:
n !rving Fcldman (:oo+) +6
++ Rcpctition and Singularity: n Louisc Gluck,
Te Se.en ges, and Joric Graham, Ne.er (:oo) +
+: Poctry in Rcvicw: n thc Collected Poems
of Donald Justice (:oo) +
+ Rita ovc, ancing (:oo) +o
+ Tc Ninctics Rcvisitcd (:oo+) +8
+ Joric Graham Talking (:oo6) ::
+6 Poctry in Rcvicw: n A. R. Ammons and John
Ashbcry (:oo6) :
+ Nakcd without My Lincnds: Robcrt Lowcll
in His Lcttcrs (:oo6) :
+8 Tc Achicvcmcnt ol Robcrt Lowcll (:oo) :
Notcs :8
!ndcx :
xi
!NTRUCT!N X
Tc imaginativc transcripts wcrc likc clouds,
Today, and thc transcripts ol lccling, impossiblc
To distinguish.
w~ii~cv s:vvvxs, ~x ovbix~vv vvvxixc
ix xvw n~vvx
!n Vallacc Stcvcnss last long pocm, a Prolcssor ucalyptus sits and thinks,
and looks out on his balcony, and takcs a walk through ncighborhood
strccts, and practiccs scalcs on his piano. Tis poctphilosophcr, Stcvcnss
standin, kccps coming back to what his makcr calls thc rcal, thc ordinary,
thc basc linc, which is also thc placc whcrc hc starts. So do all ol us. Tc rcal
includcs naturc and thc cityscapc, our daily commonplacc lilc, cvcrything wc
cxpcricncc with our bodily scnscs. For litcrary scholars it also includcs pocms,
which constitutc lor us a rcality cquivalcnt to what wc scc outdoors. Vc kccp
coming back to thc rcal in litcraturc and thcn wc movc bcyond it, in ordcr to
commcnt upon it. n wc go, lrom thc rcal to thc imagincd, sccsawing bctwccn
passivc rcsponsc and activc cngagcmcnt, obscrving and intcrprcting.
Likc all pocts, prolcssors, and rcadcrs, Stcvcns kncw that thcrc is no
such thing as thc pocm ol purc rcality, untouchcd / 8y tropc or dcviation.
!n rcading, as in writing, wc add to thc availablc storc ol rcality through
crcativc acts ol cxplanation. Vc cnhancc thc rcal by bringing oursclvcs to
it. Likc Prolcssor ucalyptus wc always scck thc commodious adjcctivc
lor what wc scc. Vc comc at our subjcct obliqucly, in thc intricatc cvasions
xii
ol as, in Stcvcnss tcrms, or wc tcll all thc truth but wc tcll it, ncccssarily,
slant, as mily ickinson adviscd. Vc dcviatc and wc wandcr. Tis is what
wc mcan, nally, by litcrary crcation ol any sort: a placc whcrc as and is arc
onc. ickinson again: Succcss in circuit lics.
Most dichotomics, including thosc ! havc just traccd, tcnd to blur on
closcr cxamination. Stcvcnss imaginativc transcripts dcpcnd upon thc
transcripts ol lccling. !ndccd, thcy comc lrom thcm. Pcrhaps, as Stcvcns
suggcsts abovc, thc two scts ol transcripts arc nally indistinguishablc. lsc
whcrc in An rdinary vcning in Ncw Havcn hc claims that thc thcory ol
poctry (and, wc might admit, thc criticism ol poctry) is thc lilc ol poctry.
Hc also calls it thc thcory ol lilc, at lcast thc lilc ol poct, ordinary rcadcr, and
prolcssional or prolcssorial critic. Stcvcns was a grcat onc lor cquations, lor
simplc vcrbs ol bcing, lor X is Y lormulations. Tcsc quotcd cpigrammatic
phrascs lrom his most acadcmic pocm suggcst that lilc, thcory, and practicc
constitutc thc thrcc polcs ol all crcativc cndcavors. r, to bc morc prccisc,
thcy arc thc thrcc points that by marking a trianglc!d likc to imaginc an
cquilatcral oncalso makc a planc, a clcan gcomctrical gurc.
8ut what about Stcvcnss clouds: o thcy signily his skcpticism about
our common cndcavor: !s nothing solid: ocs nothing last: Vc all won
dcr. Vc want at lcast somc ol our transcripts to bc morc than ncbulous,
insubstantial rccctions. Vc want thcm to last longcr than a momcnt, longcr
than our ccting lcclings. Any author, cvcn an acadcmic critic, has morc
solid cxpcctations ol his work, no mattcr how sobcr and lcvclhcadcd his
undcrstanding ol timcs dcprcdations and thc incvitablc rcplaccmcnt ol onc
pcrsons, or agcs, tastc with anothcr. Tc shcll lilc ol litcrary criticism is
shockingly short, much briclcr than thc lilc ol thc art it discusscs. on Mar
quis oncc mordantly obscrvcd that publishing a book ol pocms and waiting
lor a rcsponsc is likc throwing rosc pctals into thc Grand Canyon and thcn
listcning lor thc ccho. All writcrs, rcgardlcss ol gcnrc, acccpt this grim truth,
and cach hopcs that hc may cvadc it. Vc scholars with our small dcgrcc ol
narcissism long lor stability, although wc cqually acknowlcdgc changc as our
common dcstiny. Vriting somcthing and thcn putting it into a journal or
book conlcrs a ccrtain, at lcast marginal, public authority upon it.
Many ycars ago ! handcd back a sct ol rst papcrs to studcnts in a poctry
coursc. ! told thcm that thcy hadnt donc cspccially wcll with thc Tomas
Hardy pocm ! had askcd thcm to writc about. ! thcn cxplaincd thc pocm
with, ! thought, clarity and irrclutablc pcrsuasivcncss. nc stcclycycd young
cnginccring studcnt raiscd hcr hand and said, Tat intcrprctation ol thc
pocm you just gavc us: did you nd it in a book or did you just makc it up:
Scldom at a loss lor words, ! pauscd momcntarily and thcn rcplicd, Vhy
would that makc any dicrcncc:
ix:vobic:iox
xiii
To which shc rctortcd, Vcll, il you had lound it in a book it would havc
somc truth to it, but il you just madc it up thcn ! dont undcrstand why its
any bcttcr than anything wc makc up.
And thcn ! kncw ! had hcr: Vhat do you think thc pcoplc who writc
thc books do: Tcy makc it up thcmsclvcs!
!t is lor this studcnt, and hcr pccrs during thc past scvcral dccadcs, as
wcll as lor my collcagucs and othcr prolcssional rcadcrs ol poctry, that ! havc
continucd to makc things up and guidc thcm into print. ! hopc that this
studcnt, now a maturc woman living a contcntcd lilc somcwhcrc, might scc
this book and takc satislaction in lcarning that ! havc tricd to rcspond to thc
challcngc shc ocrcd to mc whcn shc unintcntionally droppcd thc gauntlct
many ycars ago.
X
!
havc ricd abovc on Stcvcnss pocm, and havc rcminisccd about a par
ticular classroom intcrchangc, as a way ol introducing a sclcction ol
cssays and rcvicws that covcr a rangc ol litcrary tcxts lrom ancicnt Romc
to impcrial Amcrica. Somc havc a scholarly cast, othcrs wcrc intcndcd lor a
morc gcncral audicncc composcd ol thc pcrhaps mythic common rcadcrs
bclovcd ol r. Johnson and \irginia Vooll. As a group thc tcxts rcprcscnt
a scrics ol ordinary cvcnings and days spcnt not in Ncw Havcn but in othcr
sitcs ol rcading, contcmplation, and composition. Tcy transcribc my imag
inings and my lcclings.
8oth thc carlicst and thc latcst writtcn ol thcsc look at \irgils eneid, and
as a complcmcntary pair thcy also bring lull circlc a carccr ol rcading and writ
ing that bcgan morc than lour dccadcs ago in a high school Latin class whcrc,
undcr thc magical spcll ol an inspiring tcachcr and a grcat cpic pocm, ! rst
bccamcalthough ! hardly kncw it at thc timca litcrary critic. Unlorccd
Marchcs: A \irgilian Mcmoir, a rcvicw ol Robcrt Faglcss magistcrial trans
lation ol thc eneid, appcarcd in Parnassus (:oo) and dcscribcs in its opcning
pagcs thc thrill ol my lcarning how to rcad poctry slowly, carclully, and with
scnsitivc attcntion to cvcry nuancc ol mcaning, sound, grammar and syntax,
and lorm. Tcsc arc thc aspccts ol any pocm that still intcrcst mc thc most, in
particular what Stcvcns calls thc lcss lcgiblc mcanings ol sounds, thc ovcr
lappings ol mcaning and music, cvcrything wc mcan by thc word tone. Tc
lcss lcgiblc thc mcanings, thc morc wc must pursuc thcm. Tcy arc also thc
vcry things that much acadcmic study ol litcraturc, in its cort to dcmystily
its subjcct, has lor thc most part ncglcctcd during thc past thrcc dccadcs, as
othcr kinds ol studynot scmantic but idcological, thcorctical, political, and
culturalhavc prccmptcd what uscd to bc callcd closc rcading.
ix:vobic:iox
xiv
Poctry has rctrcatcd to thc pcriphcry ol most collcgc curricula. Vhcrcas
lorty ycars ago cvcry young assistant prolcssor with a ncwly mintcd doctor
atc could bc countcd on to havc undcr his or hcr bclt thc capacity and will
ingncss to tcach an introductory undcrgraduatc coursc in poctry (and onc in
Shakcspcarc), many ol todays young acadcmics arc as unrcady to lcad such
a coursc, unlcss thcy havc had spccic training in this arcanc gcnrc, as thcy
would bc a coursc in a lorcign languagc. Tc tcaching anthology asscmblcd
and cditcd by thc latc Rcubcn 8rowcr, in collaboration with junior collcagucs
in his Humanitics 6 coursc at Harvard, was callcd signicantly Beginning
.ith Poems. Poctry was supposcd to bc whcrc it all startcd.
Poctry instcad has bccomc somcthing likc a lorcign languagc, having
movcd to thc circumlcrcncc ol thc circlc whosc ccntcr it uscd to occupy.
Most univcrsity nglish dcpartmcnts no longcr rcquirc a study ol thc gcnrc
as part ol thc training ol thcir undcrgraduatc majors. Tcrc arc many rcasons
lor such displaccmcnt and ncglcct. nc is thc lact that poctry, cspccially
lyric poctry, rcsists thc pigconholing brought about by thosc idcological or
thcorctical mancuvcrs that havc as thcir primary locus thc cxtcrnal world,
socicty, history, or cvcn human psychology. Anothcr is thc lact that hostilc
critics havc bludgconcd thc idca ol closc rcading bccausc somc ol thc lamous
old Ncw CriticsClcanth 8rooks, John Crowc Ransom, Allcn Tatc, Rob
crt Pcnn Varrcnalso adhcrcd to a conscrvativc political stancc in othcr
parts ol thcir intcllcctual livcs. 8ut closc rcading is not an cmpty cxcrcisc or
a vcrsion ol what T. S. liot callcd thc lcmonsqucczcr school ol litcrary
criticism, although its rcccnt advcrsarics havc accuscd it ol such stcrility. Nor
is it cithcr logically or politically a rcactionary practicc, although many ol its
Amcrican adhcrcnts, likc thc quartct abovc, wcrc conscrvativc Southcrncrs.
Tc nglishmcn !. A. Richards, thc loundcr ol thc movcmcnt, and Villiam
mpson, thc bcst and lcast prcdictablc or containablc closc rcadcr ol thc past
ccntury, always lcancd politically to thc Lclt.
Fortunatcly, closc rcading is making a comcback thcsc days. Scholars as
dicrcnt as Tcrry aglcton and Marjoric Pcrlo havc urgcd us to rcsumc thc
clcmcntary cxamination ol pocms as pocms rathcr than as othcr things. A
studcnt oncc told mc that hc had donc raccclassgcndcr (lor ycars now thc
cquivalcnt ol a singlc portmantcau tcrm) in his high school nglish classcs, but
an cmphasis on tonc and voicc in an clcmcntary collcgc class soundcd awc
somc, likc somcthing dicrcnt, ncw, and cxcitingly swcct. Tc whccl turns.
Tc common litcrary cntcrprisc, pcrsonal and collcctivc, mcans looking
at somcthing as it actually is (in Matthcw Arnolds dictum) and also as it
isnt (in scar Vildcs). Vc approach our tcxts and undcrstand thcm by way
ol our own tropcs and dcviations. Twclvc ycars altcr ! nishcd high school,
! wrotc my rst scholarly cssay, on Vordsworth and \irgil, which appcarcd
ix:vobic:iox
xv
in Comparati.e Literature in +. 8oth Vildc, in thc ninctccnth ccntury,
and Harold 8loom, in thc twcnticth, havc obscrvcd that thc strongcst litcr
ary commcntary is at lcast a thinly vcilcd autobiography. ltcn that auto
biography is cvcn morc nakcd, morc ovcrt, than thc subjcct undcr rcvicw.
Tc picccs collcctcd hcrc lorm a partial account ol my intcllcctual growth
and intcrcsts. Vc scldom work on pocms or othcr tcxts lor purcly objcctivc
rcasons. thcr lactors havc dctcrmincd, il not ovcrdctcrmincd, our choiccs.
ncs imaginativc transcripts rcproducc at various lcvcls thc history ol oncs
lcclings as wcll as oncs critical thoughts.
No rcadcr rcads morc closcly than thc translator, this is onc rcason that thc
propcr study ol nglish always bcncts lrom, cvcn dcpcnds upon, thc study
ol othcr languagcs. Latin poctry has long inlormcd my cxpcricncc ol nglish
and Amcrican litcraturc. Vhatcvcr ! havc achicvcd as scholar and critic has
bccn duc in largc part to my knowlcdgc, howcvcr impcrlcct, ol Latin, as wcll as
Frcnch, Gcrman, Grcck, and !talian. Frcnch camc in high school, as did Latin,
Gcrman in collcgc, Grcck onc summcr vacation through thc kind agcncy ol
a lricndly classicist who grantcd mc cntry into his Homcr coursc, and !tal
ian bcgan thc way it docs lor many ol us: through a combination ol antc,
rcstaurants, opcras, and trips to !taly. Vords sink in. Turns ol phrasing, gurcs
ol spccch, and colloquialisms gradually bccomc a part ol a rcadcr/spcakcrs lin
guistic cquipmcnt lor undcrstanding rcality. Vc cngagc with thc rcal through
languagc itscll. 8y rcading pocms, or wholc books, in languagcs othcr than my
nativc onc, ! had to work slowly and mcthodically, alcrt to thc mystcrics inhcr
cnt in words, in languagc itscll. nc stumblcs in ordcr to lcarn how to walk
upright, onc mumblcs bclorc rcaching lullcr powcrs ol articulation.
Likc thc closc rcading ol pocms, thc study ol thc socallcd dcad lan
guagcs, indccd ol most lorcign languagcs, no longcr constitutcs a major
part ol litcrary cducation in this country, at cithcr thc univcrsity or thc prc
univcrsity lcvcl. !n spitc ol thc lip scrvicc paid to divcrsity, many prolcssors
ol litcraturc arc rcgrcttably monolingual and only marginally intcrcstcd in
ho. languagcthcir own as wcll as thosc ol othcr pcoplcactually works.
! put myscll in thc camp ol J. Hillis Millcr, who dcscribcs approvingly thc
linguistic momcnt, thc point at which wc bccomc awarc ol languagc itscll
opcrating in a pocm, or somcwhat lcss lrcqucntly in a piccc ol prosc, thc
point at which thc author himscll or hcrscll has brought to thc lorc matcri
als rathcr than idcas. Such momcnts abound in lorcign languagcs, but thcy
also constitutc our litcrary cngagcmcnts with thc mothcr tonguc.
As a child, such rcvclations camc to mc through my nativc nglish
as wcll as through thosc languagcs ! didnt undcrstand casily or naturally.
vcn oncs rst languagc contains plcnty ol mystcrics, il only bccausc all
languagc is inhcrcntly strangc and initially unlathomablc. A good dictionary
ix:vobic:iox
xvi
ought to bc any rcadcrs bcst lricnd. At tcn, ! hcard and thcn rcad, or pcr
haps thc othcr way around, thc titlc ol ugcnc Ncills play Mourning
Becomes Electra. Vhatcvcr could it mcan: !t conjurcd imagcs ol a prcnoon
thundcrstorm. A paticnt lthgradc tcachcr, and trips to !ebsters and thc
cncyclopcdia, ocrcd clarication. Vords (bccomcs) can havc morc than
onc mcaning. Homonymic puns (Mourning/Morning) can occur. Grcck
hcroincs havc strangc namcs that sound almost nglish. All ol this camc as
ncws to mc. A pcrson capablc ol continuing to dclight in such surprisc oltcn
bccomcs a writcr, cvcn il only a litcrary critic.
Tc lollowing cssays a rm, ! hopc, thrcc principlcs. Tc rst is that
pocms livc mainly through thcir lorm and thcir languagc, what Colcridgc
callcd thc bcst words in thc bcst ordcr, howcvcr wc might mcasurc thcm.
Tc sccond is that pocts lrom dicrcnt timcs and placcs, and in dicrcnt
languagcs, arc ncvcrthclcss oltcn rclatcd to onc anothcr, and that a latcr
poct can rcspond to an carlicr onc although writing in a dicrcnt lan
guagc. Robcrt Frost said that hc rst bccamc awarc ol thc spcaking voicc in
poctry through his high school rcading ol Shakcspcarcs plays andmorc
surprising\irgils Eclogues. Tc rclationship ol \irgil to Homcr rcmains
thc most powcrlul rcmindcr ol 8looms thcorics ol litcrary inucncc, and it
should cncouragc a rcturn to thc bcst parts ol thc old comparativc litcraturc
curriculum as wcll as blcnding such thcorics into thc tcaching ol tcxts in our
nativc tonguc. Tc third govcrning principlc, visiblc only rctrospcctivcly, is
thc way in which a litcrary lilcin this casc my ownconstructs itscll ovcr
timc, changing and rcmaining stcady simultancously.
Although ! probably could not havc prcdictcd it whcn ! was a graduatc
studcnt, my tcaching and writing havc had thrcc kinds ol locus lor thrcc and
a hall dccadcs: thc Grcck and Roman classics, thc 8ritish Romantics, and
Amcrican poctry ol thc past sixty ycars. Twothirds ol this volumc consist
ol cssays about and rcvicws ol postVorld Var !! Amcrican poctry, a cld
to which ! was drawn only altcr my o cial acadcmic carccr had bcgun.
8clorc that timc, ! had billcd and sold myscll as a Romanticist. (As an undcr
graduatc my passion and tastc wcrc all lor ction.) Tc six canonical
8ritish Romantic pocts8lakc, Vordsworth, Colcridgc, 8yron, Shcllcy, and
Kcatsstill gurc hcavily in my tcaching and writing, although ! now look
lorward lrom thcm to lizabcth 8ishop, Joric Graham, and othcrs, as wcll
as back lrom thcm to Milton, Shakcspcarc, and thc ancicnts whcn ! tcach
thcm. Tc bridgc bctwccn thcm and contcmporary Amcrican pocts is strong
and pcrmancnt: ! am hardly alonc in concciving thc history ol poctry in n
glish sincc Vordsworth as, in largc part, a scrics ol lootnotcs and rcsponscs
to thc rcvolution hc sct going, with Colcridgcs hclp, in thc +8 Lyrical
Ballads and thc prclacc that lollowcd two ycars latcr.
ix:vobic:iox
xvii
Altcr thc cssays about \irgil, and about Vordsworth and his conncctions
to two Latin prccursors, comc two lurthcr cxplorations ol Romantic poctry,
both ol thcm in a comparativc modc: an cssay on Kcatss dc to a Night
ingalc and its intcrtcxtual rclationship with Midsummer Nights Dream,
and a study ol Pctcr Grimcs, thc cponymous hcro ol 8cnjamin 8rittcns
rst opcra (+), in rclation to his carlicr incarnation in Gcorgc Crabbcs
Te Borough (+8+o). From thc 8ritish Romantic pocts, thc cssays lcap to thc
Unitcd Statcs in thc postVorld Var !! cra. ! continuc a musical locus in an
cssay on V. H. Audcn as librcttist and translator. Tis piccc pcrlorms scv
cral kinds ol bridging: bctwccn music and poctry, bctwccn languagcs, and,
as always in Audcns casc, bctwccn 8ritish and Amcrican poctry, as wcll as
bctwccn high modcrnism and a postwar, intcrnational sccnc.
! was unawarc ol much contcmporary poctry until my carly twcntics, it
had cntcrcd ncithcr my curricular study nor my cxtracurricular awarcncss
until ! bcgan rcading Robcrt Lowcll and 8ishop, rst out ol curiosity and
thcn lor plcasurc. 8clorc thcn, all ! kncw wcrc thc pcrcnnial lavoritcs ol
adolcsccnts, c. c. cummings and ylan Tomas. Allcn Ginsbcrg had madc
his mark on thc zcitgcist with thc publication ol Ho.l in +, but most
collcgc prolcssors would not grant him, or it, thc courtcsy ol closc attcntion.
Tcaching a coursc in contcmporary Amcrican poctry in +, ! rcalizcd that
8ishop, thcn in hcr latc owcring that includcd thc grcat pocms gathcrcd
togcthcr in Geography III (+6), owcd as much to Vordsworth as shc did to
Hcrbcrt and Hopkins, hcr two lavoritc pocts. Landscapc and dcscription
thc way a vicwcr looks at thc world and thc cmotional as wcll as thc intcl
lcctual changcs that such looking rcgistcrsstruck mc as major tropcs in hcr
work as much as thcy had bccn in that ol hcr 8ritish prccursor.
My carlicst critical, imaginativc transcripts also rcgistcrcd transcripts ol
my lcclings, or pcrhaps vicc vcrsa. ! bcgan to scc placc whcrcvcr ! lookcd,
placcs thcmsclvcs bcgan to lcap lrom thc pagcs ol such divcrsc pocts as thc
now undcrratcd 8cn 8clitt, onc ol thc last avatars ol high modcrnism and, latcr,
Charlcs Vright. ! dccidcd to look at, and into, thc act ol looking itscll. ncc
! bcgan rcading contcmporary pocts closcly and imaginativcly, it bccamc clcar
that thc oncs who mcant thc most to mc, rcgardlcss ol dicrcnccs among thcm
in stylc and tcmpcramcnt, wcrc thosc who took such acts ol looking as scriously
as ! did. Pocts in thc high Romantic traditionVright and Amy Clampitt,
cvcn thc morc amboyant Joric Grahamtcach us how pocts scc thc world,
to borrow thc titlc ol my :oo book about thcsc and othcr contcmporarics.
Northrop Fryc long ago obscrvcd that a pcrson with idcal tastc is thc
onc who likcs and can undcrstand cvcrything, but lcw rcadcrs can mcct
thc hcroic dcmands ol Frycs cncyclopcdic standards. Still, cvcn somconc
with lar lrom catholic tastcs can movc away lrom a basc, a tonic chord, and
ix:vobic:iox
xviii
outward to othcr rcgistcrs and othcr tonalitics. !t was natural lor mc to bc
drawn to thc cngaging nostalgias, sophisticatcd wcarincss, and lormal musi
cal cxpcrimcntation ol onald Justicc and Mark Strand, and thc rclatcd but
dicring vcrsions ol Amcrican Romanticism in A. R. Ammons and John
Ashbcry. Tc antic disposition ol !rving Fcldman and thc oltcn clinical aus
tcrity ol Louisc Gluck also appcalcd, although to a dicrcnt sidc ol my tcm
pcramcnt. Likcwisc, ! had taught thc poctry ol Rita ovc, but it wasnt until
! rcad merican Smooth (:oo) that ! thought to writc about hcr, and thcn
only bccausc wc sharcd a passion lor ballroom dancing. Vhocvcr would
havc imagincd that thc waltz or thc loxtrot, that quintcsscntial Amcrican
dancc, could conncct a poct and onc ol hcr acadcmic rcadcrs:
Tc volumc cnds with two picccs about Robcrt Lowcll. Hc was thc onc
grcat postVar poct whom ! had rcad, admircd, and taught lor thirty ycars,
but ncvcr writtcn about until quitc rcccntly. Pcrhaps ! nccdcd thrcc lull
dccadcs to absorb thc work ol thc man whosc manic ambition and cncy
clopcdic litcrary absorption rcturn this volumc to its bcginnings, in \irgil,
ancicnt Romc, and a pocts cpic aspirations. Vith thc publication ol Lowclls
+,+8pagc Collected Poems in :oo ! lound it instructivc, indccd mandatory,
to sit down and rcad straight throughlrom thc Pulitzcr Prizcwinning
Lord !earys Castle to thc hcartbrcaking latc Day By Dayin ordcr to survcy
what Stcvcns, thinking ol his own Collected Poems, rclcrrcd to as thc planct
on thc tablc. Kcats lclt likc a watchcr ol thc skics whcn hc discovcrcd
Chapmans Homcr. Likcwisc, whcn Lowclls ncw planct swam into my
kcn, ! rcalizcd again thc truth that thc big books ol grcat pocts bccomc part
ol thc rcal to which any scrious rcadcr must accommodatc himscll.
Many ol my carlicr cssays on pocts (cspccially Ammons, Ashbcry,
Audcn, 8ishop, Clampitt, Ginsbcrg, Graham, Anthony Hccht, Jamcs Mcr
rill, Howard Ncmcrov, Robcrt Pinsky, Adricnnc Rich, Charlcs Tomlinson,
and Vright, as wcll as thc 8ritish Romantics) havc alrcady lound a homc
within thc bound covcrs ol othcr books. !n thc lollowing sampling lrom
uncollcctcd pcriodical publications ! wish to takc thc mcasurc ol both oldcr
and contcmporary poctry and, by cxtcnsion, ol myscll through an cxami
nation ol thosc pocts whosc visions, languagc, lormal cxpcrimcnts, toncs,
and music havc kcpt a hold on mc. My accounts arc, likc all accounts, par
tial, ocring only a lragmcnt ol thc lull truth. Tcy arc partial, also, insolar
as thcy rcprcscnt onc pcrsons rcsponsc to thc lar richcr and morc divcrsc
landscapc ol Amcrican poctry that lics bcyond thcsc covcrs. Takcn togcthcr,
thcsc cssays signily at sccond hand an intcllcctual autobiography, a rccord ol
tastcs and opinions that lollow thc arc ol onc rcadcrs history. Vhcthcr this
history, thc transcripts ol my lcclings, intcrsccts with thc historics ol othcr
rcadcrs ! lcavc to thcm to dctcrminc.
ix:vobic:iox
!MAG!NAT!\ TRANSCR!PTS X
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N X
UNFRC MARCHS
!irgilian Memoir (:cc)
!
ts a clcar lall day in midctobcr, +6+. utsidc, thc lcavcs on thc maplc
and gingko trccs arc cry crimson, thosc ol thc oak bright ycllow. Sub
tlcr shadcs also abound. pcn windows givc onto high school playing
clds, lrom which thc sounds ol thc marching band, rchcarsing lor Fridays
lootball gamc against our archrivals, oat in. ightccn ol ushigh school
scniors bound mostly lor !vy Lcaguc collcgcs and all biting our ngcrnails
about applications whosc outcomcs wc shall not know lor anothcr vc
monthsarc having thc timc ol our livcs. Vc arc rcading thc eneid.
ur tcachcr, Maric 8intncr, lcss than a dccadc our scnior, arrivcd at
Chcltcnham High School in Vyncotc, Pcnnsylvania (whcrc zra Pounds
and H. .s childhood homcs thcn still stood) along with us two ycars bclorc.
Frcsh lrom hcr graduatc work at thc Univcrsity ol Pcnnsylvania, shc has
takcn (wc lcarn latcr) to dycing hcr hair blondc and wcaring high hccls just to
makc surc wc undcrstand whos boss. Shc is probably a bit morc ncrvous
than wc arc, but wc dont know this. Two ycars bclorc, whcn wc wcrc sopho
morcs, shc lcd us on thc lorccd marchcs that Cacsar took through Gaul
with his troops. Last ycar, shc cscortcd us through thc syntactic tanglcs ol
Ciccros orations (Quo usquc tandcm, abutcrc, Catilina, paticntia nostra:)
!t was our paticncc, not thc Roman scnatcs, that was bcing tricd. Having
gonc through all this, having lost our lcss sympathctic, paticnt, or linguisti
cally compctcnt lcllow studcnts, who lcll by thc waysidc altcr two or thrcc
ycars ol Latin, wc arc rcady lor our rcward. \irgil is purc hcavcn. Vc sct out
on our uncnlorccd ncw marchcs, purcly gurativc oncs now, with wondcr
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

and somcthing approaching joy. ur task is not casy but it givcs plcasurc.
!n thc ncxt months, through SAT tcsts, collcgc intcrvicws, spring lcvcr and
scnioritis, slouching and sloughing o ol rcsponsibilitics as thc cnd ol ado
lcsccncc draws ncar, nonc ol us will cvcr think ol skipping class or not doing
our Latin homcwork. Tis is a tcstimony to both a grcat tcachcr and a grcat
subjcct.
!t is rst pcriod, to :o in thc morning. Vc arc still in 8ook +. Tc last
night ol Troy (8ook :), ido and Acncas (8ook ), and thc Undcrworld
(8ook 6) rcmain tcrrac incognitac, to bc chartcd during thc rcmaindcr ol thc
school ycar. Acncas, having washcd up on thc shorcs ol Carthagc, is ocring
hopc to his wcary Trojan countrymcn:
socii (ncquc cnim ignari sumus antc malorum),
o passi graviora, dabit dcus his quoquc ncm.
vos ct Scyllacam rabicm pcnitusquc sonantis
acccstis scopulos, vos ct Cyclopia saxa
cxpcrti, rcvocatc animos macstumquc timorcm
mittitc, lorsan ct hacc olim mcminissc iuvabit.
(+.+8:o)
Most ol us do not usc translations to hclp us. (! havc lcarncd lrom my
currcnt studcnts that thc words pony and trot, commonplacc in my cra,
havc disappcarcd lrom thc vocabulary.) Somctimcs wc work out our assign
mcnts in small groups, thc tclcphonc comcs in handy. Mostly, ! lic on my
bcd with a dictionary and try to piccc my way through thc tanglcs. Transla
tion ol this sort is likc doing a jigsaw or crossword puzzlc: thc basic principlc
is to bcgin with thc casy stu, thc obvious words and phrascs, and hopc that
contcxt will hclp with thc morc obduratc scctions.
! scc that Scylla and thc Cyclops play a part in Acncass cxhortations.
Mrs. 8intncrs rst rulc (borrowcd, ! supposc, lrom thc Gcrman) is Always
go lor thc vcrb. Tis allows us, in ll. +8, to pass immcdiatcly to thc cnd
ol thc scntcncc, whcrc wc nd a simplc, rst conjugation, thirdpcrson
singlc, luturc tcnsc: hc will givc (dabit). Vho will givc: Tats casy: a
god (dcus), sccond dcclcnsion, masculinc, nominativc. Hc will givc what:
An cnd (ncm). Vhats that littlc his doing in thc middlc: !ts a plural
dativc pronoun, ol coursc: God will givc an cnd to thcsc. And what cxactly
arc thcsc: 8ack to thc prcvious linc and a hall to nd an antcccdcnt noun.
!t cant bc socii, who arc clcarly thc vocativc/nominativc comradcs whom
Acncas is addrcssing, and wcd bcttcr skip ovcr thc parcnthctical phrasc as
bcing lor thc momcnt unncccssary (thank goodncss lor our cditors parcn
thcscs, which \irgil did not usc). Passi must havc somcthing to do with
socii (it turns out to bc a past participlc uscd as a noun: you who havc
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)

sucrcd), so thc antcccdcnt has to bc graviora, which surc looks likc, and
turns out to bc, a comparativc adjcctivc (ncutcr plural): hcavicr things.
qually casy, rclativcly spcaking, is thc bulk ol linc :o:: rcvocatc, a clcar
impcrativc (call back), is lollowcd by its noun objcct, animos, but what
docs it mcan to call back your minds or souls: !d bcttcr rcturn to this onc,
! think, its placc and purposc arc unambiguous, but its nuanccd mcaning is
not, at lcast not yct. And thcn anothcr accusativc adjcctivcnoun combina
tion, with thc ncat su x quc (and) tailcd onto thc sadncss ol macstum,
thc casily rccognizcd cognatc timorcm (lcar), and thc plural impcrativc
put (mittitc), which must mcan put away or dismiss. Tc spccch is
coming into locus. Acncas is cncouraging mc, his sixtccnycarold rcadcr!
Tc climax comcs in thc lamous lormulawc dont know its lamous until
wc arc told so, but all ol us havc hcard or uscd it countlcss timcs sincc thcn
lorsan ct hacc olim mcminissc iuvabit. !wchavc bccomc translators.
Vc arc onc stcp away, though this too docs not rcgistcr on mc at thc timc,
lrom bcing litcrary critics, and two stcps away lrom bcing pocts oursclvcs.
! always think ol what Colcridgc said about Shakcspcarc, that in rcading
him you bccomc somcthing ol a poct yoursclla truth that, in my cxpcri
cncc, also applics to rcading all pocts in lorcign languagcs and, in our own,
Vallacc Stcvcns and John Ashbcry.
My litcrary cducation has rcally bcgun. ! havc rcad voraciously and
promiscuously sincc childhood, but translation mcans a dicrcnt lcvcl ol
apprchcnsion, activc not passivc. High school nglish classcs arc as noth
ing comparcd to this. ! havc bcgun to dcvclop a tastc lor, an intcrcst in, and
a capacity lor undcrstanding poctry only by way ol a lorcign languagc. My
nativc tonguc would not bc as usclul prcciscly bccausc ! know all thc words,
and thcrclorc can movc through tcxts morc quickly, thinking ! havc donc
my homcwork. vcn my study ol Frcnch has not had thc ccct ol Latin,
bccausc in Frcnch class wc spcnd part ol our timc speaking thc languagc.
Tank goodncss lor thc socallcd dcadncss ol thc classics.
Ycars latcr ! will bc struck by Robcrt Frosts rcmark that hc rst hcard
thc spcaking voicc in poctry by rcading, ol all things, \irgils Eclogues. ! will
nd this cxtraordinary and comlorting in cqual mcasurc. xtraordinary in
that Frost dctcctcd a spcaking voicc in an antiquc languagc, at thc rcmovc
ol two millcnnia, and through pastoral, always dccmcd thc most articial ol
poctic gcnrcs bccausc ol its convcntions. (r. Johnson on Miltons Lycidas:
its lorm is that ol a pastoral, casy, vulgar, and thcrclorc disgusting.) 8ut
comlorting bccausc my cxpcricncc in school absolutcly duplicatcd Frosts.
Not thc pastoral Eclogues but thc cpic eneid , no mattcr.
Could this rcally havc bccn almost a hall ccntury ago: !n suburban
Philadclphia, wcmiddlcclass, mostly Jcwish, sons and daughtcrs ol thc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
grcatcst gcncrationwcrc raiscd to succccd during that muchmaligncd
dccadc, thc +os. 8y and largc wc havc: bccomc doctors, dcntists, lawycrs,
prolcssors, thcrapists, rcscarch scicntists, bankcrs, novclists, busincss pcoplc,
labor organizcrs, architccts, Statc cpartmcnt o cials, and, now, somc ol
us, grandparcnts. Vould wc havc prospcrcd without \irgil as our pilot: ! cant
spcak lor all thc othcrs, but it is di cult lor mc to imaginc thc trajcctory ol
my own carccr, ol my lilc, without his guidancc. (Twclvc ycars latcr, my rst
scholarly articlc, Vordsworths eneid, brought togcthcr my rst poctic
lovc and a morc rcccnt onc.) antc kncw what hc was doing whcn hc chosc
\irgil as his cscort.
Lct mc rcturn, howcvcr, to lorsan ct hacc, onc ol thosc touchstoncs
(sunt lacrimac rcrum ct mcntcm mortalia tangunt is still :o lincs and
scvcral wccks ahcad ol us) that continuc to haunt \irgils rcadcrs, his trans
lators, and thosc pocts who havc lclt thc brush ol his sadncss. A sixword
cpigrammatic scntcncc, it cpitomizcs thc comprcssion availablc to ancicnt
Grcck and Latin but not to us modcrns. All translations ol \irgil and
Homcr incvitably usc morc words than thcir originals. And sincc thc sup
plcncss ol Latin syntax cannot bc duplicatcd in nglish, with its morc or
lcss xcd lincarity, a translator must nd his own way ol producing multum
in par.o.
! am back in +6+. ! sit at homc with my handy Cassclls Ne. Latin
Dictionary (+) and try to parsc thc scntcncc. Tc linc lacks adjcctivcs
and cnds with thc vcrb, in thcory it should bc casy to rcndcr. !t is not. For
san, ! discovcr, mcans by chancc. lim sccms to mcan oncc upon a
timc. 8ut wait: it can also mcan onc day. (Cassclls citcs \irgils linc as an
cxamplc.) Tc lact that thc vcrbwhatcvcr it mcansis in thc luturc tcnsc
(as rccctcd by that bit cnding, which wc lcarncd scvcral ycars carlicr) con
rms this. Mcminissc turns out to bc a scmiGrcck innitivc, to rcmcm
bcr, so now only two puzzlcs rcmain. First, ! must pin down thc mcaning
ol thc vcrb, which ! lcarn comcs lrom iuvo/iuvarc, to hclp, assist, which
ccrtainly docsnt assist mc, but also thc morc promising to dclight, gratily.
!m lclt with ct hacc, which ccrtainly docsnt sccm likc a propcr subjcct lor
a thirdpcrson singular vcrb (though !ll latcr lcarn that plural ncutcrs can
in lact takc such vcrbs). And this will bc plcasing, pcrhaps, to rcmcmbcr in
thc luturc: !m gctting closc.
Tc dictionary lortuitously (a word rclatcd to lorsan) scrvcs as a trot,
oncc again citing \irgils linc as an cxamplc ol how thc vcrb can bc uscd
impcrsonally: it is plcasing. And thcn it strikcs mc: hacc is not a subjcct
but a pronominal objcct, ncutcr accusativc plural (thcsc things). urcka:
And pcrhaps onc day it will bc plcasing to rccall thcsc things. Tc simplc
ct (and) docsnt mcrit looking up in thc dictionary.
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)

Gctting comly, ! havc committcd an almost latal crror. Too much con
dcncc lcads to hubris. !t turns out (yct ! lail at thc timc to rcalizc) that
thc pcsky, lar lrom simplc ct can bc not only a conjunction but an advcrb
mcaning also, cvcn. vcn thcsc things it will bc plcasing to rcmcmbcr
somc day . . . pcrhaps, says thc intrcpid lcadcr, himscll doubting thc vcry
clich hc is lccding his troops. cspitc thc charactcristic lorsan, Acncas
wants his spccch to cncouragc his wcary countrymcn, but \irgil undcrcuts
thc lcadcrs cnthusiasm with his lollowup: spcm voltu simulat, prcmit
altum cordc dolorcm (hc lcigns hopc in his lacc, hc stics thc dccp gricl
in his hcart).
An cntirc history ol both criticism and tastc can cvolvc lrom a study ol
translation, so lct mc makc a minicxcursion through thc land ol lorsan ct
hacc (which wc adolcsccnt wags uscd to chant as a combination lootball
chccr and magic trick: Forsan ct Hikc! lim Mcminissc: Yourc a Rab
bit!). Gavin ouglas, in middlc Scots, nccds sixtccn lincs to rcndcr \irgils
six, but hc nally achicvcs thc mood: Sum tymc hcron to think may hclp
pcrchauncc / 8y diucrs cacis, scir pcrrcllis and sucrcnacc. !t also takcs
rydcn an cntirc hcroic couplct to gct it: An hour will comc, with plcasurc
to rclatc / Your sorrows past as bcncts ol latc. No lorsan hcrc: its all
Augustan chccrlulncss. vcn wcirdcr in its jauntincss is thc \ictorian cort
by John Conington, thc Corpus Prolcssor ol Latin at xlord, who rcndcrs
thc eneid in rhyming octosyllabic couplcts, intcrspcrscd with othcr vcrsc
lorms, cspccially in thc spccchcs:
Comc, chccr your souls, your lcars lorgct,
Tis sucring will yicld as yct
A plcasant talc to tcll.
Tc audicncc ol thc day Coningtons translation appcarcd in +866must
havc caught an ccho ol Tcnnysons Ulysscs (To strivc, to scck, to nd, and
not to yicld) and may wcll havc sccn Acncas as a lorcrunncr ol muscular
Christianity. Not so in thc twcnticth ccntury: all ol thc major translations arc
alcrt to Acncass tcntativc, hcsitant mood. Rollc Humphrics (+): Somc
day, pcrhaps, rcmcmbcring cvcn this / Vill bc a plcasurc. Allcn Mandcl
baum (++): Pcrhaps onc day you will rcmcmbcr cvcn / thcsc our advcr
sitics with plcasurc. Robcrt Fitzgcrald (+8) simply rcpcats Humphrics:
Somc day, pcrhaps, rcmcmbcring cvcn this / will bc a plcasurc. dward
McCroric (+) uscs thc lcwcst words and a conditional mood: Rcmcm
bcring all this somcday may chccr you.
A month or so altcr lorsan ct hacc, wc in Mrs. 8intcrs class comc
upon Laocon, hurling his spcar into thc hollow bclly ol thc Trojan horsc
and cxprcssing his own skcpticism: timco anaos ct dona lcrcntis. 8y this
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
point wc arc awarc that thc advcrbial ct can bc uscd with ironic lorcc: !
lcar thc Grccks especially whcn bcaring gilts. Vc arc rcmindcd, looking
back, ol Acncass ambiguous articulation: pcrhaps, onc day, it will bc plcas
ing to rcmcmbcr e.en thcsc things (bccausc thcy wcrc so horriblc), or it
will bc plcasing to rcmcmbcr especially thcsc things (bccausc wc will sur
mount thcm with hcroic prowcss). Much complcxity in such a trivial word,
multum in par.o indccd.
X
F
iltccn ycars altcr high school, by now a prolcssor myscll, ! took a sum
mcr school coursc in Homcric Grcck taught by a classicist lricnd. Rcad
ing Homcrthc grcatcst poct in part bccausc hc is thc rstwas a walk in
thc country comparcd to rcading \irgil. ncc you havc Homcrs limitcd
vocabulary, with its many rcpcatcd cpithcts and othcr phrascs, its a rclativcly
simplc mattcr to gct thc gist ol his poctry. 8ut ! could ncvcr havc donc
this without having rcad \irgil rst. !n My Early Life, Vinston Churchill,
a lamously bad studcnt, said somcthing that now hangs, in a calligraphic
rcndcring, on my o cc wall: 8y bcing so long in thc lowcst lorm ! gaincd
an immcnsc advantagc ovcr thc clcvcrcr boys . . . ! got into my boncs thc
csscntial structurc ol thc normal 8ritish scntcnccwhich is a noblc thing.
Naturally, ! am biascd in lavour ol boys lcarning nglish, and thcn ! would
lct thc clcvcr oncs lcarn Latin as an honour, and Grcck as a trcat. Latin as
an honor prcparcd mc lor Grcck as a trcat and also lor thc rcst ol my lilc,
but not lor thc rcasons thcy gavc us in school. Tc brightcst kids wcrc sup
poscd to takc Latin bccausc it would tcach thcm vocabulary and ctymology
and prcparc thcm lor law and mcdicinc, thc prolcssions with rcally di cult
lingocs, it had somcthing to do with anatomy and pharmacology, with stare
decisis and habeas corpus and othcr highlalutin tcrms. An unsubtlc snobbism
opcratcd: thc smartcst ol us took Latin, thc sophisticatcd oncs (mostly girls)
took Frcnch, and cvcryonc clsc took Spanish, on thc qucstionablc notion
that it was casicr than thc othcrs. (No languagc is intrinsically morc dil
cult than any othcr, although it is truc that Latins syntactical uidity, as
wcll as its dcclcnsions and conjugations, somcwhat complicatcs thc proccss
ol lcarning.)
Still, thc primary rcason to rcad thc socallcd dcad languagcs is not to
amass a largcr, lancicr vocabulary or to ordcr oncs luturc vocational arrangc
mcnts. A collcaguc in my univcrsitys anthropology dcpartmcnt oncc said at
a laculty colloquium on thc tircd subjcct ol thc valuc ol a libcral arts cduca
tion that this was thc primary bcnct hc had rcccivcd lrom rcading Shakc
spcarc in collcgc. ! bcggcd to dcmur, his rcmark annoycd mc. An unintcndcd
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)

conscqucncc is mcrcly a collatcral bcnct, not an csscntial rcason. Tc rcason

to rcad Shakcspcarc or anyonc clsc is, instcad, to gcncratc a spccic kind
ol plcasurc, achicvcd through linguistic mastcry and not dissimilar to thc
mastcry ol crossword puzzlcs or othcr languagc gamcs. 8ccausc it is lorcign,
Latin poscs grcatcr challcngcs, and thcn givcs grcatcr plcasurcs. Tosc plca
surcs arc, rst ol all, thc knowlcdgc ol how languagc works and, sccond, what
it was likc to stand with Pliny and watch as \csuvius cruptcd, to court with
Catullus his Lcsbia, and to scc with Lucrctius thc invisiblc atomic particlcs
that constitutc our world.
X
F
orsan ct hacc: it is indccd a plcasurc, now, ycars latcr, to rccall thcsc
things, cspccially bccausc rcading Robcrt Faglcss supcrb translation
ol thc eneid has brought back my schoolboy days. Having alrcady trans
latcd thc Iliad and thc Odyssey, Faglcs has now roundcd out a lilctimc ol work
in thc clds ol classical cpic. Translation is a gamc that no onc cvcr wins lor
all timc, cach agc rcdiscovcrs, rcinvcnts, rcintcrprcts thc classics, and no oncs
translation is cvcr anything morc than a sophisticatcd assay or assault on thc
matcrial. ! am rcmindcd ol Richard 8cntlcys lamous rcmark to thc grcatcst
translator ol thc classics in nglish: A vcry prctty pocm, Mr. Popc, but you
mustnt call it Homcr. So wc wont call Faglcss book \irgil, but rathcr
\irgil lor our timc, howcvcr long that timc might bc. His triumphant
vcrsion should rcmain thc onc to bcat lor ycars to comc.
Hcrc, lor startcrs, is his rcndcring ol Acncass spccch ol cncouragcmcnt
to his mcn:
My comradcs, hardly strangcrs to pain bclorc now,
wc all havc wcathcrcd worsc. Somc god will grant us
an cnd to this as wcll. Youvc thrcadcd thc rocks
rcsounding with Scyllas howling rabid dogs,
and takcn thc brunt ol thc Cyclops bouldcrs, too.
Call up your couragc again. ismiss your gricl and lcar.
A joy it will bc onc day, pcrhaps, to rcmcmbcr cvcn this.
Trough so many hard straits, so many twists and turns
our coursc holds rm lor Latium. Tcrc Fatc holds out
a homcland, calm, at pcacc. Tcrc thc gods dccrcc
thc kingdom ol Troy will risc again. 8car up.
Savc your strcngth lor bcttcr timcs to comc.
Faglcs has nglishcd \irgil in cntircly pcrsuasivc ways. His diction and
syntax arc limpid and straightlorward, but hc cmbcllishcs thc surlacc ol
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
thc vcrsc with many nicc and dclicatc touchcs. !n this passagc, lor instancc,
ccrtain allitcrations (wcathcrcd worsc, rocks / rcsounding . . . rabid,
brunt . . . bouldcrs, call . . . couragc, ct al.) and assonanccs (rcsound
ing . . . howling, pcacc . . . dccrcc) pass into our cars almost inaudibly,
so gcntlc is thcir music.
\irgil wrotc an impossiblc languagc. Latin docs not lcnd itscll to dactyls,
and it was part ol \irgils uniqucncss to havc pcrlcctcd thc proccssbcgun
by nnius, Lucrctius, and Catullusol hammcring, somcwhat unnatu
rally, Homcrs mclliuous hcxamctcrs (Grcck bcing a morc uid languagc)
into thc ruggcd sounds ol spondcchcavy Latin. !n addition, whcrc Homcr
improviscd, wcaving his rcadymadc cpithcts and lormulas into an appar
cntly spontancous pattcrn, \irgil is cntircly ol thc library, working by thc
book in ordcr to makc a book. !l Homcrs work is thc fons et origo, thc rst
owcr ol cpic, thcn \irgils is rcsponsivc, an ccho and a continuation as wcll
as an original pocm in its own right. Tcrcs not a singlc pagc that docs
not havc Homcr bchind it, somctimcs ovcrtly, somctimcs subtly. \irgil was
pcrhaps thc rst poct to labor undcr what V. J. 8atc callcd thc burdcn ol
thc past, and what Harold 8loom lamously rclormulatcd in a Frcudian
way as thc anxicty ol inucncc. 8ut, to put it morc positivcly, his eneid
might bc dcscribcd as thc grcatcst homagc cvcr paid to a prccursor poct.
Tis rcsponsivcncss works at two lcvcls: a scmantic onc consisting ol story,
hcrocs, and gurcs ol spccch (!ll comc to thcsc shortly), and a nonscman
tic onc ol music and prosody. nc pcrlcctly dactylic linc is Junos lamous
statcmcnt at thc start ol 8ook , uscd by Frcud on thc lrontispiccc ol Te
Interpretation of Dreams: cctcrc si ncquco supcros, Achcronta movcbo
(in Faglcs: !l ! cannot sway thc hcavcns, !ll wakc thc powcrs ol hcll, an
cqually clcgant, balanccd asscrtion). Homcr makcs us hcarcrs, and \irgil
lcavcs us rcadcrs, Popc lamously obscrvcd in thc prclacc to his own grcat
Iliad. No onc can succccd cntircly in rcndcring thc articial bookishncss
ol \irgil. At lcast Homcrs languagc, though cqually articial (i.c., poctic),
allows his translators to discovcr thcir own cquivalcnts lor rosyngcrcd
dawn, swiltlootcd Achillcs, and graycycd Athcna, and to rcpcat and
vary thcm at will.
8ut \irgil also makcs us hcarcrs, insolar as anything writtcn in lincs
rathcr than prosc scntcnccs dcmands that wc attcnd all thc morc closcly to
nicctics ol sound, rhythm, syntax, to cvcrything wc mcan by music. Vhat
wc hcar in Faglcs is strong but not cntircly rcgular vcrsc, with thc iambic hclt
that sounds normativc in nglish: wc all havc wcathcrcd worsc, an cnd to
this as wcll, with Scyllas howling rabid dogs, thc Cyclops bouldcrs too,
ismiss your gricl and lcar, so many twists and turns / our coursc holds
rm, lor bcttcr timcs to comc. Faglcss lincs gcncrally havc cithcr vc or
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
++
six bcats, though hc occasionally cxpands to scvcn strcsscs to hcightcn a
rich similc. ltcn hc uscs a plain iambic pcntamctcr linc, or a variation ol
onc, to signal tcrmination, at thc cnd ol cithcr a book or an cpisodc. Hcrcs
thc tcnsyllablc, somcwhat irrcgular cnd ol 8ook 6: Anchors run lrom
prows, thc stcrns linc thc shorc. And thc pcrlcct cnd ol 8ook : hcr shcp
hcrds sta ol myrtlc spikcd with stccl. Tc hcndccasyllabic cnd ol 8ook 8:
thc lamc and latcs ol all his childrcns childrcn. Tc thirtccnsyllablc but
thoroughly iambic cnd ol 8ook +o: and across his armor pours his lilc in
wavcs ol blood. A rcgular iambic pcntamctcr can also mark a pausc within
thc onrush ol thc narrativc, cspccially in thc battlc sccncs that takc up so
much ol thc sccond hall ol thc pocm. Somc cxamplcs: spccding thcm past
thc churning shoals unharmcd (.:), but Fortunc grudgcd thcm both
salc passagc homc (+o.+), thcir wailing sct thc walls on rc with gricl
(++.+, a wondcrlul turn ol phrasc). 8oth togcthcr and scparatcly, thc
iamb and thc pcntamctcr providc us hcarcrs with somcthing likc a dclault
modc, and a vcry rcassuring onc.
qually rcassuring is Faglcss judicious, nimbly handlcd syntax. nly Mil
ton, or contcmporarics mad lor hypotactic construction, likc Amy Clampitt,
Richard Howard, thc Robcrt Lowcll ol Lord !earys Castle, Jamcs Mcrrill,
and Richard Vilbur, can pcrlorm syntactic acrobatics that would do justicc
to thc \irgilian scntcncc. Faglcs holds his own with his contcmporarics.
Takc, lor a modcst instancc, lorsan ct hacc. \irgil bcgins with pcrhaps
and kccps us waiting lor thc vcrb until thc cnd ol what is lor him a short
scntcncc. !n his translationa joy it will bc, onc day, pcrhaps, to rcmcm
bcr cvcn thisFaglcs bcgins with an invcrsion, pcrhaps mcant to prcscrvc
somc lccling ol pomp and Latinity, but thcn introduccs a scrics ol mcdical
hcsitations that allow us to hcar thc unccrtainty and doubts in Acncass voicc
cvcn bclorc wc lcarn ol thc anguish buricd in his hcart. lscwhcrc, Faglcs
makcs us hcar \irgil as a stalwart, plainspcaking Roman whosc a rmation
ol Augustan pictics and propaganda tcnds to bc complicatcd, or cvcn undcr
cut, by his dccpcr undcrstanding ol what hc lamously tcrmcd thc tcars ol
things. !n Faglcs, Acncass rcsponsc to thc dcpiction ol himscll and his
lallcn city on thc rising wall ol Carthagc is anothcr straightlorward uttcr
ancc: cvcn hcrc, thc world is a world ol tcars / and thc burdcns ol mortality
touch thc hcart. As always, it takcs thc translator morc words to rcndcr thc
original: Faglcs nccds scvcntccn to translatc \irgils scvcnword cpigram
matic lormula sunt lacrimac rcrum ct mcntcm mortalia tangunt. Latin
concision can ncvcr bc duplicatcd, a translator must nd analogical ways ol
rcndcring its cccts.
Faglcss eneid is a piccc ol poctry in its own right, with its own music
and impclling narrativc thrust. !l his looscly iambic rhythm draws us in and
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
holds our attcntion ovcr thc span ol tcn thousand lincs, hc uscs othcr dcviccs
as wcll to cnsurc our auditory satislaction and involvcmcnt in thc action.
Considcr, lor cxamplc, allitcration and assonancc, which in thc abscncc
ol rhymc providc musical gluc to hold a linc, or a longcr passagc, togcthcr.
!n thc luncral gamcs lor Anchiscs, \irgil introduccs a giant snakc, a bcnign
countcrpart to thc twin scrpcnts that dcvourcd Laocon and his sons in
8ook :. Tc passagc glittcrs, rainbowlikc, plcasing out inncr cyc, and also
rings with cchoing sounds lor our auditory plcasurc:
a scrpcnt slithcrcd up lrom thc shrincs dcpths,
drawing its scvcn hugc coils, scvcn rolling coils
calmly cnlolding thc tomb, gliding through thc altars:
his back blazcd with a mazc ol scabluc ccks, his scalcs
with a shccn ol gold, shimmcring as a rainbow showcrs
iridcsccnt sunlight arcing down thc clouds. Acncas
stoppcd, struck by thc sight. Tc snakc slowly swccping
along his lcngth among thc bowls and polishcd goblcts
tastcd thc lcast, thcn back hc slid bclow thc tomb,
harmlcss, slipping away lrom altars whcrc hcd lcd.
(.+o+:)
An cspccially ccctivc alcxandrinc cnds thc passagc, giving us additional
assurancc that thc ccrcmonics havc procccdcd with c cicncy and will con
tinuc to do so.
Such music inlorms thc cntirc pocm, but nowhcrc is it morc wclcomc
than in thc sccond hall, thc socallcd !liadic eneid, llcd with warlarc, roll
calls ol soldicrs, and a kind ol pagcantry that holds littlc intrinsic intcrcst
or signicancc lor a modcrn audicncc. \irgils contcmporarics would havc
rccognizcd thc shccr powcr ol thc namcs ol thcir anccstors, thcir history, ol
cvcrything that madc Romc grcat, thc cataloguc has its own potcncy and
lilc. For us, whatcvcr powcr wc still nd in thcsc passagcs can bc only ol an
artistic naturc. Tcrc is, lor instancc, an auditory thrill in thc rcpcatcd an
and ian sounds whcn \irgil lists thc cloud ol troops on loot, / shicld
bcaring battalions lollowing Turnus:
Mcn in thcir primc lrom Argos, ranks ol Auruncans,
Rutulians, Sicanian vctcrans on in ycars, Sacranians
in columns, Labicians bcaring thcir paintcd shiclds,
mcn who plow your gladcs, old Tibcr, thc Numicus
holy banks, whosc plowsharc turns thc Rutulian slopcs
and Circcs highridgcd capc.
(.:::)
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
+
And hcrc is Faglcs wondcrlul rcndcring ol thc passagc that cvokcs \ulcans
workshop, in which blacksmith and Cyclops alikc lorgc Acncass shicld.
ncc again visual and auditory clcmcnts combinc, this timc to lorcc homc
thc scnsc ol constant labor:
. . . And somc arc working thc bcllows
sucking thc air in, blasting it out, whilc othcrs
arc plunging hissing bronzc in thc brimming troughs,
thc ground ol thc cavcrn groaning undcr thc anvils wcight,
and thc Cyclops raising thcir arms with thcir powcr,
arms up, arms down to thc drumming, pounding bcat
as thcy twist thc moltcn mass in gripping tongs.
(8.:)
Piling prcscnt participlc upon participlc, Faglcs guarantccs our awarcncss ol
thc toil involvcd in producing thc shicld, on which arc dcpictcd sccncs lrom
Roman history. Tcsc cxist in thc unknowablc luturc lor Acncas, but as thc
known past lor thc pocms rcadcrs. Hoc opus, hic labor cst (thcrc thc
strugglc, thcrc thc labor lics in Faglcss balanccd vcrsion) says thc Cumacan
Sibyl to Acncas bclorc his dcsccnt to thc Undcrworld in 8ook 6. For thc
hcro, its thc rcturn lrom bclow that is unnaturally di cult, lor thc translator
its thc trick ol rcmaining laithlul to his original without losing his contcm
porary audicncc. Hc has a doublc obligation and must always look backward
and around himscll simultancously.
!n \irgil timc is always ol thc csscncc. For thc charactcrs, thc past dcstruc
tion ol onc cmpirc is balanccd by thc promisc ol a ncw onc in thc luturc.
For us rcadcrs, cvcrything is past, likc thc archacological laycring at Troy
uncovcrcd by Schlicmann in thc ninctccnth ccntury. 8ut throughout, both
\irgil and Faglcs kccp us moving rapidly, making us lccl that wc arc hcaring
rathcr than rcading a lastpaccd narrativc in which cvcrything is happcning
right now.
!l dcviccs such as allitcration and assonancc kccp us alcrt to \irgils music,
Faglcss cncrgctic absorption ol \irgils historical prcscnt vcrbs (thc usc ol
thc prcscnt tcnsc to rcndcr action alrcady achicvcd) givcs his pocm a powcr
lul immcdiacy. Kcats docs thc samc to grcat advantagc in Tc vc ol Saint
Agncs, to namc a morc rcccnt cxamplc. nc also sccs thc tcchniquc uscd in
much contcmporary ction, but all too oltcn, irritatingly cnough, lor no appar
cnt rcasonsomcthing on thc ordcr ol ! am sitting in thc car ncxt to my
boylricnd and wc arc driving to thc scnior prom. ! am chccking my makcup
and smoking a cigarcttc. !n thc hands ol a novicc, such writing mcrcly prc
tcnds to bring us in. !t sounds jittcry and tcnds to makc its rcadcrsat lcast
thosc ol a ccrtain agcncrvous bccausc it prohibits mcditation or any kind
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
ol complcx tcmporality. \irgil uscs thc prcscnt, howcvcr, with such smart
condcncc that cvcn whcn a passagc switchcs apparcntly at random bctwccn
prcscnt and prclcct tcnscs wc arc ncvcr discomtcd.
Hcrc, lor cxamplc, is Acncas narrating thc lall ol Troy to ido in Car
thagc. Noticc how in thc middlc hc movcs lrom prcscnt action to thc past
pcrlcct tcnsc, and that it docsnt bothcr us at all:
into thc blazc ! divc, into thc lray, whcrcvcr
thc din ol combat brcaks and war crics ll thc sky,
whcrcvcr thc battlclury drivcs mc on and now
!m joincd by Rhipcus, pytus mighty in armor,
rcaring up in thc moonlight
Hypanis comcs to my sidc, and ymas too,
ankcd by thc young Corocbus, Mygdons son.
Latc in thc day hcd chanccd to comc to Troy
inccnscd with a mad, burning lovc lor Cassandra:
soninlaw to our king, he would rcscuc Troy. Poor man,
il only hcd markcd his bridcs inspircd ravings!
(:.:)
Vhcn ido, having lcarncd ol Acncass immincnt dcparturc, ics into dcs
pcratc ragc, wc again movc scamlcssly lrom past to prcscnt tcnsc:
. . . but thc quccn
who can dcludc a lovcr:soon caught wind
ol a plot aloot, thc rst to scnsc thc Trojans
arc on thc movc . . . Shc lcars cvcrything now,
cvcn with all sccurc. Rumor, vicious as cvcr,
brings hcr word. . . .
(.66+)
Hcrc and clscwhcrc, Faglcs docs not lollow vcrbatim \irgils altcrnations
bctwccn past and prcscnt, but his tcmporal manipulations always do justicc
to thc spirit ol thc original.
Vhat Pound said ol his Cantos (that it is a pocm containing history) is
cqually truc lor all cpics, rcgardlcss ol languagc or pcriod. !t thcrclorc makcs
scnsc lor thc poct or his translator to kccp his rcadcrs on thcir lcct as hc
switchcs bctwccn tcnscs. \irgils oltpraiscd mclancholy (hc was thc man,
according to 8runo Sncll, who invcntcd thc cvcning), and his attcntion to
thc shadows ol this world and thc shadcs ol thc ncthcrworld, dcrivc lrom
his historical scnsc ol thc costs ol cmpirc, thc lragility ol thc prcscnt, thc
wcight ol thc past, and thc unccrtainty, howcvcr latcd, ol thc luturc. nc
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
+
passagc in 8ook : stands out as an cspccially poignant cxamplc ol his
wcighing ol nostalgia against hopclulncss. Acncas cncountcrs Panthus, a
pricst ol Apollo, carrying his gods and his grandchild away lrom thc burn
ing citadcl ol Troy, and asks what is happcning. Panthus rcplics:
.enit summa dics ct incluctabilc tcmpus
ardaniac. fuimus Trocs, fuit !lium ct ingcns
gloria Tcucrorum, lcrus omnia !uppitcr Argos
transtulit , inccnsa anai dominantur in urbc.
! havc italicizcd thc vcrbs, a combination ol prcscnt and hcartbrcaking
pcrlcct oncs. Hcrc is rydcns noblc summary:
Troy is no morc, and Ilium was a Town!
Tc latcd ay, thappointcd Hour is comc,
Vhcn wrathlul Jo.es irrcvocablc doom
Translcrs thc Trojan Statc to Grecian hands.
Vordsworth, who did an intcrcsting translation ol 8ooks : and in unchar
actcristic rhyming couplcts, rcndcrs thc spccch thus:
. . . Tis comcthc nal hour,
Tc incvitablc closc ol ardan powcr
Hath comc:wc havc bccn Trojans, !lium was
And thc grcat namc ol Troy, now all things pass
To Argos,so wills angry Jupitcr.
And Faglcs thus:
Tc last day has comc lor thc Trojan pcoplc,
no cscaping this momcnt. Troys no morc.
!lium, goncour awcsomc Trojan glory.
8rutal Jupitcr hands it all ovcr to Grcccc.
Comparcd to his prcdcccssors, Faglcs sounds mattcrollact, cvcn prosaic.
8ut this is thc point. So docs \irgil. Fuimus Trocs, luit !lium mcans simply
wc havc bccn Trojans, !lium has bccn. Tc simplc prctcritc tcnsc, uscd in
thc plural and thcn in thc singular, in rclcrcncc to pcoplc and to thc statc,
packs grcatcr punch than any ol thc nglish vcrsions. Transtulit is pcr
lcct tcnsc, dominantur prcscnt. Tus docs \irgil cnsurc that wc, likc his
charactcrs, arc bornc o in a lrcnzy ol activity that strctchcs through scvcral
tcmporal laycrs. Ycstcrdays currcnt cvcnts arc todays history.
Anothcr way that Faglcs kccps thc action alivc and prcscnt is through his
dramatic cnjambmcnts. \irgil uscs long pcriodic scntcnccs that scldom pausc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
at thc cnd ol lincs. Faglcs matchcs his mastcr in his scnsc ol what onrush
mcans to his charactcrs and rcadcrs. Again, lrom thc last night ol Troy:
. . . And worsc still,
thc Grccks roaring with angcrwc had savcd Cassandra
attack us lrom all sidcs! Ajax, crccst ol all and
Atrcus two sons and thc wholc olopian army,
wild as a rampaging whirlwind, gusts clashing,
thc Vcst and thc South and astwind riding high
on thc rushing horscs ol thc awn, and thc woods howl
and Ncrcus, thrashing his savagc tridcnt, churns up
thc sca cxploding in loam lrom its rocky dcpths.
(:.+::)
Vhcthcr dcpicting violcnt carnagc, as abovc, or statcly pagcantry, as in thc
sccnc ol ido and Acncas riding lorth to thc hunt (8ook ), bclorc thc
storm that brings thcir passion to a climax whcn thcy takc shcltcr in a con
vcnicnt cavc, both \irgil and Faglcs know how to convcrt movcmcnt into
cncrgy by carclul attcntion to sound.
And also to sight. Popcs distinction bctwccn hcaring and rcading
clidcs onc othcr vital quality ol any cpic pocm: !t must makc us scc. \irgils
scnsc ol what arc now callcd thc visuals is unsurpasscd in cpic litcraturc.
Ncithcr Homcr nor antc nor Milton can givc us thc shccr statclincss ol
pagcantry, in thc cpic cataloguc or similar rollcalls, or in thc dcpiction
ol action. 8ccausc thc eneid is a nationalistic cpic (thc rst onc, in lact),
and bccausc part ol its authors purposc was to praisc Augustus lor his
accomplishmcnts both past and to comc, it had to convcy thc incvitabil
ity ol Romcs dcstiny by making it visiblc as wcll as audiblc. Augustuss
lamous, pcrhaps apocry phal boast, which \irgil did not livc to hcar, was
that hc lound Romc a city ol brick and lclt it a city ol marblc. \irgil
was, howcvcr, kccnly awarc ol thc cmpcrors building campaign, ol Roman
lcats ol civil cnginccring, and hc had a lm dircctors cyc lor action and
allcgorical plumagc. Vhcn King vandcr, thc Trojans ally in thcir war
with thc Latins, asks Acncas to takc his son Pallas into battlc, to tcach him
to grow hard / to a soldicrs lilc and thc rough work ol war, hc rcminds us
ol thc didactic anglc to \irgils patriotism: Lct him gct uscd to watching
you in action, / admirc you as his modcl lrom his youth (8.6o8++). Tc
rcadcr watchcs thc action too, and admircs (a word whosc root is to look)
thc hcro and his various strcngths. Trough thc bcauty and music ol words,
\irgil cndows cvcn carnagc with its own mclliuousncss, cspccially in thc
latcr books, as whcn \irgil asks Calliopc to hclp mc unroll thc massivc
scroll ol war (.6o).
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
+
!l thc eneid wcrc propaganda purc and simplc, it would ncvcr havc
maintaincd its hold on thc Vcstcrn litcrary imagination lor morc than two
millcnnia. At onc timc, part ol its appcal dcrivcd lrom thc lcgcnd ol \irgil
as prcChristian magus, an anima naturalitcr Christiana, who in his lourth
ccloguc was thought to havc prcdictcd thc birth ol Christ. To thc 8ritish,
thc eneid, with its impcrial vision ol Romc, scrvcd as a mirror ol thcir own
prcdcstincd cmpirc and as a mcans ol inculcating gcncrations ol schoolboys
with Latin notions ol duty and picty. 8ut to thc mythical common rcadcr,
thc glory ol thc pocm rcsidcs in its chronic and incvitablc sadncss, and in thc
modcrn scllconsciousncss ol its hcro. \irgil dicrs lrom Homcrs stcrn scnsc
ol warlarc and tragcdy as thc csscntial human condition by giving his hcro
not only a scnsc ol historical dcstiny but also a capacity to rcmain dutilul and
dutyboundpius, to usc his lamous cpithct. Acncas has lcrocity whcn
nccdcd and sadncss whcncvcr hc is lclt to his own thoughts. Such sadncss
rcccts his scllconsciousncss (mcns sibi conscia rccti, thc mind always alcrt
to what is right), somcthing distinguishing him lrom his Homcric antcccd
cnts, such as Achillcs and dysscus. Scllconsciousncss, what Socratcs callcd
thc cxamincd lilc, was not availablc to Homcr. !t was \irgil who modcrn
izcd it and madc it a Roman idcal. Marcus Aurclius, still scvcral ccnturics in
thc luturc, would not havc bccn possiblc without \irgil as a prcdcccssor. And
as \irgil is always conscious ol his dcbt to Homcr, Acncas is scllconscious
in ways that makc him our contcmporary. Although thc plain shcrman to
whom Ycats gavc a copy ol thc pocm thought thc socallcd hcro was rcally
a pricst, Acncas has bccomc to modcrn audicnccs a tcst casc in thc strugglc
bctwccn passion and duty, plcasurc and obligation, lovc and war.
!taliam non spontc scquor, Acncas says laconically to ido as hc prc
parcs to lcavc hcr (! sct sail lor !taly / all against my will |.+:|). Hc
is wcightcd down by physical, psychological, and cosmic lorccs. Hc lacks lrcc
will to dcnc himscll lor himscll. His pictas, that classic Roman virtuc that
wcavcs its way through !talian history up to Mussolinis insistcncc on dcdica
tion to thc statc, partakcs ol cqual portions ol lamilial lovc and patrio tism.
And ol coursc thc statc is thc lamily writ largc. Tc imagcbclovcd ol art
ists and rcadcrs alikcol Acncas carrying his agcd lathcr Anchiscs on his
back, holding thc hand ol his son Ascanius (his wilc Crcusa lollowing bchind,
in ordcr to bc convcnicntly disposcd ol and to allow Acncas to makc a ncw,
dynastic marriagc whcn hc alights in !taly), cncompasscs all thc burdcns lorccd
upon thc unwilling loundcr ol cmpirc. Such burdcns arc cducational, as hc
rcminds ido in 8ook +: Schoolcd in sucring, now ! lcarn to comlort / thosc
who sucr too (+.+:).
ido docs not lcarn thc lcsson as wcll as shc might. No wondcr
St. Augustinc rcmcmbcrs having wastcd so many tcars ovcr hcr bclorc hc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
lound salvation. Vhatcvcr hcr strcngths, shc is also doubly doomcdas a
lorcigncr and as a womanand undonc by hcr lovc lor a man. Tat lovc is
both psychologically rcalistic in \irgils prcscntation and ordaincd by thc
collaborativc corts ol \cnus and Juno. Tc quccn, committcd to cmpirc
building, says to hcr sistcr that shc rcmains laithlul to hcr dcad husband,
Sychacus, but that if anyonc could stir crotic passion in hcr, it would bc
this gorgcous man rcccntly washcd ashorc at Carthagc. Cupid, thc cmissary
ol his mothcr, works his magic, and thc quccn is soon won ovcr. Shc, too,
cxhibits a modcrn scllconsciousncss: Adgnosco vctcris vcstigia ammac
(Tc signs ol thc old amc, ! know thcm wcll |.o|). Shc bccomcs not
an ancicnt vcrsion ol a dcspcratc houscwilc but a tragic gurc who givcs
in complctcly, as Acncas docs not, to thc amcs ol cros and who thcrcby
ncglccts hcr civic rcsponsibility. ncc shc lcarns ol his dccision to lcavc, shc
ragcs, shc bcgs, shc asks lor a stay in ordcr to comc to tcrms with hcr loss,
shc cvcn hints that prcgnancy will salvc hcr wounds. All to no avail. Acncas
rcmains unmovcd, unrclcnting, and sccmingly hcartlcss.
!t is thc pocms grcat achicvcmcnt to allow us to lccl ambivalcnt toward
both thc hcro and ido, his altcr cgo. A rstccntury Roman would naturally
scc in hcr, as wc do not, thc anccstral sourcc ol thc Punic wars, with Hanni
bal playing thc rolc ol hcr avcngcr. 8ut hc would also havc bccn movcd, likc
St. Augustinc, by thc plight ol thc abandoncd lovcr. At lcast lor a momcnt,
Acncas bccomcs somcthing ol a sti:
. . . hcavcn blocks his gcntlc, human cars.
As rm as a sturdy oak grown tough with agc
whcn thc Northwinds blasting o thc Alps compctc,
ghting lclt and right, to wrcnch it lrom thc carth,
and thc winds scrcam, thc trunk shuddcrs, its lcaly crcst
showcrs across thc ground but clings rm to its rock.
. . .
. . . hc takcs thc lull lorcc
ol lovc and sucring dccp in his grcat hcart.
His will stands unmovcd. Tc lalling tcars arc lutilc.
(.6)
\irgils placidas auris (gcntlc cars) indicatc Acncass sympathy, hcld in
chcck by hcavcn and thc latcs. Tc hcro lccls sympathy in his hcart, but
mcns immota manct (His will stands unmovcd)\irgils insistcnt allit
cration calls attcntion to thc immobility ol Acncass mind. No cad hc, but
rathcr a hcro summoncd against his will to a highcr calling. Tc conict
bctwccn lovc and duty has cchocd down thc corridors ol cultural history
cvcr sincc.
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
+
ido turns out to bc as hcroic as hcr abandoning lovcr, though with
dicrcnt motivation. Vhcn shc dccidcs to mount hcr luncral pyrc, shc pro
claims, ! shall dic unavcngcd, but dic ! will! (.8+8). Faglcss oldlashioncd
distinction bctwccn shall (lor luturity) and will (lor dctcrmination) niccly
capturcs thc scnsc ol \irgils moricmur inultac, / scd moriamur, though hc
docs not allow his ido to spcak ol hcrscll in thc royal wc. For him, as lor
thc rcst ol thc eneids modcrn audicncc, shc rcmains an archctypc ol maj
csty, a pawn in thc hands ol thc mcddlcsomc gods who ncvcrthclcss achicvcs
dignity through suicidc.
!nultac, along with inanis (cmpty as opposcd to worthlcss or
scnsclcss, as dcnotcd by thc nglish inanc) and ccrtain othcr words, ring
throughout thc pocm, with thc ccct ol imparting to it an insistcnt undcr
tonc ol lutilc sadncss. Such words arc \irgils way ol rcminding us ol thc
usclcssncss ol so much in both human history and thc human will. Tcars
lall usclcss throughout thc pocm. vcn art oltcn lails in its corts to mcmo
rializc thc dcad and hclp thc living. Tus, at thc start ol 8ook 6, Acncas
sccs ncar Naplcs thc work ol acdalus, mastcr craltsman, who attcmptcd
to carvc his sons tragcdy into thc walls:
And you, too, !carus, what part you might havc playcd
!n a work that grcat, had acdalus gricl allowcd it.
Twicc hc tricd to cngravc your lall in gold and
Twicc his hands, a lathcrs hands, lcll usclcss.
(6.o)
Much in \irgils world, as in ours, turns out to bc usclcss, cmpty, in vain.
Tc visual splcndors ol proccssions, ol individual bcauty, ol naturc itscll,
arc scvcrcly compromiscd il not cntircly undonc by \irgils mclancholy.
r onc might say that thc mclancholy cnhanccs bcauty bccausc ol thc
pocts scnsc that, as Stcvcns put it, dcath is thc mothcr ol bcauty.
As thc poct ol sadncss and thc cvcning \irgil anticipatcd many modcrn
varictics ol nostalgia (litcrally, pain ol homc) lrom thc !elt.schmer. ol
Gocthcs young Vcrthcr and thc mal du sicle ol thc Frcnch Romantics to
Frcudian mourning and mclancholia. Morc than Homcr, who had a starkly
absolutc, tragic scnsc ol thc livcs ol warriors and thcir victims, and ol thc
civilians (womcn and childrcn) whom thcy took into slavcry, \irgil tcnds
to intcrnalizc thc sucring ol both mcn and womcn. Such sucring is clcar
lrom thc opcning ol his rst ccloguc, with its rclcrcnccs to thc displacc
mcnts and cxilcs causcd by thc civil wars ol thc rst ccntury n.c. !t continucs
in thc Georgics. Tc eneid builds upon thc carlicr works, raising civic dis
harmony lrom a pastoral thcmc to an cpic onc in thc samc way that urbanity
and cmpirc cxtcnd lrom agriculturc and thc natural lilc. Landscapclovcr,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
lord ol languagc said Tcnnyson, by which hc mcant to praisc cqually \irgils
combination ol local patriotism (his sympathy lor shcphcrds and larmcrs, thc
lands thcy occupicd and thc tradcs thcy plicd) and litcrary savvy. Hc lound
in his prccursor a Tcnnyson a.ant la lettre: Tou majcstic in thy sadncss / at
thc doubtlul doom ol human kind. Tcnnysons \irgil is also Faglcss \irgil,
and indccd ours. !l both landscapc and cmpirc may sccmat thc start ol
our latcst ccnturyimpcrilcd by humankind, thcn \irgil is thc poct ol today
as wcll as ol thc ninctccnth ccntury. Humanity has run riot ovcr thc carths
landscapc: ovcrpopulation, gcnocidc, cpidcmic discascs, global warming, and
intcrnccinc warlarc all conlront us in thc ncws cvcry morning. Tc cost ol
maintaining an cmpirc, indccd scvcral ol thcm, mounts constantly. Politics
has ncvcr sccmcd morc trcachcrous.
A sccmingly ornamcntal passagc in thc nal book cpitomizcs \irgils
sympathy lor thc victims ol warlarc, and his scnsitivity to thc incvitablc
dcstruction ol pcrsons and ways ol lilc undcr thc justication ol cmpirc
building. Hcrc is onc ol Turnuss victims:
. . . Turnus
kills thc brothcrs lrcsh lrom Apollos Lycian clds
and ncxt Mcnoctcs who, in his youth, dctcstcd war
but war would bc his latc. An Arcadian anglcr
skillcd at working thc rivcrs ol Lcrna stockcd with sh,
his lodgings poor, a strangcr to all thc gilts ol thc grcat,
and his lathcr larmcd his crops on rcntcd land.
(+:.6o:8)
Tc dcath ol Mcnoctcs is both a casual asidc and thc csscncc ol thc mattcr.
\irgils lincs sound not only clcgiac but swcct: Arcada, piscosac cui circum
umina Lcrnac / ars lucrat paupcrquc domus ncc nota potcntum / muncra,
conductaquc patcr tcllurc scrcbat. Knowing nothing ol thc gilts ol thc
powcrlul (muncra may rclcr to thc rcsponsibilitics ol thc grcat as wcll
as thcir gilts to poor dcpcndants), Mcnoctcs lcd a simplc lilc, rcmovcd, as
\irgil himscll was not, lrom thc world ol patrons and litcrary or political
ambition. A lilc ol anonymity and quict in no way sparcs onc lrom thc
juggcrnaut ol dcstruction.
Pathos is thc incvitablc tonc hcrc, as it is also in 8ook , whcn thc young
warrior uryalus dics in battlc. Rollc Humphrics givcs his dcath this way:
Tc ncck droops ovcr, as a brightcolorcd owcr
roops whcn thc ploughsharc bcnds it, or as poppics
Sink undcr thc wcight ol hcavy summcr rainlall . . .
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
:+
Among contcmporary translators, Faglcs rcmains truc to \irgil but hc also
cchocs an carlicr admircr. Kcats (who did a schoolboy translation ol thc
eneid, now lost), writcs in thc dc on Mclancholy that thc mclancholy
t lalls
suddcn lrom hcavcn likc a wccping cloud
that lostcrs thc droophcadcd owcrs all,
and hidcs thc grccn hill in an April shroud.
!n Faglcs, uryalus rolls ovcr in dcath
limp as a crimson owcr
cut o by a passing plow, that droops as it dics
or lrail as poppics, thcir nccks wcary, bcnding
thcir hcads whcn a suddcn showcr wcighs thcm down.
All csh is grass.
Lct mc rcturn to Mcnoctcs. rydcn cmbcllishcs his dcath as lollows:
n Lcrnas lakc a silcnt lilc hc lcd,
And with his ncts and anglc carncd his brcad.
Nor pompous carcs, nor palaccs, hc kncw,
8ut wiscly lrom thc inlcctious world withdrcw.
Poor was his housc: his lathcrs painlul hand
!s chargcd his rcnt, and plowcd anothcrs land.
Faglcs rcquircs no such cxtrancous dctail. Tc lacts, plain and simplc, though
adorncd with modcst allitcration, su cc to givc us a scnsc ol both \irgils
pathos and his chisclcd vcrsc. !l onc ignorcs thc and at thc start ol linc 6o8,
onc has (yct oncc morc) thc clcgant undcrstatcmcnt ol pcrlcct iambic pcn
tamctcr: his lathcr larmcd his crops on rcntcd land. Tc dclault modc
works wondcrs.
!n his postscript, Faglcs says that hc has aimcd lor grcatcr intimacy in
his eneid than hc did in his two Homcric translations, in ordcr to capturc
\irgils uncquallcd blcnd ol grandcur and acccssibility. Tis ccrtainly hits
thc right notc as an cstimatc ol his accomplishmcnt as wcll as his aim. Hc
has succccdcd in producing a modcrn \irgil, on thc onc hand convcying
thc mcaning and lccling ol thc original and on thc othcr trying to nd a
cadcncc lor oncs nglish. Tc cadcnccs naturally succccd in momcnts, likc
thosc citcd abovc, that appcal to our contcmporary scnsc ol bclatcdncss and
ol thc waning ol cmpircs. (! wondcr what Shakcspcarcs ntony and Cleo-
patra would sound likc il Faglcs dccidcd to updatc it, in thc way Robcrt Lowcll
rcviscd and modcrnizcd Mclvillc and Racinc.) !ntimacy is onc polc ol thc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
\irgilian tcmpcramcnt. Tc othcrwhcthcr onc thinks that \irgil is sinccrc
or mcrcly doing what hc thought Augustus wantcd ol himis patriotism,
grandcur, thc public voicc, thc 8ig 8ow Vow. Tis voicc docs not appcal
to contcmporary tastcs quitc as much, but Faglcs managcs to makc \irgils
claims lor Roman glory convincing.
Tc command givcn by Anchiscss ghost to his son in thc Undcrworld
may ring hollow to our cars, but thc rcscmblancc bctwccn thc achicvcd
Pax Romana and our nations scnsc ol its manilcst dcstiny as policcman to
thc world is unavoidablc. Vhatcvcr thc dicrcnccs, nationalistic hubris is
at bottom all thc samc. Faglcss translation, likc \irgils original, has not an
iota ol irony:
thcrs, ! havc no doubt,
will lorgc thc bronzc to brcathc with supplcr lincs,
draw lrom thc block ol marblc lcaturcs quick with lilc,
plcad thcir cascs bcttcr, chart with thcir rods thc stars
that climb thc sky and lorctcll thc timcs thcy risc.
8ut you, Roman, rcmcmbcr, rulc with all your powcr
thc pcoplcs ol thc carththcsc will bc your arts:
to put your stamp on thc works and ways ol pcacc,
to sparc thc dclcatcd, brcak thc proud in war.
(6.68)
\irgil distinguishcs thc arts ol his country lrom thosc ol Grcccc and
8abylonlrom sculptors, orators, prognosticators, and astronomcrsbut hc
docs so in lull assurancc that acts ol powcr arc no lcss signicant, indccd no
lcss artistic, than sculpting and public spcaking. \irgil is, in lact, a mastcr ol
public art. !m thinking not only ol thc pcdagogic, didactic sidc ol his tcm
pcramcnt and his willingncss to spcak on bchall ol Augustus, but also ol thc
way in which hc brings his ckphrastic passagcs into thc scrvicc ol patriotism,
and nally ol his scnsc that an individuals dcstiny is part ol his nations.
Tc lorging ol Acncass shicld, ol which ! havc alrcady spokcn, is thc
ccntral sccnc lor thc luturc ol thc hcro and thc cmpirc hc will ncvcr know. !t
is also thc quintcsscncc ol \irgils distinctivc art. !nspircd, ol coursc, by thc
lorging ol Achillcss shicld in thc Iliad (8ook +8), \irgils ccntcrpiccc takcs
up almost thrcc hundrcd lincs. !n a pocm lull ol sadncss and lcrvor, nothing
matchcs its sobcr bcautics. !ntcrwcaving thc thcmcs ol hcroism, labor, and
nationhood, it also radiatcs thc lull glory ol \irgilian didacticism, lor thc poct
dcsigncd it as a rcmindcr to his contcmporarics and thcir ospring ol thcir
raison dtre. Right lrom thc start, thc shccr physicality, convcycd by prcscnt
tcnsc participlcs, takcs us in. Tc Cyclops band ol \ulcanian workcrs digs
into its collcctivc task: Tcy arc lorging onc trcmcndous shicld, onc against
ixvovcvb :~vcnvs: ~ vivciii~x :v:oiv (:oo)
:
all thc Latin spcars. Vhcn \cnus prcscnts thc shicld to hcr son, hc dclights
in it, running his cycs across thc piccc. Art is disposcd in thc scrvicc ol duty,
and all ol !taly, all ol Romc, is dcpictcd on Acncass ncw shicld. !n thc ccn
tcr, at its hcart, is thc battlc ol Actium, Augustus on onc sidc and Antony
and Clcopatra, his gyptian wilc (ncvcr mcntioncd by namc), thc modcrn
incarnation ol ido, on thc othcr. vcrything is prcscnttcnsc. Tats thc
naturc ol art, altcr all, and also thc naturc ol myth.
Cacsar triumphs, ol coursc, but Acncas docs not know this. For him,
cvcrything is purc luturity, and hc is lost in ignorant acsthctic apprcciation
and wondcring doubt without undcrstanding what is mcant (lor thc rcadcr)
as an omcn. 8ook 8 cnds on an anticlimax: thc hcro takcs dclight / in thc
likcncss |ol thc cvcnts on thc shicld|, lilting onto his shouldcrs now / thc
lamc and latcs ol all his childrcns childrcn. As Ycats undcrstood, having
lcarncd his lcsson lrom \irgil, thc agcnts ol history scldom know who thcy
arc, or what thcy arc doing. Lcda did not put on Zcuss knowlcdgc with his
powcr bclorc thc indicrcnt bcak could lct hcr drop. Tc eneid tcachcs
many lcssonsabout hcroism, lovc, thc tragcdy ol warlarc, our inability to
lrcc oursclvcs lrom a wcb ol circumstanccsbut pcrhaps nonc morc pcr
sistcntly and subtly than that ol labor, that crucial Roman virtuc cclcbratcd
in thc Georgics. Tc gods dcmand hard work ol hcrocs, who must pcrlorm
it to mcrit thcir status. Right bclorc hc gocs o to his nal battlc against
Turnus, Acncas draws Ascanius asidc, kissing him and ocring a last piccc
ol wisdom: Lcarn couragc lrom mc, my son, truc hardship too. / Lcarn
good luck lrom othcrs. My hand will shicld you / in war today and guidc
you toward thc grcat rcwards (+:.++). Hcrc arc Roman virtucs, born
out ol thc Roman scnsc ol duty and work. Vhcrc Homcr givcs us an archaic
world in which happincss is ccting at bcst and nothing cndurcs, \irgil
works tclcologically. Tc myth ol Troy and its lall givcs way to thc building
ol thc Roman mpirc. nc word lor such a vision is progrcss. History, likc
hcroism, makcs dcmands.
X
L
itcraturc, too, makcs dcmands, and ocrs commcnsuratc rcwards. 8y
Junc +6:, with collcgc drawing ncar, our band ol brothcrs and sistcrs,
having survivcd thc last night ol Troy, Scylla and Charybdis, thc dcath ol
ido, and a dcsccnt to thc Undcrworld, spcnds its last thrcc wccks rcad
ing thc opcning scctions ol vids Metamorphoses. Ncxt to \irgil, vid is
casc incarnatc: his rhythms, vocabulary, and syntax sccm lcss di cult, tortu
ous, lrcightcd, troublcd. A grcat burdcn has bccn liltcd lrom our shouldcrs,
but, having bccn scvcrcly challcngcd, wc also cnjoy a lccling ol triumph.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
Tc plcasurcs ol othcr Latin authors rcmain ahcad. Many ol us continuc
with Latin lor a tcrm or two in collcgc: Catullus, Horacc, Tacitus, and thc
playwrights stand waiting lor thc happy lcw. Tc ycar has passcd. ldcr,
ccrtainly, and pcrhaps a bit wiscr, wc arc rcady to rcturn to thc uppcr world,
not, likc Acncas, through thc Gatc ol !vory, with its lalsc drcams, but rathcr
through thc Gatc ol Horn, with its truc oncs.
vov :~viv nix:xvv (bix vv:ix~ v~c:i),
~xb :v s:~iw~v: socii ix i~:ix iv, cnvi:vxn~:
nicn scnooi, +6+6:
:
TV X
VRSVRTHS ENEID l+
A
t thc hcight ol his crcativc powcr, in +8o, Vordsworth wrotc to
Valtcr Scott: rydcn has ncithcr a tcndcr hcart nor a lolty scnsc
ol moral dignity, whcrc his languagc is poctically impassioncd, it
is mostly upon unplcasing subjccts, such as thc lollics, viccs, and crimcs ol
classcs ol mcn or ol individuals. Tat his cannot bc thc languagc ol imagi
nation must havc ncccssarily lollowcd lrom this, that thcrc is not a singlc
imagc lrom Naturc in thc wholc body ol his works, and in his translations
lrom \crgil, whcncvcr \crgil can bc lairly said to havc his eye upon his objcct,
rydcn always spoils thc passagc.
!
Vordsworths criticism ol his nco
Augustan prcdcccssors, and his rcscntmcnt ol thcir translations lrom thc
classics (c.g., in a latcr lcttcr to Scott hc rcmarks that it will rcquirc yct hall a
ccntury complctcly to carry o thc poison ol Popcs Homcr),
2
ocr consid
crablc cvidcncc lor what V. J. 8atc has tcrmcd thc burdcn ol thc past, and
Harold 8loom thc anxicty ol poctic inucncc. Rcadcrs havc long lclt thc
tcmpcramcntal a nitics ol Vordsworth with \irgil, his similar apprcciation
ol a univcrsal sorrow which touchcs and colors all mortal aairs, and his own
tcndcr hcart and lolty scnsc ol moral dignity. 8ut Vordsworths admira
tion lor \irgil and his attcmpt to pay homagc to thc mastcr in a translation
ol thc eneid in +8:: havc rcccivcd littlc critical attcntion.
1
Tc thrcc
books ol \irgil which Vordsworth complctcd arc prool not only ol his grasp
and undcrstanding ol Latin poctry but also ol his di culty in coming to
grips with thc prcccdcnt ol rydcns grcat translation ol +6.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
Tc burdcn ol Vordsworths criticism ol rydcns stylc is rcpcatcd in his
lcttcrs to Lord Lonsdalc whcn hc bcgins his own translation: r. Johnson
has justly rcmarkcd that rydcn had littlc talcnt lor thc pathctic, and thc
tcndcrncss ol \irgil sccms to mc to cscapc him. \irgils stylc is an inimi
tablc mixturc ol thc claboratcly ornatc and thc majcstically plain and touch
ing. Tc lormcr quality is much morc di cult to rcach than thc lattcr, in
which whosocvcr lails, must lail through want ol ability, and not through thc
impcrlcctions ol our languagc (Letters: MY !!.8o).
4
Tis is a complcx blcnd ol scllaggrandizcmcnt and scllcriticism. Vords
worth strcsscs thc rclativc di culty ol thosc parts ol \irgil which hc is
himscll oltcn unablc to match (implicitly praising rydcns corts) but sug
gcsts that thc problcm lics in thc dicrcnccs bctwccn thc two languagcs.
Tc pathos and tcndcrncss ol thc eneid, i.c., thosc qualitics which rydcn
misscs, arc thc basic \irgilian clcmcnts, in thcir clcmcntal simplicity thcy
tcst thc rcal talcnt, as opposcd to thc clcvcrncss, ol any wouldbc translator.
Tc ambivalcncc ol Vordsworths lcclings about rydcn is dccpcncd by
his choicc ol thc hcroic couplct as thc poctic unit ol his eneid. Unablc to
lrcc himscll lrom thc poison ol that quintcsscntially cightccnthccntury
lorm, Vordsworth trics, in ccct, to mcct rydcn on his own ground and to
dclcat him thcrc rathcr than writc thc pocm in his morc usual blank vcrsc:
! should havc attcmptcd \irgil in blank vcrsc, had ! not bccn pcr
suadcd that no ancicnt author can bc with advantagc so rcndcrcd.
Tcir rcligion, thcir warlarc, thcir coursc ol action and lccling, arc too
rcmotc lrom modcrn intcrcst to allow it. Vc rcquirc cvcry possiblc
hclp and attraction ol sound, in our languagc, to smooth thc way lor
thc admission ol things so rcmotc lrom our prcscnt conccrns. My
own notion ol translation is, that it cannot bc too litcral, providcd
thrcc laults bc avoidcd: baldness, in which ! includc all that takcs
away lrom dignity, and strangeness, or uncouthness, including harsh
ncss, and lastly, attcmpts to convcy mcanings which, as thcy cannot
bc givcn but by languid circumlocutions, cannot in lact bc said to bc
givcn at all. |Letters: MY !!.8|
Tc tcnuous logic by which hc cxcuscs thc usc ol thc hcroic couplct is,
pcrhaps, Vordsworths rationalization lor lollowing rydcns cxamplc.
Vordsworths charactcristic mattcrollactncss is at timcs thc strongcst
lacct ol his translation, and at othcrs, thc wcakcst. Litcralncss is as much his
aim now as it was twcntythrcc ycars bclorc in thc Preface to Lyrical Ballads:
! havc at all timcs cndcavorcd to look stcadily at my subjcct. How dicr
cnt this is lrom onc ol rydcns cardinal principlcs in thc dcdication ol his
eneid: ! thought t to stccr bctwixt thc two xtrcams, ol Paraphrasc, and
wovbswov:ns ENEID (+)
:
litcral Translation: To kccp as ncar my Author as ! could, without losing all
his Graccs, thc most mincnt ol which, arc in thc 8cauty ol his words: And
thosc words, ! must add, arc always Figurativc.

Vordsworths litcralncss
oltcn suits thc tonc ol \irgil bcttcr than rydcns middlc coursc. Hc rccog
nizcs, lor instancc (Letters: MY 88), that his own vcrsion ol !!.:
is not ncarly so sonorous as thc Latin, but ncvcrthclcss is supcrior to his
prcdcccssors. Tc mccting with Panthus in thc burning strccts ol Troy is
charactcrizcd by allitcration and rcpctition, and by thc poignancy ol thc pcr
lcct tcnsc in thc lamous phrasc: luimus Trocs, luit !lium ct ingcns / gloria
Tcucrorum, lcrus omnia !uppitcr Argos / transtulit.
6
Vordsworth includcs
both thc pcrlcct tcnsc and an imitation ol \irgils rcpctitions:
. . . Tis comcthc nal hour,
Tc incvitablc closc ol ardan powcr
Hath comc: wc havc bccn Trojans, !lium was,
And thc grcat namc ol Troy, now all things pass
To Argos, so wills angry Jupitcr.
(Lincs 8)
7
rydcn cannot grasp thc simplc pathos ol thc opcning:
Troy is no morc, and Ilium was a Town!
Tc latal ay, thappointcd Hour is comc,
Vhcn wrathlul Jo.es irrcvocablc doom
Translcrs thc Trojan Statc to Grecian hands.
(Lincs 6)
Tcrcaltcr hc is strongcr than Vordsworth, by virtuc ol thc rhythmic
strcngth in his prcscntation ol thc bombast ol battlc.
Vordsworths dcsirc to bc litcral can oltcn producc circumlocutions, as in
his vcrsion ol Sinon inccndia miscct / insultans, Vhich hc rcndcrs as Sinon,
insulting victor, aggravatcs / Tc amcs, whcrc rydcn capturcs morc ol thc
\irgilian spirit in proud Sinon throws / about thc amcs. rydcn omits thc
onc dctail which Vordsworth includcs: stat lcrri acics mucronc corusco /
stricta, parata ncci (hangs, with quivcring point, thc bladc / Unshcathd lor
slaughtcr), but inscrts thc gcncralizing and morc powcrlul: Vho ghts
nds cath, and cath nds him who ics. Vordsworth oltcn sccms
unwilling to makc thc ncccssary lcaps ol imagination to capturc thc lull
lccling ol a passagc or sccnc.
!t has long bccn rccognizcd that rydcn is most succcsslul in thc public
passagcs ol thc pocm, thosc dcaling with Romcs glorics (\!.++68), or
Priams dcath (!!.:6), but his coarsc cncrgy and tcndcncy to distort
did constant violcncc to \irgils subtlc, pathctic, or mystical gcnius.
8
Two
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
cxamplcs ol Vordsworths particular mcrits arc thc \irgilian touchstoncs ol
!.+8:o and !.6.
9
Acncas sccond spccch in thc pocm is mcant to
carry thc lull lorcc ol his pietas, his willcd cort to chccr his mcn whilc at thc
samc timc supprcssing his own inncr lcars and anxictics:
socii (ncquc cnim ignari sumus antc malorum),
o passi graviora, dabit dcus his quoquc ncm.
. . . rcvocatc animos macstumquc timorcm
mittitc, lorsan ct hacc olim mcminissc iuvabit.
pcr varios casus, pcr tot discrimina rcrum
tcndimus in Latium, scdcs ubi lata quictas
ostcndunt, illic las rcgna rcsurgcrc Troiac.
duratc, ct vosmct rcbus scrvatc sccundis.
rydcns hcro (!.:6:) is both morc laconic and morc asscrtivc than
\irgils, his opcning lincs plungc right into thc stoical advicc which hc is
dispcnsing:
ndurc, and conqucr, Jo.e will soon disposc
To luturc Good, our past and prcscnt Vocs.
And rydcn adds thc un\irgilian Vhat grcatcr !lls hcrcaltcr can you
bcar: Morc important, thc balanccd hall lincs tcnd to wcakcn thc scnsc ol
sorrow which \irgil builds up dclibcratcly and slowly:
Rcsumc your Couragc, and dismiss your Carc.
An Hour will comc, with Plcasurc to rclatc
Your Sorrows past, as 8cncts ol Fatc . . .
ndurc thc Hardships ol your prcscnt Statc,
Livc, and rcscrvc your sclvcs lor bcttcr Fatc.
Vordsworths Acncas (!.:668+), likc \irgils, bcgins with an addrcss, rathcr
than a command, to his comradcs:
Fricnds, not unacquaintcd with your sharc
l miscry, crc doomd thcsc ills to bcar!
yc, whom worsc a ictions could not bcnd!
Jovc also hath lor these prcparcd an cnd.
Tc asscrtivcncss ol thc last linc is prcparcd lor, and thcrc is a grcatcr scnsc ol
a changing mood and argumcnt in Acncas spccch. !n addition, Vordsworth
at lcast trics to capturc Acncas unccrtainty:
Cast o your lcars, rcsumc thc hcarts ol mcn!
Hcrcaltcr, this our prcscnt lot may bc
A chcrishd objcct lor plcascd mcmory.
wovbswov:ns ENEID (+)
:
rydcn signicantly ignorcs thc importancc ol \irgils forsan, thc onc miti
gating world in thc linc.
Tc othcr touchstonc ol \irgilian tcndcrncss is !.6. Acncas, cxam
ining thc rising walls ol Carthagc, and nding thc battlcs ol Troy paintcd on
Junos tcmplc, turns to Achatcs:
Constitit ct lacrimans, quis iam locus, inquit, Achatc,
quac rcgio in tcrris nostri non plcna laboris:
cn Priamus! Sunt hic ctiam sua pracmia laudi,
sunt lacrimac rcrum ct mcntcm mortalia tangunt.
solvc mctus, lcrct hacc aliquam tibi lama salutcm.
Sic ait, atquc animum pictura pascit inani
multa gcmcns, largoquc umcctat uminc voltum.
Although thc litotcs ol his opcning Hc stoppd, and not without a sigh,
cxclaimcd, is wcak, Vordsworth riscs to thc occasion at thc crucial momcnt:
Tcars lor thc lrail cstatc ol human kind / Arc shcd, and mortal changcs
touch thc mind. Tis passagc was undoubtcdly in his mind whcn hc wrotc
at thc cnd ol Laodamia, almost tcn ycars bclorc:
Yct tcars to human sucring arc duc,
And mortal hopcs dclcatcd and ocrthrown
Arc mourncd by man, and not by man alonc,
As londly hc bclicvcs.
Vordsworths trcatmcnt ol lacrimac rcrum is supcrior to that ol rydcn
who, almost as il acknowlcdging thc limits ol his ability, omits thc wholc
linc, and changcs arbitrarily thc tcnscs ol his vcrbs:
vn thc Mutc Valls rclatc thc Varriors Famc,
And Trojan Gricls thc Tyrians Pity claim.
Hc said, his Tcars a rcady Passagc nd,
cvouring what hc saw so wcll dcsignd,
And with an cmpty Picturc lcd his Mind.
(Lincs 68:)
!0
!n addition to his supcriority with thc clcgiac tonc, Vordsworth cap
turcs ccrtain dctails in thc largcr public passagcs which rydcn, thc rcputcd
mastcr ol such sccncs, carclcssly ignorcs. An arbitrary cxamplc ol thc virtucs
ol cach translation is thc dcstruction ol Laocoon and his sons by thc two
mystcrious scrpcnts who roll across thc wavcs lrom Tcncdos (!!.+::).
Although rydcns vcrsion (:6) might ultimatcly bc judgcd supcrior,
scvcral points indicatc Vordsworths astutcncss and tastc.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
o
!n \irgil, thc passagc movcs lorward in largc rhythmic units, brokcn
up by short phrascs which rclcr to thc changing rcsponscs ol thc Trojan
onlookcrs (horrcsco rclcrcns, t sonitus spumantc salo, diugimus visu
cxsangucs). Tcsc units bccomc progrcssivcly longcr, until thc climactic
lincs (!!.::o:) dcscribing thc strangulation ol Laocoon himscll. Ccr
tain things in thc passagc, howcvcr, tcnd to lcsscn thc horrilying cccts
which thc paintcrly \irgil is constructing. Tc scrpcnts sccm to cmbracc
rathcr than dcstroy thc two sons (scrpcns amplcxus utcrquc), and to lccd on
thcm (miscros morsu dcpascitur artus) in a suggcstivcly pastoral way. Tc
passagc cnds on a notc ol tranquility, as thc scrpcnts slidc undcr thc protcct
ing statuc ol Mincrva: sub pcdibusquc dcac clipciquc sub orbc tcguntur.
Morcovcr, thc paragraph is lramcd artistically by two bulls, it opcns with
Laocoon slaying a bull at thc altar, and, at thc cnd, his crics arc likc thosc ol
a woundcd bull (saucius taurus). Tc dclibcratcncss ol thc balancc suggcsts
that Laocoon himscll, in thc latal grip ol thc scrpcnt, is thc sacricc rcquircd
at this momcnt. Vhat bcgan as litcral dctail cnds as mctaphor, with tcnor
and vchiclc pcrlcctly joincd.
rydcn ccrtainly capturcs thc vivid visual dctails ol thc tablcau, in gcn
cral, thc vcrbs arc activc and morc dramatic than thc corrcsponding oncs
in Vordsworth. Vhat hc misscs arc prcciscly thosc mitigating lactors in
thc sccnc: thc balancing similc (hc uscs stccr and oxc), and thc domcstic
dctails. !nstcad ol gcntly lccding on thc two childrcn, as shccp would pas
turc, rydcns snakcs rst around thc tcndcr 8oys . . . wind, / Tcn with
thcir sharpcnd Fangs thcir Limbs and 8odics grind. 8y cnding thc passagc
with a mctaphorical ox, hc loscs thc 8cauty ol \irgils words, thc litcral
and thc gurativc.
Vhat rydcn lacks, Vordsworth triumphantly providcs. Tc main prob
lcm in this vcrsion is thc diction, Vordsworths habitual lailing, which is cithcr
pcriphrastic or archaizing, oltcn in an cort to maintain a litcral laithlulncss
to \irgil. xprcssions likc cngrasps, langing, zonc, distaincd, a scvcral
snakc, strikc us as scllconsciously oldlashioncd. Two Scrpcnts, ocr thc
tranquil main / !ncumbcnt, rctains !irgils incumbunt, but at thc pricc ol nat
ural nglish diction. Vordsworth distanccs what \irgil makcs immcdiatc.
n thc othcr hand, hc is ablc to capturc somcthing ol thc rhythmic
ccct ol \irgils pcriodic clauscs, whcrc rydcn is again hampcrcd by thc
rcgularity ol his couplcts. Tc dcath ol Laocoon is handlcd with appropriatc
cnjambmcnt:
. . . but anon
Himscll thcy scizc, and, coiling round his waist
Tcir scaly backs, thcy bind him, twicc cmbracd
wovbswov:ns ENEID (+)
+
Vith monstrous spircs, as with a doublc zonc,
And, twicc around his ncck in tanglcs thrown.
High ocr thc Fathcrs hcad cach Scrpcnt lilts its own.
(Lincs :8)
Tc alcxandrinc is ccctivcly uscd as thc climax ol thc action. !n addi
tion, Vordsworth kccps both ol \irgils bulls in thc sccnc, and managcs to
approach partially thc dclicacy ol thc original: cach snakc lccds on thc
limbs.
!n vicw ol his strcngths as a translator, wc might wondcr, thcn, why
Vordsworth sccmcd discouragcd with his cort, and gavc up altcr com
plcting all but ++8 lincs ol 8ook !!!. For onc thing, thc work must havc
bccn timcconsuming, at a pcriod in his lilc whcn Vordsworth was spcnd
ing much ol his cncrgy on his growing lamily (bctwccn +8:: and +8:8, thc
translation is Vordsworths longcst piccc, cxccpt lor his rcvisions ol Te
Excursion): Had ! takcn thc libcrtics ol my prcdcccssors, rydcn cspc
cially, ! could havc translatcd ninc books with thc labor that thrcc havc
cost mc (Letters: MY 8). Pcrhaps thc dissatislaction was thc incvitablc
rcsult ol comparison with an cqually grcat poct: Vhcn ! rcad \irgil in
thc original ! am movcd, but not so much by my own translation, and
! cannot but think this owing to a dccit in thc diction, which ! havc
cndcavorcd to supply with what succcss you may casily bc cnablcd to judgc
(Letters: My 86).
!n a lcttcr ol April +:, +8:, Colcridgc ocrcd laint praisc which Vords
worth might casily havc mistakcn lor damning: Sincc Milton ! know ol
no othcr poct with so many felicities and unlorgcttablc lincs and stanzas as
you. And to rcad, thcrclorc, pagc altcr pagc without a singlc brilliant notc,
dcprcsscs mc and ! grow pccvish with you lor having wastcd your time on
work so much bclow you, that you cannot stoop and takc.
!!
Kcvin F. ohcrty has spcculatcd that thc main rcason lor not complcting
thc pocm was thc stumbling block ol thc hcroic couplct. Tis may bc truc,
although Vordsworth shows a mastcry ol thc lorm, and a rccognition that
thc usc ol an cnjambmcnt lrccr than rydcns aids considcrably thc ow
and rhythm ol \irgil in nglish: ! havc run thc couplcts lrccly into cach
othcr, much morc oltcn than rydcn has donc. Tis varicty sccms, to mc,
to bc callcd lor, il anything ol thc movcmcnt ol thc \irgilian vcrsication
bc translcrablc to our poctry, and, indcpcndcnt ol this considcration, long
narrativcs in couplcts with thc scnsc closcd at thc cnd ol cach arc to mc vcry
wcarisomc.
!2
All ol thc abovc, cspccially Vordsworths dissatislaction with thc dic
tion ol his pocm, arc likcly rcasons lor his giving it up. nc othcr partial
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
cxplanation has not bccn mcntioncd: Vordsworths possiblc rcluctancc to do
a vcrsion ol thc ido tragcdy (8ook !\), which would rcquirc a lull trcat
mcnt ol scxual passion and sympathy with a tragic hcroinc which Vords
worth might not havc bccn ablc to show at this timc. Pcrhaps publication,
in +8:o, ol thc \audracour and Julia cxtract lrom 8ook !X ol Te Prelude
scrvcd to crasc all rcmaining guilt or tcnsion about Vordsworths youthlul
aair with Anncttc \allon, yct thc climination ol thc cpisodc lrom thc nal
vcrsion ol thc pocts autobiography suggcsts an unwillingncss to rcmcmbcr
or bc plagucd by thc cvcnts ol thc distant past.
!1
l thc thrcc vcrsions ol Laodamia, his most \irgilian pocm, thc sccond
(+8:) ocrs thc harshcst judgmcnt on thc hcroincs submission to passion,
and suggcsts that . . . gcnuinc strugglc sccms to havc rcccdcd into thc past,
and a classical laith in rcason, ordcr, modcration, bccomcs at timcs indistin
guishablc lrom copybook morality and convcntional pictism.
!4
Vordsworth
admits having prclcrrcd vid to \irgil whcn a schoolboy, but by +8:, hc
comcs to admirc \irgils high moral tonc,
!
to condcmn Laodamia to ctcr
nal cxilc, and banish \audracour and Julia lorm thc pocm on his own lilc.
!6
An cxamination ol ccrtain scctions ol Vordsworths eneid indicatcs his
markcd avcrsion to scxual, or suggcstivcly scnsual dctails. !n \irgils !.+,
Juno promiscs a nymph to Acolus il hc will producc a storm lor hcr. Vords
worth givcs us:
Twicc scvcn lair Nymphs await on my command,
All bcautilul, thc laircst ol thc 8and,
ciopcia, such dcscrt to crown,
Vill !, by stcdlast wcdlock, makc thinc own,
!n cvcrlasting lricndship with thcc
To dwcll, and yicld a bcautcous progcny.
(Lincs o)
Vordsworth capturcs thc scriousncss ol thc promisc (stcdlast wcdlock lor
thc Latin conubium, a highly tcchnical tcrm lor thc marriagc ritual). 8ut
such dcscrt to crown is unncccssary altcr forma pulcherrima: thc subscqucnt
cvcrlasting lricndship is a curious pcriphrasis which mitigatcs conubio
iungam stabili, thc ocr sccms to havc bccn dcscxualizcd. Pitt, on thc othcr
hand, givcs morc spirit to thc proposal:
For thy Rcward thc laircst !ll rcsign,
And makc thc charming ciopcia thinc,
Shc, on thy 8cd, long 8lcssings shall conlcr,
And makc Tcc Fathcr ol a Racc likc Hcr.
(Lincs 8+o+)
wovbswov:ns ENEID (+)

Tc appcarancc ol \cnus to hcr son (eneid !.+.) is likcwisc madc

lcss scnsuous than thc original. !n \irgil, thc usc ol unusual cnd rhymc and
liquid sounds hclps to incrcasc thc dclicatc bcauty ol thc goddcss: vcna
trix dcdcratquc comam diundcrc vcntis, / nuda gcnu nodoquc sinus col
lccta ucntis (+:o). Vordsworth adds an alcxandrinc and a supcruous
clausc to incrcasc thc liquid sound ol thc lincs, but his corts rcsult oncc
morc in a lcss crotic dcscription than, lor cxamplc, Pitts:
Light ocr hcr shouldcrs had shc givcn thc bow
To hang, hcr trcsscs on thc wind to ow,
A Huntrcss with barc kncc,a knot upbound
Tc lolds ol that loosc vcst, which clsc had swcpt
thc ground.
(Vordsworth, lincs o)
8arc was hcr kncc, and with an casy Pridc
Hcr polishd 8ow hung gracclul at hcr Sidc.
Closc, in a Knot, hcr owing Robcs shc drcw,
Loosc to thc Vinds hcr wanton Trcsscs cw.
(Pitt, lincs :6:)
As \cnus makcs hcr lamous cxit lrom thc sccnc (eneid o:), glowing
with hcr rosy ncck, shc rcvcals hcr divinity with an accumulation ol scnsu
ous dctails. Vordsworths goddcss, howcvcr, is morc ornatc and articial:
. . . all bright
Appcard hcr ncck, imbucd with roscatc light,
And lrom thc cxaltcd rcgion ol hcr hcad
Ambrosial hair a suddcn lragrancc shcd,
dours divincly brcathing,hcr \cst owd
own to hcr lcct,and gait and motion shcwd
Tc unqucstionablc Goddcss.
(Lincs o6)
rydcns goddcss is cqually ornatc, but substantially morc scxual a crcaturc
than Vordsworths:
Tus having said, shc turnd, and madc appcar
Hcr Ncck rclulgcnt, and dishcvcld Hair,
Vhich owing lrom hcr Shouldcrs, rcachd thc Ground,
And widcly sprcad Ambrosial Sccnts around,
!n lcngth ol Train dcsccnds hcr swccping Gown,
And by hcr gracclul Valk, thc Quccn ol Lovc is known.
(Lincs 66+)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

Tis \cnus is both rcgal and scnsuous, dishcvcld, which Vordsworth

omits, and swccping gown, an improvcmcnt on vcst, as wcll as thc nal
alcxandrinc, contributc to a balancc bctwccn \cnus womanly and divinc
powcrs. Tc libcrty which rydcn takcs with thc last linc indicatcs, oncc
again, that hc has capturcd \irgils spirit, although Vordsworths unqucs
tionablc Goddcss might bc a morc litcral translation ol .era dea.
!7
!t is in thc trcatmcnt ol ido hcrscll that Vordsworths rcluctancc to do
justicc to \irgil bcgins, at lcast unconsciously, to undo him and to point to
his luturc abandonmcnt ol thc pocm. Vordsworths lincs 666 ol 8ook !,
his vcrsion ol \irgils o8, arc not only a litcral, but a spiritcd dcscrip
tion ol thc statclincss ol idos work, hcr rising kingdom, and hcr juridical
tcmpcr. Similarly, hcr rcply to thc tcmporarily downcast and lcadcrlcss Tro
jans (\irgil, 6+8, Vordsworth, 6o) is convincing as a prcscntation
ol idos dignity, graciousncss and hospitality. Tc troublc starts lor Vords
worth whcn it docs lor ido: whcn Cupid, disguiscd as Ascanius, bcgins to
inlcct thc quccn with thc poison ol lovc lor Acncas. ncc thc dux bccomcs
morc ol a femina, Vordsworth laltcrs.
ido is pcsti dcvota lutura (!.+:), which Vordsworth takcs too litcr
ally as to thc coming ill dcvotcd. 8ut dcvota implics both accurscd, and
in anothcr scnsc, thc dcvotion ol a sacricial victim to a god. Pcstis is litcr
ally a plaguc or discasc, and Vordsworths ruin is both too bland and too
bodilcss a translation. Tc tragic lorcc, with its rcpcatcd sibilants, ol inscia
ido, / insidat quantus miscrac dcus, is ill scrvcd by thc wordy nor wccns
( lot unblcst!) / How grcat a God, incumbcnt ocr hcr brcast / Vould
ll it with his spirit. Tc sharpncss ol dctail in \irgil is constantly blurrcd
by Vordsworths cuphcmisms. Cupid works gradually: abolcrc Sychacum /
incipit ct vivo temptat prae.ertere amorc / iam pridcm rcsidcs animos desu-
etaque corda (cmphasis minc). Vordsworth adds unncccssary dctails, dimin
ishing thc ccct. His Cupid
. . . by dcgrccs
8lots out Sichacus, studious to rcmovc
Tc dcad, by inux ol a living lovc,
By stealthy entrance of a perilous guest,
Troubling a hcart that had bccn long at rcst.
(Lincs o)
Tc spccial wcakncss in thc last linc is thc dclibcratc suggcstion ol a wcakcr
cruption (troubling) than \irgil rcquircs. Pracvcrtcrc, in addition, sug
gcsts idos uttcr hclplcssncss to rcsist thc ncw passion, which is morc than
mcrcly troubling or pcrilous.
wovbswov:ns ENEID (+)

Finally, at thc cnd ol 8ook !, with Trojans and Tyrians scatcd togcthcr,
ido ocrs a libation and thc poct !opas sings ol crcation. As ido comcs to
ask Acncas to rccount his advcnturcs ol scvcn ycars, \irgil inscrts a dramatic
and psychological gcsturc which ts symbolically into thc contcxt ol thc
drinking and singing contcsts: ncc non ct vario noctcm scrmonc trahcbat /
inlclix ido longumquc bibcbat amorcm (8). Tc usc ol thc impcr
lcct, lollowing thc normal historical prcscnt, attcsts to thc gradual accumula
tion ol pain and cxcitcmcnt to which Cupid has alrcady cxposcd thc quccn.
8oth scxual intcnsity and thc symbolic dimcnsion ol thc cvcnings lcast arc
covcrcd by thc singlc dircct objcct.
Vordsworth cccts thc changc lrom prcscnt tcnsc to past (although it
would bc almost impossiblc in iambic couplcts to approximatc thc impcr
lcct), and is pcrhaps truc to a litcral rcading: 8ut, lcngthcning out thc night
with convcrsc ncw, / Largc draughts ol lovc unhappy ido drcw (+o:).
Tc couplct is borrowcd largcly lrom rydcn: T unhappy Quccn with
Talk prolongd thc Night, / And drank largc raughts ol Lovc with vast
clight (+oo). !n this instancc, rydcn ocrs Vordsworth a prcccdcnt
which hc gladly acccpts whcn unwilling to rcprcscnt idos passion lully. Shc
docs not sccm likc a tragic quccn who is about to losc all lor lovc. Largc
with a plural noun diuscs thc ccct ol longum amorcm, which implics
singular intcnsity and a gradual dccpcning ol thc lovc in timc and quality.
Unhappy, although borrowcd lrom rydcn, owcs morc to thc languagc ol
domcstic pathos than to that ol scxual involvcmcnt and lrustration, it lacks
thc tragic tonc ol inlclix, which is cquivalcnt to thc Frcnch malhcurcusc.
!n this contcxt, inlclix rctains its original mcaning ol barrcn, or unlruit
lul, cspccially in thc light ol thc dcmand lor a child which ido uscs in hcr
dcspcratc attcmpt to kccp Acncas lrom lcaving so soon (!\.::o).
Vordsworth, howcvcr, capturcs an important small dctail in this sccnc
which, again, rydcn misscs. \irgil wants us to scc somc rclation bctwccn
thc song ol !opas, his canit crrantcm lunam solisquc laborcs, / undc homi
num gcnus ct pccudcs, undc imbcr ct igncs (:), a song ol crcation and
labor, and thc nal dcmand ol ido on Acncas:
immo agc ct a prima dic, hospcs, originc nobis
insidias inquit anaum casusquc tuorum
crrorcsquc tuos . . .
(Lincs )
nly Vordsworth nds thc intcndcd balancc bctwccn Tc labours ol thc
Sun, thc lunar wandcrings, / Vhcncc human kind, and brutc (+o::),
and idos rcqucst: Rctracc thc Grccian cunning lrom its sourcc, / Your
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
own gricl and your Fricndsyour wandcring coursc (+oo+). Tc rst
book cnds, appropriatcly, with thc bcginning ol idos lovc sct against two
othcr vcrsions ol toil and wandcring, whcn wc rcturn to hcr at thc bcgin
ning ol 8ook !\ (At rcgina gravi iamdudum saucia cura) wc arc rcmindcd
that hcr lovc has bccn growing during thc rccounting ol Acncas wandcring.
8cginnings and cndings arc balanccd throughout, as with thc lraming ol thc
Laocoon cpisodc, Vordsworth capturcs thc balancc, cithcr out ol an innatc
sympathy with thc vcrsc or by virtuc ol his lamous litcralncss.
nc might not agrcc with Mary Moormans claim that Vordsworths
most rcmarkablc pocm ol this pcriod is Tc \irgin (P! !!!.), onc ol
thc ccclcsiastical sonncts.
!8
Ncvcrthclcss, his imagc ol idcal womanhood, likc
thc carlicr mily Norton ol Te !hite Doe of Fylstone, is a sharp contrast to
any vcrsion ol ido which hc might havc givcn us. !t is no wondcr that a
poct who glorics thc
. . . Powcr, in which did blcnd
All that was mixcd and rcconcilcd in Tcc
l mothcrs lovc with maidcn purity,
l high with low, cclcstial with tcrrcnc!
would nd it di cult to cmpathizc with onc ol thc grcat classical lovcrs.
Tc truncatcd eneid that wc havc, howcvcr, contains poctic mcrit
which is oltcn dcnicd Vordsworth at this pcriod in his lilc. Tc poct who
morc than twcnty ycars bclorc turncd his back on what is usually callcd
poctic diction, hcrc nds himscll plagucd with a practicc at odds with his
idcas about thc litcralncss ol translation. Vordsworth himscll kncw this.
Vhcn part ol his pocm (!.6+o) appcarcd in thc Philological Museum
(+8:), it was prclaccd by thc lollowing rcmarks: Having bccn displcascd
in modcrn translations with thc additions ol incongruous mattcr, ! bcgan
to translatc with a rcsolvc to kccp clcar ol that lault, by adding nothing,
but ! bccamc convinccd that a spiritcd translation can scarccly bc accom
plishcd in thc nglish languagc without admitting a principlc ol compcn
sation (P! !\.+). !ronically, Vordsworth lcarncd lor himscll what hc
might havc lcarncd lrom rydcn ycars bclorc. Admitting his own growing
lrustration with cach book ol thc eneid, rydcn conccdcs in his dcdication
that . . . thc way to plcasc thc bcst Judgcs, is not to Translatc a Poct litcrally,
and !irgil lcast ol any othcr (P! !!!.+o).

THR X
SM LUCRT!AN LMNTS
!N VRSVRTH l+8
V
hat constitutc lcgitimatc grounds lor comparison: !n thc mani
lold answcrs to this pcrcnnial qucstion wc can tracc both thc
history ol acadcmic litcrary studics during thc past ccntury and
thc rich tcnsions among contcmporary spcculativc schools. Comparisons arc
usually madc with rclcrcncc to tropcs or topics: thc rst a rhctorical and lor
mal, thc sccond a thcmatic and idcological, way ol cstablishing conncctions
among writcrs. nc surc ground lor nding stylistic or substantivc rclation
ships is gcnctic: philology, as thc basis ol an organic, diachronic historicism,
and Quellenforschungen ol thc oldlashioncd sourccs and analogucs sort
startcd it all. Rcccnt rhctorical analyscs which tracc tropcs and cchocs mcta
lcptically through a singlc litcraturc or across national and linguistic bordcrs
continuc thc historicist modcl, as docs thc ccccntric rcvisionism ol Harold
8loom, cncrgctically discovcring or imposing congurations among con
tcmporary Amcrican poctry, nglish Romanticism, psychoanalytic thcory,
and Jcwish mysticism.
!
Tc othcr habitual basis lor comparison, lcss stylis
tic than thcmatic, and synchronic rathcr than diachronic, isolatcs pcriods,
cnlargcs idcas that may havc bccn mcrc motcs in thc cyc ol thc Zeitgeist into
isms and schools and movcmcnts, and produccs thosc topical handlcs and
convcnicnt labcls (c.g., thc city in 8audclairc, ickcns, and ostoycvsky,
thc Romantic Hcro, postmodcrnism) so ncccssary to litcrary pcdagogy.
8ut grounds kccp shilting, and todays canon may bccomc tomorrows
cannon loddcr. Tc lollowing cssay cxplorcs anothcr possibility lor compar
ing thc litcraturcs, to altcr Harry Lcvins phrasc,
2
lor sad incompctcncc ol
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
human spccch ! shall call this way a nitivc and lollow it toward a possiblc
mcctingplacc bctwccn two writcrs who havc usually bccn thought to havc
littlc in common. And whcrc thc historical mcthod always procccds with an
aim to discovcr causality or inucncc, and thc synchronic mcthod sccks to
dcvclop similaritics, somctimcs irrcspcctivc ol causc, thc third kind ol com
parison hopcs to suggcst that similaritics in tcmpcramcnt and outlook may
enable a latcr writcr to bc inucnccd by a distant prccursor, rathcr than, as
8loom would havc it, cripplcd by him.
Hcrc arc two philosophcrs commcntarics on two pocts:
. . . thc grcatcst thing about this gcnius is its powcr ol losing itscll in
its objcct, its impcrsonality. Vc sccm to bc rcading not thc poctry ol
a poct about things, but thc poctry ol things thcmsclvcs. Tat things
havc thcir poctry, not bccausc ol what wc makc thcm symbols ol, but
bccausc ol thcir own movcmcnt and lilc, is what |hc| provcs oncc lor
all to mankind.
. . . hc dwclls on that mystcrious prcscncc ol surrounding things,
which imposcs itscll on any scparatc clcmcnt that wc sct up as an
individual lor its own sakc. Hc always grasps thc wholc ol naturc
as involvcd in thc tonality ol thc particular instancc. . . . For him changc
is an incidcnt which shoots across a background ol cndurancc.
1
Santayana on Lucrctius and Vhitchcad on Vordsworth: it is an unlikcly
coupling ol two pocts whosc outlooks and bclicls arc oltcn diamctrically
oppscd.
4
8ut it is not casy to tcll which ol thc two pocts is rclcrrcd to by
cithcr ol thc cstimatcs abovc: Santayana unconsciously cchocs Vords worths
pocm Humanity (strcams that rccct thc poctry ol things) as wcll as
Matthcw Arnolds cstimatc ol thc stylclcss Vordsworth, and Vhitchcad
might as wcll bc dcscribing a Lucrctian atomic univcrsc. Nor arc Santa
yana and Vhitchcad uniquc in cncouraging a considcration ol a Lucrctian
Vordsworth and a Romantic, rathcr than Roman, Lucrctius. thcr critics,
similarly paircd, oltcn sound as il thcy arc writing about onc poct, not two:
|His cthics dcrivcs lrom thc idca| that thc philosophcr must assumc
thc rolc ol thc spcctator and dctach himscll lrom thc cvcnts ol thc
momcnt, |and| on thc othcr hand that it is only by a subjcct, that
is, by onc who participatcs in proccss, that any valucs at all can bc
rcalizcd.
|Hc cmploys| a rhctoric ol sympathy balanccd by a contrary
rhctoric ol irony, a proccss sccuring simultancous idcntication and
judgmcnt.

so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

Tc largcly conlcctcd lilc ol Lucrctius which Villiam Young Scllar wrotc

in thc latc ninctccnth ccntury lor thc clcvcnth cdition ol thc Encylopedia
Britannica makcs him sound likc an carly Vordsworth and shows thc natu
ral association ol thc two writcrs madc by a classicist in thc waning days ol
thc Romantic agc:
. . . thc choicc ol contcmplativc lilc was not thc rcsult ol any indil
lcrcncc to thc latc ol thc world, or ol any coldncss or cvcn calmncss
ol tcmpcramcnt. !n thc opcning lincs ol thc sccond and third books
wc can mark thc rccoil ol a humanc and scnsitivc spirit lrom thc
horrors ol thc rcign ol tcrror which hc witncsscd in his youth, and
lrom thc anarchy and conlusion which prcvailcd at Romc during his
nal ycars. Passagcs in his pocm attcst his lamiliarity with thc pomp
and luxury ol city lilc, with thc attractions ol thc public gamcs and
with thc pagcantry ol grcat military spcctaclcs. 8ut . . . hc sccms to
havc lound a plcasurc, morc congcnial to thc modcrn than to thc
ancicnt tcmpcramcnt, in asccnding mountains or wondcring among
thcir solitudcs.
vcn 8loom, who says that Valtcr Patcrs strangc achicvcmcnt is to havc
assimilatcd Vordsworth to Lucrctius, to havc compoundcd an idcalistic
naturalism with a corrcctivc matcrialism, makcs thc conncction, on Patcrs
bchall, bctwccn thc two carlicr pocts which, ! hopc to show, is ncithcr
strangc nor conlcctcd but, rathcr, implicit in Vordsworths own poctry.
!ndccd, whcn 8loom rcmarks, in an obiter dictum, that Vordsworth handcd
on to his disciplcs . . . his Sublimc visionary scnsc, |and| his program lor
rcnovation through rcncwcd cncountcrs with visiblc naturc,
6
he sounds
rathcr likc Lucrctius on picurus:
. . . cxtra
proccssit longc ammantia mocnia mundi
atquc omnc immcnsum pcragravit mcntc animoquc,
undc rclcrt nobis victor quid possit oriri,
quid ncqucat, nita potcstas dcniquc cuiquc
quanam sit rationc atquc altc tcrminus hacrcns.
(. . . Hc passcd lar bcyond thc cry walls ol thc
world, and in mind and spirit hc travcrscd thc immcnsc
univcrsc, whcncc hc brings back to us in victory thc
ncws ol what can bc born, and what not, and thc way in
which thc powcr ol cach thing is limitcd, and its
boundarystonc dccpsct.)
7
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
o
Tis is, signicantly, a passagc which Vordsworth himscll cvokcs in Te
Excursion, whcn hc dcscribcs thc happy man who
. . . cxplorcs
All naturcs,to thc cnd that hc may nd
Tc law that govcrns cach, and whcrc bcgins
Tc union, thc partition whcrc, that makcs
Kind and dcgrcc among all visiblc 8cings,
Tc constitutions, powcrs, and lacultics,
Vhich thcy inhcrit,cannot stcp bcyond,
And cannot lall bcncath, that do assign
To cvcry class its station and its o cc,
Trough all thc mighty commonwcalth ol things . . .
(!\.:)
8
!nstcad ol writing o thcsc sccming conlusions to luzzy critical vocabu
larics, incxact mcthods, or shccr coincidcncc, a gcnuinc comparativc study
should spcculatc on thc conncctions bctwccn thc Roman who was thc rst
grcat philosophical poct and thc nglishman who, according to his lricnd
and most pcrccptivc rcadcr, posscsscd morc ol thc gcnius ol a grcat philo
sophic poct than any man ! cvcr kncw, thc onc capablc ol writing thc
rst gcnuinc philosophic pocm.
9
Such a study would also account lor thc
possiblc inucncc ol a prccursor lar rcmovcd, by timc, languagc, and oltcn
by idcology, on a latcr poct who absorbs his cxamplc and makcs usc ol it
sclcctivcly.
Tc immcdiatc grounds lor comparison arc lcw but solid. !n a lcttcr
to Valtcr Savagc Landor, Vordsworth admits that my acquaintancc with
\irgil, Horacc, Lucrctius, and Catullus is intimatc,
!0
and hc mcntions De
Ferum Natura as a primc cxamplc ol didactic poctry, thc principal objcct
ol which is dircct instruction, in his +8+ prclacc. R. P. Gravcs rccalls
Vordsworths londncss lor quoting cxtcnsivcly lrom Lucrctius. Christophcr
Vordsworth and mcrson go cvcn lurthcr, thc rst in his rccollcction ol
his unclcs saying that thc lincs ol Lucrctius dcscribing thc immolation ol
!phigcnia arc worth thc wholc ol Gocthcs long pocm, and thc sccond in his
implicit undcrstanding that philosophical dicrcnccs nccd ncvcr prccludc
poctic apprcciation: Lucrctius hc cstccms a lar highcr poct than \irgil, not
in his systcm, which is nothing, but in his powcr ol illustration.
!!
Along with a linc lrom thc Georgics, Vordsworth citcs Lucrctius in
thc cpigraphs to thc rst cdition ol his carly cscriptivc Skctchcs: Loca
pastorum dcscrta atquc otia diva (\.+8). !n +8 hc writcs lorm Paris
to !sabclla Fcnwick about a millcr standing at his windmill and looking
upon thc City, with thc nonchalancc ol thc Philosophcr in Lucrctius, who
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)
+
lrom thc cmincncc ol his wisdom rcgards thc world and all its wandcrcrs as
somcthing lar bcncath his anxictics (LY, Pt. !!!, 8, cl. DFN !!.+ and
Te Excursion !X.:). !n Guide through the District of the Lakes, Vords
worth commcnds a dcscription in Lucrctius as cvidcncc that poctry capturcs
morc splcndidly than naturc itscll thc bcauty ol vincs and olivc trccs, it is,
coincidcntally, a passagc that may rcmind us ol thc opcning lincs ol Tintcrn
Abbcy oncc wc makc thc ncccssary arborcal adjustmcnts: a grcygrccn bclt
ol olivcs might run bctwccn thc vincyards to mark thc boundarics, strctching
lorth ovcr hills and vallcys and plains, just as now you scc thc wholc placc
mappcd out with various charms, laid out and intcrscctcd with swcct lruit
trccs, and lcnccd around with lruitlul shrubs (DFN \.+o8).
!n spitc ol thcir dicrcnccs (Lucrctiuss avowcd matcrialism and dis
bclicl in immortality do not squarc with Vordsworths mysticism and rcligious
awc cvcn bclorc his latcr orthodoxy), wc may dctcct major intcllcctual and
tcmpcramcntal conncctions bctwccn thc two pocts, which would account
lor Lucrctiuss poctic usclulncss to Vordsworth. Tcir cthical vocabular
ics dwcll upon plcasurc, calm, and lrccdom, and thcir minds arc strongly
antimythological and antiscxual. Vc may hcar an ccho ol thc picurcan
crcdo lathe biosas (livc in obscurity) in Vordsworths claim that Te Fecluse
will havc lor its principal subjcct thc scnsations and opinions ol a poct liv
ing in rctircmcnt (P!, \, :), and anothcr ccho ol Lucrctian dia .oluptas
in thc grand clcmcntary principlc ol plcasurc that inlorms thc prclacc to
Lyrical Ballads (P!, !!, ). 8oth mcn discovcr highcst good in tranquil
rctircmcnt and thc plcasurcs ol contcmplation, to which richcs, ignorancc,
lcar and supcrstition posc thc highcst thrcats (! cxccpt thc salutary lcar that
ministcrs, along with bcauty, to thc young Vordsworth in thc rst two books
ol Te Prelude). Tc Lucrctian gods, living apart in sedes quietae, cmbody
an idcal which wc may approach (c.g., !!!.::: dignam dis dcgcrc vitam)
through undcrstanding and lrccdom lrom scnsual comlorts. 8oth thc auto
biographical hcro and thc othcr human gurcs in Vordsworths poctry
rcach, at timcs, a mcasurcd calm through a combination ol duty, laith, and
undcrstanding. Tc goldcn momcnts, thc hopcdlor rclicl lrom cmotional
and physical uphcaval, thc bliss ol solitudc, and thc pcacc that passcs undcr
standing dcrivc as much lrom Vordsworths picurcan as lrom his Stoic
lcanings. 8ut whcrc Lucrctius paints an idcalizcd picturc ol bland gods in
a distant hcavcn, Vordsworth discovcrs his pcrlcct scrcnity in thc ctcrnity
ol dcath.
xccpt lor thc calm ol thc disintcrcstcd gods and thc harmonious tomb,
all momcnts ol tranquil rcspitc in Lucrctius and Vordsworth arc doomcd
to vanish, cithcr by lorcc ol cxtcrnal circumstancc, war, and plaguc, or by thc
cxplosion ol human wcakncss and othcr intcrnal disharmonics: thc rhythms
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
ol De Ferum Natura and Te Prelude altcrnatc bctwccn moods ol hopc and
dcspair, and bctwccn momcnts ol quict and turbulcncc.
!2
nc surc violation
ol picurcan calm is scxuality. 8y cxploiting and cxaggcrating thc com
mon crotic imagcry ol thc Grcck cpigrammatists, Lucrctius prcscnts thc
wounds, swcllings, and lusts ol bodily dcsirc as, in turn, natural, habitual,
ridiculous, and horrilying (!\.+o+:8). Against thc ccrtain wastclulncss
ol lovc, thc hcalthicst stancc is avoidancc altogcthcr ol \cnuss strong knots
and rcmoval hors de combat. Although hc abjurcs Lucrctiuss graphic rcndi
tions ol scxuality, Vordsworth sounds thc samc strong antiscxual notc.
!1
Te
Prelude cclcbratcs human rclationships that arc almost bloodlcssly rational:
to Raislcy Calvcrt Vordsworth ocrs gratitudc, to Colcridgc rcspcct, to
orothy lratcrnal acction and thanks lor sccing him through his crisis ol
thc midninctics, and to Mary Hutchinson thc mcrcst platitudcs ol wcddcd
lovc, lor hcr bcnign simplicity ol lilc (P X!!.+6+). vcn though hc praiscs
human lovc (X!\.+68), whcn hc rcturns to his truc subjcct Vordsworth
summarily dismisscs othcr pcoplc lrom thc imagc ol gcnuinc tranquil
lity. quating spiritual Lovc and !magination, clcarcst insight, amplitudc
ol mind, /And Rcason in hcr most cxaltcd mood (++:), Vordsworth
a rms thc csscntial isolation ol Man. Calm and salvation will comc, il at
all, lrom within:
. . . Hcrc must thou bc, Man!
Powcr to thyscll, no Hclpcr hast thou hcrc,
Hcrc kccpcst thou in singlcncss thy statc:
No othcr can dividc with thcc this work.
(X!\.:o+:)
!magination and intcllcctual lovc, thc Vordsworthian cquivalcnts ol
Lucrctiuss ratio and purgatum pectus (DFN \.), alonc rcdccm us lrom tcr
ror and lcad to picurcan ataraxia. Tc opcning lincs ol 8ook !! in De Ferum
Natura, which Vordsworth citcs in his +8 lcttcr, most clcarly dcpict thc
plcasurcs ol a rational, contcmplativc lilc, rcmovcd lrom thc lutilc qucst lor
achicvcmcnt, powcr, and wcalth. Rcason and undcrstanding ol natural law
lilt thc shadows through which wc pass, struggling, during our livcs: hunc
igitur tcrrorcm animi tcncbrasquc ncccsscst / non radii solis ncquc lucida
tcla dici / discutiant, scd naturac spccics ratioquc.
!4
spccially in his youth Vordsworth prolcsscs a brand ol cmpirical ratio
nalism closcly rcscmbling Lucrctiuss. !n thc Lincs Vrittcn as a School
xcrcisc at Hawkshcad, a lourtccnycarold schoolboys pacan to sci
cncc and cducation, purc Rcligion initially pcrlorms what \cnus docs at
thc start ol De Ferum Natura: it rcar|s| thc pcacclul brcast / And lull|s|
thc warring passions into rcst (lincs +:), thcrcaltcr, Vordsworth pays
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

homagc to Lucrctius and thc \irgil ol Georgics !! in his dcpiction ol thc

rcign ol Scicncc:
Vhcrc, throncd in gold, immortal Scicncc rcigns,
Fair to thc vicw is sacrcd Truth displayd,
!n all thc majcsty ol light arrayd,
To tcach, on rapid wings, thc curious soul
To roam lrom hcavcn to hcavcn, lrom polc to polc,
From thcncc to scarch thc mystic causc to things,
And lollow Naturc to hcr sccrct springs . . .
(o6)
Far lrom bcing antiscicntic, likc Kcats lor cxamplc, Vordsworth cxpccts
cducation and scicncc to rcgulatc thc minds disordcrcd lramc, / And
qucnch thc passions kindling into amc (8o). Sixtccn ycars latcr, in thc
prclacc to Lyrical Ballads, hc looks lorward to thc day whcn Scicncc shall bc
rcady to put on, as it wcrc, a lorm ol csh and blood, and thc Poct will lcnd
his divinc spirit to aid thc transguration, and will wclcomc thc 8cing thus
produccd, as a dcar and gcnuinc inmatc ol thc houschold ol man. vcn altcr
hc has divcstcd himscll ol his pscudoPopcan couplcts and abstractions, in
othcr words, Vordsworth adhcrcs to a laith in thc marriagc ol imagination
and scicncc which is implicit in thc vcry pcrsonications hc cmploys. Likc
Lucrctius (scc !.:::, 6oo, !\.8:+), with an inhcrcnt bclicl in
thc primacy ol scnsc cxpcricncc in knowlcdgc, Vordsworth rclics on thc
light ol scnsc lor common pcrccption and as thc bcginning ol imaginativc
salvation.
!
For both pocts, lrccdom is thc conscqucncc ol mans isolation and a
ncccssary prcsupposition lor moral rcsponsibility. Likc picurus, rcacting
against thc dctcrminism ol cmocritus and othcr carly atomists, Lucrc
tius hypostatizcs clinamen (!!.:+6), thc small swcrvings ol atoms moving
through spacc, as thc physical and mctaphorical basis lor his prool ol scll
dctcrmination.
!6
Nonpurposivc itscll, clinamen allows lor purposclul human
action. Lucrctius takcs upon himscll thc task ol showing how thc mind, likc
thc physical world ol which it is a part and thc rulcs ol which it obcys, can
bc subjcct to cxtcrnal causality but, at thc samc timc, imposc its will upon thc
world. Hc nds thc solution (!!!.:6:8) in thc idca ol a compound body
(concilium or conciliatus), a union ol atoms whosc wholc surpasscs thc sum ol
its parts: thc automatic swcrvc ol thc individual atoms thcn is translatcd in
thc complcx ol thc mind into a consciously spontancous movcmcnt, in othcr
words, into a movcmcnt ol volition.
!7
Vordsworth balanccs a similar bclicl in pcrsonal and political lrccdom
with an acccptancc ol physical, social, and intcllcctual ncccssity that prcvcnts
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

libcrty lrom bccoming anarchy. 8ook ! ol Te Prelude is paradigmatic, with

its scllconscious Miltonic cchocs, lrom Tc carth is all bclorc mc. Vith a
hcart / Joyous, nor scarcd at its own libcrty (lincs ++) to Tc road lics
plain bclorc mc,tis a thcmc / Singlc and ol dctcrmincd bounds (6o
+). Hc nds truc lrccdom only in thc sclllimitation that givcs dircction
and sclldctcrmination.
!8
Tc strongcst statcmcnt ol this ncccssitylrccdom
paradox comcs in Te Excursion, whcrc thc Vandcrcr, attcmpting to curc thc
dcspondcnt Solitary, shows how scicncc will watch thc proccsscs ol things
to aid thc minds excursi.e powcr:
. . . conscious that thc Vill is lrcc,
|Vc| Shall movc unswcrving, cvcn as il impcllcd
8y strict ncccssity, along thc path
l ordcr and ol good.
(!\.+:6o)
Vordsworth hcrc yokcs thc cthical dcmands ol stoic Christianity to thc
picurcan cxpcctation ol lrccdom, in languagc that sounds Lucrctian, cspc
cially thc scicntic unswcrving and thc Latinatc impcllcd and ncccssity.
Automatic bcncvolcncc, thc agcncy ol thosc littlc, namclcss, unrcmcmbcrcd
acts / l kindncss and ol lovc, which Tintcrn Abbcy cclcbratcs, rcsults
lrom a strict ncccssity which, in thc contcxt ol a similc (cvcn as il ), sccms
lcss than lully rcal. Total lrccdom, as hc suggcsts in thc dc to uty, is a
burdcn which thc wisc man comcs gradually to rclinquish in lavor ol a strict
obcdicncc that alonc will rcdccm onc lrom thc wcight ol chanccdcsircs,
and rclicvc thc latiguc brought on by unchartcrcd lrccdom. Likc Lucrctius,
Vordsworth managcs a spcculativc balancing act.
!n thcir commitmcnt to mans rclcasc lrom lcar, supcrstition, and intcl
lcctual bondagc, Lucrctius and Vordsworth sharc a modcrn, rclativistic tcm
pcr. Alonc among thc Latin pocts, Lucrctius lambastcs mythology, alonc
among thc nglish Romantics. Vordsworth turns away lrom thc usc ol clas
sical myth, his lcgacy lrom Spcnscr and Milton, nor docs hc attcmpt, likc
8lakc, to crcatc his own mythology. 8ut, at thc samc timc, both arc willing
to invokc thc old storics whcn it suits thcir purposcs to do so. Altcr his gor
gcous dcscription ol thc proccssions ol Cybclc, magna mater (!!.6oo6),
Lucrctius takcs away with onc hand what thc othcr has givcn: Quac bcnc ct
cximic quamvis disposta lcrantur, / longc sunt tamcn a vcra rationc rcpulsa.
Tus, in Miltons words, thcy rclatccrring. !n thc lablcs ol thc undcrworld
(!!!.8+o:), Lucrctius dcploys a symbolic usc ol myth to cxplain rcal
ity. All thc punishmcnts wc cnvision in an altcrlilc, hc says, arc projcctions
ol our carthly lcars: Tantalus, Tityos, and Sisyphus arc types ol mcn pun
ishcd lor lcar, pridc, or passion: Atquc ca nimirum quaccumquc Achcruntc
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

prolundo / prodita sunt cssc, in vita sunt omnia nobis. (8). Tc ctions
ol Achcron mirror thc truths ol this lilc. Similarly, Lucrctius is not abovc
using myth as part ol thc honcy with which hc coats his bittcr philosophic
pill (!\.++:), as whcn hc strcsscs thc lolk ctiology ol cho in !\.:,
rustics, hc says, crcatc local gods lor thcir woods so thcy will not havc to lcar
a surrounding dcscrt. Tc motivc is undcrstandablc, and thc poct rclrains
humancly lrom condcmning it. Phillip amon says that this picturc ol a
scnticnt naturc . . . was a thoroughly conscious cscapc lrom a corrcct but
slightly chilly conccption ol thc way things arc. . . . !nstcad ol harshly con
trasting myth with rcality, Lucrctius comcs within a rccognizablc distancc ol
using myth as a symbol ol rcalitya symbol ol mans anxious scarch lor thc
lalsc but comlorting storics, traditions and worldvicws quac bcllc tangcrc
possint aurcs.
!9
Tc lunctional usc ol myth, which balanccs thc solacc ol plcasant ctions
and thcir lrcqucnt cducativc valuc against thcir lalsity (c.g., P \.6),
is what Vordsworth, an unlikcly rclativist, prclcrs to a downright dismissal
or dcnunciation. Likc Milton, at pains to dicrcntiatc his truc cpic subjcct
lrom pagan storics, Vordsworth still calls up thc past as thc tradition lrom
which his own clinamen is divcrtcd:
Paradisc, and grovcs
lysian, Fortunatc Ficldslikc thosc ol old
Sought in thc Atlantic Mainwhy should thcy bc
A history only ol dcpartcd things,
r a mcrc ction ol what ncvcr was:
(Te Fecluse, Prospcctus, lincs +)
!t was truc shcphcrds, not such as Spcnscr lablcd (P \!!!.+), who rst
lcd him to a lovc ol man, and thc pastoral otium ol his swains was not thc
smooth lilc with long springs and tcpid wintcrs but onc complicatcd by
storms, snow, and strict timc. Hc climinatcs pastoral nostalgia and Utopian
optimism alikc: ncithcr subtcrrancan clds nor somc sccrctcd island will
givc man happincss, but only thc vcry world, which is thc world / l all ol
us (P X!.+o ). Ncvcrthlcss, thc Vandcrcr, in Te Excursion, praiscs cvcn
pagan dcitics as thc ncccssary cxprcssion ol untutorcd imaginativc impulscs.
Apollo cmbodics our nccd lor crcativc harmony, just as Tantalus, accord
ing to Lucrctius, rcccts thc nccd lor scllcondcmnation:
. . . il |a loncly hcrdsman|
Vhcn his own brcath was silcnt, chanccd to hcar
A distant strain, lar swcctcr than thc sounds
Vhich his poor skill could makc, his lancy lctchcd,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
vcn lrom thc blazing chariot ol thc sun,
A bcardlcss Youth, who touchcd a goldcn lutc,
And llcd thc illumincd grovcs with ravishmcnt.
(!\.86o)
20
Ambivalcnt about libcrty and mythology, thc pocts arc also unccrtain in
thcir scnsc ol thcir vocations. aring and lcar arc partncrs in thc cpic qucst,
and thc homagc paid by Lucrctius to picurus, likc Vordsworths implicit
homagc to Milton, acknowlcdgcs both thc mastcrs unmatchablc achicvc
mcnt and an cort to cmulatc it. Lucrctius is our rst consciously bclatcd
poct, who lamcnts his own wcakncss in coming altcr, but turns ncccssity into
a virtuc and rcjoiccs in thc task ol translating thc mastcrs words into a ncw
languagc. Tricc bcmoaning thc povcrty ol Latin (!.+, 8+, !!!.:6o,
cl. Vordsworths notc to Tc Torn, whcrc hc rclcrs to our consciousncss
ol thc inadcquatcncss ol our own powcrs, or thc dccicncics ol languagc),
hc nds his rolc plcasurablc bccausc arduous. Hc is proud to bc thc rst to
dcscribc ncwly discovcrcd truths in Latin: ct hanc primus cum primis ipsc
rcpcrtus / nunc cgo sum in patrias qui possim vcrtcrc voccs (\.6).
Likc antc lollowing \irgil, Lucrctius insists (\.6) that hc is walk
ing bchind his mastcr cuius cgo ingrcssus vcstigia dum rationcs / pcrscquor
ac docco dictis. 8ut his road is not always markcd by thc light ol picurus,
and his job is conscqucntly hardcr. Tc procm to 8ook !\ (cl. !.:+o),
with its lamous comparison ol thc writcrs task to thc physicians, lorc
ing thc mcdicinc down thc paticnts throat with thc hclp ol honcy, boldly
asscrts Lucrctiuss own originality, his qucst lor ncw paths, owcrs, and a
Muscs crown:
Avia Picridum pcragro loca nullius antc
trita solo. iuvat intcgros acccdcrc lontis
atquc haurirc, iuvatquc novos dcccrpcrc orcs
insigncmquc mco capiti pctcrc indc coronam
undc prius nulli vclarint tcmpora musac.
(!\.+)
Tis minglcd modcsty and pridc, thc crcativc unccrtainly and ambition
which must work thcmsclvcs out through a complcx proccss ol rationaliza
tion and sublimation, arc prcciscly what rcccnt criticism has dcncd as a
major lorcc in nglish Romantic poctry. Vordsworth attcmpts to outsoar
Milton, invoking a grcatcr Musc whilc hc passcs, unalarmcd (or so hc
says), thc tcrror and strcngth put lorth in pcrsonal lorm ol Miltons bibli
cal cpics (scc thc Prospcctus to Te Fecluse, lincs +). !n a program
matic statcmcnt that rccalls Lucrctiuss idcas about myth as wcll as his
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

scllconscious humanism (cl. DFN \.+), Vordsworth boldly plungcs

into somc untroddcn rcgion ol his mind:
. . . Not Chaos, not
Tc darkcst pit ol lowcst rcbus,
Nor aught ol blindcr vacancy, scoopcd out
8y hclp ol drcamscan brccd such lcar and awc
As lall upon us oltcn whcn wc look
!nto our Minds, into thc Mind ol Man
My haunt, and thc main rcgion ol my song.
(+)
Likc Vordsworth himscll, wc trcad on shadowy ground il wc try to
makc stylistic comparisons, lct alonc scc conncctions, bctwccn pocts scpa
ratcd by culturc, languagc, and two thousand ycars. Vc might say, howcvcr,
that prcciscly bccausc ol thc distancc bctwccn thcm, Vordsworth absorbcd
Lucrctiuss lcssons with nonc ol thc anxicty that accompanicd his rcsponscs
to Milton or othcrs closcr at hand and spcaking thc samc tonguc.
2!
And
bccausc ol thosc tcmpcramcntal and intcllcctual a nitics which thc two
mcn sharc, and which pcrmit Vordsworth an admiration ol Lucrctiuss
powcr ol illustration il not his cntirc systcm, wc may discovcr in thcir
rcspcctivc poctic languagcs strong rcscmblanccs which arc morc than coin
cidcntal, cvcn il lcss than incvitablc. 8oth pocts risk prosincss (as Colcridgc
rst rccognizcd about Vordsworth), and thcy can sink to occasional tcdium
in prcscnting abstrusc argumcnts. Lucrctiuss drilt can bc, likc Vordsworths,
at timcs scarccly obvious, at othcr momcnts both pocts mount to thc hcights
ol impassioncd spccch, unvciling thc grandcur ol thc commonplacc and thc
lorcclulncss ol thc philosophcrs abstractions.
To start with, wc can idcntily thc undcniably political consciousncss
that inlorms thc grcatcst momcnts in De Ferum Natura and Te Prelude. !n
rcporting thc rclations bctwccn thc atoms, Lucrctius uscs lcgal and military
mctaphors which suggcst to Hugh Sykcs avics that hc may havc attcmptcd
to rcprcscnt thc machincry ol thc univcrscthc machina mundiby sym
bols drawn lrom thc lcgal and political machincry ol thc Rcpublic.
22
avics
counts thirty appcaranccs ol nexus and its dcrivativcs, uscd, in Ciccronian
Latin, in its lcgal scnsc, dcnoting thc rclationship bctwccn dcbtor and
crcditor, slavc and mastcr. Concilium, dclibcrativc asscmbly, appcars twcnty
timcs, othcr lrcqucnt words arc con.entus, congressus, foedus, indicium, impe-
rium, and consociare. Lucrctiuss world is congrcss ol things (cl. Te Excursion
!\., thc mighty commonwcalth ol things), somctimcs unitcd in usclul
harmony, somctimcs warring lactiously. Civil pcacc and civil strilc, physical
rcst and turmoil, \cnus and Mars: thcsc arc thc contrarictics in Lucrctiuss
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
univcrsc. Tc laws ol conscrvation ol mattcr and cncrgy rcsult lrom a bal
ancc bctwccn crcation and dcstruction:
Ncc supcrarc qucunt motus itaquc cxitialcs
pcrpctuo ncquc in actcrnum scpclirc salutcm,
ncc porro rcrum gcnitalcs aucticiquc
motus pcrpctuo possunt scrvarc crcata.
sic acquo gcritur ccrtaminc principiorum
cx innito contractum tcmporc bcllum:
nunc hic nunc illic supcrant vitalia rcrum
ct supcrantur itcm.
(!!.66)
(And thcrclorc, ncithcr can thc motions ol dcstruction rulc lorcvcr, and
lorcvcr bury cxistcncc, nor lurthcr can thc motions ol cxistcncc lorcvcr
givc birth to things and prcscrvc thcm. Tus, thc war wagcd lrom inn
ity on thc rstbcginnings is carricd on in balanccd strilc: now hcrc, now
thcrc thc vital lorccs ol things conqucr, and in likc manncr arc thcm
sclvcs conqucrcd.)
Lucrctiuss languagc invariably humanizcs thc physical univcrsc. Not only
his political mctaphors, but cvcn his commoncst namc lor thc atoms, semina
rerum, bctrays an organicist bias.
21
All lilc is an ccosystcm ol dcpcndcncics,
Lucrctius applics a singlc bchavioral modcl to thc physical movcmcnt ol his
atoms, thc natural world ol \cncrcal rcproduction and Martial dcstruction,
and thc political world ol human pcacc and chaos:
. . . sic rcrum summa novatur
scmpcr, ct intcr sc mortalcs mutua vivunt.
augcscunt aliac gcntcs, aliac minuuntur,
inquc brcvi spatio mutantur saccla animantum
ct quasi cursorcs vitai lampada tradunt.
(!!.)
(Tc sum ol things is thus cvcr rcncwcd, and mortal crcaturcs livc dcpcn
dcnt upon onc anothcr. Somc spccics incrcasc, othcrs diminish, and in a
short spacc thc gcncrations ol living things arc changcd and, likc runncrs,
pass on thc torch ol lilc.)
Tis samc organic, political rclatcdncss lorms thc basis ol Vordsworths
world. M. H. Abrams has obscrvcd how lrcqucntly Romantic thcorics ol
mind dcpcnd on political analogics,
24
Vordsworths languagc lor thc trans
actions bctwccn mind and naturc (what Mark Schorcr, writing ol 8lakc,
rclcrs to as thc politics ol vision), rcadily invoking words likc sovcrcignty
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

and subscrvicncc, dcpicts human conlrontations with naturc or with thc

dcpths ol thc scll in a lramcwork ol strugglc, domination, and lrccdom. Tc
rcnovating virtuc ol thc spots ol timc (P X!!.:o8.) is thcir rcstoration ol
a propcr rclationship bctwccn mind and naturc, thcy show how Tc mind is
lord and mastcroutward scnsc / Tc obcdicnt scrvant ol hcr will. Going
to Francc with youthlul ardor, Vordsworth rcminds us that Naturc thcn
was sovcrcign in my mind, / And mighty lorms, scizing a youthlul lancy, /
Had givcn a chartcr to irrcgular hopcs (\!.). Tc soullcss imagc ol
Mt. 8lanc (:6.) usurpcd upon a living thought / Tat ncvcr morc could
bc. Altcr thc momcntous crossing ol thc Alps, thc imagination is rccog
nizcd in such strcngth / l usurpation, whcn thc light ol scnsc / Gocs out
(6o+). Vhcn thc bodily cyc . . . Tc most dcspotic ol our scnscs, gaincd /
Such strcngth in mc as oltcn hcld my mind / !n absolutc dominion, Naturc
studiously thwartcd this tyranny and summon|cd| all thc scnscs cach / To
countcract thc othcr (X!!.+:86, cl. DFN !.:+, invida pracclusit spccicm
natura vidcndi, our grudging laculty ol sight has shut us out lrom sccing).
Natural objccts and visiblc phcnomcna challcngc thc imaginations indc
pcndcncc throughout Vordsworths grcatcst poctry, in thc asccnt ol Snow
don which bcgins 8ook X!\, thc moon bccomcs a symbol ol a majcstic
intcllcct (linc 6) thrcatcncd by thc rcbcllious lcrvor ol wind and wavcs, thc
Atlantic occan
. . . appcarcd
To dwindlc, and givc up his majcsty,
Usurpcd upon lar as thc sight could rcach.
Not so thc cthcrcal vault, cncroachmcnt nonc
Vas thcrc, nor loss, only thc inlcrior stars
Had disappcarcd, or shcd a laintcr light
!n thc clcar prcscncc ol thc lullorbcd Moon,
Vho, lrom hcr sovcrcign clcvation, gazcd
Upon thc billowy occan, as it lay
All mcck and silcnt, savc that through a rilt
Not distant lrom thc shorc whcrcon wc stood,
A xcd, abysmal, gloomy, brcathingplacc
Mountcd thc roar ol watcrs, torrcnts, strcams
!nnumcrablc, roaring with onc voicc!
Hcard ovcr carth and sca, and in that hour,
For so it sccmcd, lclt by thc starry hcavcns.
(6:)
Tcsc lincs ncvcr rcsolvc thc strugglc lor domination prccmincnt in Vords
worths apocalyptic sccncs. nly in spccial transicnt momcnts do wc gct
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
o
a scnsc ol an achicvcd balancc, as at thc cnd ol 8ook X!!!, whcn thc poct
gains sight ol a ncw world, in which thcrc cxists an cquilibrium bctwccn
mind and naturc, and in which lrccdom is tcmpcrcd by
. . . thosc xcd laws
Vhcncc spiritual dignity originatcs,
Vhich do both givc it bcing and maintain
A balancc, an cnnobling intcrchangc
l action lrom without and lrom within,
Tc cxccllcncc, purc lunction, and bcst powcr
8oth ol thc objcct sccn, and cyc that sccs.
(X!!!.:8)
Such harmony is thc idcal, Vordsworth morc oltcn dcscribcs a strcnuous,
intcrnccinc rclationship likc thc onc in thc Snowdon cpisodc which immc
diatcly lollows, in tcrms ol irrcsolvablc political paradoxcs: mutual domina
tion, intcrchangcablc suprcmacy (X!\.8+, 8), thc ctcrnal warlarc ol thc
clcmcnts within a dynamic cosmos.
Tc usurpation ol powcr, and thc civil strilc in thc natural world that arc
cquivalcnts to intcllcctual strugglc, arc cxactly what wc nd in Lucrctiuss
dcscription ol thc civil war among thc clcmcnts (pio . . . concita bcllo)
in \.8o +. iscounting mythological talcs ol ood and rc, hc ocrs
atomic cxplanations lor thc occasional mastcry ol onc clcmcnt by anothcr.
An cnd may comc, hc says,
. . . vcl cum sol ct vapor omnis
omnibus cpotis umoribus exsuperarint:
quod laccrc intcndunt, ncquc adhuc conata patrarunt:
tantum suppcditant amncs ultraquc minantur
omnia dilu.iare cx alto gurgitc ponti,
ncquiquam, quoniam vcrrcntcs acquora vcnti
dcminuunt radiisquc rctcxcns acthcrius sol,
ct siccarc prius condunt omnia possc
quam liquor inccpti possit contingcrc ncm.
tantum spirantcs aequo certamine bellum
magnis inter se dc rcbus ccrncrc certant,
cum scmcl intcrca lucrit superantior ignis
ct scmcl, ut lama cst, umor regnarit in arvis.
(\.8, my italics)
(. . . cithcr whcn thc sun and all hcat shall prcvail, having drunk up all
thc watcr, which thcy arc striving to do, but so lar thcy havc bccn unablc
to accomplish thc attcmpt, so grcat a supply do thc rivcrs bring up, and
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)
+
lurthcr thrcatcn to dclugc thc wholc lrom thc dccp gull ol thc scaall
in vain, bccausc thc winds swccping thc watcrs diminish thcm, as docs
thc cthcrcal sun unravclling thcm with his rays, and thcsc arc condcnt
that thcy can dry up all things bclorc thc watcr can rcach thc cnd ol
its task. So crcc is thcir warlikc spirit, in cqual contcst thcy strivc to win
in a mighty causc, although in thc mcantimc rc won thc mastcry oncc,
and oncc, thc story gocs, watcr rulcd ovcr thc clds.)
Tc words ! havc strcsscd, rcpcatcd both within thc rcst ol this passagc and
throughout thc pocm gcncrally, havc thcir Vordsworthian cquivalcnts in
uphcaval, givc up, usurpcd, cncroachmcnt, sovcrcign, and suprcm
acy. vcn thc rhythm ol crcation and dcstruction which givcs Lucrctius
a lorm lor his pocm,
2
and which undcrlics his laws ol conscrvation, has a
dircct Vordsworthian analogy in thc intcrnalizcd battlcground ol conscious
ncss. As in thc Lucrctian cosmos, so in thc Vordsworthian mind: nothing
is cvcr lost, only rcshclvcd, or tcmporarily mislcd but cvcntually rctricv
ablc, all imagcs and prccious thoughts that arc dcpositcd upon thc silcnt
shorc / l mcmory . . . shall not dic, and cannot bc dcstroycd (Te Excursion
\!!.:8o). Tc act ol thc mind in discovcring or rccovcring itscll, its past
and prcscnt livcs, rcccts an intcllcctual ccology and c cicncy likc that ol
thc atomic univcrsc.
Tc long passagcs abovc cvincc anothcr major rcscmblancc bctwccn thc
pocts: thcy both provc what onald avic has suggcstcd about Vordsworths
diction, that thc nouns tcnd toward gcncrality, thc vcrbs to spccicity.
26
Tc
cncrgy in both pocts crupts whcn thcy dcpict violcnt or rclcntlcss action,
thcy dcvclop vocabularics that strcss changc, as Vhitchcad noticcd, shoot
ing across a background ol cndurancc (according to Lucrctius, !!.o8+o,
cvcn though thc atoms arc in constant motion, thc world givcs thc appcar
ancc ol summa quies). 8ut thcy arc also our grcatcst gcncralizing pocts. Tus
thcy habitually rcly on largc conccptual words: Lucrctiuss ratio, animus and
anima, natura, species, genus, nilum, .oluptas, and Vordsworths rcason,
soul, imagination, naturc, powcr, and lovc, vcn thcir primary con
ccrn with things is distillcd to a lcvcl ol abstraction. Fes and thing arc
rough cquivalcnts in thc two languagcsbald, prosaic, connoting individu
ality in thc singular and, in thc plural, unspccic multcity. Lucrctius prom
iscs to uncovcr thc origins ol thc univcrsc, its bcginnings in thc atoms, and
thc way naturc nourishcs mattcr and thcn rcduccs it. nc word covcrs all:
. . . rerum primordia pandam,
undc omnis natura crcct res auctct alatquc
quovc cadcm rursum natura pcrcmpta rcsolvat,
quac nos matcricm ct gcnitalia corpora rebus
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
rcddunda in rationc vocarc ct scmina rerum
appcllarc sumus ct hacc cadcm usurparc
corpora prima, quod cx illis sunt omnia primis.
(!.6+, my italics)
Tings in Vordsworth arc at thc hcart ol important momcnts, ol his
rccognition ol a physical univcrsc with morc than physical attributcs, and
ol thc unity cmbracing animatc and inanimatc alikc.
27
Usually things arc
dcad or unhuman, which is why thc !ntimations dc can spcak ol instincts
bclorc which our mortal Naturc / id trcmblc likc a guilty Ting sur
priscd. Hcncc, also, thc spcakcrs surprisc in Rcsolution and !ndcpcndcncc
at sccing a thing cnducd with scnsc, or in YcwTrccs: Tis solitary Trcc!
a living thing! At thc othcr cxtrcmc lrom thc mutc inscnsatc things ol
Trcc Ycars Shc Grcw in Sun and Showcr arc thc panthcistic rcvclations
madc constantly in thc poctry, as in Te Excursion !.+6 (borrowcd almost
vcrbatim lrom Te Borderers, linc +o8), thc moral propcrtics and scopc ol
things. Vhcn wc arc invitcd to comc lorth into thc light ol things (Tc
Tablcs Turncd), wc scnsc a vital moral univcrsc, whcn Lucy Gray is callcd
thc swcctcst thing that cvcr grcw, wc rcalizc thc inadcquacy to rcality ol
our usual catcgorics, whcn thc drcamcr in thc last ol thc Lucy pocms (A
Slumbcr id My Spirit Scal) announccs that Shc sccmcd a thing that
could not lccl / Tc touch ol carthly ycars, hc implics both his own navct
and thc transhumanncss ol thc girl. Abovc all, in Tintcrn Abbcy, thcrc is
thc momcntous wc scc into thc lilc ol things, which gcncralizcs lrom thc
onc lilc within us and abroad, and cndows thc dcad objccts ol thc world or
ol mcmory with a pulsc ol thcir own. Furthcr on Vordsworth is disturbcd
by A motion and a spirit, that impcls / All thinking things, all objccts ol
all thought, / And rolls through all things. Hcrc is anothcr momcntary
balancc: things arc thc pcrcipicnt bcings and thc objccts ol thcir noticc.
nc world makcs thc wholc world kin.
Tc languagc ol gcncral idcas mixcs with thc rhctoric ol prool in thcsc
pocts who makc argumcnts, cithcr logically likc Lucrctius, or analogically, likc
Vordsworth, rcasoning lrom thc cxamplc ol his own lilc outward (Vhat
onc is, / Vhy may not millions bc: hc asks in Te Prelude X!!!.888). Tc
prosaic diction ol logic is cvcrywhcrc in Lucrctius: hc is thc classical poct,
par excellence, ol conncctivcs: igitur, ergo, sic, ita, denique, quippe, haud, hinc,
quare, tamen, quapropter, scilicet. Tc lorcc ol his prools and thc condcncc
with which hc asscrts thcm givc Lucrctius a mastcrlul, authoritativc tonc.
ltcn thought ol as a hard poct, Lucrctius has a gilt lor thc gracclul, sim
plc aphorism which usually crowns an illustration or prool, altcr which wc
can do no morc than agrcc: tantum rcligio potuit suadcrc malorum (!.+o+),
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

and rcligion has bccn killcd o lor good, corporibus caccis igitur natura
gcrit rcs (!.:8), ita rcs acccndcnt lumina rcbus (!.+++), nil igitur mors cst
ad nos ncquc pcrtinct hilum (!!!.8o), all singlc lincs which cnd, mattcrol
lactly, thc issucs at hand (my italics). Tc aphorisms work, again and again,
likc thc impcrativcs which Annc Amory has callcd slccvcplucking words,
to push thc argumcnt lorward with rcdounding cncrgy.
28
Lucrctius builds toward thcsc simplc, mcmorablc, prosaic cpigrams, but
thc main body ol his argumcnt is a dcnsc thickct ol rhctorical dcviccs, thc
poctry is rich with rcpctition, archaisms, and invcntcd compound words.
!n gcncral, hc lavors an austcrc rcpctition (hcncc thc cmphasis on ccrtain
conccptual words) rathcr than thc clcgant variations uscd by subscqucnt
Augustan pocts. Vhat may sccm occasionally prolix and stolid in his stylc is
probably duc to his awarcncss ol thc di culty ol making an abstrusc, un
poctic subjcct comprchcnsiblc to an audicncc and in a languagc not particularly
hospitablc to it.
29
His intcrcst, ol ncccssity, as Vordsworth wcll kncw, was
as much in thc powcr ol illustration as in thc systcm itscll.
Lucrctius wants to kccp many possibilitics opcnhcncc, in \.:6,
hc admits thcrc may bc scvcral causcs ol thc movcmcnt ol thc stars. Call
ing himscll pedetemptim progredientis onc procccding stcp by stcp, hc rcc
ognizcs thc impossibility ol guring out thc corrcct cxplanation. Anothcr
cxamplc ol thc samc stcady, paticnt pacc is his argumcnt lor thc mortality ol
thc soul (!!!.+8:), which bcgins with his conclusion, runs with a daz
zling display ol logical inlcrcncc through dozcns ol rcasons to makc thc irrc
lutablc point that both body and soul arc mortal, and cnds (linc 8o) whcrc
it bcgan, with thc asscrtion that dcath is nothing to us, an idca rcpcatcd vc
timcs in thc subscqucnt +: lincs. Tc argumcnt is circular and Lucrctiuss
arscnal lor prcscnting it immcnsc.
10
!n his provocativc analysis ol Vordsworths prcpositions, Christophcr
Ricks has dcscribcd thc stylistic gcsturcs which accompany Vordsworths
instinctivc passion lor conncction and rclationship.
1!
Ricks might havc gonc
lurthcr: Vordsworth is thc nglish poct ol thc conjunction, and thc advcrb
ol rcsult, as wcll as ol thc prcposition. Vhcthcr uscd with justly logical lorcc
or mcrcly as slapdash gluc lor two scntcnccs or argumcnts, thcsc conncc
tivcs dcmand our attcntion, as Vordsworth hopcd thcy would whcn hc
wrotc ol Tintcrn Abbcy that its transitions arc cquivalcnt to thc turns and
countcrturns ol a grcat odc (P!, !!, +). Tis is thcir ccct, cspccially in thc
capitulating Terefore am ! still / A lovcr ol thc mcadows, and Terefore
lct thc moon / Shinc on thcc in thy solitary walk (my italics), lincs which
concludc an argumcnt and announcc a ncw dircction in thc pocts thought.
Not only do thc thuscs and thcrclorcs givc what John Joncs labcls thc
logical, knittcd quality ol Vordsworths vcrsc,
12
but wholc phrascs arc also
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

uscd with conjunctivc purposc, whcthcr to support or to dcmur: such, pcr

haps,, Nor lcss, ! trust, !l this / 8c but a vain bclicl , Tough changcd,
no doubt, lor such loss, ! would bclicvc, Nor, pcrchancc. To nish a
paragraph, Vordsworth may rcly upon a pscudological ourish, lor cxam
plc, thc midnight storm / Grcw darkcr in thc prcscncc ol my cyc. / Hcncc
my obcisancc, my dcvotion hcncc, / And hcncc my transport (P !!.6).
And, trying to bc lair to all altcrnativcs, thc vcrsc occasionally rclinquishcs
lorcclulncss to thc dcmands ol cnumcration and rhctorical complcxity:
. . . My scvcntccnth ycar was comc,
And, .hether lrom this habit rootcd now
So dccply in my mind, or lrom cxccss
!n thc grcat social principlc ol lilc
Cocrcing all things into sympathy,
To unorganic naturcs wcrc translcrrcd
My own cnjoymcnts, or thc powcr ol truth
Coming in rcvclation, did convcrsc
Vith things that rcally arc . . .
(86, my italics)
Tc Vordsworthian statcmcnt, likc thc Lucrctian, lollows an arc that
oltcn bcgins and always cnds in simplicity.
11
A good cxamplc is thc conclu
sion ol thc sccond vcrsc paragraph ol Tintcrn Abbcy:
. . . Nor lcss, ! trust,
To thcm ! may havc owcd anothcr gilt,
l aspcct morc sublimc, that blcsscd mood
!n which thc burthcn ol thc mystcry,
!n which thc hcavy and thc wcary wcight
l all this unintclligiblc world,
!s lightcncd:Tat scrcnc and blcsscd mood,
!n which thc acctions gcntly lcad us on,
Until, thc brcath ol this corporcal lramc
And cvcn thc motion ol our human blood
Almost suspcndcd, wc arc laid aslccp
!n body, and bccomc a living soul:
Vhilc with an cyc madc quict by thc powcr
l harmony, and thc dccp powcr ol joy,
Vc scc into thc lilc ol things.
(lincs )
Tc monosyllabic, nativc nglish words ol thc last linc comc at thc closc
ol a long brcath which bcgins with a hcsitation and a rcluctant conditional
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

vcrb, and works through a scrics ol rcpctitions dcsigncd to build momcntum

and intcllcctual clarity in dcning thc mood . . . in which thc nal mystical
rcvclation is madc (comparc thc impact ol Te Prelude !!., things that
rcally arc, citcd abovc). r, wc may takc thc cnd ol thc Vandcrcrs narrativc
in Te Excursion !, his bcncdiction lor Margarct:
Shc slccps in thc clam carth, and pcacc is hcrc.
! wcll rcmcmbcr that thosc vcry plumcs,
Tosc wccds, and thc high spcargrass on that wall,
8y mist and silcnt raindrops silvcrcd ocr,
As oncc ! passcd, into my hcart convcycd
So still an imagc ol tranquillity,
So calm and still, and lookcd so bcautilul
Amid thc uncasy thoughts which llcd my mind,
Tat what wc lccl ol sorrow and dcspair
From ruin and lrom changc, and all thc gricl
Tat passing shows ol 8cing lcavc bchind,
Appcarcd an idlc drcam, that could maintian,
Nowhcrc, dominion ocr thc cnlightcncd spirit
Vhosc mcditativc sympathics rcposc
Upon thc brcast ol Faith. ! turncd away,
And walkcd along my road in happincss.
(lincs +6)
ncc again, thc movc is circular, lrom onc simplc scntcncc to a barc con
clusion, twisting around lincs and imagcs lull ol rcpctition, rcdundancy,
complcx subordination and, unsurprisingly, onc strong political imagc
(maintain . . . dominion).
Rcpctition, as morc than a stylistic tic or an clcgant scrics ol gracc notcs,
allics Vordsworth in dccp ways with Milton, ol coursc, but with Lucrctius as
wcll. Partly this is duc to thc strong usc ol kcy words as rivcts or anchors
in a world ol ux, morc intcrcstingly, it attcsts not to a povcrty ol languagc
or conccption but to an ingraincd didacticism that nds in rcpctition and
tautology thc dccpcst truths.
14
Vallacc Stcvcnss statcmcnt in Notcs toward
a Suprcmc Fiction that Tc manhcro is not thc cxccptional monstcr, / 8ut
hc that ol rcpctition is most mastcr might wcll scrvc as motto lor thc stylc
and tcmpcramcnt that Vordsworth sharcs with ccrtain ol his lorcbcars. !t is
not unusual that a poct whosc most charactcristic cxpcricnccs and chargcd
momcnts oltcn takc thc lorm ol rcpctition, with or without variation (Fivc
ycars havc passcd . . . and . . . ncc again / o ! bchold, So was it whcn
my lilc bcgan, / So is it now ! am a man, / So bc it whcn ! shall grow old)
should adopt a stylc cquivalcnt to his vision. Tc harmony ol rcciprocity,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
anothcr typc ol political rclationship, dcmands a syntax and a vocabulary ol
appositc rccxivcncss:
. . . But he had felt thc powcr
Of Nature, and alrcady was prcparcd,
By his intense conccptions, to recei.e
Deeply thc lcsson deep of lovc which he,
Vhom Nature, by whatcvcr mcans, has taught
To feel intensely, cannot but recei.e.
(Te Excursion !.++6, my italics)
Tcaching is likc mcdicinc: rcpcatcd doscs arc oltcn ncccssary. Tcdious
and scllsatiscd as hc somctimcs is throughout Te Excursion, thc Van
dcrcr, whom thc lincs abovc dcscribc, is Vordsworths spokcsman and thc
major voicc in that undramatic pocm. His rolc is an unabashcdly didactic
onc, and at lcast onc principal objcct ol thc pocm (as in Lucrctiuss) is dircct
instruction: how to savc yourscll lrom dcspondcncy. 8oth pocts havc bccn
laultcd lor prcachincss, lor tircsomc (and, somc say, unpoctic) mcandcring in
philosophical domains. 8ut both De Ferum Natura and Te Prelude itscll
didactic in impulscarc pcrsonal addrcsscs as wcll as, in thc onc casc, a
trcatisc, and, in thc othcr, an cpic or autobiography. Tc passion lor gctting
it right, lor cxplaining a cosmology and an cthics as complctcly and irrclut
ably as possiblc is at thc hcart ol Lucrctiuss stylc. His purposc is not mcrcly
to dcvclop his systcm in vcrsc but to convincc and convcrt Mcmmius, to
whom thc pocm is addrcsscd, to picurcan ataraxia and thc cult ol rclaxcd
lricndship uniting mcn in thc Gardcn. Tcaching Mcmmius how to livc, by
dcning thc rcvclations ol godlikc picurus, will conscqucntly cxpand thc
circlc ol truc bclicvcrs. Tis is what givcs missionary lcrvor and a human
voicc to this nominally scicntic pocm. Altcr Hcsiod, Lucrctius is our rst
grcat poctic tcachcr.
And, in nglish at lcast, Vordsworth may bc our latcst. Tc prcpara
tory autobiographical pocm ncvcr gavc way to thc grcat philosophical opus
which Vordsworth anticipatcd, although it cmboldcncd him lor thc task. At
thc cnd ol Te Prelude, Vordsworth looks hopclully lorward to thc lulll
mcnt ol his joint task with Colcridgc. Should thcy livc, thc two ol thcm will
dclivcr thcir lcllows lrom ignominy and shamc:
Prophcts ol Naturc, wc to thcm will spcak
A lasting inspiration, sancticd
8y rcason, blcst by laith: what wc havc lovcd,
thcrs will lovc, and wc will tcach thcm how,
!nstruct thcm how thc mind ol man bccomcs
so:v iicvv:i~x viv:vx:s ix wovbswov:n (+8)

A thousand timcs morc bcautilul than thc carth

n which hc dwclls . . .
( X!\.o)
Tc mission was ncvcr accomplishcd, as Vordsworth progrcssivcly chosc
lor himscll thc mask ol prcachcr rathcr than tcntativc philosophical tcachcr,
pedetemptim progredientis. His wish cithcr to bc considcrcd as a Tcachcr, or
as nothing,
1
howcvcr, was achicvcd in part by thc cnthusiastic convcrsions
ol such ninctccnthccntury lollowcrs as Mill and liot. !t is appropriatc, too,
that onc nglish classicist should havc sclcctcd thc lincs abovc lor translation
into Lucrctian hcxamctcrs (! cnd whcrc ! bcgan this cssay: with thc instinc
tivc coupling ol Vordsworth and Lucrctius by various rcadcrs): . . . alii,
quod amavimus antc / id disccnt quoquc amarc, viamquc doccbimus ipsi.
16

Shcllcy, himscll a morc thoroughgoing Lucrctian, invokcs Vordsworth with
Lucrctian imagcry, scnsing as it wcrc thc allcgianccs bctwccn thc two grcat
philosophical pocts.
17
For Lucrctius, thc joy ol thc philosophcr is to gazc
lrom shorc upon turbulcnt watcrs, to bchold bclli ccrtamina magna lrom
a salc rclugc (!!.+), thc grcat achicvcmcnt ol picurus was to havc lcd us
lrom storm and darkncss to calm and light:
. . . quiquc pcr artcm
uctibus c tantis vitam tantisquc tcncbris
in tam tranquillo ct tam clara lucc locavit.
(\.+o+:)
As picurus was to Lucrctius, Shcllcy intimatcs, so Vordsworth was to us:
Tou wcrt as a lonc star, whosc light did shinc
n somc lrail bark in wintcrs midnight roar:
Tou hast likc to a rocklikc rclugc stood
Abovc thc blind and battling multitudc.
Vhatcvcr thcir lailurcs, as pocts or thinkcrs, both Lucrctius and Vord
sworth havc givcn us an ordcrcd vision ol thc lilc ol man, with grcat vigour
ol rcal poctic imagc and oltcn acutc obscrvation.
18
Vordsworth lcarncd
lrom Lucrctius without anxicty, casily apprcciating and adopting his charac
tcristic ways ol concciving and dcpicting rcality. 8oth pocts havc taught us,
in thcir dicrcnt ways, our placc in a univcrsal commonwcalth.
8
FUR X
KATSS CM!NG MUSKRS
AN SHAKSPARS PRFUN
\RUR l+8
V
ithin thc mystcrious translormations ol raw cxpcricncc and
lccling into art, pcrhaps thc most troublcsomc proccsslor an
audicncc at lcastis onc writcrs rccollcction or absorption ol
anothcrs work. How can wc know that what wc think wc hcar within or
bcncath a tcxt is thcrc, cithcr intcntionally or unwittingly: Litcrary ccho
ing, whcthcr pursucd in oldlashioncd sourcc studics or in rcccnt analyscs
ol inucncc, may ring lalsc whcrc wc most wish to hcar it.
!
n thc othcr
hand, thc laintcst rcminisccnccs, notcs ol homagc to a pocts prccursors,
may turn out to play a major part in a pocms music whcn wc listcn to thcm
attcntivcly. Can wc dcrivc onc pocms tonic lrom a kcy providcd by anothcr,
or do thc cchocs cxist as a countcrpoint to thc latcr works authcntic origi
nality: How comlortably docs post hoc squarc with propter hoc? !n thc lol
lowing cssay, ! shall try to show how a pcculiar problcm in a spccic pocm
may prcparc us lor largcr conncctions bctwccn that pocm and an antcccdcnt
work than wc might havc bargaincd lor.
Tc dc to a Nightingalc, as cvcryonc knows, is onc ol thc products
ol Kcatss most lcvcrishly crcativc wccks in thc spring ol his annus mirabilis.
8ut qucstions ol whcn, cxactly, thc pocm was writtcn, which wc cannot know
lor ccrtain, arc compoundcd by cqually knotty oncs, which too many rcadcrs
ignorc, gloss ovcr, or misanswcr, about timc .ithin thc pocm itscll. Somc
critics unconsciously assumc that thc pocms intcrnal timc coincidcs with
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)

that ol its composition, pcrhaps carly May, or thcy x that timc, via onc ol thc
pocms lcw cxact rclcrcnccs, at midMay. Still othcrs likc to think ol thc odc,
bccausc ol its prolcptic glanccs toward summcr ripcncss, as a midsummcr
piccc.
2
!t has oltcn bccn rccognizcd that thc orilcgium ol thc lth stanza,
at that mystcrious momcnt ol synacsthctic conlusion whcn cmpirical knowl
cdgc and rational discovcry givc way to intuitivc gucsswork, movcs in a sca
sonal progrcssion lrom owcrs ol thc carly spring to thc lruits ol summcr:
! cannot scc what owcrs arc at my lcct,
Nor what solt inccnsc hangs upon thc boughs,
8ut, in cmbalmcd darkncss, gucss cach swcct
Vhcrcwith thc scasonablc month cndows
Tc grass, thc thickct, and thc lruittrcc wild,
Vhitc hawthorn, and thc pastoral cglantinc,
Fast lading violcts covcrd up in lcavcs,
And midMays cldcst child,
Tc coming muskrosc, lull ol dcwy winc,
Tc murmurous haunt ol ics on summcr cvcs.
1
Ccrtain linguistic and botanical odditics ol thc stanza dcmand commcnt.
Tc most pcrplcxing ol thcsc is thc last namcd ol thc owcrs: assuming, lor
thc purposc ol convcnicncc, a midMay datc lor thc pocms action, what
can wc makc ol thc conjunction ol coming and cldcst: Tc muskrosc
is a summcr owcr, yct to comc, not currcntly in thc proccss ol coming,
8acon tclls us, in l Gardcns, that in May and Junc comc . . . roscs ol all
kinds, cxccpt thc musk, which comcs latcr. . . . !n July comc . . . muskroscs.
4

Conscqucntly, thc anticipation within thc last linc corrcsponds ncatly to that
in thc last linc ol thc rst stanza (Singcst ol summcr in lullthroatcd casc
|+o|), cspccially il wc assumc that thc birds song somchow rcccts thc pocts
unconscious, wishlul longing lor a latcr timcalthough somc rcadcrs havc
thought that thc nightingalc, always unawarc as thc spcakcr lull wcll knows,
must bc singing in summcr il it is singing of summcr. 8ut thc cldcst child
ol midMay must surcly bc thc owcr born at thc start ol thc month, or cvcn
carlicr in thc spring, somcthing likc thc hawthorn, or thc rstnamcd violct.
To say simply that thc pocm, cvcn at a point whcrc timc, likc rational
ity, sccms momcntarily suspcndcd, cvinccs Kcatss innatc lccling lor natu
ral proccss, will not rcsolvc thc othcr problcms within thc stanza. To bcgin
with, thc syntactic status ol violct, hawthorn, cglantinc, and rosc complc
mcnts thcir tcmporal vagucncss, sincc thc punctuation thwarts any attcmpt
to dctcrminc whcthcr thc owcrs arc in apposition to thc swccts ol linc
or arc objccts ol thc scasonablc cndowmcnt that brings thosc swccts to all
thc plants in this bowcr. Furthcr linguistic dctails work toward obscuring not
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6o
just oncs timc scnsc but also clcar visualizationcvcn within a paradoxically
cmbalmcd darkncss whcrc cvcrything movcs and changcs. Arc thc violcts
quitc dcad: o wc undcrstand covcrd as analogous to thc dccp location
ol thc nightingalc (stanza +) amid thc lorcsts numbcrlcss shadows, to thc
pocts prcscnt cmbalmmcnt in darkncss, and to thc birds subscqucnt burial
in thc cighth stanza whcn it disappcars into thc ncighboring vallcygladc:
r arc thc violcts, thc humblc owcrs ol carly spring, mcrcly bcginning thcir
ctiolation: Vhat lcavcs covcr thcm: Tcir own: Tosc ol last ycar: Tosc
ol trccs that havc alrcady bcgun to shcd, or thosc ol still carlicr owcrs (thc
violct, as Vordsworth rcminds us, may bc hiddcn cvcn by a mossy stonc):
Finally, what cxactly docs Kcats intcnd by thc scasonablc month: !t is dil
cult to takc at lacc valuc thc citation ol this linc in thc OED as a rclcrcncc
to wcathcr, mcaning suitablc to thc timc ol ycar, bccausc dctails ol climatc
or mctcorology gurc nowhcrc clsc in thc pocm. !l wc takc thc adjcctivc to
mcan occurring at thc right scason, opportunc, wc arc stuck with a typi
cally Kcatsian rcdundancy that tcascs us again to considcr to .hich month(s)
thc poct may rclcr. Although thc dictionary lists two othcr mcanings as now
obsolctc, thcy at lcast dcvclop thc implications ol thc word in dircctions cor
rcsponding to thc othcr cvidcncc ol thc stanza, both tcmporary, cnduring
but lor a scason and maturc, wcllscasoncd rcmind us that thc owcrs, at
thc momcnt ol bloom, arc last losing thcir scasonal swcctncss, that likc thc
lruit in To Autumn that is llcd with ripcncss to thc corc, thcir rottcnncss
attcnds upon thcir vcry lruition, and that thc momcnt ol conccption is thc
bcginning ol dcath. And in this casc, as in so many othcrs, Kcatss tcmporal
congurations almost dclibcratcly sccm to provc that poctic lcrtility, likc
natural growth, dcstroys its own crcations. As il undcrstanding this Kcat
sian dilcmma, A. . Housman latcr cullcd his own whitc hawthorn owcrs
(oltcn callcd May owcrs and gathcrcd traditionally on May ay) with a
comparablc scasonal paradox:
Tis timc, ! think, by Vcnlock town
Tc goldcn broom should blow,
Tc hawthorn sprinklcd up and down
Should chargc thc land with snow.
( Shropshire Lad, .+)

Tc muskrosc blows six timcs in Kcatss poctry, and all but oncc it appcars
in summcr. Tc onc cxccption, in thc carly cpistlc To My 8rothcr Gcorgc,
associatcs it spccically with May ay whcn, with thc lily, it bcdccks thc
May Quccn as an cmblcm truc ol haplcss lovcrs dying, in a strangc con
junction ol crotic tragcdy and youthlul hopc (o). 8ut Kcats so oltcn con
nccts imagcs ol natural proccss with crotic longing that wc must grant this
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
6+
muskrosc a privilcgcd symbolic status in his gardcn. And, as Christophcr
Ricks has suggcstcd, conccption in Kcats usually minglcs artistic, natural,
and scxual possibilitics.
6
!n thc rclations among thcsc possibilitics lic Kcatss
amplcst matcrials. nc ycar bclorc thc grcat odcs, hc dcscribcd thc mark ol
thc human spring (in Four scasons ll thc mcasurc ol thc ycar) as Fancy,
which Takcs in all bcauty with an casy span (). At thc cnd ol +8+8,
wingcd Fancy bctokcns thc imagination, crotic ycarning, and scasonal
mutability:
vcr lct thc Fancy roam,
Plcasurc ncvcr is at homc:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summcrs joys arc spoilt by usc,
And thc cnjoying ol thc spring
Fadcs as docs its blossoming.
(Fancy, +:, +o+:)
!t is Fancy that lcads man to a mistrcss as scasonablc as shc isas yct
unscasoncd,
a mistrcss to thy mind:
ulcctcycd as Ccrcs daughtcr,
rc thc God ol Tormcnt taught hcr
How to lrown and how to chidc.
(8o8)
8y +8+, howcvcr, Fancys Pcrscphonc has lrowncd on thc poct, as hc
turns an cmbittcrcd cyc on thc nightingalc and what shc now rcprcscnts
altcr thc conlusions and attcndant disappointmcnts ol spacc and timc: Adicu!
thc lancy cannot chcat so wcll / As shc is lamd to do, dccciving cll ().
At thc cnd ol thc odc, thc larcwcll to thc nightingalc syntactically prcccdcs,
but cxpcricntially lollows, thc rccognition that Fancy, that lcmininc cll, has
tcascd him only hallway. Tc momcnt ol hcightcncd imaginativc activity,
in syncsthctic turbulcncc, has dclcatcd cxpcctation and dcsirc, crotic and
imaginativc dcccptions adjust thcmsclvcs to scasonal proccss.
!n Kcatss poctry timc is always ol thc csscncc. Tc only instancc whcrc
its dcccits do not portcnd cithcr tragcdy or mcrc disappointmcnt is at thc
opcning ol To Autumn, whcrc thc bccs arc charactcristically trickcd into
thinking thcir summcr ctcrnal (+o). vcn hcrc, howcvcr, human conscious
ncss must not bc grantcd supcrior wisdom, sincc thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc
stanza, by dcnying us a simplc indcpcndcnt vcrb, undcrmincs our cxpccta
tions, wc arc unlikcly to know, at rst rcading, that thc rst clcvcn lincs,
with thcir prolusion ol timclcss innitivcs and participlcs, arc grammatically
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6:
and tcmporally incomplctc, nishcd not by thc pcriod ol linc ++ but by thc
qucstion ol linc +: that rcpairs thc lracturcd apostrophc (Scason ol mists
and mcllow lruitlulncss . . . Vho hath not sccn thcc olt amid thy storc:).
7
Kcatsian trickcry, hcrc at its clcvcrcst, is also at its tamcst. lscwhcrc in
his poctry, Kcats assurcs us not only that dcath is lilcs high mccd but also
that springtimc awakcning can tcmpt, cndangcr, and mystily, most alarm
ing whcn most longcd lor. Tc dcnic opcning ol Tc Fall ol Hypcrion:
A rcam, whcrc syncsthctic dctails ccho thosc ol thc dc to a Nightin
galc and whcrc thc poct nds himscll standing bcsidc a showcring noisc
by thc touch / l sccnt, not lar lrom roscs (!.::), prcparcs him not lor
bliss but lor thc cvaporation ol Floras rcalm and its rcplaccmcnt by somc
thing morc nakcd and Grccian. Shortly thcrcaltcr, moving toward Monctas
tcmplc, thc poct rcminds us ol springs alluring dcccit:
Vhcn in midMay thc sickcning cast wind
Shilts suddcn to thc south, thc small warm rain
Mclts out thc lrozcn inccnsc lrom all owcrs,
And lls thc air with so much plcasant hcalth
Tat cvcn thc dying man lorgcts his shroud.
(!.+o+)
Tc wcakcst phrasc, bccausc thc most gcncral (plcasant hcalth), attcsts to
Kcatss lack ol intcrcst in this tcmporary rcvival, which will, soon cnough,
makc thc sick mans dcath all thc morc painlul.
vcn this passagc, with its rcscmblancc to thc odc, looks back to an
carlicr pocm that itscll prcdicts cvcrything through To Autumn. !n thc
+8+6 sonnct, Altcr dark vapours havc opprcsscd our plains, wc witncss thc
Kcatsian congrucncc ol human and natural scasons, thc budding ol lcavcs
lcading through autumn harvcst to thc highgarncrcd charactcrs culogizing
a pocts dcath at thc cnd:
Altcr dark vapours havc opprcsscd our plains
For a long drcary scason, comcs a day
8orn ol thc gcntlc south, and clcars away
From thc sick hcavcns all unsccmly stains.
Tc anxious month, rclicving lrom its pains,
Takcs as a long lost right thc lccl ol May,
Tc cyclids with thc passing coolncss play,
Likc rosclcavcs with thc drip ol summcr rains.
And calmcst thoughts comc round usas, ol lcavcs
8uddinglruit ripcning in stillncssautumn suns
Smiling at cvc upon thc quict shcavcs
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
6
Swcct Sapphos chccka slccping inlants brcath
Tc gradual sand that through an hour glass runs
A woodland rivulcta pocts dcath.
Tc anxious month barcly achicvcs its own idcntity, as its namc is withhcld
until thc cnd ol thc phrasc and thc scason is miraculously rcborn, indccd, in
thc strangcly objcctlcss butrccxivc rclicving wc naturally hcar rcliving
as spring, phocnixlikc, ariscs out ol thc dcspairs ol wintcr. May rclicvcs itscll
ol its pains whilc rctaining its living anxictics as part ol its lccl. Forcmost
among thcsc, what lorccs us in summcr skics to mourn: / |and what| spoils
thc singing ol thc nightingalc (car Rcynolds, as last night ! lay in bcd,
88) is our lorcknowlcdgc ol changc and dcath. !l natural conccption is
Kcatss major analoguc to poctic imagination, thcn natural growth always,
tragically, prcdicts human dccay and imaginativc loss.
Vhat may sccm likc a lancilul divagation lrom nightingalc, muskrosc,
and scasonal unccrtainty rcturns mc to thc problcm ol poctic inccption,
by which ! mcan ncithcr what Hclcn \cndlcr has callcd thc cxpcricntial
bcginnings ol Kcatss odcs,
8
nor a morc strcnuous 8loomian strugglc with
poctic prccursors. Rathcr, ! am intcrcstcd in what may havc inspircd Kcatss
midnight vision at thc hcart ol his odc, an cxpcricncc lor which thcrc is no
autobiographical bcginning, at lcast il wc choosc to crcdit Charlcs 8rowns
account ol thc pocms morning composition. Many pcrccptivc rcadcrs havc
bccn conluscd about thc pocms timc without rcalizing what Kcats has donc,
othcrs who undcrstand .hat Kcats is doing in stanza sccm not to noticc a
prcccdcnt lor it, and critics who acknowlcdgc thc obvious sourcc lor this
stanza can still makc mistakcs about timc within thc pocm, and lcavc o
thcir cxaminations ol thc sourcc as il acknowlcdgmcnt alonc would su cc.
9

Tc vcry conlusions, as wcll as incidcntal dctails, loud cchocs, and thcmatic
parallcls, point us toward a sourcc lor much in thc odc.
Midsummer Nights Dream is thc bcam in our cyc. As long ago as +:,
dmund 8lundcn rclcrrcd to it, but critics havc bccn slow to movc bcyond
or bcncath thc obvious: Vithout going so lar as to writc ol Tc Plagia
risms ol Kcats, onc may indccd a rm that his poctic habit includcd, as thc
mcans somctimcs ol inspiration and oltcn ol cmbcllishmcnt, thc cxprcssions
that took his lancy as hc rcad.
!0
His lancy indccd. 8lundcn has borrowcd
Kcatss own wingcd inspiration, although hc scnsibly rclrains lrom turn
ing Kcats into a Colcridgc, a latcr critic clcvcrly rcminds us that thc surcst
mcctingplacc ol poct and bird is among thc lcavcs ol a volumc . . . lcavcs
|likc thosc ol Colcridgcs Sybilline Lea.es and Lcigh Hunts Foliage| wcrc in
thc air.
!!
!n thc odc, ol coursc, thcy arc also on thc ground, last covcring up
not only thc violcts but also Kcatss own path to his sourcc.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
!n what ways docs Midsummer Nights Dream account lor thc odcs
major stratcgics as wcll as its incidcntal dctails: vcryonc bcgins with thc
lattcr but stops with onc quotation, bcrons instructions to Puck, as thc
sccds ol Kcatss own owcrs:
! know a bank whcrc thc wild thymc blows,
Vhcrc oxlips and thc nodding violct grows,
Quitc ovcrcanopicd with luscious woodbinc,
Vith swcct muskroscs, and with cglantinc.
Tcrc slccps Titania somctimc ol thc night . . .
(!!.i.:)
!2
Midsummer Nights Dream was thc play most undcrlincd by Kcats, and
although somc rcccnt critics havc lound King Lear and Measure for Measure
bchind somc ol thc imagcs and rclcrcnccs in thc odc, it is ncvcrthclcss thc
carlicr play that rings loudcst within thc maturc pocm.
!1
Vc may rcturn, to
bcgin with, to onc ol Kcatss carlicr muskroscs, which appcars, somcwhat
disadvantagcously, on Junc :, +8+6, in a comparison with othcr owcrs in
To a Fricnd Vho Scnt Mc Somc Roscs:
! saw thc swcctcst owcr wild naturc yiclds,
A lrcshblown muskrosc, twas thc rst that thrcw
!ts swccts upon thc summcr: gracclul it grcw
As is thc wand that quccn Titania wiclds.
(8)
!n dicrcnt ways, both thc swccts and Titania hcrscll look lorward to thc
coming muskrosc ol +8+.
bcrons violct, cglantinc, and muskrosc appcar just bclorc Titanias
rcqucst (doublcmarkcd in Kcatss Shakcspcarc) lor a lairys song, lol
lowcd by hcr chargc to somc ol hcr troop to kill cankcrs in thc muskrosc
buds (!!.ii.). Tis immcdiatcly prcccdcs thc chorus, also doublcmarkcd,
that invokcs Philomclc, with mclody / |to| Sing in our swcct lullaby
(!!.ii.++). Might Hclcnas lamcnt, , wilt thou darkling lcavc mc:
(!!.ii.86) havc rung in Kcatss car:
!4
As thc hcmpcn homcspuns bcgin thcir
rchcarsal, Pctcr Quincc dccidcs that this green plot shall bc our stagc, this
ha.thorn brakc our tiring housc (!!!.i.:, cmphasis minc), and it is likcly
that Kcats gathcrs not only a owcr but also thc imagincd location ol his
bird in somc plot / l bccchcn grccn (8) lrom thc rcmark. Shortly thcrc
altcr, 8ottom wclcomcs thc ncws that thc moon will shinc on thc night
ol thc pcrlormancc: thcn may you lcavc a cascmcnt ol thc grcat chambcr
window, whcrc wc play, opcn, and thc moon may shinc in at thc cascmcnt
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
6
(!!!.i.8o). Tis is a sourcc, pcrhaps, lor thc cascmcnts in thc dc to
Psychc, Tc vc ol St. Agncs, and thc dc to a Nightingalc, thc rst
two ol which scrvc crotic lunctions, and thc last ol which is conncctcd to
lacry lands: both possibilitics point to Kcatss dcbt to Shakcspcarc.
Tcsc incidcntal similaritics can only suggcst, but ncvcr lully makc
good, thc lair promisc that Kcats is paying instinctivc homagc to his prc
sidcr. Tcy may hclp, pcrhaps, to stccr rcadcrs away lrom thc Kcats living
undcr thc iron hand ol Milton, and toward a poct whosc homagc to at lcast
onc prccursor is hardly anxious at all but dclicatcly cmbcllishcd and lovingly
harmonizcd.
!
!t is a tcstimony ol gratclul lovc, not grudging acknowlcdg
mcnt lrom a rcscntlul hcir. Vc may, howcvcr, stand on rmcr ground in thc
attcmpt to cstablish Midsummer Nights Dream as a major sourcc lor thc odc,
whcn wc considcr two major rcscmblanccs bctwccn play and pocm. Tc rst
is thcir cquivalcnt tcmporal prcstidigitations, thc sccond thcir dccp allianccs
ol thc imaginativc and crotic impulscs within a natural lramcwork and a
paradoxical scnsc ol drcaming wakclulncss.
Tc Furncss \ariorum cdition rcminds us ol r. Johnsons qucstion
about timc in thc play, which hc put squarcly with his accustomcd, scn
siblc skcpticism: ! know not why Shakcspcarc calls this play A Midsummer
Nights rcam, whcn hc so carclully inlorms us that it happcncd on thc
night prcccding May day. Furncss also rcpcats Maloncs carlicr conjccturc
that thc play was probably rst pcrlormcd at midsummcr, and his distinc
tion bctwccn diurnal May ay ritcs and thc nocturnal riotings ol Midsum
mcr vc.
!6
For Tcscus marriagc and lor thc lour conluscd lovcrs who
arosc carly to obscrvc / Tc ritc ol May (!\.i.++:), courting, wooing,
and winning clcarly bclong to thc sports ol day, whcrcas thc tricks and
slcights ol thc lairics, likc thosc ol Kcatss Fancy, opcratc undcr covcr ol
darkncss.
Vhilc day and night symbolizc dicrcnt kinds ol imaginativc and crotic
advcnturc, so do spring and summcr. Calcndar timc givcs way to lcstival
timc, both diurnally and scasonally, and although C. L. 8arbcr has tricd to
minimizc thc tcmporal problcm in thc comcdy by suggcsting that pcoplc
could go aMaying in dicrcnt months ( just as, wc might supposc, Kcatss
muskrosc is always a summcr owcr cxccpt whcn it blows on May ay), it
still makcs imaginativc scnsc to honor Shakcspcarcs doublc lramc, in ordcr
to undcrstand that tcmporal conlusion, likc crotic dcsirc, may bc cithcr dan
gcrous or salutary.
!7
Titanias condcnscd rclcrcncc to thc middlc summcrs
spring (!!.i.8:: hcrc is a possiblc sourcc lor Kcatss muskrosc, coming yct
cldcst) occurs in a passagc that dcmonstratcs thc horrors ol unscasonablc
ncss, whcn thc timcs arc complctcly out ol joint, disturbcd by thc lorgcrics
ol jcalousy (!!.i.8+). Planting, plowing, and harvcsting arc all vain cndcavors,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
66
and thc scasons thcmsclvcs havc altcrcd bcncath thc angry misgovcrnancc
ol thc moon:
hoaryhcadcd lrosts
Fall in thc lrcsh lap ol thc crimson rosc,
And on old Hicms thin and icy crown
An odorous chaplct ol swcct summcr buds
!s, as in mockcry, sct. Tc spring, thc summcr,
Tc childing autumn, angry wintcr changc
Tcir wontcd livcrics, and thc mazcd world,
8y thcir incrcasc, now knows not which is which.
(!!.i.+o+)
bcrons and Titanias politicalcrotic squabblcs havc comprcsscd all months
into an unholy and unscasonablc stcw. Tc origin ol Shakcspcarcs dcscrip
tion in vid (Metamorphoses, \, 86) suggcsts thc signicant bond among
Kcats, Shakcspcarc, and vid as pocts ol scasonablcncss: in thc Metamor-
phoses, thc scasons run amok as Ccrcs sccks hcr missing daughtcr throughout
thc world.
l thc middlc summcrs spring, Kcats had this to say in thc margin ol
his lolio Shakcspcarc:
thcrc is somcthing cxquisitcly rich and luxurious in Titanias saying
sincc thc middlc summcrs spring as il 8owcrs wcrc not cxubcrant
and covcrt cnough lor lairy sports until thcir sccond sprouting
which is surcly thc most bountcous ovcrwhclming ol all Naturcs
goodncsscs. Shc stcps lorth bcnignly in thc spring and hcr conduct
is so gracious that by dcgrccs all things arc bccoming happy undcr
hcr wings and ncstlc against hcr bosom: shc lccls this lovc and grat
itudc too much to rcmain scllsamc, and unablc to contain hcrscll
buds lorth thc ovcrowings ol hcr hcart about thc middlc summcr.
Shakcspcarc thy ways arc but just scarchablc! Tc thing is a piccc
ol prolound vcrdurc.
Tis prolound vcrdurc contains a bcncccnt goddcss who is hcrscll part
bird, part lovcr.
!8
Tc vcry richncss ol Titanias rcmark and thc sharcd hap
pincss cngcndcrcd by naturcs goodncss casily lorctcll thc ccstatic condition
ol thc poct in thc odc.
Knowing Kcatss ambivalcnt lcclings about thc dying lympian immor
tals, laintwingcd but provocativc, whom hc cclcbratcd and lamcntcd in thc
dc to Psychc just bclorc thc Nightingalc dc, it makcs scnsc lor us to
placc him in Shakcspcarcs tradition ol nglishing classical mythology.
Shakcspcarc owcs a doublc allcgianccto Grcck and Romancc gurcs as
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
6
wcll as to his nativc houschold or villagc spirits. Tc nightingalc, a dryad, is
also, mutatis mutandis, a ncw Puck, thc lancilul local dcity lcading thc unwary
poct on a wild bird chasc cnding, likc thc lovcrs distractions in thc comcdy,
with an awakcning. Traditionally, Robin Goodlcllow takcs chargc ol sum
mcr torchcs and bonrcs (although 8arbcr docs wcll to noticc thc abscncc
ol bonrcs lrom thc play, this may havc somcthing to do with thc circum
stanccs ol pcrlormancc at an aristocratic wcdding). A contcmporary ballad
lorcshadows his mctamorphosis into Puck, who lcads thc lour lovcrs into a
lrantic arabcsquc, and latcr into thc nightingalc, whosc vocal allurc loscs its
midnight spcll only whcn it is buricd by thc pocts wakclul mind:
Somctimc hcd countcrlcit a voycc,
And travcllcrs call astray.
Somctimcs a walking rc hcd bc
And lcad thcm lrom thcir way.
!9
Puck is both an ignis fatuus and a vcntriloquist, but thc primary dcccptions
ol thc nightingalc arc auditory: thcrc is no light, cithcr in thc dim lorcst
outsidc Athcns (!!!.ii) or in that to which Kcatss mind transports him.
!l 8arbcr misjudgcs thc importancc ol scasonal conlusion in Midsum-
mer Nights Dream, hc ncvcrthclcss undcrstands thc scriousncss undcrlying
thc lovcgamc comcdy: Maygamc wantonncss has a rcvcrcncc about it
bccausc it is a rcalization ol a powcr ol lilc largcr than thc individual, crcs
ccnt both in mcn and in thcir grccn surroundings.
20
Vithin thc standard
Kcatsian triad, lovcartnaturc, thc dc to a Nightingalc sccms noticcably
to scant thc rst clcmcnt, cxccpt pcriphcrally. !t docs cast sidclong glanccs
at lustrous bcauty and ncw Lovc in stanza , it rccalls thc rapturous cmbracc
ol thcllo and csdcmona lollowing thc storm in Cyprus (!l it wcrc now
to dic, / Twcrc now to bc most happy |!!.i.+888|), and that tragcdys
Liebestod, in thc crotically suicidal suggcstions ol stanza 6, it lcminizcs thc
nightingalc in stanza + and, by implication, in stanza 8. Tc odc nowhcrc
mcntions thc rapc ol Philomcla, although Kcats had madc usc ol it scvcral
months carlicr in Tc vc ol St. Agncs, but crotic advcnturc is as much a
part ol thc pocm as thc nightingalcs own namc, ncvcr statcd cxccpt in thc
titlc. Abscncc only incrcascs dcsirc: thc birds invisibility givcs thc surcst
plcdgc ol its tcmpting inviolability. A virgin dryad, shc lurcs mcn with hcr
song into thc lorcst rcccsscs and to a tcmporary dcath, cmblcmizcd by thc
basic conlusion bctwccn day and night, or onc scason and anothcr. Vhcrcas
Puck playcd only thc procurcrs rolc, thc nightingalc rcally is thc unsccn
objcct ol dcsirc.
Pcrhaps Kcats would havc sharcd Hazlitts lcclings about thc inadcquacy
ol visual rcprcscntation, thinking (appropriatcly) ol 8ottoms asss hcad, thc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
68
critic rcmarkcd that lancy cannot bc cmbodicd any morc than a similc can
bc paintcd.
2!
Tc bird and thc lairy crcw tcmpt thcir audicnccs with thc
plcasurcs and thc lrustrations that dcrivc lrom thc imaginations assaults
upon such discmbodicd provocations. 8oth pocm and play, howcvcr, rcquirc
poctic laith as wcll as rational skcpticism lor lullcst comprchcnsion. Tcscus
gracious rcsponsc to thc Athcnians dramatic incompctcncc also must havc
struck a sympathctic Kcats as thc propcr handling ol amatcur thcatricals and
ol all othcr conccptual undcrtakings: Tc bcst in this kind arc but shadows,
and thc worst arc no worsc, il imagination amcnd thcm (\.i.:o+o).
Morc than just an crotic cxpcricncc, thc odc is such an undcrtaking.
!t dramatizcs a holiday ol consciousncss, in so doing, it rcdcncs thc vcry
movc, within a Mayay ritual, lrom town to country and back. Kcats has
uttcrly intcrnalizcd Shakcspcarcs symbolic gcography. For scvcnty lincs thc
nightingalc gradually scduccs thc spcakcr and nally abandons him, likc thc
knight in La 8cllc amc Sans Mcrci, to thc cquivalcnt ol a cold hill
sidc. Rcturning to his solc scll in thc cighth stanza, hc rcalizcs that hc has
bccn bcwitchcd, chcatcd, or, to usc Pctcr Quinccs appraisal ol 8ottom,
translatcd (!!!.i.+o). Tc spcakcr has bccn madc a lool ol, although hc is
not quitc a visiblc ass likc thc wcavcr, or cvcn an impctuously loolish lovcr
likc onc ol thc Athcnians. Tc lollowing lincs lrom Endymion, obviously a
sourcc lor thc cnd ol thc odc, show how Midsummer Nights Dream occu
picd Kcatss thoughts long bclorc May ol +8+:
|Vhcn| thoughts ol scll camc on, how crudc and sorc
Tc journcy homcward to habitual scll !
A madpursuing ol thc logborn cll,
Vhosc itting lantcrn, through rudc ncttlcbriar,
Chcats us into a swamp, into a rc,
!nto thc bosom ol a hatcd thing.
(!!.:8o)
Tc vcry bcll that tolls Kcats back to his solc scll in thc last stanza rccalls
thc bcll ol midnight that obviatcs thc playcrs nccd lor an cpiloguc altcr thc
dcath ol Tisbc and scnds court and mcchanicals homc to bcd: thc iron
tonguc ol midnight hath told twclvc (\.i.:). !ndccd, onc ol thrcc mis
spcllings in thc manuscript ol thc odc, immcdiatcly corrcctcd, is told lor
toll in linc :.
Tc cnd ol thc odc appropriatcly jugglcs thc pattcrn ol thc important
passagcs lrom thc comcdy that it cchocs. 8rought back to his scnscs, thc
poct is abandoncd to cithcr his midnight waking or his Hampstcad morn
ing sccnc whilc thc bird symbolically dics and is buricd clscwhcrc. Tc lovcrs
and 8ottom arc, likcwisc, in act !\, awakcncd lrom cxpcricnccs thcy can
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
6
ncithcr idcntily nor undcrstand: ! havc had a drcam, past thc wit ol man
to say what drcam it was. Man is but an ass il hc go about to cxpound this
drcam (!\.i.:o, cl. cmctrius, !t sccms to mc / Tat yct wc slccp, wc
drcam |!\.i.+:|). Tcy awakcn to a ncw rcality, whcrcas at thc plays
cnd, all thc adults arc tuckcd salcly away, somc into thcir nuptial bcds, thc
audicncc, howcvcr, awakcns lrom thc drcam ol thc spcctaclcand thcsc two
antithctical proccsscs complcmcnt cach othcr. Tc couplcs rctirc, blcsscd by
bcron and Titania, and thc audicncc is rcmindcd by Puck that thcy
havc but slumbcrd hcrc
Vhilc thcsc visions did appcar.
And this wcak and idlc thcmc,
No morc yiclding but a drcam,
Gcntlcs, do not rcprchcnd.
(\.i.++8)
Pocts, lovcrs, and audicncc, in Kcats and Shakcspcarc, glancc lrom hcavcn
to carth, lrom carth to hcavcn, in Tcscus wcllknown phrasc (\.i.+). Tc
imaginativc progrcss ol thc odcs spcakcr has gonc, altcr all, lrom his own
gardcn plot to a momcntary union with thc nightingalc and sympathy with
thc Quccn Moon.
Although wc may ncvcr untanglc thc coming muskrosc lrom its
thorny position as midMays cldcst child (is it thc owcr that will bc, oncc
it comcs, thc longcst livcd:), wc may rightly conjccturc that Kcats gura
tivcly hcard nightingalcs and smcllcd thc rosc simultancously, morcovcr, thc
owcr and thc bird arc, wc might say, copartncrs with Shakcspcarcs lairy
crcw in thc mystcrics ol Kcatss imagination. As carly as +8+6, nightingalcs
and muskroscs unitc among thosc soothing, gcntlc itcms listcd in thc
opcning lincs ol Slccp and Poctry as cmblcms ol distant sccrccy:
Vhat is morc tranquil than a muskrosc blowing
!n a grccn island, lar lrom all mcns knowing:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Morc sccrct than a ncst ol nightingalcs:
(6, 8)
!n this carly poctic program, whcrc thc pocts rcsponsc to thc rich rcalm ol
Flora and old Pan (+o:) is to dic a dcath / l luxury (8), Kcats rst
crystallizcs his vcrsion ol thc Shakcspcarian triad ol naturc, poctry, and croti
cism. 8ut thc poct, acknowlcdging his obligation to movc on to stcrncr stu,
although dccctcd by thc scnsc ol rcal things that dcstroys all visions, cnds
his insomniac qucst both thwartcd (hc has drcamcd, but ncvcr slcpt) and con
tcntcd: hc ariscs rclrcshcd and glad, and movcs on to poctic composition.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
o
!n 8ards ol Passion, writtcn in thc months immcdiatcly prcccding
thc grcat odcs, nightingalc and rosc (this timc not spccically a muskrosc)
join oncc morc. Likc thc ncr tonc in which what wc call happincss on
carth will bc rcpcatcd in hcavcn (Letters, +:+8), thc doublcd souls ol past
bards livc both on carth as an inspiring challcngc to us, and in hcavcn
whcrc thc rosc givcs o a ncr pcrlumc and whcrc thc nightingalc docs
not tcasc but instcad prcgurcs thosc humanc goals that Kcats articulatcs
most clcarly in thc sccond Hyperion: thc nightingalc doth sing / Not a
scnsclcss tranccd thing, / 8ut divinc mclodious truth (++). Likc thc
song, thc listcncr is a scnsclcss tranccd thing in thc dc to a Nightin
galc, whcrc thc purity ol hcavcnly music ncvcr rcdccms or rclcascs him
lrom carthly conlusions.
bcron, Titania, and muskroscs comc togcthcr in To a Fricnd Vho
Scnt Mc Somc Roscs, il wc could discovcr thc lairics with thc nightingalc,
wc would havc cvcn strongcr cvidcncc lor this concatcnation ol imagcs in
Kcatss mind. And in thc +8+ n Rccciving a Curious Shcll, and a Copy
ol \crscs, lrom thc Samc Ladics, part doggcrcl, part high jocularity, Kcats
connccts thcm at a galloping pacc:
Tis canopy mark: tis thc work ol a lay,
8cncath its rich shadc did King bcron languish,
Vhcn lovcly Titania was lar, lar away,
And cruclly lclt him to sorrow, and anguish.
Tcrc, olt would hc bring lrom his solt sighing lutc
Vild strains to which, spcllbound, thc nightingalcs listcncd,
Tc wondcring spirits ol hcavcn wcrc mutc,
And tcars mong thc dcwdrops ol morning olt glistcncd.
(::)
Vithin lour ycars Kcats was to addrcss a dicrcnt nightingalc, onc now
singing to him mystcriously and scductivcly. Tis timc, thc land ol lacry
cntcrs thc odc only tcntativcly, in stanza , as a rcmindcr ol thc imaginativc
unity among disparatc audicnccs ol thc samc song,
22
or, onc might spcculatc,
ol thc samc play, a unity hopcd lor whcn Kcats urgcd his brothcr and sistcr
inlaw in Amcrica to rcad a passagc ol Shakcspcarc cvcry Sunday at tcn
oclock to bring thcm closcr to him (Letters, ::).
!n thc dc to a Nightingalc, Kcats has not only bodicd lorth an
unknown lorm, hc has also rcshapcd into a ncw lorm an oldcr work that
was, lor a long timc, simmcring in his strong imagination. Tc supprcssion
ol spccic quotation and dircct allusion has not rulcd out lrcqucnt cchocs,
vcrbal and thcmatic, that arc imprcssivc by virtuc ol thcir lrcqucncy. Tc odc
co:ixc :isxvosv ~xb vvovoixb vvvbivv (+8)
+
cxists as a continuous scqucncc ol ghostly hallrcmindcrs or, wc might say, ol
ncgativcly capablc cchocs. Tc rcgion ol thc pocm is a rich cld lor culling
owcrs lrom carlicr plantings. As Lysandcr rcmarks, Tings growing arc
not ripc until thcir scason (!!.ii.++) and Midsummer Nights Dream is thc
scasonablc swcct that has avorcd and ripcncd thc latcr pocm.
:
F!\ X
PTR GR!MS
Te De.elopment of a Hero (:,&)
P
ctcr Grimcs, thc cponymous hcro ol 8cnjamin 8rittcns rst lull
lcngth opcra, has attractcd and bcwildcrcd audicnccs sincc his appcar
ancc in +. Tc continucd popularity ol 8rittcns work, onc ol thc
vcry lcw postwar opcras to havc lound a pcrmancnt placc in thc rcpcrtory,
owcs as much to thc innatc dramatic intcrcst ol its hcro as to its polishcd
musical scorc. 8ut cxactly ho. audicnccs havc vicwcd, and partly misundcr
stood, thc gurc madc on Pctcr Pcars and thcn rccnactcd (virtually owncd)
rcccntly by Jon \ickcrs, takcs us to problcms lrom comparativc acsthctics:
thc rccrcation ol a litcrary charactcr in anothcr mcdium, thc dilcmma ol
making rctrospcctivc conncctions along a litcrary lincagc, and thc rclation
ol words to music.
Grimcs dcsccnds dircctly lrom thc distinctly lcss than titular gurc in
Gcorgc Crabbcs +8+o scrics ol vcrsc cpistlcs, Te Borough. Although thc story
ol 8rittcns inspiration has bccn lrcqucntly told, and thc dicrcnccs bctwccn
his hcro and Crabbcs cxplaincd, ! think that ccrtain logs havc cloudcd thc
critical cld ol vision, thcsc must dissipatc bclorc wc can vicw our subjccts
clcarly, by thcmsclvcs, and in rcspcct to onc anothcr.
!
And, although it has
bccomc convcntional to think ol onc Pctcr or both as 8yronic in charactcr,
! hopc to show that thc labcl Vordsworthian might bc a morc accuratc onc.
Tc music lor thc opcratic Pctcr has pcrhaps causcd audicnccs to ovcrlook
both his gcnuinc rcscmblanccs to his poctic grandsirc and thc social commcn
tarics implicit in pocm and opcra. Tc bulk ol critical opinion has stood on thc
sidc ol 8rittcns Pctcr as an idcalistic, sympathctic, misundcrstood visionary
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)

(calling him 8yronic sccms automatically to cnnoblc him), as against thc

bullying, sadistic, and murdcrous criminal ol Crabbc, but it sccms to mc that
ncithcr is thc original Pctcr so black, nor thc sccond so clcan, as critical hind
sight would convcnicntly paint thcm.
2
Crabbcs Pctcr may bc a littlc lcss,
and 8rittcns a littlc morc culpablc, and in thc sccond work a good dcal morc
sympathy than wc would pcrhaps likc to conlcr must bc accordcd to thc com
munity and its somctimcs individuatcd, somctimcs choral voiccs.
8oth opcra and pocm dcrivc lrom a similar crcativc wcllspring: thc
rcluctancc ol a thoroughly un8yronic artist to discrcdit thc convcntions ol
a bourgcois socicty by which hc may lccl himscll thrcatcncd or opprcsscd,
but to which hc hopclcssly wishcs to bclong. Crabbc and 8rittcn sucr lrom
a lcar ol outing socictys convcnicnt dcmands lor conlormity, and lrom a
satiric cyc that pcnctratcs into thc hcart ol socictys hypocritical lollics. Too
wcak to cc, too timid to ght, too wisc to lic, thcy rcsort to thc bcst avail
ablc stratcgy: thcy crcatc, thcy wa c.
Gcorgc Crabbc kncw what hc was doing, and it lrightcncd him. His cpi
graph to Te Borough, paulo majora canamus, hcralds morc than a convcn
tional climb up thc \irgilian gcncric laddcr, it indicatcs his intcntion to movc
bcyond thc casy cynicism ol Te !illage (+8) to morc complcx social and
moral issucs. His prclacc minglcs modcsty and dclicatc tact with a warning to
thc squcamish, writing about what hc says hc knows bcst, hc prcparcs us lor
thc sca, and thc country in thc immcdiatc vicinity, thc dwcllings, and
thc inhabitants, somc incidcnts and charactcrs, with an cxhibition ol
morals and manncrs, ocnsivc pcrhaps to thosc ol cxtrcmcly dclicatc
lcclings, but somctimcs, ! hopc, ncithcr unamiablc nor unaccting.
1
Tc sloppincss ol thc last phrasc ludgcs whcrc wc might cxpcct rhctorical
clarity to guidc us through antithctical conccrns. cnsivc pcrhaps . . . but
somctimcsinstcad ol distinguishing clcarly bctwccn onc kind ol cxhi
bition and anothcr, or bctwccn onc scnsibility and anothcr (i.c., it is not
thc samc ocnsivc cxhibition that will also acct somc rcadcrs touchingly),
Crabbcs scntcncc unintcntionally conluscs what hc ocrs us with how wc
might takc it, and with who, prcciscly, wc arc. Tis conlusion scts thc tonc lor
thc talc to lollow. Pctcr Grimcs tclls a story ol crimc and punishmcnt, but
lcavcs thc lormcr unccrtain and thc lattcr mystcrious. l Grimcs, Crabbc
sccms simultancously surc and vaguc. His prclacc chiscls a charactcr ol a
dcpravcd and inty mind out ol largc chunks ol abstract nouns, but at thc
samc timc hc lcavcs cvcrything to our obscrvation and judgmcnt, as il daring
us to gainsay him:
Tc charactcr ol Grimcs, his obduracy and apparcnt want ol lccling,
his gloomy kind ol misanthropy, thc progrcss ol his madncss, and
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

thc horrors ol his imagination, ! must lcavc to thc judgmcnt and

obscrvation ol my rcadcrs. Tc mind hcrc cxhibitcd is onc untouchcd
by pity, unstung by rcmorsc, and uncorrcctcd by shamc, yct is this
hardihood ol tcmpcr and spirit brokcn by want, discasc, solitudc, and
disappointmcnt, and hc bccomcs thc victim ol a distcmpcrcd and
horrorstrickcn lancy . . . thc corrosion ol hopclcss want, thc wasting
ol unabatcd discasc, and thc gloom ol unvaricd solitudc, will havc
thcir ccct on cvcry naturc, and thc hardcr that naturc is, thc longcr
timc rcquircd to work upon it, so much thc morc strong and indcliblc
is thc imprcssion. (xxxiii)
Vhcn wc rcach Grimcss talc at last, Crabbc cxtcnds his a priori con
dcmnation. pigraphs takcn lrom Marmion, Fichard III, and Macbeth
lorctcll trcachcrous villainy and murdcr, as wcll as rcmorsc, rcvcngc, and hal
lucination. Tc story itscll, howcvcr, bcgins primarily as an analysis ol gcnctic
mutation, ol a bad sccd taking root in pcrlcctly hcalthy soil, Pctcrs cvil must
bc innatc, sincc ncithcr his gcntlc lathcr nor anything in his cnvironmcnt
would logically provokc so lractious a disposition and such virulcnt ragc
as what hc dcmonstratcs lrom thc start. Tc pocm movcs swiltly lrom
Pctcrs childhood irrcligion, rcbclliousncss, and his lathcrs cursc (il thou
art old . . . And hast a sonthou wilt rcmcmbcr mc |:8:|) to his maturc
submission to othcr viccs, drink, gambling, and thclt (with a nicc rhctori
cal ourish: hc shd by watcr, and hc lchd by land ||). Mcrc juvc
nilc dclinqucncy lcads to lurthcr antisocial bchavior, which culminatcs in a
dcsirc lor sovcrcign mastcry: hc wishd lor onc to troublc and control ().
Tc possibility ol scxual abusivcncss as wcll as cconomic nccd dctcrmincs
thc particular varicty ol Pctcrs sadism: Hc wantcd somc obcdicnt boy to
stand / And bcar thc blow ol his outragcous hand (6). Hc bccomcs, in
othcr words, thc vicious lathcr hc ncvcr had, to thc sons hc has ncvcr sircd.
Two workhousc apprcnticcs appcar, arc mistrcatcd, and cvcntually dic, but
Crabbc pcculiarly rclrains lrom cvcr incriminating Grimcs with morc than
circumstantial cvidcncc. At kcy points, thc narrativc lalls back on hcarsay
and gossip, and howcvcr clcar sccms Pctcrs rcsponsibility lor his boys dcaths
(at lcast indircct, in thc lorm ol abusivc mistrcatmcnt), Crabbc tantalizcs
us, dcmurcly rclusing to dcpict thcm. !nstcad ol witncssing thc murdcrs, wc
hcar only storics. Missing thc killings, wc havc only thc corpscs, prcparation
and altcrmath havc climinatcd thc important action bctwccn thcm.
Tc 8orough, obscrvant but passivc, docs nothing. No onc bothcrs to
intcrvcnc lor thc boys protcction, il pcoplc hcar scrcams, thcy calmly
muttcr Grimcs is at his cxcrcisc (8). Tc sin ol omission in thcir silcnt
complicity is hardly rclicvcd whcn thcir scnsitivity to sucring momcntarily
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)

rcvivcs in thc casc ol thc third workhousc boy whom thcy takc to bc somc
gcntlcmans bastard. Tc loundling motil scrvcs to undcrscorc thc populaccs
snobbishncss, howcvcr, not its goodncss, and in any casc thcy still lail to
intcrlcrc.
Forbiddcn a lourth boy, although not provcd guilty ol thc dcaths ol thc
carlicr thrcc, Pctcr undcrgocs a progrcssivc dcrangcmcnt amid thc unrc
lcnting gloom ol work, solitudc, and naturc. cprivcd, as wcll as naturally
dcpravcd, hc bccomcs, gradually morc dull and hopclcss (+:), as hc hidcs
within a sccnc cncouraging miscry, gricl, and lcar (:o). Tc landscapc
is ncithcr a mcrc cxprcssionistic dctail nor thc projcction ol his crumbling
scnscs. !nstcad, Naturc itscll cncouragcs his disintcgration. Crabbcs pocm stud
ics vocational dcclinc, oncc Pctcrs shing lails, as hc works alonc unsuc
ccsslully hc is simultancously curscd in town and shakcn by cold ncrvous
trcmblings:
And though hc lclt lorsakcn, gricvcd at hcart,
To think hc livcd lrom all mankind apart,
Yct, il a man approachd, in tcrrors hc would start.
(::+)
Crabbc has not paintcd a convcntionally prc8yronic hcro, rathcr, thc vaguc
spirit ol rcmorsc, ol wishing to t in whcrc hc knows hc will ncvcr bc
acccptcd, turns Pctcr into a distant cousin ol thc ndcsiclc scnsitivc mcl
ancholic bcst rcprcscntcd by thc disappointcd, cgotistical visionary youth in
Vordsworths Lincs Lclt upon a Scat in a Ycw Trcc (+8), whosc mis
anthropy condcmns him to isolation, ncglcct, and nally a withcring dcath
ccccntric to his community. Pctcr disintcgratcs slowly, losing altcrnatcly
his scnsc and his powcr. Hc oats idly on his boat, plying no tradc, thcn,
undcr thc qucstioning ol summcr lodgcrs who havc wondcrcd whcthcr hc is
rcpcnting lor somc crimc unknown to thcm, hc runs o. 8ut hc latcr rcturns
to a parishbcd lrom which hc inspircs pity and compassion in thc vcry
womcn who lormcrly curscd him. clirious, hc still plcads his innoccncc,
although hc psychically rccnacts his scnsc ol guilt in thc last +o lincs ol thc
pocm, dramatically its most powcrlul and intcrcsting part, which quotc thc
unconscious ravings, part conlcssion, part dclcnsc, ol a madmans talc with
glcams ol waking scnsc (:8).
Tc indctcrminacy ol it all ranklcs. Crabbc sccms to want his audicncc to
sympathizc at lcast partly with Pctcrs accounts, cvcn though wc can rccog
nizc a scllscrving cgotism in his scllprojcction as thc victim ol his lathcrs
wily cntrapmcnt. Rcadings ol Grimcs as lccklcss, insipid, a barcly human
consciousncss,
4
tcnd to ovcrlook thc grandcur ol his classic chut.pah: hav
ing symbolically killcd his lathcr, Grimcs in his madncss throws himscll on
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
thc mcrcy ol thc court as an orphan, plagucd and tormcntcd by thc old
man. Tc lathcr appcarcd to him, hc says, with a workhousc boy in cithcr
hand, thc grim spcctcrs rcduccd him to quivcring:
And thcrc thcy glidcd ghastly on thc top
l thc salt ood, and ncvcr touchd a drop . . .
Now, lrom that day, whcncvcr ! bcgan
To dip my nct, thcrc stood thc hard old man
Hc and thosc boys: ! humblcd mc and prayd
Tcy would bc gonc,thcy hccdcd not, but stayd:
Nor could ! turn, nor would thc boat go by,
8ut gazing on thc spirits, thcrc was !:
Tcy badc mc lcap to dcath, but ! was loth to dic.
(+o++, +:o)
Unablc to work bccausc ol his loss ol hclp, Grimcs invcsts thc landscapc
with thcsc spcctcrs. r is it that thcir objcctivc prcscncc has prcvcntcd him
lrom shing and hcrcby turncd his thoughts to mattcrs ol guilt and dam
nation: Tc brilliancc ol thc story is that by dcscribing thc torturc ol thc
lathcrs provocation, Pctcr cithcr rclivcs it, or pcrhaps cnacts it lor thc rst
timc: wc cannot tcll. His mcntal ravings lcavc all unclcar thc rclationship
bctwccn thc past cvcnts that thcy rchcarsc and thc cccts ol that rcpcti
tion on his prcscnt madncss. ithcr madncss has causcd thc visions, or thc
guilty mcmorics arc thcmsclvcs thc causc ol thc insanity. nc burning hot
summcrs day, his story continucs, thc lathcr scoops up a handlul ol watcr,
which hc throws in Pctcrs lacc: it is hcllrc, scalding and blazing. Trough
thc rivcr, lathcr and apprcnticcs lorcc Pctcr to witncss thc dismal placc ol
punishmcnt that lics bcncath. Tc sight ol unrcmitting tormcnt torturcs him
until hc can no longcr bcar it. Hc dics simply, too wcak to cndurc anothcr
visitation lrom his ghosts:
Tcn droppd cxhaustcd and appcard at rcst,
Till thc strong loc thc vital powcrs posscssd,
Tcn with an inward, brokcn voicc hc cricd,
Again thcy comc, and muttcrd as hc dicd.
(:)
!n spitc ol Crabbcs orthodoxics, hc has dclibcratcly blurrcd thc lincs
bctwccn rcligious damnation and psychological projcction, and Pctcrs ulti
matc latc, whcthcr to burn in thc amcs ol hcll or to lic rclcascd lrom mcn
tal anguish, is all unknown. Tc simplc pathos ol thc last lour lincs abovc
bctrays Crabbcs dcbt to Lyrical Ballads, but thc sccnc ol Grimcs dcath,
with its cxposurc ol a mind hallucinating about thc past and conscqucntly
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)

rcviving it points to thc morc complcx artistry and scicntic invcstigations

ol latcr rcalists likc 8alzac, as Lcslic Stcphcn rst suggcstcd.

F. L. Lucas has
lramcd a somcwhat dicrcnt division bctwccn a romantic and a rcalistic
Crabbc: !l his romanticism calls up thc accusing phantoms, it is his minutcst
rcalism that paints thc scttingthc slimy channcls in thc salt marsh, thc
blightcd trcc, thc mclancholy stakcs with thcir sunblistcrcd tar, thc tcpid,
muddy watcrs.
6
Vc may takc Crabbc as a Popc in worstcd, a prccursor ol ickcns, or
as a parson hauntcd by drcams ol insccurity as Patrick Cruttwcll docs in
his scminal attcmpt to rcconcilc his surlacc rcalism with thc dccpcr cur
rcnts that ow bcncath, cvcn as thc atncss ol thc rivcrs surlacc in Pctcr
Grimcs cxposcs its own squalid horrors.
7
!n any casc Pctcr Grimcs may
wcll stand as a tcst ol how wc rcad a trcatmcnt ol an outcast who, in spitc ol
his authors lamous minutcncss, dccs our knowing him. Hc is an ccccntric
gurc in morc ways than onc: out ol placc in Aldcburgh, hc also lacks a psy
chological ccntrality with which his crcator could havc conncctcd him to us.
Hc rcmains pcriphcral. Tat hc is a dull, callous murdcrcr
8
is cvcrywhcrc
acccptcd, nowhcrc provablc. Grimcs invitcs not only moral and psychologi
cal spcculations but also qucstions about plain act: not only why did hc
do thcsc things: and how docs hc sucr: but also how can wc know
that hc committcd thosc crimcs that seem so patcntly his: Pctcr Grimcs
mystcriously calls into qucstion thc plainncss, thc mattcrs ol lact, which
critics pcrsistcntly labcl thc idcntilying lcaturcs ol Crabbcs art. Hc is a
at writcr, thcy say, at onc with thc Suolk landscapc ol his childhood.
For Forstcr, nothing is morc rcmarkablc, in thc bcst work ol Crabbc, than
thc abscncc ol clcvation. . . . Upon |atncss| thc most tragic ol his pocms
dcploys. Forstcr tics thcsc altcrnativcs, atncss and dcpth, to his cvocation
ol Crabbcs standard landscapcmcnacing, monotonous, dcsolatc, cndlcss,
gray, sparcwhich hc dcltly opposcs to Vordsworths Lakc istrict hcights
and his powcr to clcvatc childhood cxpcricnccs to thc lcvcl ol thc sublimc:
Vordsworth had a powcr ol harmonizing his cxpcricnccs which was dcnicd
to Crabbc. Crabbc rcmains down among thcm on thc at, amongst pcbblcs
and wccds and mud and driltwood, and within carshot ol a sca which is no
divinc occan.
9
Making thc samc sort ol division hc docs in spects of the No.el bctwccn
at and round charactcrs, Forstcr is hcrc lollowing thc lcad ol Lcslic Stcphcn
who also, bc way ol contrasting Crabbc with thc romantics, cmphasizcs thc
torpidity ol thc atlands comparcd to thc grandcur ol mountains and thcir
cchocs: Tc sca which hc lovcd was by no mcans a 8yronic sca. !t has no
grandcur ol storm, and still lcss has it thc Mcditcrrancan bluc. !t is thc slug
gish muddy clcmcnt which washcs thc at shorcs ol thc bclovcd Suolk.
!0

i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
Likcwisc, Hazlitt, thc lcast sympathctic ol critics who still nd somcthing in
Crabbc to admirc (lascinating is his laint praisc), scttlcs squarcly upon thc
monotonous plainncss ol art as wcll as ol landscapc: !l thc most lcigning
poctry is thc trucst, Mr. Crabbc is ol all pocts thc lcast poctical. Tcrc arc
hcrc no ornamcnts, no ights ol lancy, no illusions ol scntimcnt, no tinscl ol
words. His song is onc sad rcality, onc unraiscd, unvaricd notc ol unavailing
woc.
!!
Tat wc might naturally tcnd to hcar in this rcmark a hcrald ol Mills
lamous cvaluation ol Vordsworth as thc poct lor unpoctic naturcs brings
mc back to a major point ol conncction bctwccn Crabbc and 8rittcn: Pctcr
Grimcs, in ncithcr ol his incarnations, looks likc a 8yronic gurc. !nstcad,
along with othcrs ol his lcllow citizcns in thc borough, hc dcrivcs lrom
Lyrical Ballads. Tc unornamcntcd plainncss ol villagc lilc, couplcd with
ontological problcms and cpistcmological qucstions, would makc Pctcr vcry
much at homc in thc +8 volumc: Vhatcvcr happcncd to Lucy Gray: !s
thc anish 8oy thcrc or not: Can a story bc madc about Simon Lccs swcll
ing anklcs: Vhat cxactly lics bcncath thc thorn: How much do Johnny Foy
and thc littlc girl in Vc Arc Scvcn actually know: 8oth Pctcr Grimcscs
inhcritcd thcir complcxitics lrom thcsc carlicr romantic crcations.
Rcadcrs ol Crabbc might takc a lcad lrom on 8ialostoskys rcccnt study
ol Vordsworths narrativc cxpcrimcnts.
!2
Tc spcakcrs in thc most pcrplcx
ing, and casily mockablc, lyrical ballads lcad us down ccrtain paths, and
thcn withdraw thcir guidancc, abandoning us thcrc. Tc narrator ol Simon
Lcc tcmpts us rst with tragcdy (8ut, oh thc hcavy changc), movcs ncxt
through bathos (thc morc hc works, thc morc / o his wcak anklcs swcll),
arriving altcr no story at all at a scnsc ol human wcakncss that lics too dccp
lor tcars (Alas! thc gratitudc ol mcn / Hath oltcncr lclt mc mourning).
Tc poct ol Lucy Gray lalls back upon thc .ox populi at thc cnd ol his bal
lad, avcrring that somc say thcy havc sccn thc ghostly girl, but hc rcluscs
to commit himscll to any singlc possibility. l Tc !diot 8oy, 8ialostosky
writcs: thc muscs that govcrn this pocm kccp mattcrs wcll away lrom moral
tcrms that would intcrlcrc with thc ow ol sympathy and lrom tragic cvcnts
that might call lor judgmcnt (). Tcsc ballads routincly undcrminc our
cxpcctations ol lulllmcnt. Vordsworth is trying to rcmind us ol thc impos
sibility ol storytclling, ol narrativc rcprcscntation, in a world whcrc obscrva
tion, judgmcnt, and human acquaintancc arc all, at hcart, cqually impossiblc.
Spcctral unccrtaintics, thc claptrap normally cxpcctcd in Gothic mystcrics
or romancc, dcsccnd cvcn into thc mundanc. 8oth pocts invitc us to considcr
thc rclationships bctwccn intcntion and rcsult, or action and psychological
altcrmath, which thcy thcn dclibcratcly dccct or scant. Undcr thc guisc ol
dcscribing borough lilc, Crabbc has rca rmcd its strangcncss and thc lor
cignncss ol his main charactcr.
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)

Although thc dicrcncc bctwccn Pctcr pre and Pctcr ls havc bccn noticcd
lrom thc start, il wc attcnd morc carclully to what 8rittcns words and music
suggcst about thc borough shcrman, wc may nd him, too, a morc pcrplcx
ing gurc than has bccn allowcd. Audicnccs arc as carclcss in this attcntion
as Pctcr is with his apprcnticcs. Takc, to bcgin with, Forstcr. !n his attcmpt
to dicrcntiatc 8rittcns morc humanc and sympathctic charactcr lrom his
lorcbcar, Forstcr invcnts a crimc which Grimcs has ncvcr cvcn committcd.
Spcaking ol !!.ii, in which Pctcrs sccond apprcnticc lalls to an accidcntal
dcath, Forstcr writcs: Pctcr, cnragcd, hurrics thc boy o to thcir shing,
pushcs him out through thc cli door, hc slips, lalls, and is killcd.
!1
Pcrhaps
it happcncd this way in a pcrlormancc Forstcr oncc saw, but Pctcr is in lact
supposcd to do no such thing. Tc boy lalls bccausc ol his own hastc and lcar,
whilc Pctcr, thc stagc dircction statcs clcarly, stands bctwccn thc two doors as
thc apprcnticc slips down to darkncss and dcath. Tc approaching possc has
tcrricd both Pctcr and thc boy, and although Pctcr spccds thc boy along,
hc docs not push him. Forstcrs cxtraordinary misrcading is undcrstandablc,
bccausc hc wishcs to cxoncratc Pctcr and hc cannot prcach lorgivcncss until
hc has witncsscd a crimc. Hc gocs on to say that thcrc is no crimc on Pctcrs
part cxccpt what is causcd by thc lar grcatcr crimcs committcd against him by
socicty. Hc is thc misundcrstood 8yronic hcro. !n a propcrly constitutcd soci
cty hc would bc happy, but hc is too lar ahcad ol his surroundings (+). Tis
cvaluation is patcntly untruc, but its trivializing nostalgia rcvcals a grcat dcal
about Forstcrs idcas ol community and bclonging, although nothing at all
about Pctcr Grimcs, who is as lar lrom bcing ahcad ol his surroundings as
onc could conccivably bc. 8rittcns hcro rcmains chronically, pcrhaps gcncti
cally, ncurotic, with littlc chancc lor happincss in spitc ol thc sympathctic
gurcs within thc community who look out lor him.
Although isolatcd dicrcntly lrom Crabbcs hcro, this Grimcs lacks thc
truc panachc or thc gcnuinc criminality ol thc 8yronic hcro whom Forstcr
so wants to takc him lor. Hc cannot, howcvcr, bc lorgivcn, bccausc hc has
not sinncd, nor, bccausc hc lacks moral strcngth, can hc bc admircd. Likc his
crcator, Grimcs is a bourgcois manque: lar lrom outing socictys convcn
tions, hc dcspcratcly wants acccptancc. Tc soil roots him to thc placc ol
his birth, as hc says to 8alstrodcs solicitous qucstions in !.i: ! am nativc,
rootcd hcrc . . . by lamiliar clds, marsh and sand, ordinary strccts, prcvailing
wind.
!4
Tis rcply lorctclls 8rittcns own scllprcscntation on bcing honorcd
at Lowcstolt in ++: ! am rmly rootcd in this glorious country. And !
provcd this to myscll whcn ! oncc tricd to livc somcwhcrc clsc.
!
8rittcns
scnsc ol rootlcssncss in Amcrica during thc rst part ol Vorld Var !!, thc
dccp homcsickncss provokcd by his rcading ol Forstcrs Listener apprcciation
ol Crabbc, ol whom hc had not prcviously hcard, his subscqucnt dccision to
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8o
makc Pctcr Grimcs thc subjcct ol his rst lulllcngth opcra, along with thc
lucky bcnclaction lrom Scrgc Kousscvitzky: all this has bccn told bclorc, and
it hclps to cxplain thc corts ol critics to nd Pctcr Grimcs a victimizcd,
cvcn sympathctic, gurc.
!6
8rittcn has cxplaincd, or so hc thought, thc rcasons lor a dicrcnt gurc
lrom Crabbcs: A ccntral lccling lor us was that ol thc individual against thc
crowd, with ironic ovcrtoncs lor our own situation. As conscicntious objcc
tors wc wcrc out ol it. Vc couldnt say wc sucrcd physically, but naturally
wc cxpcricnccd trcmcndous tcnsion. ! think it was partly this lccling which
lcd us to makc a charactcr ol vision and conict, thc torturcd idcalist hc is,
rathcr than thc villain hc was in Crabbc.
!7
To this wc may add Pctcr Pcarss
rcmark, Tcrc arc plcnty ol Grimcscs around still, ! think.
!8
!t is tcmpting
ol coursc to scc in Grimcs 8rittcns own projcction ol thc homoscxual as
outsidcr, and to considcr thc 8rittcnPcarsForstcr collaboration an attcmpt
by thrcc homoscxual artists to clicit sympathy lor that outsidcr, but yiclding
to this tcmptation ovcrlooks thc uncriminal but gcnuinc unattractivcncss ol
thc hcro.
!9
!n Hans Kcllcrs cstimation. Peter Grimes is thc story ol a man who
couldnt t in,
20
which is likc Laurcncc livicrs introduction to his lmcd
Hamlet as thc story ol a man who couldnt makc up his mind. Kcllcr, likc
8rittcn and Pcars, smooths ovcr Grimcss unplcasantncss, hc docs not sccm
to mind that 8rittcns Grimcs, although guiltlcss ol murdcr, has bccn tamcd
lrom Crabbcs psychopath to a morc ordinary gardcnvaricty twcnticth
ccntury ncurotic. Philip 8rctt rcads thc opcra as thc mirror ol a bravc homo
scxual who can ncithcr t in nor nd a world clscwhcrc, as 8rittcn chosc
a coursc dicrcnt lrom that ol Audcn and !shcrwood which carlicr in his lilc
tcmptcd him, this intcrprctation, howcvcr, is not cntircly convincing bccausc ol
what wc know ol 8rittcns lcclings lor Aldcburgh, lamily, childhood, and
thc convcntional aspccts ol lilc which hc valucd highly and tricd to involvc
himscll in during thc last thirty ycars ol his lilc.
2!
Grimcs is ncrvous, hostilc,
and unlucky, and almost nothing about him, except his bourgcois aspirations,
rcdccms him or mollics his natural hardncss. ric Valtcr Vhitc trics to
makc him attractivc as a 8orough 8yron, too proud and scllwillcd to comc
to tcrms with socicty, and yct su cicntly imaginativc to bc lully conscious
ol his loss, hc conlcrs amiability as a rcsult ol scllconsciousncss.
22
!n his
clcarcr innoccncc, Grimcs is obviously a stcp bcyond Crabbcs mcrcly bru
tal outcast, but hc is also lcss powcrlul by virtuc ol his drcams and thc lcss
intcnsc torturcs ol his mad sccnc. Artistic rcinvcntion has crcatcd a charactcr
whosc knowlcdgc is purchascd by loss ol powcr. For Vhitc, Grimcs, no lon
gcr criminal, has turncd into a maladjustcd psychopath,
21
but thc sympa
thctic ovcrtoncs in thc adjcctivc mitigatc thc horrors implicit in thc noun.
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)
8+
Likc Forstcr, many audicnccs want thcir Grimcs to bc a man morc
sinncd against than sinning, a sympathctic victim ol socictal opprcssion.
8ut this is not thc gurc 8rittcn has givcn us, and critics too casily havc
passcd ovcr both Grimcss own rcsponsibility lor his situation and thc rcla
tivc agrccablcncss ol individual mcmbcrs ol thc community. Socicty in thc
opcra appcars clcancr than it docs in cithcr Crabbcs poctry or in somc ol
8rittcns latcr works. 8rittcn himscll cncouragcs a morc positivc vicw ol thc
community in onc ol his rccollcctions: !n writing Peter Grimes, ! wantcd to
cxprcss my awarcncss ol thc pcrpctual strugglc ol mcn and womcn whosc
livclihood dcpcnds on thc sca.
24
!n othcr words, thc Aldcburgh nativcs, as
wcll as Pctcr, havc a claim to our sympathctic attcntion. Tout comprendre, cest
tout pardonner. Tc opcra comcs lull circlc, cnding as it bcgan in !.i, with thc
music ol thc sca on thc wavcs, and with an cxprcssion ol community solidar
ity in thc prcscncc ol an occan that supports as wcll as thrcatcns daily lilc.
Pctcr has gonc to sca lor a nal timc, has drowncd himscll in a sacricial
gcsturc urgcd upon him by thc sympathctic 8alstrodc, but likc thc ordinary
pcoplc in Musc dcs 8caux Arts, thc villagcrs arc hardly awarc ol sucr
ing, dcath, or anything that docs not touch thcir immcdiatc conccrns. A boat
sinks out at sca, and daily lilc rcsumcs, as thc chorus sings a nal hymn to
thc ccntral clcmcnt:
!n ccasclcss motion comcs and gocs thc tidc,
owing it lls thc channcl broad and widc,
thcn back to sca with strong majcstic swccp,
it rolls in cbb yct tcrriblc and dccp.
Normal lilc with its attcndant dangcrs and charms cvcrywhcrc rcasscrts
itscll throughout thc opcra. 8rittcn dirccts almost as much sympathy at in
dividual mcmbcrs ol thc villagc that havc ignorcd or tormcntcd Pctcr as at
thc ncurotic victim ol its lynchmob lury. Hc gocs out ol his way to impli
catc thc hclplul mcmbcrs ol thc community, llcn rlord and 8alstrodc
in particular, in Pctcrs situation. And hc also, by thc opcras cnd, has askcd
us to rcconsidcr thc rcasonablcncss ol thc vicws ol thosc pcoplc who scll
rightcously havc condcmncd Grimcs.
Tc rst sccnc ol Act ! rcquircs a partial suspcnsion ol audicncc judg
mcnt. Tc unilormity and solidarity ol borough lilc, dclcnscs against a hos
tilc naturc (invokcd likc a dcity on whosc mcrcics thc villagc dcpcnds:
tidc that waits lor no man, sparc our coasts), scrvc as backdrop to
individual notcs ol sympathy with thc outcast Grimcs. 8alstrodc and Ncd
Kccnc givc hclping hands, bringing in Pctcrs boat, acquiring a sccond
apprcnticc lrom thc workhousc, llcn promiscs uncmbarrasscdly to lctch
thc boy homc lor Pctcr. Latcr (!!.i), thc contcmptiblc gossip Mrs. Scdlcy
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8:
urgcs intcrvcntion to protcct thc apprcnticc lrom Pctcrs bullying, whcrcas
8alstrodc, rcprcscnting a policy ol laissczlairc about which thc villagcrs
havc carlicr sung with pridc (!.ii: Vc livc, and lct livc, and look! wc kccp
our hands to oursclvcs), spcaks mistakcnly lor inaction: Tis is not your
busincss. Tc audicncc may sympathizc with 8alstrodcs attcmpt to dclcnd
Pctcr, but it is 8olcs, Scdlcy, Swallow, and thc othcr lorccs ol intcrlcrcncc
who alonc ocr any hopc lor saving thc boy lrom Pctcrs lury. Complaccnt
convcntionality has things to rccommcnd it.
Tis is cspccially truc altcr wc havc hcard llcns rcsigncd acccptancc
ol thc boys mistrcatmcnt carlicr in thc sccnc: A bruisc . . . wcll, its bcgun.
From a practical standpoint, hcr sccond aria (Child, yourc not too young
to know whcrc roots ol sorrow arc) is monstrous, counscling rcsignation
and nal calm, and it turns out to bc grucsomcly prolcptic: Altcr thc storm
will comc a slccp, likc occans dccp. Although Mrs. Scdlcy is wrong in hcr
assumption (!!!.i) that Grimcs has murdcrcd thc boy (Murdcr most loul
it is), 8rittcn symbolically implicatcs llcn, whosc knittcd jcrscy has givcn
thc cluc to thc boys latc. Vc may hcar in hcr aria (!!!.i, mbroidcry in
childhood) 8rittcns lamcnt lor us all, proving thc intcrwovcn quality ol
lilc and livcs within thc borough whcrc Pctcr is not mcrcly a man who docs
not bclong. Hcr innoccnt knitting has bccomc thc mystcrious cluc whosc
mcaning wc avoid. !n anothcr signicant changc lrom thc original pocm,
8rittcn dcprivcs us cvcn ol a corpsc, rcturning not thc boys body but only
thc rclic which Mrs. Scdlcy discovcrs. vcn Pctcr himscll dics ostagc. \io
lcncc, indccd action ol any sort, has bccn rcndcrcd inccctivc and undcsir
ablc. !n thc cntirc opcra, Pctcr oncc strikcs llcn and manhandlcs thc boy.
Tis is all wc scc.
llcns duct with 8alstrodc as thcy await Pctcrs rcturn (!!!.i) dcpicts
most clcarly thc complcxity ol lccling and thc intcgration ol human latcs
that 8rittcn has bccn arguing all along. Vhat is to bc donc: Vhat can
bc donc: llcn sings. Vc havc no powcr to hclp him now, but 8alstrodc
rcplics, Vc havc thc powcr, and thcy agrcc to abidc with himVc shall
bc thcrc with himcvcn though thcy acknowlcdgc a solution that lics
bcyond lilc, dissolution. Tcir last act ol aid, 8alstrodcs command to Pctcr
to sink his boat bcyond sight ol land, rccnlorccs this pattcrn ol support
dcvclopcd throughout thc opcra, cvcn whcn it lcads to suicidc. Tc solution
bccomcs a litcral dissolving ol thc titlc charactcr.
As a morc important corollary to my proposition that thc voiccs ol
thc community arc not cntircly hostilc to Pctcr and that, cvcn whcrc thcy
arc gcntlc, thcy may bc rcsponsiblc lor human lilc and social abusc, wc
havc thc mattcr ol 8rittcns rccrcation ol his ccntral charactcr, who is nci
thcr villainously black, nor mcrcly victimizcd by socictys hostilc, ignorant
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)
8
lcar. Peter Grimes is a musical and dramatic trcatmcnt ol issucs ol lrccdom
and latality, and whcrc Crabbc only subtly condcmncd his villagcrs lor thcir
silcncc bclorc Grimcss sadism, 8rittcn cvcrywhcrc makcs mutual rcspon
siblity a major thcmc. Although hc has smoothcd ovcr somc ol Crabbcs
brutalitics (thc boys dic cntircly accidcntally, Pctcr is not so much a sadist as
a drcamcr incapablc ol rcgulating thc violcnt aspccts ol his disposition) and
has blurrcd somc ol thc moralitytalc colors, wc must also considcr thc ncw
ways in which 8rittcn has involvcd his hcro in his own doom. Although no
murdcrcr, hc is lar lrom blamclcss, and his vcry acccptancc ol lault both
causcs and rcsults lrom his pcriphcral status in thc community.
Tcrc is nothing unconvcntional in thc drcams that Grimcs discloscs to
8alstrodc as thc storm approachcs (!.i)to sh thc scas dry, marry llcn,
aunt his succcss in thc laccs ol uncongcnial ncighborsdrcams hc rcalizcs
arc no longcr possiblc in his latcr monologuc (!!.ii, !n drcams !vc built
somc kindlicr homc), and which disintcgratc as thc inquisitivc paradc ol
townsmcn approachcs his hut. Grimcs sucrs lrom a lrccoating guilt that
incrcascs with villagc gossip. Hc is ncithcr good nor undcrstood, hc is ncithcr
guilty ol thc crimcs ol which hc stands suspcctcd, nor is hc cntircly blamc
lcss ol wrongdoing, ncithcr can hc nd acccptancc within thc community
nor is hc nally dcstroycd by any lorcc othcr than his own. Tus, it is too casy
to crcdit thc cxoncration ol Pctcr Pcars (hc ocnds against thc social codc,
is classcd by socicty as a criminal, and destroyed as such) |cmphasis minc|.
Far lrom bcing a catharsis ol 8rittcns lcclings ol guilt and pcrsccution, Peter
Grimes makcs a nal judgmcnt ol its hcro an impossibility, bccausc it pro
hibits us lrom knowing him. !n spitc ol ric Crozicrs thcory that Slatcr
and 8rittcn translorm Grimcs lrom a savagc shcrman . . . into . . . a bold
and aspiring hcro at loggcrhcads with socicty,
2
it is clcar that his savagcry
rcmains, that hc is at odds with a socicty to which hc cravcs admission,
and that hc is lcss a scapcgoat or tragic hcro than an unlortunatc ncurotic
plagucd by bad luck. His rough bchavior nowhcrc invitcs cithcr approval or
cxcusc, his brokcn drcams makc him pitiablc, and his music alonc invitcs
our sympathy. Patricia Howard sounds thc propcr mixturc ol judgmcnt and
charity:
!ts miraclc is that a charactcr as unattractivc, unapproachablc, and
undcniably unplcasant as Grimcs in thc cnd managcs to gain our
sympathy. Hc is not a charactcr with whom wc can admit to idcntily
ing oursclvcs, yct his musical charactcr is onc to which wc listcn not
with pity, but with dclight.
26
A closcr look at somc kcy sccncs suggcsts that 8rittcn wants morc
than our sympathy lor Pctcr, music and words dcmonstratc his partial
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
rcsponsibility lor his social and moral prcdicamcnt. Grimcss ccccntricity,
musical as wcll as social and psychological, is dcpictcd lrom thc bcginning,
at thc inqucst in thc prologuc. Hc is not so much at odds with his surround
ings as hc is passivcly rcsponsivc to thcm. Although hc lollows Swallows
lcad, singing thc samc notcs, now dicrcntly harmonizcd and markcd soste-
nuto, Grimcs appcars alool, drcamy, dicrcnt lrom thc pompous magistratc
whosc municipal dignity thc music mocks. Vc hcar his maladjustmcnt in
thc minor th which hc uscs in his narration, sung con orrore, ol thc rst
apprcnticcs dcath. His duct with llcn, which lcads dircctly into thc awn
!ntcrludc, pits him initially against hcr (hcr major in conict with his
F minor), until thcy sing togcthcr, hc tcmporarily won ovcr to hcr tonic
through thc rcconciling mcdiation ol Aat and Gsharp. At oncc silcnt
and dignicd, Pctcr rcvcals a capacity to acccpt suggcstion (lulllcd by his
suicidc at opcras cnd) in his lollowing llcns lcad. Pctcr, comc away, shc
sings, trying to soothc his protcstations about villagc gossip and his xation
on scllvindication: Vcll gossip, too, / and talk and rcst. Vhcrcas llcn
sings ol hopc and sunshinc, hc obscsscs about drowning, thc blindncss ol
latc, and thc witncssing pcrlormcd by thc dcad to tormcnt thc living. His
rcconciliation to llcns kcy suggcsts, as docs his aria in !.i (Vhat harbour
shcltcrs pcacc) that shc is thc salc port that can only tcmporarily shcltcr a
man who, by carccr and choicc, bclongs as much on thc dangcrous opcn sca
as in thc salcty ol land.
27
Tc samc ambiguous rclationship bctwccn Pctcr and his community
is dramatically dcpictcd by his lcrocious appcarancc at thc !nn in !.ii. Hc
cntcrs lrom thc storm, wct, dazcd, impcrvious, wondcring in a litcrally
monotonous way in his grcat aria (Now thc Grcat 8car and thc Plciadcs)
about thc tcrms ol mans dcstiny, hcavcns ccct on human accomplishmcnt,
and thc impossibility ol making a clcan start: Vho can turn skics back and
bcgin again: Troughout, thc strings lurnish thc mclody, to which Pctcrs
soliloquy is mostly a ground (mcasurc upon mcasurc ol natural, in thc
opcning lincs ol cach stanza, only latcr dcsccnding along a scalc). Pctcr picks
up thc mclody only after it has madc its way up through thc strings lrom thc
basscs. As aairs gct rowdicr, with pcoplc tipsy and argumcntativc, 8alstrodc
kccps thc pcacc by bcginning a round (ld Joc has gonc shing) in which
cvcryonc joins, including, at last, Grimcs, whosc voicc riscs abovc thc chorus
(dircction: Pctcr comcs into thc round, upsctting its coursc). Hc is both
part ol thc community and pcriphcral to it, singing in dcscant wcll abovc
thc partsong. 8alstrodcs Comc away urgcs a cautious coursc, putting us
in mind ol llcns carlicr admonition in thc proploguc, and prcparing us lor
thc ultimatc command to sail his boat out ol sight ol land and sink it. Tcsc
instructions originatc, it bcars rcpcating, lrom supportivc lricnds.
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)
8
Tc climax ol thc action, lrom thc standpoint ol Pctcrs scllundcr
standing and his acccptancc ol his latc, comcs in thc middlc ol thc opcra
(!!.i), thc Sabbath sccnc, altcr llcn has discovcrcd thc ncw apprcnticcs
bruiscs. Hcr song is countcrpointcd with thc choral antiphony ol ostagc
ministcr and congrcgation during thc Sunday scrvicc, and Pctcr has cntcrcd
to takc thc boy homc. Hc is nothing il not unlair and bclligcrcnt, to llcn
and thc apprcnticc: Tis is whatcvcr day ! say it is. . . . Hc works lor mc,
lcavc him alonc, hcs minc. Altcrnatcly drcaming ol his plans to carn a
homc, rcspcct, lrccdom lrom pain ol grinning at gossips talcs, and trcating
llcn with condcsccnsion and thcn violcncc, Pctcr rcluscs to acccpt thc vcry
hclp and hopc hc rcquircs. Tc rcst ol thc opcra dcpcnds on thc musically
and dramatically scllconscious sclldamnation that movcs Pctcr lrom pas
sivc rccipicnt ol othcrs lcads to activc dcclaimcr. Hc prcvcnts llcn lrom
cxtcnding thc sympathy which hc simultancously solicits: Takc away your
hand . . . my only hopc dcpcnds on you. !l you takc it away, whats lclt:
Vork, hc claims, will alonc sct thcm lrcc, and sincc hc is unwilling to ask
lor hcr hand in marriagc (as hc told 8alstrodc in !.i) until hc has thc right to
do so by shing thc scas dry, hc must now spurn hcr libcral gcsturc. Vcrc
wc mistakcn: shc sings in a major ninth (an intcrval associatcd mostly with
Pctcrs drcaming momcnts), and it is hard to tcll whcthcr hc is answcring
hcr, or singing indcpcndcntly, as drumbcats prcdict thc grim possc ol thc
ncxt sccnc. llcns admonition, Pctcr, you cannot buy your pcacc, / Youll
ncvcr stop thc gossips talk / Vith all thc sh lrom out thc sca, immcdi
atcly prcccdcs hcr admission, Vcvc lailcd. Tis, in turn, provokcs his major
momcnt. Vith an agonizcd cry, hc strikcs llcn and, as thc chorus indoors
cnds its worship with a nal Amcn, Pctcr acknowlcdgcs a comparablc rcs
ignation, with a dcclamatory So bc it (on F natural, likc thc chorus amcn)
and a scvcnnotc dcclining phrasc upon which thc rcst ol thc opcra will
build: And God havc mcrcy upon mc!
Tcn thc chorus picks up thc mclody, bascd on his simultancous scll
damnation and dcmand lor pity. Pctcr has in somc way givcn up, but at thc
samc timc hc is now calling thc tunc, sincc thc community takcs its vocal
cuc lrom him. Hc has damncd himscll musically, no mcrc victim, Pctcr has
sung himscll a gurc that will bccomc thc sinistcr choral round, Grimcs
is at his cxcrcisc (this phrasc is poctically signicant as thc only linc liltcd
dircctly lrom Crabbcs original pocm, it also cxpands to includc cvcryonc, as
Auntic, Kccnc, and 8alstrodc sing in trio, ach is at his cxcrcisc) and, morc
important, thc ground bass lor thc passacaglia in thc lourth sca intcrludc.
His rcsponsc to llcn, whcthcr wc undcrstand it psychologically as thrcat,
challcngc, dclcnsc, or rcsignation, is musically conclusivc. Hc has thrown
his own dic, and has unintcntionally inspircd thc chorus to lollow his lcad
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
86
in thcir mocking parody ol his plca, and thc orchcstra as wcll, which will
shortly takc thc samc cuc in its insistcnt ground. !n thc passacaglia itscll, thc
pluckcd lowcr strings sound oltcn likc pcrcussion: this dclibcratc prcdiction
ol thc possc, which will bc lcd to Pctcrs Hut by Mr. Hobson and his drum,
clcarly suggcsts that Pctcr has damncd himscll, that hc is not just a victim as
. M. Forstcr and Philip 8rctt would havc him. 8rittcn is both morc com
plcx (musically and dramatically) and morc conscrvativc (morally) than his
sympathctic critics would likc him to bc.
Tc dcgrcc ol Grimcss madncss and thc pattcrn ol his disintcgration
may bc lclt to thc intcrprctations ol individual singcrs and dircctors. From
thc middlc ol thc opcra, howcvcr, wc must no longcr think ol thc hcro as
cithcr romantic corsair or innoccnt drcaming scapcgoat. Hc is 8yronic only
insolar as hc has choscn, musically as wcll as vcrbally, to control his dcstiny,
and hc is a drcamcr only in that his bourgcois aspirations rcturn to him, lor
thc nal timc, in !!.ii, immcdiatcly bclorc thc accidcntal dcath ol thc sccond
boy (thc Schlemiel part ol Grimcss lot is nowhcrc morc dclicatcly shown
than in his word ol warning to John thc apprcnticc as hc dcsccnds through
thc back door: cvcn caution sccms to work against Pctcr). His long mono
loguc consists ol six tcrccts that dcpict thc incvitablc dcstruction ol unlulll
ablc lantasics. !t bcgins likc somcthing out ol Rodgcrs and Hammcrstcin:
!n drcams !vc built somc kindlicr homc,
warm in my hcart and in a goldcn calm,
whcrc thcrcll bc no morc lcar and no morc storm.
And shc will soon lorgct hcr schoolhousc ways,
lorgct thc labour ol thosc wcary days,
wrappd round in kindncss likc a Scptcmbcr hazc.
Tc lcarncd at thcir books havc no morc storc
l wisdom than wcd closc bchind our door,
Compard with us thc rich man would bc poor.
!vc sccn in stars thc lilc that wc might sharc:
lruit in thc gardcn, childrcn by thc shorc,
a whitcnd doorstcp, and a womans carc.
8ut drcaming builds what drcaming can disown.
cad gurcs strctch thcmsclvcs to tcar it down.
! hcar thosc voiccs that will not bc drowncd.
Calling, thcrc is no stonc
in carths thickncss to makc a homc,
that you can build with and rcmain alonc.
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)
8
Ncxt, wc hcar Hobsons drum, at a distancc, Grimcs docs not, at lcast con
sciously, hcar it, but somcthing happcns to his mcmory and his languagc:
Somctimcs ! scc that boy hcrc in this hut,
His cycs arc on mc as thcy wcrc that cvil day,
in harbour still and dccp.
Tcn thc ostagc chorus is hcard shouting Now! Now!, thc drcam has
bccn rcduccd to dust, and Pctcrs own rhymcs havc distintcgratcd. As thc
song has switchcd lrom A major to A minor (at but drcaming builds, whcn
thc strings rcpcat thc carlicr storm motil ), so Pctcrs unconscious undcr
standing, tippcd by thc provocation ol drum and chorus, makcs us rcalizc thc
impossibility ol his idlc lancics.
Tc mcmory ol thc dcath ol thc rst boy bcautilully arouscs thc lrcc
oating guilt lrom which Grimcs sucrs, hc is tcchnically innoccnt, but ncv
crthclcss culpablc. Having damncd himscll in thc prcvious sccnc, Pctcr hcrc
cnacts thc haunting which his namcsakc in Crabbc cxpcricnccd only in his
dclirious nal ravings. Likc Crabbc, 8rittcn rcmains truc to thc mystcrics ol
origins. Just as thc poct could not cxplain Grimcss innatc brutality, nor cvcr
clarily thc gcncsis ol his last hallucinations, thc composcr ncvcr discovcrs
musical tcrms lor thc ctiology ol his hcros discascs. Music, ol coursc, has no
past tcnsc, it can dramatizc only prcscnt truths or alludc, by cchocs, to past
motils, but cvcrything cxists momcntarily. All wc can inlcr lrom thc sccnc in
thc hut is thc incursion upon drcams by thc voiccs ol socicty, in this casc thc
approaching sound ol thc drum, which provokcs Pctcrs mcmory ol thc rst
apprcnticc, thcn thc surlacing or rcgrct or guilt, and at last thc disintcgration
ol his drcams ol contcntmcnt and pickct lcnccs with llcn.
Pctcrs disjointcd monologuc in thc nal sccnc (!!!.ii), containing vcrbal
hints ol prcvious motils, adds thc nishing touchcs to 8rittcns plan lor a
mixturc ol pity and harshncss in our judgmcnt, and also to his insistcncc on
sharcd, communal latc and lccling rathcr than on an individuals isolation
within thc rcstraining walls ol his consciousncss. As 8alstrodc says to llcn at
thc cnd ol !!!.i, waiting lor Grimcss rcturn: Vc cannot turn our backs.
Vhcn horror brcaks onc hcart / all hcarts arc brokcn. Not only bccausc his
music is so lrcqucntly and naturally chordal, but also bccausc 8rittcn rclics on
oldlashioncd, rcsolving harmonics, and choral congurations, Peter Grimes
provcs musically thc impossibility ol an individuals total scparation lrom a
community ol which hc is a part, howcvcr pcriphcral his position. Just as thc
sixth orchcstral intcrludc dcpicts both natural log and thc occlusions within
Pctcrs gradually dccaying mind by alluding bricy to various motilsmoncy,
pcacc, thc Plciadcs, storm, latcso Pctcrs monologuc in !!!.ii, contains
musical and vcrbal rcmindcrs ol his cntirc lilc within thc opcra.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
88
8its ol rcsignation (Tc rst onc dicd just dicd, / Tc othcr slippcd and
dicd . . . / and thc third will . . .) intcrwcavc thcmsclvcs with rcmnants ol
dcancc. Pctcr taunts and submits simultancously. Tc shcrman has bccomc
thc catch (Comc on! Land mc! . . . Youll know whos gonc shing whcn
you land thc ncxt shoal). Tc qucstions about roots and dcstination (Vhat
is homc: Vhcrcs my homc:) may mirror thc lcclings ol rootlcssncss that
8rittcn himscll had only rcccntly laid to rcst, but ! prclcr to think ol thcm
as cxtcnding thc qucstioning ol origins that thc opcra continually poscs.
Tc sccnc also duplicatcs Pctcrs movcmcnt lrom rcsponsivcncss to aggrcs
sivcncss, which was most lorcclully shown in his cxchangc with llcn in !!.i.
Vhcrcas thcrc thc chorus was hcard contrapuntally ostagc, and in !!.ii, thc
drumbcats gradually intcrruptcd Pctcrs drcaming, hcrc wc havc a hallccho,
halloriginal rcsponsc in Pctcrs nal acccptancc ol his namc and latc. Tc
ostagc call (Pctcr Grimcs) provokcs morc than a simplc acknowlcdg
mcnt, Pctcrs scllnaming (Grimcs, Grimcs, Grimcs) also hurls back at
thc chorus thc vcry gauntlct thcy havc thrown to him. Hc implicatcs thcm,
accusing, sharing his namc. As thc chorus bccomcs soltcr, lcss insistcnt in its
call, and as llcn addrcsscs him gcntly, hc docs not rcspond, 8rittcn is ask
ing us simultancously to idcntily .ith Pctcr (wc hcar thc ostagc voiccs as hc
docs, loudcr, thcn soltcr) and to stand apart lrom him (wc hcar llcn although
hc docs not). Vith a rcpctition ol his rst drcamy aria (Vhat harbour
shcltcrs pcacc), Grimcs discovcrs a nal rcstingplacc, away, ironically, lrom
both hcr hcart and salc harbor. Hc hcars, as though unconscious, 8alstrodcs
hypnotizing command and thcn hccds it. Tc rcqucst lor sclldcstruction
has comc lrom without, but it has bccn littlc morc than an cnabling hint.
Pctcr Grimcss scllpropulsion movcs him incvitably scaward to his dcstiny.
Standing apart lrom thc community, Pctcr Grimcs cvcrywhcrc cmbcds
his idcntity in its lilc. 8cnjamin 8rittcns own cxcmplary communal lilc
crcating a lcstival in which an cntirc villagc would participatc annually, writ
ing music lor groups as wcll as lor individuals, thc most important ol whom
was his own lilclong companion and major inspiration (pcoplc arc my notc
rows, music should bc usclul and to thc living, hc rcmarkcd), bccoming a
living symbol of thc villagc in which hc was rcsidcnt so longdcmonstratcs
a commitmcnt to thc social rclationships upon which all idcntity dcpcnds.
Tc lilc at Aldcburgh comcs out ol thc samc instinct that produccd thc last
sccnc ol Peter Grimes. Antiphony is thc kcy. Tc ostagc chorus bcckons,
thrcatcns, or just namcs Pctcr ninc timcs ( just as thc prcludc had bcgun with
his invocation by Hobson), his mounting rcsponscs not only dramatizc his
hcightcncd madncss, but thcy also implicatc chorus and protagonist in onc
anothcrs musical and vcrbal dcstinics. !n his rst rcsponsc, Pctcr, thinking
ol his rst apprcnticc, sings Vatcr will drink my sorrows dry, which Colin
vv:vv cvi:vs: :nv bvvviov:vx: ov ~ nvvo (+86)
8
avis changcs signicantly, in his rccording ol thc opcra, to Vatcr will
drink his sorrows dry. Tc choicc ol idcntity bccomcs graycr in thc sccond
rcsponsc, whcn Vatcr will drink his sorrows, my sorrows dry. Tc third,
Pctcr Grimcs! Hcrc you arc! Hcrc ! am! incvitably blurs pronominal dis
tinctions. Unlikc thc mad sccncs ol othcr lamous opcratic psychotics, such
as Lady Macbcth, phclia, and Lucia di Lammcrmoor, Pctcr Grimcss l inal
momcnts do not ring in monologuc but in conjunction with othcr voiccs.
And, musically at lcast, that conjunction is nally harmonious rathcr than
dissonant. !n his last rcsponsc, Pctcr rcturns to his opcning aria (Vhat
harbour shcltcrs pcacc:), sung in harmony with thc quict calls ol thc chorus
which hc docs not consciously hcar, but to which hc has dclicatcly tuncd
himscll. Tc nal pcacc that hc rcachcs cnablcs him to rcspond automati
cally to 8alstrodcs last command. Lcaving somcwhat cloudcd thc issuc ol
origins and bcginnings, Peter Grimes lcavcs no doubt about cithcr nal cnds,
howcvcr thcy arc accomplishcd, or mutual rcsponsibility. !n socicty, all indi
viduality, howcvcr ccccntric, is complicatcd by rclationship. For bcttcr, as
wcll as lor worsc, thc community always prcvails.
o
S!X X
TH RAK, TH N, TH FLUT
!. H. uden as Librettist (:,:)
C
onsidcr rst onc ol V. H. Audcns paradoxical cpigrams: A too
litcral translation ol thc tcxt may somctimcs provc a lalsication.
So succcss in circuit lics, and thc truth must bc told slant: in doing
an aria, it is oltcn bcttcr, oncc |thc translator| has graspcd its cmotional
mood and gcncral tcnor, to put thc actual words out ol his mind and conccn
tratc upon writing as good an nglish lyric as possiblc. Tis, in +6, lrom
thc man who lour ycars carlicr stood stalwartly against opcra in translation,
on thc grounds that thc ncw syllablcs havc no apt rclation to thc pitch and
tcmpo ol thc notcs with which thcy wcrc associatcd. . . . !n song, poctry is
cxpcndablc, syllablcs arc not. 8ut Audcn changcd his mind, lor lovc and
moncy, and with Chcstcr Kallman as his collaborator, wrotc two translations
ol Mozart opcras in thc dccadc lollowing his own strongcst achicvcmcnt
as a librcttist, his tcxt lor Stravinskys Te Fakes Progress, which rcccivcd its
prcmirc in \cnicc in ++. As cxcrciscs in translation, and as rcworkings
or updatings ol Mozartcan thcmcs, Audcns Magic Flute and Don Gio.anni
givc thc lic to his pronounccmcnts that thc vcrscs which thc librcttist writcs
arc not addrcsscd to thc public but arc rcally a privatc lcttcr to thc composcr,
and that in opcra thc orchcstra is addrcsscd to thc singcrs not to thc audi
cncc. Tcy also cast a rctrospcctivc look at thc basic myths ol Te Fakes
Progress, which itscll glanccs backward to Mozart as thc lount ol opcras,
and libcralisms, goldcn agc. Vith such circular crossrclcrcncings, Te Fake,
Te Don, and Te Flute constitutc a chaptcr in Audcns poctic history.
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)
+
Audcn had a silly sidc, and whcn passing o obiter dicta as scrious
rcmarks hc could trivializc practically anything. Music, cspccially in his latcr
ycars, rcccivcd thc ambivalcnt attcntion ol his pcrvcrsc intclligcncc: c.g., hc
said thcrc arc lcwcr grcat opcras today bccausc wc bclicvc lcss cquivocally
in thc bcncts ol lrccdom, but cvcry high C accuratcly struck dcmolishcs
thc thcory that wc arc irrcsponsiblc puppcts ol latc or chancc. Vould thc
Quccn ol thc Nights Fs in alt makc hcr lrccr, onc wondcrs, than Norma or
Lucia: Ncvcrthclcss, Audcn dcvotcd himscll to librctti, bccausc opcra was
thc onc art to which hc nostalgically grantcd thc idiosyncratic ability to sct
lorth, in a sccondary world, a high hcroic modc which is abscnt lrom our
dcbascd modcrn agc. pcra is a ltcr lor thc transmission ol thc past to thc
prcscnt and lor a ccrtain stylc no longcr possiblc. Although many ol Audcns
thcorics sccm to ally him to Mozart (who wrotc to his lathcr: in opcra thc
poctry must bc altogcthcr thc obcdicnt daughtcr ol thc music), morc oltcn
than not his practicc cnlists him in thc camp ol Gluck, who said: ! sought to
rcstrict music to its truc lunction, namcly, to scrvc thc poctry by mcans ol
thc cxprcssionand thc situations which makc up thc plotwithout intcr
rupting thc action or diminishing its intcrcst by usclcss or supcruous orna
mcnt. Prima le parole, dopo la musica.
!t was only altcr mccting Kallman in Ncw York that Audcn bccamc
an opcra addict, a lact hc latcr acknowlcdgcd gratclully, saying that bclorc
thirty no rational pcrson is ablc to dcal with opcras basic loolishncss. 8ut
lor his last thirty ycars hc was a participant and a critic as wcll as a collcctor
and an cnthusiast, and although many ol his commcnts in Somc Rccc
tions on Music and rama sccm likc a bctrayal ol his librcttists instincts, it
may bc argucd that Audcn was a scrious opcratic poct. Tc lollowing cssay
is conccrncd with two rclatcd aspccts ol this scriousncss: thc dcbt which
Te Fake owcs not only to thc inspiration ol Hogarths prints but also to
Audcns undcrstanding ol thc Mozart opcras hc was latcr to translatc, and
thc lorcc with which, pace Audcns lcclings about thc ncgligibility ol poctry,
or languagc at all, to opcras mcaning, his thrcc librctti hclp to shapc thosc
opcras whosc music thcy articulatc. Audcns vcrbal lacility lound a pcrlcct
mcdium in musical lyric, thc gilt which so many rcadcrs rcgardcd, in his
last dccadcs, as thc waning bctrayal ol his gcnius (a chargc bcginning in thc
lortics, whcn rcvicwcrs labclcd cach succcssivc volumc a lall lrom carlicr
sublimity into wit or glittcring inconscqucncc) was bcstowcd appropriatcly
upon opcra.
At thc samc timc that hc could rcwritc a linc lor Annc Truclovc in
Te Fake whilc Stravinsky was sitting at thc piano going ovcr thc librctto
(according to Charlcs sbornc, !. H. uden: Te Life of a Poet), Audcn was
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
a historian in spitc ol himscll who could rcshapc his own ccntral myths in
his opcra tcxts. His gcnius, likc Stravinskys, givcs a positivc answcr to thc
composcrs qucstion about Te Fake: Can a composcr rcusc thc past and
at thc samc timc movc in a lorward dircction: Ycs, hc can, and so can a
poct, cspccially whcn collaborating with a composcr conccrncd cqually with
thc story and thc music ol his opcra. Stravinsky says that Te Fakes Prog-
ress is simplc to pcrlorm musically but di cult to rcalizc on stagc. . . . Toms
machincbakcd brcad may bc hard to swallow, but cvcn it gocs down, ! think
(with a lcw handluls ol salt), il thc stagc dircctor has not lost sight ol thc
opcras moral lablc proposition by ovcrplaying thc rcalism ol Tc Rakcwcll
Story. For Audcn, as lor Stravinsky, a moral lablc is possiblc only at sccond
hand, through stylizcd imitation. Tc scrccn ol stylc protccts lrom harsh
rcalitics and admits salutary airs, it is a ltcr not just lor straining away
impuritics, but lor distilling csscnccs. Tc rcmoval, in spacc and timc, to a
convcntionalizcd cightccnthccntury ngland, with its appropriatc musical
and poctic languagcs, is a vcrsion ol thc pastoral impulsc to takc us to a scc
ondary world which alonc will pcrmit moral labling but will also prcvcnt it
lrom sccming prctcntious or hcavyhandcd.
Tc scrccn ol a sccondary world allows Audcn to crcatc a myth around
two ol his potcnt poctic thcmcs: thc rcdccming powcr ol lovc, and thc pos
sibility ol human or divinc justicc through rcwards and punishmcnt. Te
Fake sounds a scrics ol variations on thc typcs ol lovclrom thc clcmcnt,
pastoral innoccncc ol Tom and Annc in thc country, bclorc thc announcc
mcnt ol his surprising bcqucst, through Mothcr Gooscs London brothcl,
Anncs hcroic scarch lor hcr lost lovcr, thc vapidity ol his marriagc to 8aba
thc Turk, and nally to thc salvation ol Toms soul through his rccollcction ol
Anncs lovc and his hcaring thc ccho ol hcr aria during thc gravcyard sccnc.
Te Fake takcs an updatcd twcnticthccntury look at convcntional moral
wisdom: although hc savcs his soul lrom thc cvil, Tom loscs his sanity, thc
modcrn pricc lor thc dcstruction ol hcroic aspiration. nding his days in
thc common darkncss ol 8cdlam, thinking ol himscll and Annc as Adonis
and \cnus, Rakcwcll dics, and with him dics thc promisc ol scasonal rcbirth
cxccpt as an clcgiac myth or ctivc construct. As thc cnscmblc rcminds us in
its moralizing nalc, this is thc cnd ol rakishncss, and wc had bcttcr watch
our stcp.
Vc can chart a litcrary and musical constcllation among Audcn, a
Pontc, Schikancdcr, Mozart, and Stravinsky. Tc thcmcs ol Te Fake rcvisc
thc major oncs ol Mozarts opcras, and individual numbcrs in Stravinsky
rccall Mozartcan musical and dramatic situations. Audcn scnscd thc con
ncction bctwccn thc composcrs. Vhcn hc translatcd Te Magic Flute during
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)

thc Mozart biccntcnnial ycar, hc gavc a nod to his lormcr collaborator in

a mctaloguc spokcn by thc actor who plays Sarastro:
Nor, whilc wc praisc, thc dcad, should wc lorgct
Vc havc Stravinsky, blcss him, with us yct.
8asta! Macstro, makc your minions play!
!n all hcarts, as in our nalc, may
Rcason and Lovc bc crowncd, assumc thcir rightlul sway.
Ncvcrthclcss, this Audcn Zauberote rings amazing changcs on thc Schi
kancdcr librctto, and in making his translation, Audcn translorms Mozart
and violatcs at lcast his thcorctical lcclings about thc importancc ol words
in opcra librctti.
Audcn has gonc on rccord lor thc cquation, or morc happily thc marriagc,
ol opcra and myth, so wc should not wondcr at his londncss lor Te Magic
Flute. His vcrsion, howcvcr, illuminatcs his own incrcasing conscrvatism
rcligious, social, artisticduring his last two dccadcs, a nostalgia lor thc
grcat agc ol grand opcra which coincidcd with thc goldcn agc ol libcral
humanism, and its millcnarian hopcs lor salvation through myths ol prog
rcss (thc myths, in othcr words, ol Audcns own lormativc libcralism in thc
Tirtics). !n +8, Audcn said thc typical opcra addict was a conscrvativc
who docs not wclcomc ncw opcra bccausc hc ycarns to hcar thc outol
thcrcpcrtory works ol 8cllini, \crdi, ct al., which hc lcars hc ncvcr will. Tc
Mozart ol Figaro, Don Gio.anni, and Te Magic Flute would ccrtainly havc
appcalcd to Audcns youthlul political instincts, but whcn thc timc camc
to articulatc thosc libcral instincts through thc mcdium ol opcra transla
tion, Audcn was probably bccoming too conscrvativc to do lull justicc to his
originals. Sincc thc High Stylc ol opcra ncccssarily, according to Audcn,
rcsists changc, thc translator may ignorc thc importancc ol thc words, and
may dclcnd whatcvcr altcrations hc makcs in thc tcxt with plcas ol dcl
ity to thc opcras ccntral myth. 8ut in altcring thc lcttcr, Audcn accts thc
spirit as wcll: his myth, it turns out, is not idcntical to Mozarts.
Vhat cxactly docs Audcn do to Te Flute, and how docs Mozart sound
whcn palycd on thc Audcn /Kallman instrumcnt:
!
Audcn boldly asscrtcd
that Schikancdcr and Gicscckc (il thcrc .as a collaboration) did not know
what thcy wcrc doing, and to start with, hc rcarrangcs thc sccncs in Act !!
to makc morc cogcnt cmotional scnsc: Monostatos aria, thc Quccn ol thc
Nights sccond aria, and In Diesen Heil gen Hallen now comc altcr Paminas
lamcnt (ch, ich fubl s ). All ol this is dramatically sound, sincc thc ccct
ol Monostatos and Astraammantc, as tcmptations to dcspair, suicidc, or
murdcr, has morc powcr il Pamina imagincs that Tamino has dcscrtcd hcr.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s

So lar, so good. 8ut thcn thcrc arc Audcns vcrbal libcrtics, which lall
into two groups: thosc takcn with thc diction and rhythm ol arias and sung
cnscmblcs, and thosc involving thc spokcn dialoguc which acct cqually thc
dcvclopmcnt ol charactcrization and ol myth. As a poct, Audcn is at timcs
too qualicd to writc a translation, bccausc his own clcvcrncssa londncss
lor obscurc or unlikcly words, a prclcrcncc lor thc polysyllabic to thc mono
syllabic simplicity ol Schikancdcr, an occasional urry ol witsomctimcs
works against him and pcrhaps, il our cars can bc trustcd, against Mozart.
Audcn always chooscs to amplily and vary rathcr than to rcpcat, addition
ally, his rcliancc on longcr words mcans that lastcr or comic numbcrs, which
sound a bit Gilbcrtizcd or Nashicd, lall closcr in spirit to thc original,
whcrcas thc slowcr, sombcr picccs arc wrcnchcd lrom thcir original bascs. !n
O .ittre nicht, thc Quccn ol thc Night is rclativcly straightlorward in hcr
cort to convincc Tamino ol thc hcinous kidnapping ol hcr daughtcr: Ich
musste sie mir rauben sehen ch belft! .ar alles, .as sie sprach: llein, .erge-
bens .ar ihr Flenn Denn meine Hilfe .ar .u sch.ach. Audcn drcsscs this up
with multisyllabic chiasmus: 8ut vain hcr pitilul rogation, / My protcstation
all in vain, / My lrantic wccping all in vain.
!n hcr sccond aria, Astraammantc (Audcns Quccn) oncc again spcaks
morc complcxly in nglish than in Gcrman. Der Holle Fache is as simplc,
imagistically, as it is vocally dcmanding: thc Quccn tclls hcr daughtcr that
Sarastro has bctraycd hcr, and that Pamina is obligcd to avcngc hcr mothcr.
Not only docs Audcn hardcn thc spirit ol this dcathdclying coloratura
Avcngc mc, or accurscd dic, shc tclls hcr daughtcrbut hc also makcs
hcr vocabulary morc lormidablc. Der Holle Fache kocht in meinem Her.en
bccomcs Avcnging lury laccratcs my spirit, which is rhythmically nc but
vcrbally arch. vcn as shc sinks out ol sight with Monostatos in thc closing
momcnts, Sarastros goodncss and light having triumphcd, thc Quccn can
not rcsist, it sccms, a lcarncd tonc which pcrhaps rcminds us ol thc univcrsal
darkncss that burics all at thc cnd ol Te Dunciad, a condition Audcn prcvi
ously suggcstcd in thc 8cdlam sccnc in Te Fakes Progress: Zerschmettert,
.ernichtet ist unsere Macht, !ir alle gestur.et in e.ige Nacht is now Vhat
blinds us with lightning! Vhat binds us with lright! / Vc sink to thc chaos
ol innitc night.
Although wc would hardly cxpcct rcalistic charactcrization, lct alonc .er-
ismo passions, in an cightccnthccntury opcra, Schikancdcrs charactcrs havc
ccrtain dimcnsions which Audcn, whcthcr consciously or not, has rclash
ioncd. For instancc, thc qucst motil has bccn changcd: showing Paminas
picturc to Tamino, thc Quccns ladics scrvc up lovc itscll, but Tamino now
sounds rathcr likc Sidncys Astrophcl: Vhcrc bcauty is with virtuc shown /
Morc noblc than itscll alonc. And, surprisingly, lor a man who rccognizcs
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)

thc spiritual and mythic componcnts ol thc story, Audcn tcnds to sccular
izc thc qucst upon which thc Quccn invitcs Tamino to cmbark: Du bist
ja schuldlos, .eise, fromm. Ein Jungling, so .ie du, .ermag am besten, Dies
tiefgebeugte Mutterher. .u trosten. Audcns Tamino is callcd gcntlc, courtc
ous, truc, rathcr than purc, wisc, and pious, which would bc morc accu
ratc, additionally, thc Quccn givcs a spur to dccds ol lovc and glory, a ncw
touch. At thc samc timc, thc spokcn dialoguc with which Tamino introduccs
himscll to Papagcno incrcascs thc romancc motil by adding inlormation
nowhcrc prcscnt in thc original. Tamino is now a twcnticthccntury adolcs
ccnt, discontcntcd and itching to scck advcnturc: My lcct havc wandcrcd
with unccrtain aim / rivcn by longings which ! cannot namc, / Sccking
! know not what.
Charlcs sbornc has alrcady notcd how Audcns Papagcno, cnumcrating
all thc birds hc catchcs, is morc scholarly than Schikancdcrs, who is distin
guishcd by an undicrcntiatcd naturalism that probably kccps him lrom
knowing onc bird lrom anothcr: thcyrc all .ogel to him. 8ut Audcn cannot
rcsist making his Papagcno somcthing ol an ornithologist, so wc havc a list
which not only cmbcllishcs thc original (Der !ogelf anger bin ich ja ) but also
scriously altcrs thc spirit ol thc charactcr: lark, ruddock, willowwrcn, jolly
nightingalc, snipc, partridgc, cock and hcn, and thc mclodious mavis, arc
all prcy lor Papagcnos traps. His humanity assumcs grandcr dimcnsions in
Audcns vcrsion (indccd, hc cvcn calls himscll tall, an unwarrantcd dan
gcr lor thc casting dircctor). Schikancdcr is straightlorward: in thc dialoguc
bclorc Bei Mannern Pamina tclls Papagcno that hcavcn will takc carc ol
him. !n Audcn shc is morc philosophical: All will bc wcll: you havc lovc in
your hcart, a cuc lcading into that simplc and sublimc duct:
Bei Mannern, .elche Liebe f uhlen,
Fehlt auch ein gutes Her.e nicht.
Die sussen Triebe mit.ufuhlen,
Ist dann der !eiber erste Picht.
!ir .ollen uns der Liebe freun,
!ir leben durch die Lieb allein.
Tis grows into Audcns inatcd and aristocratic vcrsion:
Vhcn Lovc in his bosom dcsirc has implantcd,
Tc hcart ol thc hcro grows gcntlc and tamc,
And soon lrom his passion cnkindlcd, cnchantcd,
Tc nymph rcccivcs thc impctuous amc.
!n all our days wc mortals can provc
No grcatcr joy than mutual lovc.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
6
Tc lovc is grandiosc, but also pcrilously closc to somc communicablc and
paralyzing discasc which cxtcnds its inammatory blcssings lrom onc pcr
son to anothcrsomcthing akin to thc lovc which Monostatos lccls in his
sccondact aria:
vcry animal and human
Comcs on carth to makc a pair,
For cach man thcrc is a woman,
So, should anybody carc
!l ! takc my littlc sharc:
!t is Audcns own intolcrablc ncural itch.
Although hc ncvcr mcntions his own blackncss, Audcns Monostatos
rcminds us ol Caliban and ol Audcns intcrprctation ol Te Magic Flute as a
gloss on Te Tempest. Tc trials ol Tamino and Pamina rccall thosc ol Fcr
dinand. Sarastro, as a Prospcro gurc, stands at thc ccntcr ol Audcns opcra,
gurativcly and litcrally, as hc docs not in Schikancdcrs. His lcngthy and
witty mctaloguc, alludcd to alrcady, is Audcns homagc to Mozart and to his
goldcn agc shining obliqucly into our own. As thc spokcsman lor Audcn and
lor cightccnthccntury humanism, Sarastro is a littlc old, tircd, and jadcd. For
this thcrc is no prcccdcnt in thc original. Audcn changcs somc ol thc dia
loguc, and adds somc morc, in an attcmpt to makc Sarastro an cldcr statcs
man on thc vcrgc ol rctircmcnt. At thc bcginning ol Act !!, Audcn omits thc
radiant dialoguc bctwccn Sarastro and his Pricst on thc subjcct ol Taminos
worth: Er ist ein Prin. . . . Er ist ein Mensch (on thc othcr hand, Audcns
Papagcno is a jollicr and morc congcnial gurc than Schikancdcrs).
Audcns hicratic gurc spcaks, again without warrant, with awkward
and condcsccndingly litcratc diction to Monostatos:
. . . Vith brothcrhood,
ur Holy rdcr, wc had hopcd to win
Your mind and soul lrom what wc lound thcm in
A savagc statc, but you arc ol thc lost:
Likc thc cnlccblcd asp, undonc by lrost,
Somc kindly pcasant puts bclorc his rc
nly to nd that light and warmth inspirc
A gracclcss naturc to rcncw its vcnomcd irc.
Tcn, bclorc hc sings a vcry Audcncsquc In Diesen Heil gen Hallen (8y
lrccing onc anothcr, / Vc lcarn oursclvcs to lrcc, / For man must lovc his
brothcr / r ccasc a man to bc), hc sounds thc notc ol a wcaricd Mani
chcism, modcrn and postNictzschcan:
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)

! havc grown old in combat, and ! lcar

Passionlcss. Can Visdom bc too dcar:
Can shc, thc Quccn ol supcrstitious Night,
!n hcr cxtrcmitics ol hcart, bc right:
No, on. Vc nccd cach othcr. May wc lcarn
l music how to scrvc cach othcrs turn:
For music, lrom thc primal darkncss sprung,
Spcaks an undicrcntiating tonguc,
8ut tamcd by harmony, thc bcast can tamc,
And cvcry clcmcntal passion namc.
light ol Visdom, do not blind our cycs:
Tat Mind may lovc, and Hcart may civilizc.
As il to strcngthcn this wcarincss by rcpctition, Audcn providcs a slightly
comic vcrsion ol Sarastro in thc sccond Pricst, an old 8yronic tipplcr who
has rctircd lrom drinking and who no longcr nccds liquor to cnamc him.
Hc is thc onc who brings Papagcno thc winc that inspircs Ein Madchen
oder !eibchen, or Audcns: Could ! but oncc discovcr / Somc solt congcnial
Shc, in which that last monosyllabic archaism givcs cithcr a lilt or a thud to
thc notc, dcpcnding on oncs point ol vicw.
Tc wcdding ol thc Appollonian and ionysian principlcs was ccrtainly
built into thc original opcra as a brilliant strokc ol gcnius, il not ol lorc
thought, by thc rcmarkablc changc in sympathy dcmandcd ol thc audicncc
bctwccn Acts ! and !!, and also by thc unaltcrablc lact that thc instrumcnts
ol salvation, utc and bclls, thc musical gracc as it wcrc, comc lrom thc prov
incc ol thc Quccn ol thc Night. !n his tircd monologuc, Sarastro acknowl
cdgcs that his victory will bc also his dclcat, as thc youngcr gcncration unitcs
both principlcs in a ncw synthcsis, ol harmony rathcr than warlarc. 8oth
hc and thc Quccn will lall, through rcsignation or dclcat, and a millcnarian
spirit will pcrvadc thc ncw ordcr.
Although Schikancdcr was by no mcans a sophisticatcd poct, hc libcr
atcd Mozart musically, sincc no pocm constrains thc composcr to a par
ticular rhythm (as somc ol thc numbcrs in Figaro do, c.g., Non so piu).
As a rcsult ol its librcttoboth thc myth and thc wordsTe Magic Flute
rcsists pigconholing, as Villiam Mann has obscrvcd. Provcrbs, pagcantry,
larcc, animal lrolicking: Te Flute has thcm all. !gnorcd by + as hodgc
podgc, Te Flute has provokcd countlcss rcccnt intcrprctations (among thc
morc ingcnious is 8rigid 8rophys which makcs thc Quccn into a Gravcsian
Vhitc Goddcss), but howcvcr wc hcar thc opcra wc owc part ol our rcsponsc
to Schikancdcr himscll.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
8
Vords, whcthcr translatcd or addcd, arc important, in spitc ol Chcstcr
Kallmans statcmcnt, ancnt Annc Truclovc: Annc is a soprano. Pcriod.
Vords can do nothing but indicatc hcr. Still, somc indications will point
in dicrcnt dircctions lrom othcrs, and in Don Gio.anni, whcrc wc havc
thrcc sopranos, thosc indications will tcll a lot about thc dicrcnccs among
thc hcroic Anna, thc jiltcd and vcngclul lvira, and thc irtatious, yiclding
Zcrlina. Tc AudcnKallman Don Gio.anni, donc lor N8C lour ycars altcr
Te Magic Flute, sccms in many ways a stcp backward, a work crudcr and
broadcr in its strokcs. Tc pcculiaritics ol thc translation arc again ol two
kinds: problcms with languagc, which may owc somcthing to thc dicrcnccs
bctwccn nglish and !talian (it is hard to nd cquivalcnts lor thc nal wcak,
unacccntcd syllablcs in thc original without galloping at a hopclcssly 8y
ronic pacc), and a rclocusing ol thc tcxt, in this casc to a clcarcr picturc ol
vicc and virtuc. Audcns Don Gio.anni takcs vcry scriously a Pontcs sub
titlc, Il Dissoluto Punito.
8ut at thc samc timc, Don Gio.anni is also an opera bua, and lrom thc
start it was lamous as comcdy. a Pontc took lrom Tirso da Molinas +6o
play thc call to rcpcntancc and thc supcrnatural warning, and thcn built
up thc rcst on disguisc and rcvclation, and on thc complications attcndant
upon thc hcros lailcd scductions. A 8crlin rcvicwcr wrotc in ++ that thc
piccc is about that wcllknown subjcct, which only plcascs thc masscs
bccausc ol Lcporcllos burlcsquc antics and bccausc ol thc Commendatore
on his horsc. As in Die Zauberote, Audcn and Kallman succccd bcst with
last, comic numbcrs, thc staccato Gilbcrtian rhythms ol thc cataloguc aria
(Osser.ate, leggete con me bccomcs a jolly ! maintain it immaculatcly )
and Finch han dal .ino. n both thc scrious and comic lincs, Audcns
opcra lcts out somc ropc, but it is by this ropc that thc translators risk hang
ing thcmsclvcs.
Tc problcms arisc rst in thosc intcnsc momcnts whcn a charactcrs
passion is thrcatcncd or diminishcd by cutcncss in thc translation, or whcn
comcdy rcars itscll inopportuncly and at odds with what thc music is tcll
ing us. Vhcn Masctto commands Zcrlina (in Ho capito, signor si ) to lct
my Lord makc a lady ol you, it comcs out likc a cross bctwccn G&S and a
twcnticthccntury skcptics look at old wivcs talcs: Vhcn his lordship woos
a maidcn / Shc bccomcs Milady, too, / !l thc lairytalcs bc truc. !n thc stun
ning quartcr altcr La ci darem, in which lvira warns Zcrlina and Anna
ol thc ons rogucry (Non ti dar, o misera ), Audcns on sounds ip and
modcrn: Shcs mcntally a ictcd, / And wccps whcn contradictcd: / Stand
back or youll upsct hcr. / ! know thcsc cascs bcttcr. / Lcavc hcr alonc with
mc. Tc grand cnscmblc at thc cnd ol Act ! originally prcscntcd a on who
is anxiously conluscd and thcn rcsolvcd not to show lcar. Audcns on is
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)

morc comically pcrplcxcd by thcsc Furics: Vhat an awlul situation! / How

! wish ! wcrc in bcd!
Allowing thc translators thcir rights to dccidc how and whcrc to rccm
phasizc thc seria and thc bua parts ol thc drama, wc may wondcr why such
skillcd pocts writc both rccitativcs and arias which sccm unintcntionally
comic or incpt. onna Anna spcaks a stiltcd, lorcign nglish bclorc launch
ing into Or sai chi l onore: And thcn my will, in shock rcborn, / Vith tcrror
inhuman, rcstorcd my dwindlcd / lorccs doubly. whcn shc rcachcs thc grcat
aria itscll, shcs in cvcn morc troublc:
You know who is guilty,
Tc lcchcr assassin
Vho darcd my dishonor,
And struck down my lathcr!
Tis is no worsc than dward cnts: You now know lor ccrtain / Tc namc
ol thc traitor / My honor who assaultcd, / My lathcr who murdcrcd. 8ut it
is, alas, no bcttcr. Deh! .ieni alla nestra is, in thc original, a convcntional
scduction piccc by which thc on hopcs to woo lviras Maid. !t plays with
standard Rcnaissancc lovc tropcs. 8ut Audcns vcrsion is cnormously wordy
(indccd, it takcs him morc lincs to do all ol his arias, this is pcrhaps a tcstimony
to !talian concision rathcr than prool ol his loquacity) and somcwhat mcaly,
cmphasizing thc loolishncss ol thc ons prctcnsc or that ol thc librcttists:
star, why kccp thy bcauty so cruclly hiddcn:
Ty sablc rcalm bcgcm, bright Quccn ol Lovc, shinc!
Tis dark ! bid thcc rulc, scrvcs thcc unbiddcn,
And lovc that scrvcs by night has madc hcart thinc.
Vith a song likc this, and with diction as dclibcratcly stiltcd or archaic as
8c not ol adoration distantly scornlul, it is no wondcr thc on Giovanni
has so littlc luck with thc ladics.
Vhilc thcy strcss thc bua parts ol thc opcra, going so lar as to makc
comic what originally was not, Audcn and Kallman managc also to cxpand,
through simplication, thc moral and psychological dimcnsions ol thc origi
nal. Among othcr mistakcs, thcy cxcludc Mi tradi quell alma ingrata on
thc grounds that it was a latc addition, lor thc \icnna prcmirc, but this
takcs away lrom lvira a grcat momcnt to proclaim hcr minglcd lovchatc
lor Giovanni. Right lrom thc opcning sccnc, whcn thc Commcndatorc is
slain, Audcns diction is cithcr morc romantic or morc cthical than thc origi
nal. Vhcn thcrc is no clcar moral or spiritual dimcnsion prcscnt, hc crcatcs
onc. Tus, thc Commendatore and Giovanni sing in !talian only ol thc old
mans immincnt dcath, but in nglish thcrc is thc addcd notc ol punishmcnt
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+oo
and immortality: Ah, !m woundcd! Ah! !m dying! / God, protcct my child
lrom cvil! / From this mortal sccnc ol sorrow / My immortal soul must y.
And: Ah, hcs lallcn! Ah, hcs dying! / Paying dcarly lor his lolly. / n this
world ol lovc and bcauty / Hc must closc his agcd cyc.
Littlc things ring thc samc changc: Lcporcllo tclls thc on that hcs
lcading thc lilc ol a scoundrcl, Da briccone, but Audcns warns: Youll go
to Hcll, Sir! lviras original murdcrousncss (h, chi mi dice mai ) bccomcs
a sharing ol guilt: !ll dcnouncc him / And makc him bcar thc scorn / Tat
! alonc havc bornc. At thc cnd ol thc rst act, thc maskcd trio cntcrs thc
ons palacc, sounding, in thc nglish vcrsion, much stcrncr than in thc !tal
ian. lvira, likc a charactcr lrom morality drama, dcclarcs: !n truth rcsidcs
our powcr / Tc truth, thc truth nccd ncvcr wait, whcrcas all shc claims
in !talian is wcll cxposc his wickcd crimcs. Anna cchocs hcr: Vc want no
morc than justicc . . . / Vc wcrc, wc arc . . . his latc!
!n thc Act !! scstct, immcdiatcly bclorc Il mio tesoro, Anna sings that
hcr tcars will allay ttavios pain, but Audcn has hcr sound a guilty notc:
cath can plcasc mc, / Vipc away thc guilty stain, / ry my tcars and casc
my pain. Hcr scnsc ol sin is hcard most lorcclully in Non mi dir, which
has bccn cntircly altcrcd lrom a plca to ttavio to tonc down his complaints
about hcr cruclty and lrom a hopc that hcavcn will oncc again shinc on hcr.
Now, thc aria is an Audcncsquc dclibcration on Pascals silence eternel de ces
espaces innis, altcr hcr initial rcqucst lor chastity: Lct yondcr moon, chastc
cyc ol Hcavcn / Cool dcsirc and calm your soul. Tc lault, ttavio, lics not
in our stars but in oursclvcs that wc arc sinlul: Cold, wc call thcm, to our
sighing, / Vc, too proud, too cvilmindcd, / 8y sin arc blindcd. !n a Pontc,
a singlc forse givcs thc only hopc lor rcdcmption: pcrhaps thc hcavcns will
pity hcr somc day, shc allows. 8ut Audcns Anna condcntly trusts hcavcns
guidancc, and his ttavio takcs thc aria as a covcnant ol marriagc, a tokcn,
a swcct promisc, whcrc in thc original hc vows only to sharc hcr gricl.
!ndccd, throughout, wc can scc how Audcn distillcd thc bravcry ol his Annc
Truclovc lrom hcr !talian namcsakc. Tc grcat aria lrom !, iii ol Te Fake,
in which Annc announccs hcr plans to sct out lor London and discovcr hcr
man, is cut lrom thc samc cloth as Non mi dir:
Guidc mc, moon, chastcly whcn ! dcpart,
And warmly bc thc samc.
Hc watchcs without gricl or shamc,
!t cannot bc thou art
A coldcr moon upon a coldcr hcart.
Finally, cvcn Audcns statuc is hcwn lrom a morc moral stonc than a
Pontcs. Tc Commcndatorc arrivcs lor suppcr and ordcrs thc on to hcar
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)
+o+
him bccausc my timc is short, to which thc on rcplics simply: Spcak,
!m listcning. Audcn cannot rcsist a lurthcr prcachcrly cxchangc. His
statuc commands: Mark wcll my mcssagc lor short is your timc, to which
Giovanni acquicsccs: Spcak you mcssagc lor short is your timc. And at thc
last, Audcn lcnds a twcnticthccntury slant to thc ons non ser.iam and
rclusal to rcpcnt: Lct dotards talk ol knccling, / God is a lairy talc.
Audcns cpiloguc cpitomizcs his opcras status as a moral lablc. Vithin
this lilc thcrc is always thc possibility ol changc, cspccially at thc last min
utc, sincc sinccrc rcpcntancc lrccly ocrcd is thc ground lor salvation. 8ut
lvira sccms a littlc unsurc in Audcn (hcr original gocs to a convcnt to nish
hcr lilc), shc is biding hcr timc, plotting thc ncxt stcp: ! will hidc mc in a
cloistcr, / Tcrc to last and pray and pondcr, Tc old saw which is thc basis
lor thc concluding canon, Tis is thc cnd ol thosc who do wrongthc
just dcsscrts motil, in othcr wordsgcts a modcrn libcral handlc: Rakcs,
bctraycrs, all takc warning, / Vhilc thcrcs timc (whilc thcrcs timc) still your
ways to mcnd, / Your ways to mcnd, / Mcnd your ways. Audcn scrvcs up
his Anglican laith at thc cnd ol a banquct that has bccn, through all its
courscs, moral nourishmcnt.
Stcpping backward again to Te Fakes Progress, wc nd a librctto pocti
cally supcrior to cithcr ol thc two Mozart translations. Tc practical rca
sons lor this arc obvious: thc rclativc valucs and strcsscs ol syllablcs in onc
languagc arc di cult to translcr to anothcr without somc bctrayal ol thc
original. 8ut wc may lccl cqually that Audcn is writing his own moral talc,
rathcr than bcnding a prccxistcnt onc to t a doublc Procrustcan bcdthat
ol thc music and that ol his own idcas about thc story. Conscqucntly, thc
clcgant vcrsc ol Te Fakes Progress can stand by itscll lcss cmbarrasscdly than
thc translatcd librctti lor Don Gio.anni and Te Magic Flute. 8ut as Kallman
rcmarkcd, rccalling thc opcras composition and prcmirc: it is a tributc to
opcra in much thc samc way that pollon Musagte is a tributc to thc dancc.
!t lorccs us to considcr thc naturc ol imitation, what Stravinsky mcant by
moving lorward by moving backward. Vc shall not, ! hopc, bc as stodgy
as thc !talian critics who, altcr thc rst pcrlormancc, glcclully condcmncd
Anncs rstact aria as purc pastichc (as il thcrc could bc such a thing), but
wcrc at odds with onc anothcr on whom prcciscly Stravinsky was imitating:
Handcl, Gluck, Mozart, Rossini, Vcbcr, and \crdi wcrc all adduccd.
As ! havc pointcd out bclorc,
2
thc librctto to Te Fake is a pastichc, com
plcmcntcd by Stravinskys ncoclassical scorc, ol cightccnthccntury diction,
litcrary allusions, and cchocs lrom a rangc ol works, and is thcrclorc a vcr
sion ol pastoral. istancc conlcrs upon thc pocts thc privilcgc ol commcnt
ing simultancously on a stylizcd cightccnthccntury ngland, thc world ol
Hogarthian lact and lablc, and on our modcrn onc by rcminding us, through
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o:
colloquialism, occasional puns or ncologisms, that thc prcscnt and thc past
both intcrpcnctratc and arc scparatc lrom onc anothcr. Looking back nos
talgically, Te Fake also scttlcs itscll squarcly in thc modcrn world.
Audcn achicvcs morc than hc would thcorctically allow a poct to do,
sincc although his modcsty prctcnds that thc words, irrclcvant in thcmsclvcs,
arc addrcsscd only to thc composcr, his instinct has lashioncd thcm rhyth
mically sound, cmotionally potcnt, and intcllcctually challcnging. Tcy arc
simplc cnough to bc sct and hcard, to cmbody moral truisms, to a rm with
aphoristic cxactncss thc storys thcmcs, but thcy arc also complcx cnough to
bc intcrcsting.
Tc varicty ol poctic lorms, thc richncss ol languagc and rhythm in aria
and rccitativc, thc cchocs collcctcd lrom our litcrary past, all su cicntly dis
provc, pcrhaps just oncc, Gian Carlo Mcnottis gcncralization: to rcad and
judgc a librctto without its musical sctting is unlair both to thc librcttist and
thc composcr. Audcns capturing somc oldcr poctic voiccs docsnt makc him
mcrcly a good vcntriloquist who rca rms what hc rchashcs. Tc librctto, or
many parts ol it, can vcry wcll stand alonc (as hc rccognizcd whcn hc pub
lishcd Anncs lullaby Gcntly, littlc boat in Te Shield of chilles). Tc rst
sccnc, lor cxamplc, maintains a consistcnt pattcrn ol imagcry which might
pass conscious noticc in thc opcra hall, but which mccts thc dcmands that a
scrious rcadcr might makc ol an accomplishcd poct. Tc languagc ol growth
and lcrtility rcsounds lrom thc opcning duct:
Annc:
Tc woods arc grccn and bird and bcast at play
For all things kccp this lcstival ol May,
Vith lragrant odors and with notcs ol chccr
Tc pious carth obscrvcs thc solcmn ycar.
Rakcwcll:
Now is thc scason whcn thc Cyprian Quccn
Vith gcnial charm translatcs our mortal sccnc.
Vhcn swains thcir nymphs in lcrvcnt arms cnlold
And with a kiss rcstorc thc Agc ol Gold.
Although music can ncvcr cxprcss irony (this is why Cos Fan Tutte is
a lailurc, according to Holmannsthal), thc countcrpointing ol words and
music can. Tc ducts tunclulncss complcmcnts its Augustan commonplaccs
and archaisms, but is osct by thc skcwcd rhythm and harmony, Stravinskys
mcans ol commcnting on Mozartcan mclodics as wcll as on Audcns vcrsion
ol a Mozartcan moral lablc. !n lact, hc builds a minor doubt into thc opcning
notc: Annc bcgins a hall tonc o thc propcr tonic third (C=) bclorc scttling
w. n. ~ibvx ~s iinvv::is: (+8:)
+o
comlortably into major harmony. Tc musics modcrn idiom combincs with
thc now datcd poctic languagc and knits Audcns wcaving ol ccho and clich
into a ncw labric. At thc cnd ol thc sccnc thc music givcs clucs to thc dan
gcrs in thc lovcrs scparation and in Toms drcams ol worldly succcss.
8ut thc words thcmsclvcs arc oltcn at thc hcart ol thc pcrlormancc
and its mcssagc. Toms rydcnic song, Laughtcr and light and all charms
that cndcar, should strikc us as disturbing (it cncouragcs Nick Shadows
nal pronounccmcnt: TH PRGRSS F A RAK bcgins) prcciscly
bccausc ol its diction. Historical distancc urgcs skcpticism on our rcsponsc
to pscudocightccnthccntury languagc, howcvcr accomplishcd. rydcn
will not do today, howcvcr clcvcr his adaptcrs may bc: indccd, thc suitability
ol scorc to librctto is provcd by how it validatcs our litcrary rcsponsc should
wc rcad thc nakcd tcxt.
nc could cxtcnd a commcntary on thc rclationship ol thc words to
thcir sctting to includc all mattcrs ol orchcstration (c.g., thc usc ol winds,
thc horn obbligato as a hunting motil, thc sinistcr tinklings on thc ccmbalo
which accompany Shadow). Tc bcst cvidcncc ol thc librcttists strcngth,
howcvcr, may bc sccn in thc nal sccnc, in 8cdlam, which answcrs with a
modcrn twist thc opcras opcning pastoral notc. Pastoral now livcs in thc
asylum, thc \cnus and Adonis myth is thc raving ol a lunatic. Tc chorus
lcavcns thc Popcan picturc with modcrn clich:
Lcavc all lovc and hopc bchind,
ut ol sight is out ol mind
!n thcsc cavcrns ol thc dcad . . .
8ankcr, bcggar, whorc and wit
!n a common darkncss sit.
Scasons, lashion, ncvcr changc,
All is stalc, yct all is strangc,
All arc locs, and nonc arc lricnds
!n a night that ncvcr cnds.
Annc, willing to cntcrtain lor a momcnt Toms mythic dclusions, sings a
duct with him which ncrvously packs twcnticthccntury philosophical lan
guagc into thc ncoclassical stylc:
Rcjoicc, bclovcd: in thcsc clds ol lysium
Spacc cannot altcr, nor Timc our lovc abatc,
Hcrc has no words lor abscncc or cstrangcmcnt
Nor Now a notion ol Almost or Too Latc.
Tc pastoral languagc ol lcrtility llcd thc opcning springtimc sccnc,
and thc clcgiac notcs in 8cdlam, anothcr spring sccnc, parody that opcning
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
by assuring us that thc myth ol \cnus and Adonis, howcvcr bcautilul, cannot
bc takcn straight. !n othcr words, languagc, not music, is thc vchiclc lor thc
plots ironic tcnsion bctwccn innoccnt aspiration and dcpravcd prctcnsion.
Anncs lullaby lays to rcst Tom and his drcams ol rcbirth with linguistic
harmonics lrom 8lakcs 8culah:
rchards grccnly gracc
Tat undisturbcd placc,
Tc wcary soul rccalling
To slumbcr and drcam,
Vhilc many a strcam
Falls, lalls, lalls,
cscanting on a childlikc thcmc.
A momcnt latcr shc cchocs Shakcspcarc in thc rhythm ol Audcns clcgy
to Ycats:
vcry wcaricd body must
Latc or soon rcturn to dust,
Sct thc lrantic spirit lrcc.
!n this carthly city wc
Shall not mcct again, lovc, yct
Ncvcr think that ! lorgct.
Vith its lovcly promisc ol rcncwal, clcgy is rcduccd to parody. Likc pastoral
it cannot cxist in our world without somc rclocusing away lrom its sourcc.
!n this rcgard, thc music docs lcss to complicatc thc words (sincc thc sctting
ol thc concluding lamcnts is cspccially poignant) than thc irony ol thc lablc
itscll docs. cprivcd ol his \cnus, Tom, likc Adonis, dics, unlikc Adonis, hc
will not bc rcborn, ncithcr docs thc nal chorus (Mourn lor Adonis, cvcr
young) grant thc kind ol consolation that a pastoral clcgy normally procrs,
sincc its singcrs arc thcmsclvcs inmatcs ol 8cdlam.
To adhcrc to, or cvcn to glancc at, past myths, stylcs, or languagcs,
rcquircs a sccmingly rcgrcssivc tcmpcramcnt. Nostalgia is a basic lorm ol
pastoral, and much pastoral is bascd on nostalgia lor thc vanishcd and irrc
tricvablc. 8ut music, cspccially music wcddcd to words, ocrs a chancc lor
somcthing dicrcnt. Tis is what kccps Te Fakes Progress lrom bcing a mcrc
cxcrcisc in imitation: in languagc and harmony, it mccts thc challcngc ol thc
past, rcdccms its promisc, and looks hopclully lorward. As such, it givcs ncw
lilc to Ncd Rorcms provocativc adagc: Music is thc solc art which cvokcs
nostalgia lor thc luturc.
+o
S\N X
LANSCAP AN KNVLG
Te Poetry of Eli.abeth Bishop (:,)
T
hc most lastidious and unscllasscrtivc ol our major pocts, liza
bcth 8ishop has produccd barcly two hundrcd pagcs ol original
vcrsc in a carccr ol lorty ycars. Tc dcccptivc naturalncss and ucnt
casc ol this body ol work has lcd many critics to catcgorizc hcr as cithcr an
cpigonc ol Mariannc Moorc or anothcr in thc linc ol lcmalc imagists. 8ut
8ishops bcst pocms show hcr to bc an cpistcmological poct in thc tradition
ol Villiam Vordsworth and S. T. Colcridgc. Going bcyond thc surlaccs
ol thc sccncs which thcy lovingly dcpict, thcsc pocms posc csscntial qucs
tions about thc rclationship bctwccn cxpcricncc and knowlcdgc, bctwccn
what is cmpirically asccrtainablc and what must bc dcduccd or inlcrrcd, and
bctwccn what can bc known and what not.
Two carlicr commcntators havc pointcd 8ishops rcadcrs in thc dircction
! would havc thcm lollow morc vigorously. Twcnty ycars ago, Howard
Ncmcrov rcmarkcd that such poctry . . . movcs away lrom thought and
towards vision, morc rcccntly, onald Shcchan has comparcd 8ishop to
Matthcw Arnold, Vordsworth, and \irgil, all ol whom posscss that mystc
rious ability to nd just whcrc mcaning inhcrcs in thc thing sccn rathcr than
cohcrcs with thc sccing mind.
!
Starting lrom thcsc scminal rcmarks, ! want
to cxplorc thc ways in which 8ishops poctry passcs lrom statcmcnt or clcgant
dcscription to rccnactmcnts ol thc proccsscs ol discovcring and lcarning.
l all 8ishops important naturc pocms, At thc Fishhouscs is thc onc
which most ncarly rcscmblcs a Vordsworthian modcl, its two most impor
tant analogucs (onc would strain to call thcm inucnccs) arc Tintcrn Abbcy
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o6
and Rcsolution and !ndcpcndcncc. Tc pocm sounds as il it might havc
bccn writtcn to M. H. Abrams lormula lor thc Romantic naturc lyric:
. . . a dctcrminatc spcakcr in a particularizcd, and usually a local
izcd outdoor sctting, whom wc ovcrhcar as hc carrics on, in a ucnt
vcrnacular which riscs casily to a morc lormal spccch, a sustaincd
colloquy, somctimcs with himscll or with thc outcr sccnc, but morc
lrcqucntly with a silcnt human auditor, prcscnt or abscnt. Tc spcakcr
bcgins with a dcscription ol thc landscapc, an aspcct or changc ol
aspcct in thc landscapc cvokcs a varicd but intcgral proccss ol mcm
ory, thought, anticipation, and lccling which rcmains closcly intcr
volvcd with thc outcr sccnc. !n thc coursc ol this mcditation thc lyric
spcakcr achicvcs an insight, laccs up to a tragic loss, comcs to a moral
dccision, or rcsolvcs an cmotional problcm. ltcn thc pocm rounds
upon itscll to cnd whcrc it bcgan, at thc outcr sccnc, but with an
altcrcd mood and dccpcncd undcrstanding which is thc rcsult ol thc
intcrvcning mcditation.
2
Tc atncss ol thc pocms opcning is dcccptivc, as avid Kalstonc has
pointcd out,
1
thc slant rhymcs contributc to a lccling ol conncctcdncss
among thc discrctc parts ol thc sccnc:
Although it is a cold cvcning,
down by onc ol thc shhouscs
an old man sits nctting,
his nct, in thc gloaming almost invisiblc
a dark purplcbrown,
and his shuttlc worn and polishcd.
Tc air smclls so strong ol codsh
it makcs oncs nosc run and oncs cycs watcr.
4
!n thc opcning lincs ol Tintcrn Abbcy, Vordsworth strcsscs both thc con
ncctions and thc dicrcnccs among parts ol thc landscapc: thc orchardtults
arc clad in onc grccn huc, but losc thcmsclvcs mid grovcs and copscs.
Hcdgcrows turn out to bc littlc lincs ol sportivc wood run wild, grccnncss
covcrs all. Likcwisc, 8ishop blurs visual boundarics whilc connccting thc
landscapc with thc quict, not ol thc sky, but ol thc hcavy surlacc ol thc sca,
which is swclling slowly as il considcring spilling ovcr. Troughout, spccic
dctails, individuatcd objccts, arc combincd with a mystcrious vagucncss: All
is silvcr, but thc silvcr ol thc sca is opaquc, whcrcas that ol thc bcnchcs and
lobstcr pots is transluccnt.
Tc singlc shcrman, likc Vordsworths lccchgathcrcr, or thc imagincd
hcrmit ol Tintcrn Abbcy, sccms barcly alivc, his cxistcncc dcpcnds initially
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
+o
only on lunctional objccts (nct and shuttlc), which arc thcmsclvcs worn and
mcllowcd. Latcr, wc scc him, likc thc big sh tubs, covcrcd with scalcs which
hc has scrapcd with that old black knilc, / thc bladc ol which is almost worn
away. Activity is mutcd by thc timclcss dccay into which cvcrything has
lallcn: thcrc arc ncwly caught codsh, but also an ancicnt woodcn capstan, /
crackcd, with two long blcachcd handlcs / and somc mclancholy stains, likc
dricd blood / whcrc thc ironwork has rustcd.
At rst thc narrator sccms dctachcd lrom thc cold sca sccnc: shc is
unuscd to thc pungcnt odor ol thc sh, and rclcrs to hcrscll in thc bland
cst, most impcrsonal way (thc air makcs oncs nosc run). nly whcn thc
natural sccnc is lully cstablishcd may human activity bcgin. Shc ocrs a
cigarcttc to thc shcrman, a gcsturc which hcralds a ncw intimacy bctwccn
thcm, hcr languagc suggcsts an incrcascd closcncss with thc rcadcr as wcll,
as shc rcvcals morc dctails about hcrscll: He was a lricnd ol my grandlathcr.
!e talk ol thc dcclinc in thc population (cmphasis minc). From dcscrip
tion thc pocm has movcd toward quasinarrativc, lrom a broad spcctrum
ol data, conncctcd but discrctc, it locuscs upon a pcrsonal conlrontation
(likc that in Rcsolution and !ndcpcndcncc ) and thcn a rcvclation to thc
narrator.
Likc Vordsworth, 8ishop kccps survcying thc dctails which surround
hcr, accounting lor thcm and rccalling hcr lormcr cxposurc to thcm, both
Tintcrn Abbcy and At thc Fishhouscs turn and rcturn upon thcmsclvcs
as thcy movc toward thcir dcstincd cpiphanics. 8oth arc pocms ol dircction,
spatial and mcntal. Christophcr Ricks has dcmonstratcd thc importancc ol
prcpositions in Vordsworths poctry,

similarly, At thc Fishhouscs cmpha

sizcs physical intcrrclatcdncss by placing prcpositions in strcsscd positions:
Tc vc shhouscs havc stccply pcakcd rools
and narrow, clcatcd gangplanks slant up
to storcrooms in thc gablcs
lor thc whcclbarrows to bc pushcd up and down on.
Having xcd thc singularity ol thc sccnc, its discordia concors, and its potcn
tial to tcst both thc cyc and thc lcllow lccling ol thc spcctator, 8ishop now
rcpcats hcr pcrspcctivc on thc way up and thc way down:
own at thc watcrs cdgc, at thc placc
whcrc thcy haul up thc boats, up thc long ramp
dcsccnding into thc watcr, thin silvcr
trcc trunks arc laid horizontally
across thc gray stoncs, down and down
at intcrvals ol lour or vc lcct.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o8
Vc lollow hcr cyc lrom thc ramp down to thc watcr, thc unity ol thc
sccnc lcads dircctly to a small rcvclation, acccntcd by monosyllablcs which
rcpcat carlicr dctails: Cold dark dccp and absolutcly clcar, / clcmcnt bcar
ablc to no mortal, / to sh and scals. And thcn, as il dcmonstrating hcr
inability to sustain this ncw knowlcdgc, thc spcakcrs mcmory wandcrs to a
scmicomic advcnturc with a curious, almost humanizcd scal to whom shc
has sung 8aptist hymns at this placc in thc past. Tc animal, a bclicvcr in
total immcrsion, achicvcs what thc human spcakcr cannothc can divc
and rccmcrgc lrom thc sca which, howcvcr bcautilul, is lorcign and dcadly to
us, its charactcristics arc cnumcratcd, almost incantcd, a sccond timc: Cold
dark dccp and absolutcly clcar, / thc clcar gray icy watcr.
Tc rcpctition suggcsts thc occans hypnotic and lrightcning attraction
lor thc spcakcr. Shc laccs a murdcrous but lovcly scascapc and is backcd
by dignicd tall rs which rcscmblc in color thc blucgray occan rocks,
and virtually trap hcr into a small margin at thc watcrs cdgc. Tc trccs
waiting lor Christmas suggcst thc incvitability ol sacricc, thc sca, thc
icy lrccdom ol an unbcarablc clcmcnt. As thc pocm rounds to its cnd, thc
spcakcr scnscs thc occans pcrmancncc and scparatcncss. Tcnsion is drama
tizcd subtly by a changc in pronouns: !l you should dip your hand in, your
wrist would achc immcdiatcly. Tc gcncral onc and thc pcrsonal ! arc
rcplaccd by thc urgcnt you, colloquial and univcrsal, including listcncr
and spcakcr.
Tc way up and thc way down arc onc, and thc clcmcnts ol land, air,
and watcr havc bccn conncctcd by thc spcakcrs disccrning vision (cold air,
cold watcr, silvcr sca, silvcr bcnchcs, blucgray trccs, blucgray rocks, clcar
gray watcr). Now at last, thc opposcd clcmcnts, rc and watcr, achicvc an
idcntity. 8urning both hand and tonguc with a dark gray amc, thc sca is
likc a transmutation ol rc, somcthing which, in itscll unknowablc, can bc
undcrstood only mctaphorically and by our common cxpcricncc (it is likc
what wc imaginc knowlcdgc to bc). From thc atncss ol its opcning, At
thc Fishhouscs has cxpandcd to a vision ol thc attractivcncss and dangcr ol
human knowlcdgc:
dark, salt, clcar, moving, uttcrly lrcc,
drawn lrom thc cold hard mouth
ol thc world, dcrivcd lrom thc rocky brcasts
lorcvcr, owing and drawn, and sincc
our knowlcdgc is historical, owing, and own.
ccan and knowlcdgc, pcrmancncc and movcmcnt, inhuman phcnomcnon
and pcrsonicd abstraction arc onc. Vc rcturn, in somc ways, to thc opcning
dctails: thc coldncss ol thc sca rccalls thc cold cvcning, thc watcr, owing
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
+o
and own lrom thc worlds cold hard mouth suggcsts not watcr so much
as air, thc clcmcnt with which thc pocm bcgan, thc most mystcrious, lcast
tangiblc clcmcnt ol all.
Likc Tintcrn Abbcy, At thc Fishhouscs is a mcditativc pocm which
movcs away lrom a spccic sccnc into a dcmonstration ol thc workings ol
mcmory and intcllcct. 8oth pocms, and Rcsolution and !ndcpcndcncc
as wcll, can bc said to manilcst a transaction bctwccn subjcct and objcct
in which thc thought incorporatcs and makcs cxplicit what was alrcady
implicit in thc outcr sccnc.
6
Tc samc transaction is cvidcnt in many ol
8ishops othcr pocms, cvcn thosc lacking thc slimmcst thrcad ol narrativc
or mcditativc dcvclopmcnt. !n thcsc, mcaning accrucs bcyond thcir sccming
transparcncy bccausc ol thc ordcring ol thc imagcs and thc progrcssion ol
thc spcakcrs toncs.
!n Florida, lor cxamplc, thc blandncss ol travcloguc gradually cxpands
into a largcr vision, a scrics ol imagcs ol thc dynamic intcraction bctwccn lilc
and dcath, bcauty and dccay, gcntlcncss and hostility. Tc opcning scntcncc,
rcally a lragmcnt, apostrophizcs a statc whosc namc givcs promisc ol oral
lovclincss but whosc coast is hcld togcthcr only by thc tcntaclcs ol mangrovc
roots, and is littcrcd with oystcrs, skclctons, and curious dcathlikc hum
mocks. Vith its rcpcatcd words (mangrovc, pclican, !ndian Princcss)
and images ol corpscs, skclctons, and thc clamor ol birds or palm trccs, thc
pocm bccomcs a scrics ol mementi mori. !t makcs vivid thc uniquc bcauty ol
thc ccological balancc: no naturc rcd in tooth and claw hcrc, rathcr, thc morc
paradoxical bcauty ol Kcatss mclancholy which covcrs thc grccn hills with
an April shroud and lostcrs thc droophcadcd owcrs: thc tropical rain
comcs down / to lrcshcn thc tidcloopcd strings ol lading shclls . . . arrangcd
as on a gray rag ol rottcd calico, / thc buricd !ndian Princcsss skirt.
Vith hcr lamous cyc lor dctail,
7
8ishop pcrccivcs not only ordcr in abun
dant chaos, but also dclicatc ornamcntation amid a truculcnt scmitropical
junglc. Florida movcs, by accumulating dctails, to a dccpcr undcrstanding
ol thc statc with thc dcccptivcly prctticst namc. As cvcning approachcs, wc
scc buzzards drilting down into thc swamp, thc charring is likc black vclvct
on thc dcad trccs, mosquitocs, likc thc morc prcdatory ol naturcs crcaturcs,
go hunting to thc tunc ol thcir lcrocious obbligatos. As thc moon riscs, thc
cyc now sccs thc clcarcst and barcst vcrsion ol thc landscapc as it bcgins to
parody itscll in mcrc blackandwhitc:
Cold whitc, not bright, thc moonlight is coarscmcshcd,
and thc carclcss, corrupt statc is all black spccks
too lar apart, and ugly whitcs, thc poorcst
postcard ol itscll.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
++o
Tc travclcr out lor souvcnirs is bound to bc disappointcd, thc visionary,
scarching lor thc vcritablc Ding-an-Sich, has not thc wishcdlor advcnturc.
Unlikc At thc Fishhouscs, howcvcr, Florida docs not cnd with thc nal
ity ol undcrstanding, but with thc whimpcr ol thc alligator, cmblcm ol thc
swamp, and with a rcturn to thc voicc ol thc somcwhat schoolmarmish nar
rator, who makcs surc that wc pick up thc dctails ol thc travcloguc:
Altcr dark, thc pools sccm to havc slippcd away.
Tc alligator, who has vc distinct calls:
lricndlincss, lovc, mating, war, and a warning
whimpcrs and spcaks in thc throat
ol thc !ndian Princcss.
n thc surlacc, Tc 8ight sccms no morc than thc work ol thc lamous
cyc: a panoramic dcscription, with dicrcnt lcnscs, ol a natural sctting. 8ut it
is also an intcrior monologuc ol sorts and, as thc cpigraph inlorms us (n
my birthday), a pocm upon a traditional occasion lor stocktaking. Mcaning
hcsitatingly grows as dctails pilc up and by thc cnd ol thc pocm wc havc
inlcrrcd thc spcakcrs scllcvaluation. Shc is looking at hcrscll through thc
vcil ol thc sccnc bclorc hcr. Likc othcr pocms ol this sort, Tc 8ight is
circular in construction, it bcgins with thc watcr, thc boats bcsidc it, and a
working drcdgc o thc dock. !t rcturns at thc cnd to thc samc littlc whitc
boats, bight, and drcdgc, but with a ncw vicw ol thcm. Tc progrcssivc
accumulation ol dctail lcads to a gcncralizing vision ol sccnc and, implicitly,
ol scll.
Low tidc is an occasion lor wondcrmcnt, thc rst six lincs ol thc pocm
rcvcal vulncrability in a gcological lormation pcrsonicd as a skclcton, in
dcsiccatcd boats and picrs, and in a pathctic powcrlcssncss in thc watcr
itscll:
At low tidc likc this how shccr thc watcr is.
Vhitc crumbling ribs ol marl protrudc and glarc
and thc boats arc dry, thc pilings dry as matchcs.
Absorbing, rathcr than bcing absorbcd,
thc watcr in thc bight docsnt wct anything,
thc color ol thc gas amc turncd as low as possiblc.
!t is a sparsc rcality, what activity thcrc is is not rcally purposclul. 8ut thc
insinuations ol dccay and uglincss arc mitigatcd by a caricaturcd South
Amcrican gaicty: watcr sounds likc marimba music, clavcs arc hcard on
thc littlc ochrc drcdgc, and crazy pclicans divc into thc watcr unncccs
sarily hard only to cmcrgc cmptybcakcd, and going o with humorous
clbowings. Likc thc cxposcd watcr, taking all into itscll, likc thc protruding
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
+++
glaring marl, thc spongc boats suggcst thc wcakncss and complaccncy ol
middlc agc: dccoratcd, bristling, but also lrowsy, and with thc obliging
air ol rctricvcrs.
Vc rcturn, at thc cnd, to thc rst boats:
Somc ol thc littlc whitc boats arc still pilcd up
against cach othcr, or lic on thcir sidcs, stovc in,
and not yct salvagcd, il thcy cvcr will bc, lrom thc last bad storm,
likc tornopcn, unanswcrcd lcttcrs.
Tc bight is littcrcd with old corrcspondcnccs.
Tc domcstic dctail is hardly gratuitous, thc scnsc ol dcstructivcncss,
usclcssncss, and lutility clinchcs thc status ol thc pocms obscrvcd imagcs
as dclicatc invcstigations ol thc scll. Tc last imagc is triplc, rclcrring to
thc whitc, wastcd boats, to what thcy suggcst about oncs own past which
onc docs not or cannot rcspond to, and to thc largcr corrcspondcnccs in
thc univcrsc notcd by Charlcs 8audclairc who appcarcd somcwhat o
handcdly in linc 8: nc can smcll |thc watcr in thc bight| turning to gas, il
onc wcrc 8audclairc / onc could probably hcar it turning to marimba music.
8ut 8ishop is not 8audclairc, and thc corrcspondcnccs arc only hintcd at.
!n hcr undcrstatcd way, shc has dramatizcd as il unconsciously thc untidy
activity not mcrcly ol a drcdgc or a singlc natural sccnc but ol a wholc world
which includcs thc spcakcr and hcr attcmpt to pcrccivc or imposc bcauty
around hcr. Ultimatcly, hcr corts arc onc with thosc ol thc nativcs and thc
musicians, lorccs ol chccrlulncss in a world csscntially alicn:
Click. Click. Gocs thc drcdgc,
and brings up a dripping jawlul ol marl.
All thc untidy activity continucs,
awlul but chccrlul.
Tc attcmpt to nd comlort and idcntity in a world whcrc onc might
not bclong is onc ol 8ishops ccntral thcmcs. !n Tc 8ight, At thc Fish
houscs, or thc widcly anthologizcd Tc Fish, a dramatic cncountcr with a
sccnc or an individual lcads thc pcrcciving mind to a moral dccision (And
! lct thc sh go), or to thc acccptancc ol thc boundarics ol scll and world.
Poctry ol cncountcr has bccn uscd to dcscribc Vordsworths oeu.re,
8
thc
phrasc is cqually appropriatc to 8ishops. Tc cncountcrcd objcct might bc,
as in a rcccnt pocm,
9
a grand north woods moosc, mct with latc at night as
thc spcakcr ridcs in a bus lrom Nova Scotia to 8oston. !t comc out ol / thc
impcnctrablc wood / and stands thcrc, looms rathcr, / in thc middlc ol thc
road, waking thc drowsing passcngcrs. Tc cncountcr, howcvcr, turns out to
bc anything but apocalyptic or thrcatcning, thc moosc, rcvcalcd as harmlcss,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
++:
lcmalc, and awlul plain, is a stimulus lor a sharcd cxpcricncc: Vhy, why do
wc lccl / (wc all lccl:) this swcct / scnsation ol joy: Tc bus movcs on.
Scparatcncss is thc ccntral lact ol cxpcricncc lor both Vordsworth and
8ishop. Vc might havc all ol us onc human hcart, but wc rccognizc that
unity only in rarc momcnts and somctimcs at grcat cost. At worst, cxpcri
cncc is unccrtain and thc world hostilc (as in thc chilling !n thc Vaiting
Room
!0
which prcscnts a childs horrilying vision whilc shc waits lor hcr
aunt at a dcntists o cc), at bcst, a dclicatc chccrlul victory may bc won
through imagination, as in Tc 8ight. Likc Vordsworth, 8ishop provcs
thc plcasurc which thc mind dcrivcs lrom thc pcrccption ol similitudc in
dissimilitudc (thc phrasc is lrom thc Prclacc to Lyrical Ballads). !t is no
wondcr, thcn, that shc should bc drawn to articc, dccor, and to thc illu
sions ol art and abstraction. Somc ol hcr ncst pocms arc in a lantastic vcin:
pocms ol slccping, drcaming, mythical crcaturcs, lancilul invitations. Still
othcrs dclibcratcly conlusc or contrast thc dynamics ol cxpcricncc with thc
cxpcctcd ccrtaintics and clcgancc ol crcatcd things: shc is a poct ol naturc
and picturcs ol naturc, travcl and guidcs to travcl. !n Largc 8ad Picturc
wc lorgct that an oil, not an actual landscapc, is bcing dcscribcd, convcrscly,
Scascapc, which givcs us, wc think, thc rcal thing, constantly alludcs to
somcthing clsca Raphacl cartoon, a Gothic manuscriptuntil rcality
itscll bcgins to rcscmblc imitation. Tc Map, which opcns Te Complete
Poems, asks us to prclcr thc imaginativc and dclicatc work ol thc cartogra
phcr to thc attcr blackandwhitc ol thc historian. ur illusions should at
lcast bc colorlul.
ltcn thc pocms which dcal with artilacts and stylizcd sccncs procccd
according to Abrams lormula, which ! applicd to thc morc ovcrtly natural
istic pocms: an introduction to a thing, an invcstigation ol its propcrtics, a
mcditation in thc lorm ol a soliloquy or dialoguc with somc intcrlocutor, and
a rcturn to thc objcct with dccpcncd undcrstanding. Tc most rcprcscnta
tivc ol thcsc arc Tc !maginary !ccbcrg and vcr :ooo !llustrations and a
Complctc Concordancc, both pocms ol travcl.
Somc critics, by no mcans hostilc, havc laultcd 8ishop lor thc apparcnt
randomncss ol hcr dctails in ccrtain pocms: hcr pocms appcar as il thcy
wcrc strung togcthcr, or rcading hcr pocms is likc listcning to highly imag
inativc bcdtimc storics and hcaring cvcrything but thc plot, it is touching,
disquicting, but quccrly inconclusivc.
!!
Tc scnsc ol omission and arbitrary
ordcring is, howcvcr, thc stratcgy ol a poct who is at thc corc both skcpti
cal and hopclul. Shc distrusts rcality, wishcs to placc laith in thc rcdccming
gracc and gracclulncss ol thc imagination, but constantly comcs up against
thc rcalization that articc and cxpcricncc arc not polar oppositcs at all but
rathcr twins which, though scparatc, arc oltcn idcntical.
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
++
8oth Tc !maginary !ccbcrg and vcr :ooo !llustrations dcal with
acsthctic cxpcricnccs in thc naturalistic modc ol thc Romantic lyric (simi
larly, thcrc arc dclibcratc conlusions in all thc drcam pocms, likc A Miraclc
lor 8rcaklast, Tc Vccd, and Tc ManMoth). Tcy bcgin with moral
izcd conclusionsVcd rathcr havc thc iccbcrg than thc ship, / although
it mcant thc cnd ol travcl, Tus should havc bccn our travcls: / scrious,
cngravablcbclorc attcnding to thc objccts at hand. Tc opcnings rccall
thc lamiliar assurancc ol thc rst lincs in many ol Vallacc Stcvcnss pocms:
Nota: man is thc intclligcncc ol his soil. / Tc sovcrcign ghost, Tc pocm
ol thc mind in thc act ol nding / Vhat will su cc, Tc cycs plain vcrsion
is a thing apart, / Tc vulgatc ol cxpcricncc, Altcr thc lcavcs havc lallcn,
wc rcturn / To a plain scnsc ol things.
!2
Tc obvious original lor pocms ol
this sort is not Vordsworth, who morc gcncrally bcgins with cxact dctail,
!1

but Colcridgc: cithcr Tis LimcTrcc 8owcr, My Prison, starting with thc
rcsigncd conclusion, Vcll, thcy arc gonc, and hcrc must ! rcmain, or Frost
at Midnight, which bcgins with thc mctcorological gcncralization: Tc
Frost pcrlorms its sccrct ministry, / Unhclpcd by any wind, bclorc consid
cring thc spccics ol sccnc and mcmory, and thcn submitting at thc cnd to
thc sccrct ministry ol lrost.
Tus should havc bccn our travcls: / scrious, cngravablc. Tc moral
orotundity ol thc pronounccmcnt is balanccd by thc conditional mood and
rcgrct lor a misscd opportunity in thc past. Tc tcnsion bctwccn thc wis
dom ol hindsight and thc ignorancc ol actual cxpcricncc is thc main issuc
in vcr :ooo !llustrations and a Complctc Concordancc. 8cginning and
cnding with sccncs ol Christian mystcry in a book (a 8iblc: a guidc to thc
worlds wondcrs:), thc pocm trcats thc naturc ol knowlcdgc and rcvclation.
For thirtyonc lincs wc scc sccncs lrom an imaginary travcloguc (Arabs and
a holy sitc) as wcll as thc books artistic dctails (a luncttc, an cngravcd initial
lcttcr, thc lincs thc burin madc which arc likc Gods sprcading ngcr
print). 8ut thcrc is an unannounccd transition, through thc slcights ol
mcmory, to rcal travcls, rccollcctcd dctails which arc prcscntcd in a sccm
ingly random ordcr (but which lollow an astVcst altcrnating pattcrn), a
nal transition thcn rcturns us to thc book and its own ordcr.
Tc middlc scction dramatizcs not mcrcly thc cxcitcmcnt ol ordinary
travcls (thc spcakcr announccs at thc start that thc Scvcn Vondcrs ol thc
Vorld arc tircd / and a touch lamiliar) but thcir rcscmblancc to thc longcd
lor lorcignncss ol thc sights and sitcs in thc 8ook. Tcrc is pastoral lovclincss
(Ncwloundland goats lcaping up thc clis / among thc logsoakcd wccds
and buttcrandcggs), human and gcological dcath (a dcad man and a dcad
volcano in Mcxico), historical dccadcncc (Moroccan mosaics ovcrgrown
with bcautilul poppics), gossip in ngland, prostitution in Marrakcsh. 8ut
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
++
a climax to ordinary lilc comcs whcn thc travclcr lcast cxpccts it: shc comcs
upon a holy Arab gravc, now dccaycd, no longcr holy, nor bclonging, rcally,
to thc poor prophct paynim who oncc lay thcrc. Tcrc is no chancc lor an
cpiphany: !n a smart burnoosc Khadour lookcd on amuscd. Hcr rccollcc
tion ol thc guidcs ironic attitudc rcturns thc spcakcr to thc othcr travcls,
with an ordcr to opcn thc book.
8ut thc momcnts ol ordinary cxpcricncc, only conncctcd by and and
and in mcmory and rctclling, though sccmingly opposcd to thc singularity,
intcnsity, and brilliancc ol thc cngravcd picturcs, turn out to bc quitc simi
lar. At thc cnd ol thc pocm, altcr onc ol hcr dazzling lcaps lrom ordinary
cxpcricncc to vision, 8ishop quictly dcmonstratcs thc rcscmblancc bctwccn
acsthctic cxpcricncc and cxpcricncc itscll:
. . . Vhy couldnt wc havc sccn
this old Nativity whilc wc wcrc at it:
thc dark ajar, thc rocks brcaking with light,
an undisturbcd, unbrcathing amc,
colorlcss, sparklcss, lrccly lcd on straw,
and, lullcd within, a lamily with pcts,
and lookcd and lookcd our inlant sight away.
Tc pocm rcturns to thc wishlulncss ol its opcning, but now thc dcsigns ol
art and thc polysyndcton ol cxpcricncc bccomc onc as thc acts ol rcading,
cxpcricncing, and imaging mcrgc.
Tc !maginary !ccbcrg prcscnts a comparablc magical transition
bctwccn lcvcls ol cxpcricncc. Tc titlc suggcsts a mcntal crcation, or a dclu
sion, a mctaphor lor somcthing clsc: thc iccbcrg itscll is cvcrything which
humanity and travcl arc notstatic, cold, pcrmancntbut 8ishop hopclully
pcrsonics it as a slccping giant with thc potcntial lor lccding on thc sur
rounding cld ol occan just as shc had pcrsonicd thc csscntially alicn watcr
in At thc Fishhouscs. Now, howcvcr, thc iccbcrg is imaginary, and hcncc
an occasion lor mcditation on articc. !n thc pocms sccond stanza, it mcrgcs
into a dramatic sccnc as charactcr, backdrop, and lrozcn action:
Tis is a sccnc a sailord givc his cycs lor.
Tc ships ignorcd. Tc iccbcrg riscs
and sinks again, its glassy pinnaclcs
corrcct clliptics in thc sky.
Tis is a sccnc whcrc hc who trcads thc boards
is artlcssly rhctorical. Tc curtain
is light cnough to risc on ncst ropcs
that airy twists ol snow providc.
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
++
Tc wits ol thcsc whitc pcaks
spar with thc sun. !ts wcight thc iccbcrg darcs
upon a shilting stagc and stands and starcs.
Tc iccbcrg has bccn translormcd into spcctaclc and agonist, pitting itscll
against thc laws ol optics, against thc sun, against thc stagc on which it
stands, and against thc human audicncc which has turncd its back on mun
danc rcality in ordcr to bc rcwardcd by thc artlcss rhctoric (as ol Kcatss
silcnt historian) ol this strangc pcrlormancc. Tc stanza movcs lrom thc
colloquial and witty pun ol givc his cycs lor whcrc thc sailor, likc thc travcl
crs in vcr :ooo !llustrations, is willing to look his inlant sight away, to
thc last linc whcrc thc immovablc and undauntcd iccbcrg starcs back at thc
transxcd audicncc.
ur nal vicw ol thc iccbcrg is ol sclsh, scllornamcntcd glittcr. !t
is both jcwclcr and jcwcl (Tc iccbcrg cuts its laccts lrom within), purc
solipsist, without cvcn thc saving gracc ol pcrlorming lor us as it did in thc
sccond stanza. Tc pocm has shown us thc iccbcrg in two pcrsonicd guiscs
(giant, actor), and now as an inacccssiblc lorcc, unknowablc cxccpt by its
possiblc sidc cccts (it . . . adorns / only itscll, pcrhaps thc snows / which so
surprisc us lying on thc scas). Tc iccbcrg stands apart in its own Shcllcyan
sublimity, withholding its sccrcts lrom us. !t is a ction, both imaginary and
imaginativc, thc morc acccptablc human arcna is thc warmth ol a southcrn
climatc whcrc thc ship now hcads as thc travclcr bids an unsorrowlul larc
wcll to somcthing shc rcalizcs shc can ncvcr know. Likc thc dcpths ol thc
soul, to which it is comparcd, thc iccbcrg is cxpcricnccd only mctaphorically
and momcntarily, and thcn ultimatcly ignorcd, !ccbcrgs bchoovc thc soul /
(both bcing scllmadc lrom clcmcnts lcast visiblc) / to scc thcm so: cshcd,
lair, crcctcd indivisiblc. Tc concluding bchoovc introduccs 8ishops char
actcristic skcpticism. Vc arc lclt with an uncasy lccling that wc shall ncvcr
know thc iccbcrg itscll and had bcttcr contcnt oursclvcs with a pcrsonicd or
imagincd cquivalcnt ol it. o wc scc what is truc or what is appropriatc: !s
thc iccbcrg an imaginary illusion or an imagincd construct ocring glimpscs
ol a dccpcr truth: 8ccausc 8ishop ncvcr lully abandons hcr rcliancc on scn
suous cxpcricncc shc can ncvcr a rm wholchcartcdly a noumcnal world.
Tc opcning scqucncc ol thrcc pocms lrom Questions ol Tra.el (+6)
prcscnts in miniaturc this Romantic aspcct ol 8ishops mind, its hungcr lor
cxpcricncc and movcmcnt, its occasional prclcrcncc lor thc static pcrlcctions
ol art, its continual collapsing ol usually scparatc catcgorics into momcntary
and momcntous unions. !n Arrival at Santos, rcality is a dull disappoint
mcnt, an arrival altcr a sca journcy which, likc any othcr imaginativc cort,
makcs immodcst dcmands lor a dicrcnt world, / and a bcttcr lilc, and
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
++6
complctc comprchcnsion / ol both at last and immcdiatcly. Tc imagination
is starvcd and ravcnous (and a tric comic), but what it nally sccs arc scll
pitying mountains, lrivolous grccncry, unccrtain palms. ncc thc tour
ists havc dcalt with thc ncccssitics ol ports, customs inspcctors, and thc
likc, thcy lcavc Santos at oncc: wc arc driving to thc intcrior, to a world,
wc inlcr, which will answcr thcir dcmands, whcrc what is ncccssary will bc
rcplaccd by what is bcautilul, cxccssivc, and rcvcaling.
!4
8razil, January +, +o: is a pocm ol proccss, bcginning, likc Tint
crn Abbcy, with a rcturn in timc and spacc, but it also trcats thc rcality
ol thc 8razilian junglc, thc intcrior which was thc goal at thc cnd ol thc
prcccding pocm, as an articial Rcnaissancc tapcstry or painting. Tc work
ings ol thc imaginativc cyc includc both natural sccnc and thc cmbroidcrcd
naturc . . . tapcstricd landscapc ol Sir Kcnncth Clarks cpigraph. Naturc
appcars to us likc a painting, as it must havc to thc original invadcrs: cvcry
squarc inch lling in with loliagc, lrcsh as il just nishcd / and takcn o
thc lramc.
As pcrccption bccomcs morc prccisc (wc ovcrhcar thc poct corrccting
hcrscll: owcrs, too, likc giant watcr lilics / up in thc airup, rathcr, in thc
lcavcs), it modulatcs into a vision ol articc. Tc sccond stanza prcscnts an
allcgorical painting, with big symbolic birds, and in thc lorcground, thc g
urcs ol Sin, vc sooty dragons ncar somc massy rocks, Tc tablcau includcs
additional dcmonic dctails: rst, thc rocks arc thrcatcncd lrom undcrncath
by moss / in lovcly hcllgrccn amcs, thcn cvcn that qucstionablc dclicacy is
rcplaccd by lour unmoving malc lizards, lcchcrous, prcdatory, rcady to attack
thc lcmalc whosc wickcd tail is rcd as a rcdhot wirc.
Tc last dctail providcs a transition to thc third stanza, lrom onc mctallic
imagc wc movc to anothcr which playlully tcsts thc clichs ol masculinity
and conqucst against human insignicancc in a lorcign junglc: Just so thc
Christians, hard as nails / tiny as nails, and glinting, / in crcaking armor,
camc and lound it all, / not unlamiliar. Comically outolplacc, and outol
datc, thc cxplorcrs scck somc corrcspondcncc lor thc old drcams ol wcalth
and cmpirc, and likc all Romantic drcamcrs and travclcrs, thcy lail to cap
turc thc csscncc ol thc vision which glcams tantalizingly bclorc thcm. Tcy
arc cxactly likc thc lizards, prcdatory and scxually arouscd. Vhat joins thcir
landscapc with thc onc sccn by thc prcscnt tourist is thc articial guisc in
which it appcars to both. Likc Vordsworths boy in Nutting, thc conqucr
ors tcar rapaciously into thc hanging labric ol a landscapc which rcluscs to
bc dcstroycd, thcir drcam rcccding in lront ol thcm:
cach out to catch an !ndian lor himscll
thosc maddcning littlc womcn who kcpt calling,
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
++
calling to cach othcr (or had thc birds wakcd up!)
and rctrcating, always rctrcating, bchind it.
Tc titlc pocm in Questions of Tra.el is a philosophical ccntcr in 8ishops
work, it poscs, mcthodically, thc cpistcmological qucstions and altcrnativcs
which givc most ol hcr othcr naturc pocms thcir lorm and subjcct. !t is a
convcrsation, addrcsscd to an unspccicd companion, which bcgins with a
prcscnt sccnc, cxpands in cvcrwidcning movcmcnts to includc qucstions
about past cxpcricnccs, and nally ocrs tcntativc justication lor travcl as
an cntcrprisc ol thc imagination.
Troughout, thc pocm rcpcats thc dissatislactions ol a grccdy soul in want
ol both richcs and comlorts. Tc initial dctails ol cxccss ccho thc lrustrations
ol thc Christian soldicrs lrom thc prcccding pocm. Tc scll is smothcrcd, thcrc
is no chancc lor rcst amid too many watcrlalls, crowdcd strcams, so many
clouds. Tc dcnsity ol this world cxpands in timc as wcll as spacc: clouds can
bccomc watcrlalls bclorc our cycs in thc torpid humidity ol a tropical rain
lorcst. Tc imagcry in this stanza discloscs thc ccntral problcm ol thc pocm: il
thc clouds rcmain, smothcring mountains and travcllcr, thcy will drain thcm
sclvcs into thc watcrlalls ol thc junglc. !l, on thc othcr hand, thcy wandcr on,
wc arc lclt with skclctal rcmindcrs ol dcath and dccay: 8ut il thc strcams and
clouds kccp travclling, travclling, / thc mountains look likc hulls ol capsizcd
ships, / slimchung and barnaclcd. Tc possibilitics lor thc clouds arc likc
thosc lor thc individual: movcmcnt lor scllprcscrvation, which rcvcals thc
csscntial othcrncss or dcadncss ol objccts touchcd and pcrccivcd along thc way,
or a static surrcndcring ol scll to thc objccts at hand. ithcr a lcrtilization ol
thc carth by suicidal rclcasc, or a prcscrvation ol idcntity through constant
movcmcnt. Tc pocm dramatizcs a prclcrcncc lor thc lattcr. nc ncvcr lully
undcrstands thc world, bccausc onc has choscn to savc thc scll.
Tc dialcctic ol choicc continucs in thc sccond stanza, playing dcvils
advocatc, thc spcakcr disingcnuously and pctulantly qucstions thc rcasons
lor activity at oncc childish, illogical, and pcrhaps amoral in its cxccssivc
acsthcticism: !s it right to bc watching strangcrs in a play / in this strangcst
ol thcatcrs: Vhy, shc asks, do wc dcmand to cxpcricncc thc unknowablc:
!s thc imagination likc cakc, or is it not (h must wc drcam our drcams /
and havc thcm, too:): Tc rhctorical qucstions dcmand incrcasingly a r
mativc answcrs (which thc solid mcditation ol thc third stanza allows.) Vc
starc at somc incxplicablc old stoncwork not bccausc it is impcnctrablc but
bccausc it promiscs acsthctic gratication. !t is always dclightlul, bcauty
is a rcplaccmcnt lor truth. rcams arc not cakc: thcy can bc drcamt and
somc lorm ol thcm posscsscd simultancously. And thcrc is, ol coursc, always
room lor onc morc loldcd sunsct.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
++8
Tc gcntccl tonc with which thc third stanza bcgins (8ut surcly it would
havc bccn a pity) builds stcadily toward lullcr a rmations: a pity, not to
havc sccn, not to havc hcard, not to havc pondcrcd, not to havc studicd,
not to havc had thc occasion lor rcvclation. !n rcvicwing, through mcm
ory, thc past sights and sccncs ol travcl, thc poct duplicatcs an imaginativc
cxpcricncc in hcr own mind, undcrstanding only at thc prcscnt momcnt thc
mcaning ol a vision in thc past. Tc stanza movcs lrom thc comic dclicacy
and articiality ol trccs . . . likc noblc pantomimists, robcd in pink, and
disparatc woodcn clogs, making music in a lling station, to a lat bird sing
ing in a bamboo church ol Jcsuit baroquc, abovc a brokcn gasolinc pump.
Tc pcculiarity ol thc combinations incitcs thc mind to pondcr thc slightcst
conncction bctwccn lootwcar and woodcn cagcs, to study history in thc
wcak calligraphy ol songbirds cagcs.
Tc nal rccollcction is thc most uncxpcctcd and thc most rcvcaling.
Likc thc rst stanza, thc last part ol thc pocm bcgins with a scnsc ol opprcs
sivcncss lollowcd by a rclcasc. Altcr two hours ol unrclcnting rain, a goldcn
silcncc brcaks, during which thc travclcr is ablc to articulatc thc dimcnsions
ol hcr problcm:
Is it lack of imagination that makes us come
to imagined places, not just stay at home!
Or could Pascal ha.e been not entirely right
about just sitting quietly in ones room!
Continent, city, country, society:
the choice is ne.er .ide and ne.er free.
nd here, or there. . . . No. Should .e ha.e stayed at home,
.here.er that may be?
Unglosscd, uncxplaincd, this notcbook cntry lrom thc past is as strong an
a rmation as 8ishop will allow hcrscll. 8oth thc arbitrary asscrtivcncss ol
No, and thc ultimatc qucstion put an cnd to all qucstions by rccognizing
that thc tcrms ol thc dcbatc arc uncqual. Tcrc is no homc whcrc wc can stay,
thc problcm, thcrclorc, is rcsolvcd. Tc travclcr, likc thc cloud, movcs on.
Tc knowlcdgc achicvcd by thc spcakcr is ol a curious sort. !t is largcly
rctrospcctivc and is bascd on a prcscnt rccollcction ol a past discovcry. Tc
paradigm lor a pocm ol this kind is again lound in Vordsworth. !n ! wan
dcrcd loncly as a cloud, thc poct rcachcs thc lullcst, cmpathctic idcnti
cation with thc owcrs only in thc nal stanza, whcn his hcart lls with
joy and danccs .ith thc daodills through thc rcimagings ol mcmory.
!
n
a largcr scalc, thc samc phcnomcnon is dramatizcd throughout Te Pre-
lude, most vividly in thc crossing ol thc Alps in 8ook \! whcrc only altcr
:nv vov:vv ov viiz~nv:n nisnov (+)
++
lourtccn ycars can thc poct rccognizc thc glory and acccpt thc workings ol
thc imagination.
!6
!n both Vordsworth and 8ishop, accuratc natural dcscription and thc
colloquial rhythms ol ordinary cxpcricncc arc supcrscdcd by cxtraordinary
momcnts ol consciousncss. 8oth pocts sccm, howcvcr, curiously impcrsonal,
cvcn in thcir momcnts ol grandcst rcvclation. Vordsworths lamous mattcr
ollactncss rarcly allows us, in thc short pocms at lcast, morc than a glimpsc
into a uniquc inncr world ol lccling or turmoil, instcad, wc scc dccply into
thc hcart ol lccling itscll, but a lccling so dcpcrsonalizcd as to bc univcrsal.
Likcwisc, 8ishop sharcs a momcnt ol vision with us, but ncvcr cxposcs thc
lraycd ncrvc cndings ol somc vulncrablc cgo, nor cvcr brcaks through thc
dccorum which hcr own propcr but simplc spccch dcmands. !n thc prcl
acc to Lyrical Ballads, Vordsworth admits that hc has at all timcs cndcav
ourcd to look stcadily at |his| subjcct, 8ishop, too, in xing hcr attcntion on
thc objccts ol cncountcr, ncvcr violatcs hcr own rcticcncc.
8y looking stcadily at thcir subjccts, whcthcr artilacts, landscapcs, indi
viduals, or mcmory itscll, all thc grcat Romantic naturc pocts a rm our
sharcd humanity at spccial momcnts. !n thc ncw, uncollcctcd Pocm, 8ishop
dcvclops a magical scnsc ol oncncss with a dcad grcatunclc, a paintcr whosc
littlc painting is paradoxically about thc sizc ol an oldstylc dollar bill,
but has ncvcr carncd any moncy in its lilc. Tc nakcdncss ol thc titlc and
thc nancial languagc ol thc rst stanza arc, in rctrospcct, ironic: likc thc
painting it dcals with, thc pocm provcs thc valuc ol art as an agcncy ol
human communion.
Tc sccond stanza bcgins with an acsthctic idcntication: !t must bc
Nova Scotia, and thc dctails ol thc painting mcrgc, as in Largc 8ad Picturc,
and Scascapc, with thc rcal, rcmcmbcrcd landscapc. As il cntcring, through
mcmory, thc world ol thc painting, thc spcakcr lcts slip a dctail which docs
not rightly bclong in thc work itscll: thc air is lrcsh and cold. Somc things
conlusc hcr: A spccklikc bird is ying to thc lclt. / r is it a yspcck looking
likc a bird: Subscqucntly, rccognition bccomcs morc impassioncd, as indi
vidual namcs arc rccallcd, along with thc obvious lact that thosc particular
gccsc and cows / arc naturally bclorc my timc. !t is thc conlrontation with
thc objcct, thcn thc sccnc it dcpicts, hcr mcmory ol thc samc sccnc, changcd
no doubt (Vordsworths phrasc) lrom what it was bclorc and altcr, which
lcad to thc nal cncountcr with Unclc Gcorgc himscll:
ur visionscoincidcdvisions is
too scrious a wordour looks, two looks:
art copying lrom lilc and lilc itscll,
lilc and thc mcmory ol it so comprcsscd
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:o
thcyvc turncd into cach othcr. Vhich is which!
Lilc and thc mcmory ol it so crampcd,
dim, on a piccc ol 8ristol board,
dim, but how livc, how touching in dctail
thc littlc that wc gct lor lrcc,
thc littlc ol our carthly trust. Not much.
About thc sizc ol our abidancc
along with thcirs: thc munching cows,
thc iris, crisp and shivcring, thc watcr
still standing lrom spring lrcshcts,
thc ycttobcdismantlcd clms, thc gccsc.
As in Colcridgcs Tis LimcTrcc 8owcr, My Prison, thc landscapc is
thc mcdium ol communication bctwccn a prcscnt spcakcr and an abscnt
individual. Conncd to his gardcn, Colcridgc paints lor us a sccnc which
hc can scc only imaginativcly and which lcads him to a union with Charlcs
Lamb, his surrogatc in thc midst ol natural bcauty: . . . A dclight / Comcs
suddcn on my hcart, and ! am glad / As ! myscll wcrc thcrc. Tis rccognition
allows him, only thcn, to contcnt himscll with thc bcautics ol his conning
bowcr, to rcach thc moral truism ol his mcditation, that Naturc nccr dcs
crts thc wisc and purc, and nally to blcss thc last rook (a dim spcck, likc
8ishops bird) lrom thc woods, sccn by both himscll and thc now invisiblc
Charlcs. For all thc Romantics, lrom Colcridgc and Vordsworth to 8ishop
hcrscll, landscapc, paintcd, rcmcmbcrcd, or pcrccivcd, is a major mcans ol
human rclationship and conncction. !t is thc littlc that wc gct lor lrcc, and
what wc do with it dctcrmincs whcthcr it is cnough.
+:+
!GHT X
!N TH MASH F TH UPPR
AN NTHR
Ben Belitts Places (:,&)
C
oming upon thc work ol any poct lor thc rst timc is likc cntcring
a lorcign country: wc must gradually acquirc a scnsc ol topogra
phy, customs, and, abovc all, languagc. Usually thcrc arc guidcs or
signposts or cognatcs to cnsurc our not gctting lost. A. R. Ammons grccts
us, in his land ol inlcts, swcrvcs, and radianccs, with somc pocms small
and casy, and othcrs, morc capacious but cqually hospitablc. Robcrt Lowcll
oltcn sticks to a rccognizably public sccnario so that history itscll is our
cntry. Sylvia Plath and Adricnnc Rich cxposc thc daily cvcnts ol thc cxcm
plary scll, and wc lcarn thc tcrrain lrom thc nativcs. 8ut somc bordcrs arc
hardcr to gct across than othcrs, somc languagcs morc di cult, somc land
scapcs morc cxotic or lorbidding. 8cn 8clitts rcputation has always bccn as
a consciously hard poct: hard, rst ol all, in his conccntration on rocks and
stoncs, dcscrts and lrozcn sccncs, jaggcd points, dcnsc spaccs, and light that
illuminatcs and blinds at oncc. 8ut hc is hard, as wcll, in his lascination
with whats di cultV. 8. Ycatss phrasc borrowcd by Howard Ncmcrov
lor his rcvicw ol 8clitts Te Enemy Joy.
!
Vhat strikcs thc rcadcr rst on rcading 8clitt is thc unspokcn modcrn
cast ol his vcrsc, a modcrnity now oldlashioncd in comparison to thc opcn
ncss ol Ammons, thc colloquial diction ol Ncmcrov, thc vatic posturings ol
Allcn Ginsbcrg, thc austcrc minimalism ol V. S. Mcrwin. 8clitt bclongs to
a tradition whosc major spokcsmcn, with thc cxccption ol Allcn Tatc, arc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+::
gonc: Vallacc Stcvcns, Mariannc Moorc, and cspccially Hart Cranc. As
Robcrt 8oycrs obscrvcs, it is a tradition in which thc ccccntric particular
ourishcs. . . . Vhat wc valuc . . . is thc plcasurc ol making our way through
thc obliquitics ol syntax and imagcry and diction.
2
8clitts languagc spot
lights words likc obliquitics, as wcll as cquilibrist, antipodal, bicarbon
ation, crcpitations, scnsorium, and opalcscncc and lavors thc polysyllabic
and thc abstract. Hc is onc poct who has kcpt alivc T. S. liots prophccy ol
+:+: pocts in our civilization, as it cxists at prcscnt, must bc di cult. Tc
poct must bccomc morc and morc comprchcnsivc, morc allusivc, morc indi
rcct, in ordcr to lorcc, to dislocatc il ncccssary, languagc into his mcaning.
To dcscribc 8clitt thus is to placc him outsidc thc prcdominant tcndcn
cics ol nglish and Amcrican poctry and within a major Contincntal and
South Amcrican onc. !t is no wondcr, thcn, that much ol his work has bccn
thc translation ol thc highly imagistic poctry ol Garcia Lorca and Pablo
Ncruda. As hcir to thc uropcan symbolist tradition, Ncruda is a mastcr
ol ambiguous syntax which alonc could provc trcachcrous to a wouldbc
translator. Hc is mastcr, too, ol imagcs with shilting connotations, moving
toward an impurc poctry, which locuscs, hc says, on thc world ol objccts
at rcst. . . . From thcm ow thc contacts ol man with thc carth, likc a tcxt lor
all harasscd lyricists. Tc uscd surlaccs ol things, thc wcar that thc hands givc
to things, thc air, tragic at timcs, pathctic at othcrs, ol such thingsall lcnd
a curious attractivcncss to thc rcality ol thc world that should not bc undcr
prizcd. From thc conluscd impurity ol thc human condition, Ncruda and
8clitt can lashion a consummatc poctry soilcd by thc pigcons claw.
1
Tc Parnassian clcgancc and thc rich impurc dcnsity ol 8clitts own
poctry arc cxcmplicd in his translations lrom Ncruda. Hc givcs us shcr
lolk lor pescadores, lor cxamplcothcr translators arc contcnt with sh
crmcnand habitudcs instcad ol customs lor costumbres. Although
not quitc pcriphrastic, 8clitts diction prclcrs thc uncommon, thc gracc
lul, thc subtly various to thc plain. For Ncrudas lincs (in Algunas 8cs
tias): cl guanaco no como cl oxigcno / cn las anchas alturas pardas, Jamcs
Vright ocrs: thc guanaco, thin as oxygcn / in thc widc pcaks ol cloud, and
Anthony Kcrrigan, thc guanaco, rarccd as oxygcn, / up among thc cloud
plains. 8clitt outdocs thcm both: thc guanaco, oxygcnnc / in thc high
placcs swarthy with distanccs. A wholc stanza cvinccs thc samc prclcrcnccs.
From thc scvcnth pocm in lturas de Macchu Picchu (! quotc lrom Ncrudas
mastcrpiccc bccausc its landscapc is onc that 8clitt rcmcmbcrs and cvokcs
in his own poctry):
Pcro una pcrmancncia dc picdra y dc palabra:
la ciudad como un vaso sc lcvant cn las manos
nvx nvii::s vi~cvs (+6)
+:
dc todos, vivos, mucrtos, callados, sostcnidos
dc tanta mucrtc, un muro, dc tanta vida un golpc
dc ptalos dc picdra: la rosa pcrmancntc, la morada:
cstc arrccilc andino dc colonias glacialcs.
Hcrc is thc translation ol Nathanicl Tarn:
And yct a pcrmancncc ol stonc and languagc
uphcld thc city raiscd likc a chalicc
in all thosc hands: livc, dcad and stillcd,
alolt with so much dcath, a wall, with so much lilc,
struck with int pctals: thc cvcrlasting rosc, our homc.
this rccl on Andcs, its glacial tcrritorics.
And hcrc is 8clitts:
Vc comc upon pcrmancncc: thc rock that abidcs and thc word:
thc city upraiscd likc a cup in our ngcrs,
all hands togcthcr, thc quick and thc dcad and thc
quictcncd: dcaths
plcnitudc holding us hcrc, a bastion, thc lullncss
ol lilc likc a blow lalling, pctals ol int
and thc pcrduring rosc, abodcs lor thc sojourncr,
a glacicr lor multitudcs, brcakwatcr in Andcs.
8clitts stylc is markcd by thc usc ol biblical cadcnccs (thc rock that abidcs,
thc quick and thc dcad), unlikcly or uncxpcctcd nglish words (quict
cncd, pcrduring), a chisclcd lormality appropriatc to thc ritualistic qucst
ol Ncrudas pocm, and a rhythmic prclcrcncc lor a basically anapcstic linc.
4
Tis languagc is appositc to 8clitts scnsc ol placc. Fully hall ol his pocms
dcpict a landscapc or action within an cxtcrnal sccnc. 8ut thc pcculiaritics
indircctncss, lormality, clcganccol 8clitts stylc as a translator havc thcir
rcspcctivc analogucs in his stylc as a landscapcr. !t is a usclul simplication
to proposc two basic choiccs lor pocts who cvokc or portray naturc: thcy
may prcscnt it as a sctting lor action and human contcmplation, or as an cnd
and subjcct in itscll. Naturc with man, or naturc without man. Tc rst is
thc major Vcstcrn tradition, lrom Tcocritan pastoral and its singing con
tcsts, lamcnts and lovc strugglcs, to thc Romantic lyric in which a dialoguc
bctwccn thc poct and thc data ol thc world a rms both thc rcsilicncc ol his
mind and thc tcnacious hold ol cxtcrnal things upon it. Tc sccond modc
is a modcrn approximation ol classical ckphrasis (thc way ol symbolists and
imagists), and it lcads to thc sctpiccc, a prccisc dcscription ol a natural or
articial sccnc: A tapcstry can bc likc a landscapc lor lizabcth 8ishop or
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
Richard Vilbur, just as landscapc may imprcss thcm with its prcparcd and
articial ordcr. To paraphrasc Villiams, no idcas but in sccncs.
8clitts placcpocms dont quitc bclong in cithcr group. Hc is not an cpis
tcmological poct in thc school ol thc nglish Romantics, nor is hc minutcly
dcscriptivc.

His prcdominant vcin is ncithcr narrativc (thcrc arc lcw pcoplc

in thcsc pocms), or mcditativc (littlc dcvclopcd abstract thought), or simply
lyric (thc ccntrality ol cmotion). !n his Mid.ay intcrvicw hc has said without
placc, nothing, and onc ol his admircrs, picking up on this, asscrts that thc
ncwcr pocms arc cvcrywhcrc markcd by thc tangiblc prcscncc ol thc spirit ol
placc.
6
Ncvcrthclss, thc quccrncss ol diction and syntax, and thc lrcqucnt lack
ol clcar transitions prcvcnt thc clcar visualization ol sccncs or thc idcntica
tion ol genii loci. 8clitt dcncs his placcs by objccts and by thc conncctions,
pcrccivcd by thc astutc poct, bctwccn objccts. Transluccncc and opaqucncss
vic with onc anothcr in illuminating and shading thc lands, his ccccntric genii
givc partial glimpscs ol sccncs likc lastmoving photographic stills.
Tcrc is a basic lorcignncss in his landscapcs, cvcn in thc \crmont
scqucnccs which strcss numbing and paralyzing stasis, thc dark as wcll as thc
scaring light ol icy wintcrs. Likc Stcvcns, 8clitt is most at homc in lush trop
ics (Mcxico lor him, rathcr than Cuba) and in Ncw ngland chills. 8ut in
all thc landscapcs, north or south, cspccially in thc carlicr pocms, wc gct thc
lccling, to altcr a mot ol Gcrtrudc Stcins, that thcrc is no hcrc hcrc. 8clitt
habitually distanccs thc sccncs, as in thc opcning linc ol Papcrmill Gravc
yard: !n that country ol thrcsholds wc movc likc vandals. r in thc wholc
scrics ol cparturcs lrom !ilderness Stair. !n Tradc Vind: Kcy Vcst,
stban looks lrom a window into thc sca:
8cyond,
A splint ol mummying tindcr, scarabs, lans,
Rocking thc palmglarc, lcal undcr lcal, likc rain
And there! there!
Tat diminishing gust!
7
!n Tourist and Turtlc wc scc a grccn sojourn, a dclicatc mixturc ol undcr
watcr ora and launa, but at a distancc, thcrc whcrc thc cbb givcs phosphor,
and bcgins / its tcndcr ovcrturn. vcn in thc culminating pocm, Crickct
Hill: \crmont, whcn thc travclcr has bccn brought homc at last to country
shinglc undcr a panic cloud, 8clitt strcsscs scparation: Tcrc, thc unsmiling
providcncc ol thc ycar / Gathcrcd thc cxtravagant blazons ol its loss. Tc
sccncs arc thcrc and that, rarcly this and hcrc.
nc could casily nd rcasons lor thc rcmotcncss ol thcsc placcs (as a
child, thc poct spcnt scvcral ycars in an orphanagc, and his pocms arc hauntcd
by orphanings, dcaths, rclcntlcss abandonings, a qucst lor roots). Still, at thc
nvx nvii::s vi~cvs (+6)
+:
hcart ol thcsc cparturcs is thc cpigraph lrom St. Augustinc a xcd to
Crickct Hill: \crmont: Placc thcrc is nonc, wc go backward and lorward,
and thcrc is no placc.
8
Tc poct docs not inspirc a lccling that hc bclongs to
a landscapc, hc is thc antithcsis ol thc Horatian gurc who has hcld such
appcal lor Vcstcrn litcraturc ol rctircmcnt. Vhcn V. H. Audcn addrcsscs
Tc Horatians, wc can scc how 8clitt docs not t in: all ol you sharc / a
lovc lor somc particular / placc and strctch ol country.
!n anothcr pocm, 8clitt rcmarkcd, onc placc bccomcs cvcry placc or no
placc.
9
Sicsta: Mcxico / \crmont bcgins with our cycs sinking into slccp,
likc thc pan ol a scalc, as wc arc dclivcrcd blindlold lrom thc surrounding
Mcxican landscapclrom prcdilcctions ol ochrc and pomcgranatc, / thc
cactuss bcllyhairs, thc jcwclcrs wcdgc / that widcns thc magnolias claw.
Tcn, having bccn transportcd to our uppcr and ncthcr scnscs,
. . . wc hcar
thc turning millstoncs at thc ccntcr,
thc innitcsimal pumicc in thc aw,
curving thc lcnscs, matching thc incandcsccncc
ol thc cdgcs,
circling thc prccision
ol a momcnt likc a barcback ridcrs
hoop burning with spikcs and gasscs:
whilc thc antipodal man
turns hcavily in midair,
locking his lootsolcs abovc and bclow,
cntcrs thc horizons doublc ring, thc tropic
and thc polar rcs an iciclc in \crmont
raycd likc Guadalupcs mantlc, thc lrost
on thc machctcs cdgc hcad downward and hcad
upward, king ol thc playing cards,
who slccps in thc slaloms anglc with thc Mcxican.
Tc antipodal landscapcs arc not so important as thc slcight ol vision
which makcs onc littlc room an cvcrywhcrc. Tc way up and thc way down
arc joincd at thc pair ol ying lootsolcs, just as thc two gurcs, a Ncw
n gland skicr and a Mcxican bowcd bcncath his sombrcro, arc onc. Tc
transmutations and glittcring laccts ol thc lancying mind arc at thc ccntcr ol
8clitts lascination with naturc.
Nothing abidcs. cparturcs opcns up a world ol changcs. \crmont
Quarry announccs that Timc was thc cmcrys: gcological crosion is a
motil, as arc thc shilts ol sca wcathcr (Tradc Vind), thc impcrmancncc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:6
ol sand paintings, thc lightcning lcap ol thc Cclcbratcd Jumping Frog,
thc uncommon sun which opcns a collar ol horn / and lorccs thc thorn
points asccnsion and blindingly but momcntarily suspcnds scparatcncss:
Tc cactuss paddlc
Unharmcd in thc holocaust, boncwhitc on tin:
Tc wildcrncss mcrcy rcvcrscd in a brazcn arcna
Scorcd with thc cactuss brc,
Tc lronds ol unlailing magucy
Tat takc thc miragc ol thc world and burnish all distancc
to onc:
Tis way, thc sunburst ol thorn, that way, thc
thornburst ol sun.
(Cactus Gardcns: axaca)
vcn whcn not dazzlcd by brillianccs ol thc sun (which oltcn rccall, in
thcsc pocms, antc as wcll as thc morc immcdiatc anccstor Paul \alry and his
maint diamant limpcrccptiblc cumc), thcsc landscapcs ocr ncithcr com
lort nor pcrmancncc. !n Crickct Hill: \crmont, thc spcakcr, dry and unlccl
ing, comcs to a vallcy whcrc autumnal rain brings dangcr as wcll as gracc:
Tcrc, thc unsmiling providcncc ol thc ycar
Gathcrcd thc cxtravagant blazons ol its loss:
Tc applcs dclcction, gcnius ol vincgar,
Struck on thc whirling y, thc spinc and thc stalk,
Axchclvc and tridcnt, spoilurc and ovcrplus
And rosc in thc horn and richcncd its husk: and broke!
And movcd, in thc crickcts intcrval ol pausc,
8caring thc blazing rondurcs ol a scason
Toward thosc cnormous countrics ol thc ccntcr . . .
Tis is a strangc updating ol To Autumn. !t is ambivalcnt in tonc
(unsmiling providcncc must rccall Popcs laughing Ccrcs, and thc lati
natc cxtravagant and gcnius, thc richncss ol ncoclassical diction) and in
syntax (providcncc must bc thc subjcct ol thc simplc vcrbs rosc, brokc,
movcd). Tc mountains wclcomc and cmbracc an intrudcr who nds thcrc
only momcntary consolation and inspiration. Tc momcnt ol arrivala litcral
consummation, dcvoutly to bc wishcdis both a burial within thc cnormous
countrics ol thc ccntcr, and a scxual climax cnding all in a univcrsal cmbracc:
And, in thc wishs kingdom ol complction,
cparturcs placcnamc bcckoncd toward noplacc
nvx nvii::s vi~cvs (+6)
+:
And thc cxprcssivc passion smilcd upon its sourcc:
Tc nudc hcad yicldcd, ringcd in its clcar halation,
Prism and lash movcd down, thc kiss
Fcll and grcw grcat, struck, and was univcrsc.
Frustration attcnds thc anxious topographcr ol this land and thc gram
marian ol its languagc. Tc Horatian middlc stylc sccms as lorcign as a
Tivoli larm. Tc samc stylistic habits, howcvcr, arc cvidcnt in lar dicrcnt
pocms, lor opposcd to thc rootlcss scarchings in this scrics arc thc static
panoramas, likc 8attlcPiccc in Te Enemy Joy, which borrows and com
bincs dctails lrom Ucccllos pancls lor thc 8attlc ol San Romano, or Court
ol thc Lions: Alhambra, with thc still apparatus ol thc mazc, thc clcgancc
ol Arabic vcrscs cngravcd as dcsign in thc Moorish masonry. Tcsc objccts
bccomc as congcnial as placcs to a poct who, likc Ncruda, prclcrs nouns to
vcrbs (and cvcn in thc dynamic or cvancsccnt momcnts in cparturcs thc
vcrbs do lcss work than thc concrctc objccts ol dcscription):
Tc Hicratic lions ol Alhambra
Circlc thc court, likc a mapmakcrs rosc,
!n a poodlcdogs tonsurc, lcrocious, solicitous,
Tcir muzzlcs, barcd lor thc watcrspout,
Four timcs scorcd with a grimacc,
Tcir mancs on thcir powcrlcss shouldcrs, likc a cccc,
Taking thc basins wcight on thcir trumpcry tocs,
Among camcras, talismans, 8acdckcrs, lcgcndary gcsso.
(Court ol thc Lions: Alhambra)
Formal artilacts, substantial and nominativc, givc onc kind ol stasis in
8clitts poctry: thc icc ol \crmont, anothcr. Tc scqucncc ol lour pocms,
Tc Cold, lrom a longcr scrics (Tc Grcat Cold in No.here but Light),
bcgins with a placc and a mctcorological lact and continucs in a timclcss
drcam world as thc poct lantasizcs and cxtcmporizcs variations on thc
thcmcs ol chill, paralysis, and physical rclinquishmcnt. An iccbound land
scapc parodics a tropical onc, as thc lrcczc bccomcs a lriczc:
thc lrcczc at thc hcart ol thc world
unlolding thc bonc ol thc ddlchcad
iciclc, cornucopias ol maidcnhair, astcrisks ol lichcn and lrost.
Tc ncxt two pocms changc thc sctting, to lthccntury Athcns and thc
spcakcrs own childhood, but thcy rctain thc samc imagcrya lrozcn cal
ligraphy, thc unlolding ol writing, growing, cxtcnding. All placcs arc thc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:8
samc. Tc last pocm admits that thc ction ol human dircction . . . lails
in a blind circumspcction, and thc prcvious variations, diminutions, and
stilllivcs opcn to a largcr, allinclusivc gcological lramc. Tc imagcry ol
dcploymcnt (lcrn and iciclc), and ol carbon and diamond, mcrcury rising
and lalling, combincs as animation rcsumcs, and thc grcat 8cast ol Timc
is rclcascd:
a prcscncc that grapplcs a contincnt, thc glacicr
that walks thc morainc, thc wholc
hclt ol mica and gravcl, alluvial conch and dctritus
tilts hallway toward Asia, turns on its axlc ol coal,
dragging its shboncs and inthcads, iron and
bronzc in thc lcrns.
slips toward thc polc
on a pcndulums backswing. A hcartbcat is hcard in thc rock:
and thc cold, thc grcat cold, thc gcyscrs ol oracular cold
issuc lorth to thc Pythoncss.
And a ratchct rcsumcs in thc clock.
North or South, lrozcn or tropical, cvcn in thc pocms ol action (c.g.,
n Quaking 8og and 8lock !sland Crossing in No.here but Light), thc
lands arc composcd primarily ol objccts at rcst. ( !n his introduction to his
Selected Poems of Pablo Neruda, 8clitt writcs: ! havc mountcd my languagc
on rhythms which cnlist thc rcsourccs ol poctry in nglish as much as
thcy do thc poctry ol Pablo Ncruda: ! havc workcd at objects.) Tc major
cxccption is Tc Gorgc, a vcpart scqucncc lrom No.here but Light. 8y
dcvcloping a pattcrn lor thc landscapc which is both litcral and symbolic,
and by articulating thc changing rcsponscs ol a thoughtlul, humanc pcr
sona, Tc Gorgc radiantly combincs both kinds ol landscapc poctry. Tc
pocm is a litcral act ol passagc in thc progrcss ol thc narrator lrom dis
tanccd spcctator to passivc and unwilling victim as hc is ignominiously, but
comically, carricd out by Gayossos Ambulancc Scrvicc lrom Cucrnavaca
to Mcxico City. !t is also a gurativc ritual, sincc thc scqucncc dcpcnds on
antcs Commedia lor imagcry and locus. At all points, howcvcr, thc an
tcsquc pattcrn cmcrgcs lrom thc physically rcal landscapc. Tc pocms arc
both ohandcdly symbolic (or kncw this ovcrhang. thc poct writcs,
looking into thc gorgc) and laithlul to thc uniquc richncss ol thc placc. !n
thc impurity ol Cucrnavaca, hc nds an amplitudc ol imagcry lor a world,
without losing sight ol thc givcn, hc crcatcs a modcrn comcdy and works
his way to a kind ol salvation through an a rmation ol thc gorgcs many
voiccs.
nvx nvii::s vi~cvs (+6)
+:
vcrlooking thc gorgc, thc spcakcrs cyc dcsccnds in thc kingdoms ol
ordurc, a naval ol rubblc, to thc Gchcnna in thc pit bclow:
All that rcmains ol thc starvcd and appctitivc
lilc, acid and gall, movcs down
undcr lcccs and bandagcs, ncwsprint, a tincan
nccropolis, catgas
in thc vcrminous canc, toward a darkncsss
ccntcr whcrc thc rat mills its
plcnitudc.
Vith its allusions to both antc and liot, 8clitts garbagchcap is only part
ol thc picturc. Still distanccd, thc spcakcr turns to thc oppositc sidc, lollow
ing thc gardcns alolt ovcr gardcns, although stationary himscll, hc sccs
|thc| cquilibrists toil on thc slopcs toward a purity,
soiling thc shcaths ol a tochold,
out ol cycshot.
Tc rst two pocms lollow thc samc pattcrn: a vicw down, and thcn
onc ovcr, to thc dcpths and to thc hcights, both rcmotc. Tc jacaranda is
there and it thri.es, hc cxclaims in Tc Gorgc (
#
+). !n A \icw lrom thc
Gorgc (
#
:), altcr making thc modcl lor ors cngraving into a pinball
commedia . . . Tc odds / arc alrcady wcllknown: clcctric displays lor thc
winncrs, / and thc damncd circling down toward thc hammcrs, hc is hcld
by thc purgatorial momcnt, sccn small on thc oppositc sidc, whcrc quick
limc has dazzlcd thc glass ol thc grccnhouscs. Rcdcmption, ol land and
soul, is now thc cxclusivc provincc ol thc gardcncrs, cutting and arranging,
thcmsclvcs toiling on thc prccarious slopcs. Tcy arc poiscd, and hovcr likc
dragonics or sccds, and, appropriatc to thc antcsquc topography, thcy arc
pcnitcntial, hall mantis, hall angcl, on a causcway ol manna and bouldcrs.
ownward hc sccs thc gcncrations ol Rahab, thc rcs and basalt ol antc,
thc boncs / ol thc bcast ol thc Apocalypsc, but across thc gardcncrs arc
balanccd, covcring thc slopcs with thc lruit ol thcir daily labors, working
happily likc antcs burning and rcjoicing Purgatorial pcnitcnts, bccausc
sun shincs cxcccdingly thcrc / and thc spirit is willing.
!t is part ol thc charm ol this scqucncc that it docs not push its an
tcsquc parallcl any lurthcr than thc slopcs ol Purgatory. 8clitt is both too
sccular, dclighting in thc Hopkinscsquc dapplcdncss ol thc things ol this
world, and too modcst to scc into divinc and total Paradisal light. !n thc
ccntcr ol thc scqucncc, symbolizing gracc and awkwardncss, both a rmativc
and silcnt, is thc locobird, a Mcxican gracklc ol sorts, bcadcd and cnam
cllcd, crowblack and oridly dcsigncd, thc bird ol thc abjcctly ridiculous,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
whosc vcry prcscncc translorms thc pocm lrom commedia to comcdy and
undocs thc spcakcrs nccd / lor thc marvcllous, |his| awc / at thc slant and
cquivocal. Tc bird is thc most activc crcaturc in this landscapc, pcrhaps
in all ol 8clitts landscapcshc ics, tilts, and takcs in as a prizc what hc
sccs: two quicksilvcr drops on thc cusp ol a lcrn, and a turd. Unawcd by
obliquity, hc shakcs his bcads in thc trcc, and thcn takcs o, dclying gravity,
mctaphysics and solcmnity:
. . . alls onc to him: a
dcsccnt in a maclstrom or a hcrringbonc
climb up a Mattcrhorn thc locobird swivcls
his ruddcrs, stcadics his kccl, and skatcs o,
chaplincsquc,
on a rink, in thc stccragc, a spa, an alarmclock,
a ladys cmporium, a stcambath with thc pccragc:
hc knows how it lccls
to look into thc billy and badgc ol thc actual
and vccr out ol rangc on his whccls
without ru ing his daily scnsorium.
Such dizzying and lancilul motion is unusual in 8clittss poctry, cspc
cially in comparison with thc subducd clcgancc ol thc purgatorial gardncrs in
Parts + and : and thc orists ol Part (Flowcr Markct).
!0
Tc locobird
is uniquc and complcx. Likc his movcmcnts, chaplincsquc in thcir pcculiar
gracc, his songsuch as it isa graticd scrcam, is both abrasivc and comic:
. . . a sound likc a childs smutty ngcrtip
rubbing thc damp ol a shavingglass, or a glasscuttcrs whccl
ovcr glass, whistlcs and burps, an acctylcnc blast,
and thc banging ol salccrackcrs tools in an cmpty muscum.
8clitt rclrains lrom attaching too much symbolic wcight to his bird, such
valuc would dcstroy its ightly dclicacy, and ncithcr thc structurc ol thc
pocm nor thc landscapc within could support such magnicd a rmation at
this point. Tc voicc ol thc gorgc, into which all things lall and ccho, rcpcats
Te de.il .alks to and fro in the .orld, the de.il . . . but to this, thc poct
cnds by rcminding us, thc bird in thc tulipan trcc has no answcrs. Answcrs
arc articulablc only by humans, and sincc thc poct is in somc way working
towards a salvation lor himscll, thc symbolic purport ol sounds and imagcs
must nally bc translatcd into human cquivalcnts.
Tc lourth pocm, Flowcr Markct, prcparcs us lor thc spcakcrs cntry
into thc action as morc than mcrc spcctator ol distant vistas or audicncc lor
audacious thcatrics. Now hc is a paintcr ol an ominous arthly Paradisc
nvx nvii::s vi~cvs (+6)
++
whcrc thc wrcaths ol multicolorcd, dcliciously namcd owcrs lorm a luncral
whccl, a bandagc ol lilics, a pcrishing lorcst ol stcms, which ultimatcly
slopc, blccding all color into thc omnivorous cut in thc gorgc. Tc pocm
cnds with nightlall, thc promisc ol oral swcctncss having bccn taintcd by
discasc and damagc:
. . . Vatcrboys
wilt in thc stalls. Tc shuttcr slams down
lor thc shopkccpcrs lock. And night lcstcrs.
Vc arc rcady lor disastcr, spiritual or physical, pcrsonal or astronomical.
Appropriatcly, thcn, thc last pocm, Gayossos Ambulancc Scrvicc: mcr
gcncy, dctails a movcmcnt downward to darkncss, thc spcakcr laid out on
a strctchcr, transportcd lcct last lrom Cucrnavaca to Mcxico City undcr
a nocturnal sky: Tc gorgcs turncd backwards, / thc city slopcd undcr my
shouldcrs in a rockctburst / starring thc \allcy ol Mcxico. Swathcd in an
onion ol blankcts, thc spcakcr xcs on thc idca ol nonbcing, thc dcsola
tion ol hospital stcrility, and his own cnd. 8ut with thc samc sort ol surprisc
ocrcd by thc locobird as a visionary ol quicksilvcr and turds, and prcciscly
bccausc ol thc scriocomic tonc in which thc bird rcsponds, or not, to thc
world, 8clitt makcs his pocm into both a dark night ol thc soul and a rcmi
nisccncc ol silcnt lm comcdics.
At thc momcnt ol grcatcst dangcr, whcn thc spcakcr cxclaims Urgent!
to himscll, a stillcr voicc rcplics Urgcnt: and thc mind ics to an inncr
landscapc whcrc Harold Lloyd, thc tortoiscshcllcd / strangcr brilliant with
nausca, caught / on thc clocklacc . . . knows bcttcr. All pcrsonal dangcr is
likc thc mockdangcr ol lm comcdics or mclodramas (onc slips / toward
thc tooth ol thc buzzsaw), by comparing his situation with thcsc morc
hystcrical and dangcrous, though conlcctcd, oncs, thc spcakcr succcsslully
calms himscll, as thc sccnc rccomposcs itscll.
Tc rccomposcd sccnc is thc physical landscapc, thc gorgc, rctricvcd by thc
spcakcrs cyc as hc comcs out ol his momcntary drcam, it is also a sctting lor
a rccomposcd scll which now puts things in thcir propcr pcrspcctivc, visually
and cmotionally. 8oth thc cxaggcratcd urgcncy ol his own dilcmma and thc
cxtrcmc thcatrical dangcr ol thc comcdian havc bccn rcplaccd by an cxpan
sivcncss ol undcrstanding. Tc gcncralizing onc cndurcs thc prccarious lcads
to thc rcalization that cmcrgcncy and dangcr arc constant and thcrclorc not
cxtraordinary, just as thc sound ol Gayossos cmcrgcncy sircn is always to
bc hcard, and always to bc dcstroycd, likc a carpcntcrs bubblc. Picking up
thc carlicr imagc ol thc lootsurc gardcncrs on thc mountains, thc spcakcr is
tcmporarily startlcd: thc cquilibrist laltcrs, / shockcd by his pcrsonal hazard.
At lcast now hc is a participant, not an acsthctc. hors de combat.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
8ut this is not lull knowlcdgc, and thc pocm rounds to its cnd by rcturn
ing to thc impurity ol thc gorgc, now vicwcd as thc rich ambivalcncc ol thc
world itscll. Vc lcavc bchind thc possibility lor rcdcmption in Paradisc, as
8clitt concludcs by a rming this world as (in Vordsworths linc) thc placc
whcrc, in thc cnd, / Vc nd our happincss, or not at all:
8ut anothcr sound
livcs in thc Gorgc
an cquivocal thrashing ol bamboo and manurc and papyrus,
ncithcr purc nor impurc: thc spirit
that works in thc middlc
stark undcr thc sunstonc,
in thc mash ol thc uppcr and ncthcr.
And hcard as thc Gorgcwcllcr
hcars it, thc scrpcnts tail bcating thc shcll,
that unriddlcs its birth in thc wct and thc dark
And says: it is wcll. !t is wcll.
From cquilibrist to cquivocal, lrom Urgent! Urgcnt: to it is .ell. !t is
wcll, Tc Gorgc rcvcals at last what many ol 8clitts carlicr pocms hintcd
at: that thc spirit ol placc, as it appcars to him, cxists in thc mash ol thc
uppcr and ncthcr, bctwccn thc purilying slopcs and thc oal ol thc ravinc.
Tcn ycars ago, 8clitt lookcd back on two ol his carly pocms lrom Te
Fi.e-Fold Mesh and saw two movcmcnts: thc startling incrcasc in spccic
ity and powcr which ows lrom thc total commitmcnt to placcspccicity
ol rhythm, lorm, languagc, and scllknowlcdgc, as wcll as particulars ol thc
Amcrican sccnc, and thc othcr, thc dccpcning ol thc imaginativc occasion by
a contradictory shilt lrom thc thcmc ol placc to thc thcmc ol displaccmcnt.
!!

!n pocms likc cparturcs, with thcir rclusal to accommodatc us to a sccnc,
or Tc Cold, which havc placcmcnt but no spccic sccnc at all, hc wavcrcd
bctwccn thc two possibilitics. !n Tc Gorgc, thcrc is adhcrcncc to placc
without thc stasis ol artilact, thc scqucncc cmbodics onc ol 8clitts hopcs
lor Amcrican poctry: !t is this cngagcmcnt ol curiosity with thc actualto
thc point at which, in Hopkins words, whatcvcr you look hard at, sccms to
look back at youthat ! nd crucial to thc poctry ol placc and thc critcria ol
Amcrican song.
!2
Looking hard at thc actual and rccognizing thc dynamic
potcntial on an impurc world, moving lrom displaccmcnt toward station
ing, 8clitt ncvcr allows himscll to bc scduccd into total contcntmcnt or his
sccncs to bccomc cxccssivcly comlorting. Vhilc thc gorgc bccomcs an imagc
ol a world, it ncvcr loscs its uniqucncss. !n acccpting it, thc poct acccpts, as
wcll, Stcvcns claim that it is only cnough to livc inccssantly in changc.
+
N!N X
ALL TH VRLS PLNTY, ALL TH
8RAZN PART!CULARS l+8
On Ben Belitt
Not lcclings, but things ! had lclt.
viixv, ox DEF NEUEN GEDICHTE
L
ct mc comc at my subjcct lrom alar, indircctly, to usc liots lamous
word. Vc cannot conlront 8cn 8clitt hcadon, prcciscly bccausc hc
occupics an opaquc spacc in thc now rcccding vistas ol modcrnism.
Lct mc apply Rilkcs summary ol his Ne. Poems to 8clitts ncw collcction. !t
works. Frank Kcrmodc pointcd out thirty ycars ago that thc modcrn pocts
uscd thc imagc as a hingc bctwccn thc things ol thc scnsiblc world and
thosc invisiblc to mortal sight. Modcrnism shunncd, or at lcast distrustcd,
thc Romantic rcliancc on human lccling that providcd Vordsworth and all
subscqucnt autobiographical pocts with a basis lor scllcxploration, whcthcr
in lilc or in writing. No idcas but in things, proclaimcd Villiams, dircct
trcatmcnt ol thc thing, urgcd Pound. All vision was mcdiatcd. Pocts wcrc
to stop lccling lcclings, pcrhaps, in cxchangc lor lccling things. And, in so
doing, thcy wcrc cnjoincd to makc thcir poctry, likc thcir lcclings, hard. liot
talkcd about dislocat|ing| languagc into mcaning, latcr on, R. P. 8lackmur
sct as thc highcst good languagc so twistcd and poscd in a lorm that it not
only cxprcsscs thc mattcr in hand but adds to thc stock ol availablc rcality.
Fccling things appcalcd naturally to pocts likc 8audclairc, Hopkins,
and Rilkc, lor whom divinity cxists immancntly within a physical world.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
(A dcmocrat likc Vhitman uscs things as part ol a political program ol
annunciation.) 8y ccntcring mcaning on an icon, by inlusing a thing with
symbolic spirit, thc modcrns objccticd thcir own lcclings, holding thcm, and
thcir rcadcrs as wcll, at arms lcngth.
Youngcr pocts, wcaring thcir hcarts on thcir slccvcs, havc drawn thcir
rcadcrs in, oltcn with nothing in thc way ol an intcrvcning ltcr lor thc sakc
ol politcncss, contcmporary cgos display thcir wounds and ncuroscs with
proud opcnncss. 8y comparison, thc casc ol 8cn 8clitt, a ncglcctcd mastcr
according to his somctimc collcaguc Howard Ncmcrov, comcs down nally
to what has happcncd to Kcrmodcs romantic imagc in Amcrican poctry
during thc past hallccntury. 8clitt is a throwback to thc stcrncr paradigms
ol high modcrnism, along with Tcodorc Vciss hc is among thc last mcm
bcrs ol thc gcncration that camc ol agc during thc rcign ol liot, Pound,
and Hart Cranc, and his insistcncc on hardncss during a carccr that has
lastcd lor lty ycars owcs a grcat dcal to thosc carlicr mastcrs. Hardncss has
always mcant lor 8clitt thc linguistic di cultics and dislocations ol mod
crnism, which has comc in lor somc harsh criticism latcly, lrom critics on thc
right as wcll as thc lclt, his hardncss also dcrivcs lrom a rcticcnt tcmpcra
mcnt, casily mistakablc lor coldncss or stoicism, that cvcrywhcrc inlorms
his poctry. Hc has inhcritcd thc vcrbal playlulncss ol Audcn, going in lor
archaism and such di cult spccks ol u as larthingalc and dccklc (lrom
March Villows, a ncw pocm). 8ut hc has always prclcrrcd a polysyllabic
diction: Scanning thc pagcs ol this ncw cdition wc comc upon words that arc
arcanc but prccisc: acidulous (how many pocts would usc this morc than
oncc in onc hundrcd pagcs:), haruspiccs, tcrcbinth, liana, mcniscus,
caciquc, scoriac, magucy, and thosc kcy tcrms that rcsound likc lcitmo
tils, cquivocal and cquilibrist, thc sccond virtually a countcr to thc rst.
!n an agc ol dour lcclings as wcll as diction, 8clitt may sccm likc a throw
back to carly Stcvcns, lancilul and arch, as il romping through an urban
carnival:
Summcr dcploys upon thc brims ol hats
Turns upon twill, a rms with colorcd drinks
A mimic solsticc poiscd in ying inks
!n 8abylons ol ribbons and cravats.
(lrom 8attcry Park: High Noon)
Tc di cultics ol this stanza dicr lrom thosc ol othcr pocts. Pound and
liot dcmand ol thcir rcadcrs considcrablc lcarning, John Ashbcry, to citc
thc contcmporary poct most promincnt lor opacitics, mixcs lcvcls ol diction
with a cavalicr disrcgard lor pronouns, syntax, and othcr lorms ol conncction.
8ut 8clitt, as dcmonstratcd abovc, is most likc Stcvcns in trying to makc
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
+
thc visiblc a littlc hard to scc. Tc sccnc, all sunlight and shadows, suggcsts
tickcrtapc and strcamcrs (ribbons) as wcll as costumcs, airplanc advcrtisc
mcnts (ying inks) as wcll as clouds. Likc thc titular carpcntcr in thc ncw
pocm Annunciation to Joscph, 8clitt could say ol himscll, ! am movcd by
no journcyman thing, prclcrring thc ornatc, thc rcconditc, and thc articial
to thc plain, thc commonplacc, and thc natural.
Tc opcning stanza ol onc ol thc dozcn ncw pocms in thc collcction
shows that 8clitt has not changcd his poctic habits in thc lty ycars sincc
8attcry Park: High Noon:
Tc rock, in thc salt mcandcr,
thc bisonback nuzzling thc scaholly
in a drcnch ol coppcry bubblcs, chain mail, saliva,
rcpcating a spongcs disguiscs,
spcaks lor thc animal mystcry.
(lrom Tis Rock)
Tc rock . . . spcaks lor thc animal mystcry: Alrcady two othcr mystcrics
havc bccn hintcd at, onc syntactic, thc othcr pcrccptual. Tc subjcct and
vcrb arc dividcd by thrcc and onchall lincs that mctaphorically dcmon
stratc thc truth ol thc ccntral proposition that things oltcn turn out to bc
dicrcnt lrom how thcy rst appcar. As so oltcn happcns in 8clitts pocms,
this onc cxplorcs thc mystcrious lact that things may rcscmblc, or actually
changc into, onc anothcr, that thc matcrial and spiritual worlds comlortably
cohabit onc spacc. Tc rock itscll sccms to bccomc an animal substancc, at
rst bualolikc (bisonback), thcn scmihuman in its chain mail and
saliva, and placcd in a world whcrc cvcn thc vcgctation may imitatc animal
lilc (rcpcating a spongcs disguiscs). Mctamorphosis takcs placc bclorc our
cycs, as thc poct strings togcthcr a scrics ol unlikcly translormations that
cnlivcn a stolid rock.
Two signicant carlicr pocms, Xcrox and Tc rangc Trcc, handlc
thc mattcr ol what 8clitt calls thc worlds doublcncss (8lock !sland)
slightly dicrcntly. !n Xcrox, a singular, scminal, or original man lics
down on thc glass ol thc machinc in ordcr to rcproducc himscll, all thc whilc
asking thc qucstions that a pcrson without siblings or childrcn, or an artist
altcr Valtcr 8cnjamin, might ask ol himscll, his lilc, and his work: !hat
must it be, to be many? Mcchanical rcproduction is a modcrn cquivalcnt ol
parthcnogcncsis, as thc man on thc glass lcarns whcn hc rcproduccs himscll,
or is rcproduccd by thc copicr:
And all that was loncly, csscntial, uniquc
as a ngcrprint, is doublcd. Substancc and csscncc,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
thc mirror and thc gurc that printcd thc mirror,
thc dclugc that blackcncd crcation and thc hovcring pigcon
with thc lcal s tastc in its bcak
arc joincd. Tc invisiblc slccpcr is troublcd:
!hat does it mean to be legion?
hc crics in thc hcll ol copicd.
To such qucstions thc Adamic solitary ocrs thc consolation ol answcrs that
thcmsclvcs ask us to considcr thc parallcl statcs ol Shakcspcarian gurcs and
antcan oncs:
Forgi.e our duplicity. !e are human
and heterogeneous. Gi.e us our imitations!
Heart copies heart .ith a .alentines
arro.s and laces. Te thenian dream and the adulterers paired
in the storm tell us the mirrors are misted. Te .hole of our art
is to double our .itness, and .ait. And thc original man on thc platc
stands and stcps down, unassistcd.
Tcrc is no joy in such parcnting. Tc original gurc rcmains unassistcd
and prcsumably unpartncrcd by any ol his ncw progcny. And, as oltcn in
a 8clitt pocm, thc cnding undocs our carlicr cxpcctations. Tc voicc that
spcaks thc italicizcd apology abovc is itscll a doublc onc, ncithcr wholly
that ol thc original man nor that ol his childrcn. vcn thc doublcd and s
(and .ait. And thc original man) cnact, sonically, thc conlusions that cxist
bctwccn thc original and his company. !ndccd, thc antcccdcnt lincs havc
alrcady abcttcd this issuc:
. . . Tc agonist prints its convulsion.
Likc turns to likc, whilc thc scminal man on thc glass
starcs at his scmblancc and calls lrom thc pit ol thc ink:
Tis scminal man has now rcndcrcd himscll into his own progcny: !dcn
tity, having oncc bccn doublcd, can no longcr bc singular. Turns mcans, ol
coursc, both turns into and turns to conlront, whilc thc scminal man is
cqually at homc now on thc glass, whcrc hc bcgan, and in thc pit ol thc ink,
whcrc hc has cndcd up.
To any rcadcr lamiliar with 8clitts lilc, Xcrox must also bc rcad in
parts as its authors autobiography. Hc is a poct who has madc a carccr out
ol solitudc. As carly as Te Fi.e-Fold Mesh (+8) hc was obscsscd with thc
cnd ol childhood, which in his casc coincidcd with thc dcath ol his lathcr
and with what hc rclcrrcd to, in a +o intcrvicw, as a vcry important and
cxtcnsivc, pcrhaps traumatic, pcriod ol |his| childhood in an orphanagc
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
+
in Uppcr Manhattan, |whcrc| posscssions wcrc absolutcly minimal, with
a minimal placc lor thcm: rathcr likc a solidcr in a barracks living out ol a
lootlockcr.
Aloncncss and matcrialism arc solid companions. An original loss and
thc lcar ol lurthcr loss combinc to givc 8clitts work thc stubborn Amcri
can rcliancc on things that Pound, Villiams, & Company adviscd. Such
amassings dcrivc lrom dcprivation: !n a youthlul pocm, hc rcmarks that thc
quictcr god comcs carly to thc childhood / Tat is unhappy, and in Tc
LightningRod Man, a latcr onc, hc spclls out a lcar that hc constantly
rcpcats: A thundcrstorm has shortcircuitcd thc clcctricity, and a lightning
bolt has rippcd through thc housc:
And .orked in that room: a mcthodical killcr
smclling ol int and burnt almond, cottonglovcd
likc a salccrackcr, cutting wircs, picking tumblcrs,
moving ovcr my lcttcrs, thc things ! had hoardcd or lovcd:
ld pcsos. !ndian pcnnics. Loosc changc
in a jar lrom Gibraltar. Postcards lrom Pompcii in unplaccablc
rcds, a cosmctic ol garlands and wingcd amorini
in bloodrust and ashcs, to prcgurc thc strangc
and crotic whcrc thc bolt workcd bclorc. Still tracking coppcr,
it rodc in thc wiring likc punk, cxplodcd in plastcr and rubblc,
blackcncd a voicc in thc radio tubc on its way to a lortunatc
answcr, and spcllcd out in Nincvch: trouble!
8clitts poctry locuscs on things, not pcoplc, and spccically on thc accumula
tions (thosc hoardings ol lovc) that sccm to ocr protcction against thc kind ol
abandonmcnt that tormcntcd thc child who, likc Kcats, has bccn subscqucntly
prcssing his lacc against thc swcctshop window. Posscssions may ocr a cold
comlort, bccausc thcy arc obviously mutablc, but 8clitt lists thcm obscssivcly,
as il chanting an ancicnt charm lor thcir protcction as wcll as his own. !n Tc
rphaning, hc crics out Father! / and lorg|a|vc him his dying, who kncw not
what hc did, but his lorgivcncss sccms to havc cncouragcd him to takc on thc
things ol this world rathcr than its sins. Tc lact ol dcprivation and thc lcar ol
its rcpctition makc 8clitts poctry into a ritual ol rcstitution. Listing is an act
ol rcparation. !n his pocms, as in his housc, wc nd thc compcnsatory gcsturcs
ol a man who can ncvcr lorgct his carlicr lilc in thc barracks.
8clitts invcntivc wit and clusivc conjccturcs scldom allow his rcadcrs to
lccl happy about thcir placc in thc world. vcn that othcr, and morc hopc
lul, pocm ol thc worlds doublcncss, Tc rangc Trcc, itscll a rcsponsc to
Ycatss and Rilkcs grcat trccpocms, contains its own mitigating gcsturcs. !t
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
opcns with lour stanzas ol prolilcrating richncss, dclcrring its main prcdi
catc cvcn morc dcspcratcly than Tis Rock docs:
To bc
intact and unsccn,
likc thc orangcs sccnt
in thc orangc trcc:
a pod ol aroma
on thc orangcs ogivc ol grccn
or a phosphorous voicc
in thc storm ol thc lorgc and thc hammcr:
to climb up a laddcr ol lcavcn
and salt, and work in thc lump
ol thc mass, upward and down
in thc volatilc oils ol a wildcrncss hcavcn:
to slccp, likc thc karat,
in thc void ol thc jcwclcrs glass,
yct strikc with thc wcight ol thc diamond
pcrhaps that is to livc in thc spirit!
8clitt allows himscll only thc skcptics partial assurancc that perhaps thc lilc
ol thc spirit combincs thc joint conditions ol bcing, climbing, and slccping.
Altcr thc strcnuous oppositions in thc rst ltccn lincsbctwccn potcnti
ality and actuality, intactncss and invisibility, asccnt and dcsccnt, wildcrncss
and hcavcn, tranquility and striking, void and wcight8clitts a rmation
sounds a troublcd, agnostic notc. Tc stanzas work thcmsclvcs up through
innitivcs and aggrcsivcly rich imagcry (ogivc, phosphorous, karat,
diamond) only to subsidc into mcrc possibility. Tc cxpansivc buildup ol a
scntcncc lrom phrascs dividcd by colons sccms to compcnsatc lor a spiritual
dcarth, just as thc rhythm dcvclops a ncrvous rubato. !l onc considcrs how
much morc ccrtain a comparablc statcmcnt might bc, in both diction and
rhythm, onc is struck by thc tcntativcncss ol 8clitts rcduccd laith:
ur dcstiny, our bcings hcart and homc,
!s with innitudc, and only thcrc,
Vith hopc it is, hopc that can ncvcr dic,
ort, and cxpcctation, and dcsirc,
And somcthing cvcrmorc about to bc.
! quotc thc lamous lincs lrom 8ook 6 ol Te Prelude to show that somc
thing has happcncd bctwccn Vordsworths capacious condcncc ol +8o and
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
+
8clitts morc subducd, thcorctical qucstioning ol thc vcry possibilitics ol spiri
tual harmony. Partly, ol coursc, nakcd laith has bccn undcrmincd by thc lailurc
ol rcligion and pcrhaps ol all unmcdiatcd vision in thc twcnticth ccntury.
Likcwisc, no poct burdcncd with thc tcchniqucs ol thc symbolists (likc Garca
Lorca and Ncruda, whom 8clitt has translatcd, as wcll as Rilkc and \alry,
whom hc has absorbcd) would allow himscll thc orotund grandcur ol Vords
worths abstractions without a point ol rclcrcncc within thc visiblc world.
Such is thc incvitablc outcomc ol thc mcrging ol Amcrican matcrialism
with thc orthodoxics ol modcrnism. 8clitt has both an imagists conccrn
lor thc abundant things ol thc world and a symbolists awarcncss ol invis
ibility and spiritual prcscncc. His doublc rcsponsc is oltcn uncasy. A Rilkcan
rcmark at thc bcginning ol thc sccond part ol oublc Pocm ol thc Vorlds
8urning sums up 8clitts instinct: Tc invisiblc lilc that slccps in thc gross
ncss ol things / and lccds on thc bulk ol thc world. Such a lilc both inhabits
thc common matcrial world and also dcstroys it lrom within. Tc mcnacing
lccds docs doublc duty.
8clitt continucs to obscrvc thc orangc trcc, attcnding to its organic
growth. Hc has structurcd his pocm as a prcscntation ol opcnings, but now
hc rcduccs thcm through acts ol division, paring, and climination:
So thc orangc trcc
waits on its stump as thc wood ol its armaturc
multiplics: rst, thc branch, thcn thc twig in thc thickct
ol lcalagc, thcn thc sunburst ol whitc in thc lcavcs, thc odors cpiphany.
All burns with a mincral
hcat, all honcs an invisiblc cdgc ol thc noonday, whilc thc orangcs sccnt
spcaks lrom thc trcc in thc trcc to dcclarc what thc holocaust mcant:
to be minimal,
minimal: to diminish cxccss, to parc it
as a child parcs an orangc, moving thc knilc through thc pccl
in a spirals unbrokcn dcsccnt, till only thc orangcs swcat,
a bcad ol acidulous csscncc, dividcs thc rind lrom thc stccl:
pcrhaps that is to livc in thc spirit.
Tc pocm builds and givcs, and thcn diminishcs and takcs away. !t sug
gcsts thc pithy paradox that spirit and csh coincidc but also rcducc to
nothingncss. Paring down is cquivalcnt to rcaching an csscncc, but at thc
cnd thcrc is no orangc lclt: isscction, as Vordsworth long ago obscrvcd,
is murdcrous. 8clitt thc scnsualist is cvcrywhcrc at war with 8clitt thc
stoic, thc mitigations ol perhaps attcnd cvcn his most glorious condcnccs.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
Tc possibilitics ol a lilc in thc spirit arc doubly compromiscd: rst by
thc dicrcnccs bctwccn thc two halvcs ol thc pocm, and ncxt by thc vcry
lack ol ccrtainty that always sccms to inhibit him lrom rcaching spiritual
conclusions.
Tc nal linc abovc rcpcats thc pocms ccntral hypothcsis, and it also
brcaks thc lramc ol thc pocms lourlinc stanzas. Tis is a charactcristic
mancuvcr ol 8clitts and it is rclatcd to both thc shapc ol his pocms and
his habits ol pcrcciving thc world. Typically, a 8clitt pocm movcs lrom an
cxplosivc listing ol things to lucid statcmcnt. !n Tc rangc Trcc, multi
plication prcccdcs disappcarancc, thc visiblc is procrcd and thcn rcplaccd
by thc invisiblc, and, morc important, lcngthy scntcnccs givc way to short,
nakcd uttcranccs. Vc can tracc thc samc path, lrom lullncss to cmptincss,
lrom complcxity to simplicity, lrom obscrvation to action, in almost all thc
dozcn ncw pocms in possessions, which cnd with straightlorward scntcnccs
that arc oltcn isolatcd spatially lrom what prcccdcs thcm and that unilormly
comc as a sign ol wcllcarncd closurc.
Hcrc, lor cxamplc, is thc cnd ol a supcrb ncw pocm, 8rutto Tcmpo: 8cl
lagio, about a day in thc !talian Alps:
. . . 8ut hcrc
in thc pit, nothing prodigious
acknowlcdgcs thc workings ol providcncc. Tcrc is
only Gina, comc down lrom thc \illa,
hcr outragcous umbrclla stripcd likc a mcdicinc ball
lor thc balancing act ol a poodlc,
to toil in thc clottings ol log and thc worlds
suppuration, bcaring hcr paint box, a scrap ol strctchcd
canvas, an improbablc cascla vulncrablc
motc in thc wind and thc void. Hcr brushs point churns
in a plasm ol oil, asccnding, dcsccnding,
prcparing a lanc to thc passcs
till thc wct ol thc canvas is covcrcd and thc color is total.
Pcak altcr pcak rcasscmblcs. Hcr alpcnstock strikcs lor
thc palcttcs horizon and holds rm on thc glazcs
and shc wavcs back to us lrom thc summit.
Tis pocm is likc thc sccond takc ol a sccnc that 8clitt lookcd at rst in Mcx
ico (Tc Gorgc) whcrc hc also stood across lrom a mountain, looking up
to thc summit and down into thc pit, and dctcctcd a antcan accumulation
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
++
ol garbagc and purgation. Hcrc at Lakc Como thc mist has occludcd both
vision and \ision, howcvcr, and thc volatilc lilc / ol thc immincntscll
loss and scllmanilcstation / wrcstlc likc oppositc prcscnccs. As in Tc
rangc Trcc, 8clitt is unccrtain whcthcr invisibility mcans dcprivation or
thc rcalms ol thc spirit, so hc turns, in thc lincs abovc, to a rcal, but dis
tant, human gurc, whom hc locatcs as a modcl (cvcn though drawn with a
small dosc ol acctionatc humor) lor thc artists cntcrprisc ol strugglc and
asccnt.
8clitts rhythms uphold thc human drama hc has stagcd lor us. Hc has
always bccn drawn obscssivcly to triplctsdactyls or anapcsts dcpcnding on
how you placc thcm in a lincand phrasc altcr phrasc, cvcn linc altcr linc,
comc at us in a compulsivcly triplc rhythm. (Comparc his translations lrom
Spanish poctry with thosc ol othcr Amcricans to scc how this prclcrcncc
both dcrivcs lrom his originals and rcappcars in his vcrsions ol thcm.) A sin
glc linc, cvcn with a ccntral cacsura, may sound pcrlcctly dactyllicLrca,
Ncrda, Siquiros, Mthcrwcll ctting acdulous prsmsand thcn con
tinuc in thc samc lashion: in mtals and pircing thc wlls with a ppcs
lcncstrtions (Posscssions). Similarly, in thc cnding ol 8rutto Tcmpo:
8cllagio wc hcar a rcsolutc altcrnation ol anapcsts (in thc pt) and dactyls
(nthing prodgious acknwlcdgcs, wrkings ol prvidcncc), cvcn strings
ol dactyls: |hcr out|rgcous umbrlla / / strpcd likc a mdicinc bll / lor thc
blancing cts ol a podlc.
Vc bccomc so accustomcd to triplcts, cvcn including thc intcrnal pauscs,
hcsitations, and rcvcrsals, that thc cnd ol thc pocm rcachcs closurc with
an appropriatc shock: Vc scc Gina as both paintcr and climbcr, bccoming
part ol thc picturc shc is in thc act ol composing. Tc spondaic hlds lrm
momcntarily halts our progrcss, which thcn procccds through thc morc nor
mativc sound ol on thc glzcs, bclorc mclting into thc rclativc anarchy ol
thc last linc: Tc opcning monosyllablcs arc somcwhat hardcr to hcar than
what lollows thcm. !s back to us a dactyl: or do wc want to strcss thc scpa
ration bctwccn hcr and us (back to us): in which casc thc pocm subsidcs
into its wontcd pattcrn. Tc intcrruption jars thc mctcr, lcgitimatcly !d say,
sincc thc pocm cnds with a grccting lrom a scparatc sphcrc by a woman who
has hcrscll bccn somchow absorbcd into art and distancc. Tc singlc last linc
tcstics to thc hardwon simplicity ol human grccting only altcr strugglc,
and it rcminds us, too, that 8clitt usually holds thc promisc ol such com
munion at arms lcngth. Grcctings and cndings somchow stand apart lrom
thc main bodyol lilc, ol poctryas il 8clitt again cannot pcrmit himscll
morc than a hint ol a rmation.
8clitt has workcd this way lrom virtually thc start ol his long carccr.
Tcrc is nowhcrc but light stands singlc at thc cnd ol thc carlicr pocm
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
Mcmorial Hospital: utpaticnt (+6) and thcn rcappcars as thc titlc ol
his +6 volumc. pigrammatic wit bccomcs strongcr by virtuc ol succccd
ing 8clitts itcmizcd lists, statcmcnt comcs as a hardwon climax (as wcll
as somcthing ol an asymmctrical altcrthought, as abovc) and, oncc carncd,
it is not casy to lct go ol. Four ol thc six scctions ol 8clitts grcatcst long
work, 8lock !sland: Altcr Te Tempest, a dizzying scrics ol corrcspondcnccs
bctwccn Shakcspcarcs imagincd world and its symbolic cquivalcnts on an
Atlantic island, cnd this way. So docs Tc Guanajuato Mummics, which
movcs lrom thc chilling indoor sccnc in which thc lamous mummics arc
displaycd to a richly obscrvcd Mcxican markctplacc outdoors, and which
cnds altcr all thc cnumcrations and tropcs ol plcnitudc, with simplc scn
tcnccs, simplc action, and simplc diction:
Vc comc out into sunlight, at last.
Vc scc cut watcrmclons,
papaya, pyramidal orangcs, gclatinous diamonds
whcrc thc pincapplc swcctcns its ccntcr in thc hivcs corc.
Vc arc wrackcd with thc pangs ol our lasting.
Vc arc alivc.
Tc childrcn approach us with sugary ribbons:
mummy, seor? And thcy ocr us candy.
Mocking, solicitous, thc childrcn insist. Tc childrcn wait to bc paid.
Vc bitc through thc skulls in thc ccllophanc wrappcrs.
Vc burn in thc sunlight, alraid.
Tis human cncountcr rcpcats and dcluscs thc wholc cxpcricncc ol sccing
thc garish mummics. All placcs rich, rcdolcnt, and incxhaustiblc appcal
to thc scnsualist in 8clitt, who has lashioncd a poctic languagc and syntax
worthy ol thcm. 8ut thc orphan in him rcmains skcptical, and thcrclorc
lollows thc scnsualists gluttony with two corrcctivc stcps backward, as il
cxpiating thc imaginations Mardi Gras with an Ash Vcdncsday ol plain
spcaking. Hc continually rctrcats lrom his own riotous, kalcidoscopic pro
ductions, shamcd by his scllindulgcncc.
At thc agc ol scvcntysix, 8clitt has nally givcn lrcc rcin to an undcr
standablc bittcrncss at thc worlds ncglcct. Hc has had his dcvotcd partisans
Calvin 8cdicnt, Hugh Kcnncr, Harold 8loom, in addition to Ncmcrovbut
thcy havc bccn lcw. nc ncw pocm, Gra ti, rcprcscnts thc imagincd
rcvcngc ol an orphan, or ol anyonc who has smartcd bcncath indicrcncc.
(Not lor nothing did 8clitt idcntily, in Te Double !itness, his last volumc,
with Kcats and Machado, thc rst an orphan ncvcr lully rccognizcd during
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
+
lilc, thc sccond an cxilc.) !n a subtcrrancan sccnc hc pcrlorms an act ol crc
ation and dcstruction with childish stcalth and criminal bravado:
Spraygun in hand,
in thc tombrobbcrs darkncss, ! drcamcd ol my doublcd
initials: a junglc liana ol loops in a gangstcrs cartouchc, a bcanstalk
ol curlicucs, calligrams, cavc scribblcs branching intily out
to thc rool likc smokc lrom a pistol.
! tastcd thc chargc
ol thc rails to thc roots ol my nostrils, and thc tunncls cruptcd
in a hashish cxplosion.
Tcrc wcrc thc platlorms
and carriagcs, thc timclapsc asccnts on thc pods lor a giant,
branching ovcr and undcr: thc rcds and thc grccns ol a tapcworm
cartography stinting thc windows with a knilcgrindcrs
cmcry hiss, thc guillotincs vcnting thcir closurcs and
human dischargcs, thc placcnamcs, thc stations . . .
So ! struck with thc
lclt ol my markcr. ! struck. ! struck at thc windows. ! struck
undcr thc bulbs through thc ying chromcs and aluminum
with thc mark ol my lilctimcs rcjcctions till all
turncd to ncon.
8 ovcr 8 or simply !hc writcs and rcads his initials, inscriptions ol
idcntity and rcvcngc, whilc in a statc ol imagincd pcrsccution. His angcr
cxplodcs in thc rcpcatcd strucks that suggcst cithcr a childs pctulant dc
ancc or an adults phallic lashing out against hostilc authority, or both. Tc
garish nightmarc cnds with his cscapc lrom thc policc and thc subway o
cials (thc critics:), and with his triumphant rccrcation ol a wholcncss in
which hc may placc himscll at last and nd thc solacc ol bclonging:
Tat way, thc signs
could bc carvcd into thc domcs ol thc blindcd macadam,
thc caravans, scarcd with my brand, drink dccp at thc railyards in
thc iron
savannahs, thc Alcxandrian librarics rcarisc lrom thc amcs
and thc wholc ol thc canon bc onc.
! rcad this cnding as 8clitts cry cquivalcnt to thc cnd ol Kubla Khan,
anothcr pocm that hallhopclully rcstorcs thc pcriphcral and ncglcctcd poct
to a ccntral position. As usual, thc baroquc syntax and thc computation ol
lists givc way to a quict conclusion, but now thc orphan is dcmanding morc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
lorcclully than cvcr bclorc thc satislactions ol lull rccognition. Tc claim to
grcatncss is morc powcrlul lor coming latc.
!n thc grcat tilc pocm ol this volumc 8clitt has balanccd his somcwhat
lurid thoughts ol rcstitution with his spiritual qucstioning ol matcrial
things and thcir symbolic worth. Pairing an imagincd awakcning ol thc dcad
King Tutankhamcn in a tomb violatcd by gravc robbcrs (anothcr undcr
ground sccnc!) with an cnumcration, pcrhaps his last onc, ol his own posscs
sions in his 8cnnington housc, hc asks (and lorccs us to ask) what mcaning
or comlort posscssions can nally ocr us. All that pharaonic junk in thc
boykings rumpus room turns out to havc bccn morc pcrishablc than thc
god himscll, who wakcs with a qucrulous wondcrmcnt that asks human as
wcll as divinc qucstions:
!l nothing has lollowcd us thcrc, il
nothing has stirrcd in thc dcscrt but somc nondcscript intrudcr,
il an nglishman lrom Cairo with a writ lor our arrcst
lays violcnt hands on a pharoahs portion, altcr thc long hiatus
il nothing is cvcr rcborn,
what havc wc cvcr posscsscd:
Vhat sccmcd to thc young boy thc inviolablc iconography ol transccndcncc
is distinctly violablc and, thcrclorc, pcrhaps unrcadablc as wcll as nal. Pos
scssions and thcir posscssors alikc may bccomc disposscsscd. Salcty abidcs
nowhcrc. A typical string ol subordinatc clauscs (il . . . il . . . il ) cnds now
with a touching qucstion that invitcs us to inlcr two cqually tcrrilying
answcrs: nothing and only that which wc can namc.
8clitt oncc quotcd approvingly thc dictum ol Antonio Machado, thc
stubborn hctcrogcncity ol things |is| thc spccial provincc ol poctry, and
Posscssions, likc all ol 8clitts major pocms, prcscnts both thc intractability
and thc cphcmcrality ol thc matcrial world. Hc has borrowcd thc titlc ol his
cntirc volumc lrom thc titlc ol a pocm by Hart Cranc. Now, 8clitt takcs a
survcy ol a lrozcn \crmont landscapc, and hc sccs in thc surrounding icc
a midrash ol hicroglyphs. Likc many Jcwish pocts who arc awarc ol thcir
status as am hasefer (thc pcoplc ol thc book), 8clitt has always construcd
naturc as a writtcn tcxtthc word hieroglyph rst appcarcd in his carly pocm
Charwoman: :o \cscy Strcctand attcmptcd to rcad intcrnal sccncs as
wcll. 8ut at this point hc casts a cold cyc on his domcstic intcrior. Hicrophant
and intcrprctcr ol transccndcnt signicrs (or so hc hopcs), 8clitt is also sul
cicntly agnostic ncithcr to a rm nor to disbclicvc. Tis last cataloguc pocm
has ncithcr thc bittcrncss ol somc ol his carlicr oncs (in thc scqucncc Tc
rphaning hc addrcsscs his blind and dying mothcr and rclcrs to all that
lorccs your spirit / to swcat in thc int and thc trash ol thc carth likc a slavc)
~ii :nv wovibs vivx:v, ~ii :nv nv~zvx v~v:icii~vs (+8)
+
nor thc acsthctic a rmation that hc pcrmits himscll in Court ol thc Lions:
Alhambra, which traccs a sccnc that gocs lrom ornatc cxtcrior scttings to
thc labyrinths ccntcr |whcrc thc lions| honor a myth ol thc instincts sim
plicity. Now, instcad, hc drcam|s| scmiotic/pagcants, looking around at thc
accumulations ol a lilctimc, which hc altcrnativcly calls trash. An updating
ol King Tut with his own appropriatc rubbish, 8clitt cxamincs his objets,
picturcs, and souvcnirs, all ol which hc rcalizcs arc clcgiac corts to prcscrvc
thc past and to cnsurc a pcrhaps spccious immortality:
a collcctors vagarics mctamorphoscd into posscssions
! would hcap at thc door il ! could, to intcrprct
my lost prcdilcctions and rcpcat my idcntity.
Tc signaturc clcmcntsmctamorphosis and rcpctitionappcar again, but
only wistlully, as thc pocm takcs a brutally honcst nal turn, acknowlcdging
thc lutility ol such drcams ol prcscrvation:
Tc Crcck jostlcs its darkncss undcr thc icc.
8clow is a roaring, a grating ol anglcs and cdgcs, a slobbcr,
a drowning.
Tc boilcrroom rcadics its column ol blood in thc shakcn
thcrmomctcr and scts lorth on thc torrcnt.
!hat ha.e .e e.er possessed?
! wait lor thc tombrobbcrs.
Now, toward thc cnd, counting up is thc samc as counting down. ncc lost,
prcdilcctions can ncvcr rcturn, nor can idcntity bc rcpcatcd. Tc parthcno
gcncsis ol thc scminal man in Xcrox has no human cquivalcnt in this
valcdictory pocm. Rcpcating his rhctorical qucstionVhat havc wc cvcr
posscsscd:8clitt rcminds us that our momcntary stays against oblitcra
tion arc as doomcd as wc arc.
!n his long carccr 8clitt has ncvcr ncglcctcd to conlront thc worlds body,
appropriating its clcmcnts to his own purposcs. Tough hc may lcgitimatcly
qucstion all acts ol posscssion and thc possibilitics ol owncrship, this ncw
collcction should cncouragc his rcadcrs to acknowlcdgc with gratitudc thc
bcqucsts hc has madc to thcm. Vith agc hc sccms to havc cxchangcd his
carlicr bclicl in Vallacc Stcvcns judgmcnt that thc grcatcst povcrty is not to
livc in a physical world lor thc stoical, diminishcd acccptanccs in Stcvcnss
own latc pocms. Tc scnsualist ol thc imagination is waiting lor thc tomb
robbcrs and thcir knock on thc door, but lortunatcly wc now posscss thc
things hc has lclt and thosc hc has invcntoricd.
+6
TN X
TH CM!AN AS TH LTTR !,
R TH PR!LS F \AU\!LL
!N A PSTMRN AG
On Ir.ing Feldman (:cc:)
!
l Jackic Mason could writc poctry hc would probably sound likc !rving
Fcldman. r maybc il !rving Fcldman could do standup hcd sound likc
Jackic Mason. Vith thc cxccption ol Albcrt Goldbarth, no othcr Amcri
can poct, ccrtainly nonc who has rctircd lrom a distinguishcd acadcmic carccr
laudcd and (as hc puts it in onc pocm) Maclaurclcd, shoots past us so many
riscncrgctic torrcnts mixing thc sublimc, thc pathctic, and thc almost
tastclcssas Fcldman docs. His vaudcvillc routincs sccm to bclong to anothcr
ccntury, as though 8rownings dramatic monologucs had bccn rcnovatcd lor
thc n ol thc sicle just past, and yct thcir author camc to poctic maturity in
thc summcr ol High Modcrnism, right altcr Vorld Var !!. (Hc was born in
+:8, ol thc samc gcncration as Ammons, Ashbcry, 8ly, Crcclcy, Ginsbcrg,
Justicc, Mcrrill, Hara, Rich, and Snydcr, though hc sounds likc nonc ol
thcm.) Hc is thc poct as comcdian, a multilacctcd pcrlormcr cxtraordinairc.
8ut hc wasnt always this way, and thc dcvclopmcnt in Fcldmans poctry
ovcr morc than lour dccadcs roughly parallcls thc changcs ol lashion in
Amcrican poctry. Hcrcs Fcldman in :ooo:
Call! Call! Call! Call! Call! Call!
Tought ! was blu ng. Vantcd to scc mc.
:nv vvviis ov v~ibvviiiv ix ~ vos::obvvx ~cv (:oo+)
+
!m loadcd, guys, ! am lullcr than lull.
So, scc cm, rcad cm, lccd cm, cat cmand wccp!
Tcn, our hcartandsoulsatislying smart sharp
snapandslapthccardsonthctablc shtick,
up on two lcct, ! crackcd thc buggy whip my wrist,
and thc vcolakind ol thc hand ! hcld high,
onc by onc, Takc that, .hump! and Takc that, .hamp!
and Takc this .homp! ! smackcd downnoticc scrvcd
to all thc stis and to thc 8ig Sticr
by thc woodcuttcr and mastcr ol thc dcck,
owncr ol thc ax, last man alivc and standing!
(Jokcr, Beautiful False Tings)
Talk about cncrgy, gamcsmanship, tcstostcroncthc wholc shcbang ol mas
culinc scllasscrtivcncss. Tc wildncss makcs him sound likc somc cranky
old codgcr on spccd. 8ut hcrc is Fcldman almost lorty ycars ago:
Likc wcary goddcsscs sick ol othcr worlds
Tosc littlc islands, thcir druggcd whitc bcachcs
Vhcrc thc surl s uncnding colonics arrivc,
And, hclplcss, thc sacricc lics on altars
l thcir indicrcncc, gasping in thc sun,
cring millcnniums ol his wound
Tcy, as lrom thc prows ol ships stcpping,
Comc to whcrc thc paticnt worrics
Tc shccts sprcading day, his body
Stillcd in drowsy rituals ol disastcr.
And thc marblc paradigms, thcir paticnt,
Uncaring hands, drop lrom thc saltparchcd
Light, gathcring your innitc gilt,
!ts burdcn.
(Tc Nurscs, Te Pripet Marshes)
Vhatcvcr clsc this may bc, it is an cxcrcisc in stiltcdncss, lrom thc sti,
slightlyo iambic mctric to thc tortuous similc that intcrrupts bctwccn thc
rst linc and thc scvcnth. Tc diction sccms to comc lrom a translation ol
Hart Cranc lrom nglish to Grcck and back to nglish (cring millcn
niums ol his wound), and thc wholc, hcavy piccc is rcdolcnt ol what wc
might call postncsspostliot, postYcats, postTatc, postLowcll. Young
Fcldman was in thrall to thc mastcrs ol thc rst hall ol thc ccntury, and his
carlicst pocms, which oltcn rcspondcd to thc Holocaust and thc altcrmath
ol Vorld Var !!, did so in acccnts not cntircly his own.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
Fcldman has not just bccomc looscr, jazzicr, and morc dizzying ovcr thc
ycars, hc has shiltcd his cntirc acsthctic. Vhcrc in Te Pripet Marshes hc
issucd thc Zcnlikc pronounccmcnt that Tc pocm is in thc ccntcr, but /
!n thc ccntcr ol thc pocm is cmptincss (Nightwords), now hc has comc
around to thc vicw that thc languagc isnt savcd by stylc / but by a talc worth
tclling (Fragmcnt, Te Life and Letters). !n an agc ol poctic navclgazing,
hc looksmostly but not cxclusivclyoutward, to a world ol cvcnt and
pcrsonality, his pocms tcll storics and lcaturc mcmorably oddball charactcrs.
And yct, lor all this surlacc brio, undcrncath Fcldman is lascinatcd with
ccrtain abstrusc paradoxcs and conundrums, particularly oncs involving, in
somc way, thc authcntic vcrsus thc crsatz, or original vcrsus copy. Tis is
cvidcnt, lor cxamplc, in his most moving piccc, thc titlc scqucncc in ll of Us
Here (+86), which consists ol a scrics ol rstpcrson rcsponscs to an cxhibit
ol plastcr cast sculpturcs by thc latc Gcorgc Scgal, works at oncc lilclikc
and cadavcrous. About thcsc gurcs wc dont ask, Vho arc thcy: / Vc ask,
Vho, who is it thcy rcmind us ol : thinks onc ol thc muscum or gallcry
gocrs. ocs art imitatc lilc, or is it thc othcr way around:
Such spcculations arc, ol coursc, symptomatic ol socallcd postmodcrn
ism, lrom which Fcldman oltcn likcs to distancc himscll cvcn though hc
cxcmplicsalmost by dclaultsomc ol its orthodoxics. Hc looks around
him (Advcnturcs in thc PostModcrn ra, Te Life and Letters) and takcs
swipcs at thosc critics and pocts lor whom thcrc is no passion, just par
ody, bclatcdncss, and rcpctition. Hc lcrociously attacks litcrary modishncss,
tongucinchcck pomposity, mctathiscs and thats, and thc cant ol intcllcc
tual scllaggrandizcmcnt. Hc sccs and hcars through all pronounccmcnts,
positions, and thcorctical statcmcnts, cspccially lrom writcrs whosc only
thcmc is mnipotcncc in thc rcalm ol words, which turn out in thc cnd to
bc only crushcd butt words, cmpty can words.
8ut latcly hc has managcd to put a lrcsh spin on thcsc mattcrs by
approaching thcm through outlandish dramatis pcrsonac. Vho shows up
in thcsc two latcst volumcs: No onc youd likc to mcct on thc strcct or at a
bar, but (lrom anothcr way ol looking at it) vcryonc, thats who. Louchc
charactcrs with dclcctablc bouncc, sinistcr doormcn, transscxual and trans
vcstitc prostitutcs, a lcchcrous oldcr poct, part Socratcs, part satyr, an ovcr
workcd, kvctching Musc consumcd with Clcopatraish immortal longings.
Likc liot, or Richard Howard, Fcldman cnjoys doing thc policc in as many
voiccs as hc can invcnt. And thosc many voiccs constitutc an cxpcrimcnt in
authcnticity and its oppositcs. !ts oltcn hard to tcll who or what is rcal in
his pocms. spccially in thc carlicr ol thcsc two books, Fcldman takcs as
a subjcct, as wcll as thc titlc ol a singlc pocm, |!n| Tcmc Park Amcrica,
whcrc cvcrything is an imitation ol somcthing clsc.
:nv vvviis ov v~ibvviiiv ix ~ vos::obvvx ~cv (:oo+)
+
Typical ol Fcldmans rcccnt charactcrs is Larry awn, hcro ol Funny
8oncs, r Larry awns +oo+ Nights in Condolandia (Beautiful False
Tings), a thirdratc, downonhisluck, 8orscht8clt standup comic, a
hasbccn or ncvcrwas (Frankic: big, Jcrry: big , Larry: Gimmc a brcak!),
who has bccn rcduccd to cntcrtainingil wc can call it thatthc living
dcad in Miami 8cach, rccycling jokcs lor an audicncc about to shu c o
this mortal coil. Likc his crcator, Larry shows us what rcpctition (in his casc,
thc samc old tircd routinc) can and cannot do:
And Lazarus: ocs it say hc was born again
again: For him one bornagain was cnough.
Tcn what about Larry on thc condo circuit,
dcsccnding nightly through humongous human humus
to stand nakcd bclorc thc gums ol cath, joking:
Mornings its hardcr to lilt thc carth ovcrhcad.
And what pushcs up is cach timc lcss, and hcavicr
thc carly worm gcts thc silica spccial.
Gravcsitc gravcl lling his hcart,
lrom a milc away you can hcar, youd swcar,
old Larry rattling and raling likc a maraca
whilc hc rumbashlumps around in Florida.
8ut night altcr night somcthing in him
is kissing o thc samc old jokc with a rst kiss.
Sylvia Plath, movc ovcr. Vith its hcartlcss mockcry ol thc old, thc inrm, and
thc talcntlcss, thc pocm is a grand guignol pcrlormcd wit a Yiddish acccnt.
Anothcr study in sadism is cdipus Host (Beautiful False Tings), in
which thc Tcban king is cast as thc host ol a T\ talk show that is cqual
parts loony bin, lunhousc, tagtcam wrcstling match, and rcvival mccting.
cdipus, in whom blindncss and lamcncss vic lor control, no longcr wcars
his mask lrom Grcck drama. !nstcad wc havc thc hcro himscll:
Vhocvcr did his makcovcrs somc kind ol brain.
Tat mask hc worc is gonc, this lacc is mask cnough.
How could paint improvc thc hollows ol thosc chccks,
thc dark sumps poolcd insidc thc sockcts crusty holcs,
thosc hoary locks thc gorc has plastcrcd into placc:
Tcy say his wardrobc stocks a dozcn changcs
it takcs that long to laundcr out, and in, thc dust.
r, rathcr, wc havc not Oedipus-an-Sich (in Fcldmans world thcrc can bc no
such thing) but an improvcd vcrsion with a ncw mask, outttcd by a rcally
clcvcr couturicr. An addcd twist is that thc pocms narrator is not only watching
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
thc show but taping it lor luturc rcplays, its as il Fcldman has crosscd thc
8cckctt ol Krapps Last Tape with thc Vordsworth ol thc spots ol timc, thosc
momcnts dcpositcd in thc minds mcmory bank lor luturc rcstoration.
Vho comcs to visit such a dcbonair host: Tc usual suspcctsJob and
Lcar drop byas wcll as on Quixotc, Julius Cacsar, ordinary survivors ol
tragcdy, sinncrs and lrcaks, and somc rcal trash who piss on your sympathy.
Fcldman takcs scriously onc ol thosc truths wc solcmnly tcll our studcnts
about Grcat Litcraturc and its Purposcs: that what Aristotlc in thc Poetics
callcd anagnorisis, rccognition, comcs as an unmasking and rcvclation at thc
cnd ol tragcdy, altcr which wccharactcrs and audicncc alikccxpcricncc
thc catharsis ol lcar and pity. !n othcr words, wc arc all ol us in it togcthcr:
Now it happcns to you. Yourc hcrc, and yourc thcrc, too.
8ccausc anyoncs story could bc cvcryoncs story.
Somcthing trcmcndous is going on tonight.
E.erybodys coming out to e.erybody.
vcn coming out to us, to me, out hcrc.
Can anyonc not lccl what ! lccl in my hcart
so strong thc wavc ol it rolls back to them:
Audicncc participation indccd: Coming out has scldom had such apocalyp
tic yct ordinary cccts.
At pocms cnd, Laius and Jocasta makc a surprisc appcarancc. Tc mom
is old cnough to bc his mom, and cvcryonc is gasping bccausc Somcthing
majors going down. 8ut poor cdipus, still in thc dark, mistakcs good old
Mom and ad lor thc mcsscngcr hc lcrvcntly awaits:
Tcn swccttongucd !smcncs laughing, oh god,
cant hold back hcr laughtcrso bubblyhappy
with somcthing shc knows that !m laughing, too.
Surprisc, Papa! Gucss whos hcrc to scc you!
8lack pit ol his mouth opcns. Hcs spcaking.
Apollo, goldcn Phocbus, grcat lord ol sun
and dcath, is that you in your bright chariot:
ocs this cnding qualily as poctic justicc or somc ncw and dclicious irony:
Somctimcs its hard to gaugc thc cmotional tonality ol Fcldmans pocms.
Although onc ol his strcngths is knowing how to cnd a pocm with a wal
lop, closurc itscllthat sound ol a lid clicking shut that Ycats likcdwill
lail to satisly us unlcss wc can tcll whcrc wc havc bccn takcn by thc pocms
rollcrcoastcr wit.
!ntcrruptcd Praycrs (Te Life and Letters) also conccrns a talk show,
only this timc onc on radio. A thrccway rclationship dcvclops: Tc pocms
:nv vvviis ov v~ibvviiiv ix ~ vos::obvvx ~cv (:oo+)
++
narrator listcns to a convcrsation bctwccn Larry thc host and on thc callcr,
and gcts vicarious thrills lrom both. Tc billion bucks ol ons chccry voicc
i.v. dircctly into thc bankrupt hcart, and thc narrator, ycarning lor cvcn a
littlc hopclulncss, hunkcrs down:
! dial on down to whispcr, curl closcr,
plug myscll into thc kcyholc ol sound.
Fccd mc! 8c mc!
Such idcntication cxtcnds all thc way up thc cxistcntial laddcr: on brings
thc listcncr a gilt . . . to 8cings bright mountain! 8ut as thc intcrchangc
bctwccn host and gucst turns nasty, thc listcncr uncorks his own cascadc ol
mctaphoric bravado:
Tcyrc playing our song again
on thc suicidc trivia hotlinc.
ncc thcrc wcrc worlds, and now thcrcs cntcrtainmcnt.
So lcts just rclax and cnjoy thc voidnoiscs
ol thc whirling dcbris ol shattcrcd placcs
drilting apart in thc widc occan ol air,
calling out, trying to gct conncctcd.
And Larry: Lord ol soul dumps, Larry trolls
thc airwavcs lor trash sh, lor oundcrcrs.
Hc tinglcs whcn thc strickcn vibcs imply
a at oncs on thc linc. Vith his glcaming hook,
hcll play him good, hcll pluck him out, hcll toss him
opping onto thc hcap bcncath his hams
ol thc uscd up, thc washcd up, thc obsolctc.
Tc pocm cnds with a typically cxpansivc gcsturc that combincs thc
Lazarus gambit lrom Funny 8oncs with thc Krapps Last Tape onc lrom
cdipus Host. Hcrc thc listcncr rcplays thc talkshow intcrchangc. Tc
pocm has wound down only to bcgin again:
Hcllo, Larry:
!ts a.m., and, riscn lrom
static and silcncc, good old on is back,
cold Lazarus rccyclcd word lor word
by courtcsy ol tapcstill trying
to rcach thc Taumaturgc, still gctting through
to Pluto instcad . . .
Go ahead, Cle.eland,
youre on the air!
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
8cautilul Falsc Tings similarly plays last and loosc with thc thcmcs
ol imitation and rcproduction. Yusul Krip, much bclaurclcd Albanian (!)
poct, thinks hc hcars ovcr thc airwavcs onc slccplcss night an uncarthly
voicc, which turns out to bc that ol antc, rcading Robcrt Pinskys Inferno.
antc, in Paradisc, talking Amcrican! Likc thc narrator in !ntcrruptcd
Praycrs, Krip rcachcs outor his cars doin nccd ol consolation and
conncction, and discovcrs in antcandPinsky his own \irgil. Surcly this
cannot bc, but Krip pursucd thc lantasy ol hcaring a tcstimonial to thc
translation / lrom thc author ol thc original. !ronic: !mpossiblc: antc
trottcd out lrom dccp rctircmcnt in dcath / to pcrlorm thc poct hc no lon
gcr is: Krip continucs:
8cttcr, thcn, to pcddlc sccondhand pocms
in postmodcrn Amcrica than rcign
suprcmc in irrclcvancc on Parnassus:
Vhat in thc world can antc bc doing in this pathctic scllimpcrsonation:
Has hc, likc Miltons Satan, succumbcd in his pridc to thc lolly ol rationalizing
rapturc: !s thcrc no kitschy rhctoric to which a poct will not stoop, no trick
hc will not try, in ordcr to stay alivc or to bc rcborn: mbarrasscd lor antc,
Krip turns thc radio o, but not bclorc rcpcating antcs words along with
him. So who is spcaking: Tc voicc is Krips as wcll as antcs: Tat acccnts
blundcring tcratogcn / was his Albanian, not antcs Florcntinc. / And that
pcrlormancc ol author ccstasy, / that hcartlclt inauthcnticity wcrc his.
An cchoing hallucination ol sorts cnsucs, what Krip hcard was pcrhaps
Pinskys translation ol Krip, or maybc thc translation ol that Fcldman kid
his latcst nglishcr. So nothing is lclt, or clsc too much is. Scll and oth
crncss, pcrlormancc and impcrsonation blur until at last cvcrything sccms
cithcr indistinguishablc or multiplicd and annullcd in othcr othcrncss.
!ts Fcldmans odd vcrsion ol Jamcs Mcrrills Lost in Translation, and his
homagc to at lcast thc titlc ol thc VcillNash musical Lost in the Stars. Krip
drcams that hcs an dysscus stuck with a crcw ol barbariansin thc original
scnsc ol nonspcakcrs ol Grcck (or in this casc Albanian)whosc loul spccch
has annoycd him. 8y plugging thcir cars, hc also tics thcir tongucs. Con
scqucntly, whcn thc Sircns sing, music camc, imbuing thc dark / with his nativc
spccch, his mothcr tonguc. / vcrything hc hcard hc undcrstood. Supcrb
matcrial, this, but sincc thc song is in Albanianhardly a lingua lrancait
will rcquirc translation. Pinsky, Fcldman, or somc ncw tertium quid with thc
portmantcau namc Fcldminsky will, naturally, havc thc last world:
And drilting, in thc cmbracc, on thc bosom,
ol Mothcr Slccp, Krip, drowsy, murmuring
:nv vvviis ov v~ibvviiiv ix ~ vos::obvvx ~cv (:oo+)
+
in thc worlds car, Youll ncvcr know, but, pcoplc,
bclicvc mc, its bcttcr . . . thc original.
Tis is cvcry pocts wish and nightmarc, hopc and lcar. 8clicving that thcrc
cxists somc lost original (Fcldmans +: collcction is cntitlcd Lost Orig-
inals), thc poct drcams ol a homccoming, thc linguistic cquivalcnt ol an
dysscan nostos. 8ut hc must nally acknowlcdgc that an original can only
bc approximatcd, ncvcr rcproduccd, bccausc all uttcrancc nccds broadcast
ing, and its transmission cnsurcs its dissipation.
Fcldmans obscssion with originalandcopy is lurthcr cxcrciscd in
Tc Lilc and Lcttcrs, in which a prodigal son, an indolcnt lailurc, writcs
tritc, lying lcttcrs to his lamily, invcnting a lilc lor himscll. 8ut his words
rcturncd bccausc his mothcr copicd ovcr likc a holy Scripturc his snarlcd,
uncontrollablc scrawl and madc it round and plain and casy to rcad.
Art bcgins to improvc upon, to supplcmcnt, to cmbcllish lilc and its rst
accounts. !ndccd, thc life is virtually noncxistcnt without thc compcnsa
tory and improving mcdium ol thc letters that activcly produccnot mcrcly
rcproduccit. Tc mothcrs nccklaccs ol script do littlc, at rst, to placatc
or dclight thc son, who lalls progrcssivcly into anomic, dcspair, and scll
consumption until, in thc pocms last scction, hc discovcrs in an old pair
ol pants a lcttcr lrom his mothcr, which hc, in a nal compcnsatory act,
procccds to copy lor himscll:
Hc wrotc thc datc. Hc wrotc, car Son. Hc wrotc,
Vcrc glad
thc childrcn all arc wcll again and gctting As.
Hc wrotc, Vcrc also happy that you likc your job . . .
Hc, too, was happy. Hc, too, was glad. Hc wrotc.
All rcpctition, rccction, and ccho constitutc both lailurc and triumph. Vc
can takc this idca onc stcp lurthcr: Litcrary troping, thc mcrc attcmpt to
rcproducc an cvcnt, imagc, phcnomcnon, or lccling, movcs away lrom an
originary point and toward diminishmcnt or wcakcning. 8ut it also spirals
upward to a nal phasc ol succcss, howcvcr illusory or undcscrvcd that might
bc. Hc wrotc . . . Hc was happy: Vhat artist could ask lor anything morc:
Kiss and Tcll (Te Life and Letters) trcads similar ground. !t rccounts
thc worst nightmarc ol any man ol lcttcrs, critic, or cditor (hcrc Allrcd Tcll)
who is in a position to rcccivc thc lilcwork ol any lailcd, disconsolatc, oldcr
writcr (hcrc Kcnncth !rving Kiss) clamoring pathctically lor rccognition.
Tis cautionary talc bcgins sarcastically and unlcclingly, as Allrcd Tcll, who
is himscll hungry lor rcccption and acknowlcdgmcnt, discovcrs amid thc
junk mail a thick shcal containing pagcs
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
ol shrivclcd, discolorcd onion skin, on which,
battcrcd through an old typcwritcr ribbons raggcd
palimpscst, a ghostly scurl ol words had sprcad
rescud from death by force, though pale and faint:
ycs, morc hopclcss pocms ol Kcnncth !rving Kiss!
Altcr rst rccciving only a lcw ol Kisss cpidcrmal sloughings, Fcll thcn
gcts all ol Kiss dumpcd on him (art may bc long but thc .ita is longcr). His
rcaction is not cntircly lacking in sympathy:
xaspcratcd, guilty, lccling doomcd myscll,
! was likc thc surgcon who opcns and gazcs
into thc morbid hcart ol humorlcssncss,
hc notcs thc lack ol tonc, thc arrhythmia,
thc total abscncc ol proprioccption,
cvcrywhcrc hc probcs thcrc arc thc tclltalc,
grim mctastascs ol mcdiocrity,
ol obscssion, praying, cursing, hc capitulatcs
to thc inopcrablc, to mortality.
! gcntlcd it back into its cnvclopc,
and rcsubmittcd it to thc raw dark maw
!d pluckcd it lrom: my dcsks nal landll ol
vcrbivorous, logophagous litcraturc.
De te fabula narratur: Tc haughty Tcll rccognizcs a not unkindrcd spirit, in
burying Kiss, hc is rcturning part ol himscll to thc compost hcap ol litcrary
dctritus. Tc compost hcap is linguistic in morc ways than onc. Fcldman can
not rcsist thc rich rcdundancy ol vcrbivorous and logophagous, synonyms
that attcst to his cxubcrancc and to his charactcrs rcpctitivc rcscmblancc.
Tis brings us to thc qucstion ol whcthcr, bcncath thc giddincss, outragc,
and vcrvc, thcrc is in Fcldmans work such a thing as what Kcats mcmorably
callcd thc truc voicc ol lccling. Fcldman oltcn sccms to bclong to thc camp
ol Horacc, whosc crcdo was a cool nil admirari. Nothing astonishcs, and
his typical rcsponscto namc thc clich that providcs occasion, titlc, and
rclrain to onc nc pocmis No 8ig cal. Fcldman has sccn it all, hc takcs
long vicws, hc chucklcs. r clsc hc rcsorts to Swiltian savagcry, bathing his
pocms in an acid wash. Yct lor all his sarcasm and apparcnt dctachmcnt, not
to mcntion his wcakncss lor ccrtain postmodcrn attitudcs, Fcldman is nally
a humanist poct: Scratch a modcrn cynic and nd a Romantic.
Fcldmans acction lor his lcllow crcaturcs is cvidcnt, lor cxamplc, in
Tc Handball Playcrs at 8righton 8cach (Leaping Clear |+6|), a won
dcrlul carlicr pocm in which hc waxcs ccstatic about old mcn
:nv vvviis ov v~ibvviiiv ix ~ vos::obvvx ~cv (:oo+)
+
who yawp, who quarrcl, who shovc,
who shout thcmsclvcs hoarsc, dont
gct out ol thc way, grab lor odds,
hustlc a handicap, all crust,
all blustcr, all con and gusto, all
on show, tumultuous, blaring,
grunting as thcy lungc.
And it surlaccs morc rcccntly in Varm nough, which rchcarscs a mock
courtly ritual bctwccn an clcvator opcrator namcd ddic and his passcngcr.
Varm cnough lor you today: asks ddic, and thc two mcn procccd to
lob sacrcd gossamcr banalitics back and lorth until, by pocms cnd, thc
phatic clich has bccn translormcd into a gcnuincly mcaninglul qucstion:
You tcll mc, ddic. / !s it warm cnough lor mc today: Likc ccrtain
grcatcr pocms by Kcats, Shcllcy, and Ycats that cnd with qucstions morc
than rhctorical, thc pocm trails o in a conclusion at oncc satislying and
opcncndcd.
Not surprisingly, it is Fcldmans scnsc that what most connccts us to
othcr pcoplc is art itscll, thc cnnobling (as wcll as pathctic and comic)
cccts ol which hc proclaims to a dcgrcc rcminisccnt ol Jamcs Mcrrill.
!n Movictimc, lor instancc, wc nd Fcldman and his lricnd (or wilc or
lovcr) watching a ick that involvcs a pair ol cxcitcd lovcrs and an obcsc
dctcctivc. Altcrward, thc two rccct how happy wc arc with all thcsc
tiny tcxturcs ol bcing / and timc thc lat guy has gcncrously trcatcd us
to / so many momcnts to talk ovcr and apprcciatc. Tc satislaction
ol movicgoing (or radiolistcning or gallcryhopping) is almost scxual,
and, likc scx, usually bcttcr whcn sharcd. Likc thc lovcrs on scrccn, thc
dcparting movicgocrs turn and ask cach othcr, Vas it good lor you:
Mmmm. And you: Vas it good lor you: (Movictimc, Beautiful False
Tings).
Running countcr to this vcin ol sanguinc, lighthcartcd scntimcnt, an
undcrtonc ol clcgy pcrvadcs thcsc two volumcs. \ariations on a Tcmc by
May Swcnson (Te Life and Letters), dcdicatcd to Swcnsons mcmory, rctclls
thc story ol hcr lathcrs dcath, ccntcring on thc cryptic vcword injunction
hc uttcrcd at thc cnd: Fccl mc to do good. 8y attcmpting to tcasc out pos
siblc mcanings lrom this riddling phrasc, Fcldman dramatizcs our pcrlcctly
natural nccd to clicit wisdom lrom tcrminal situations. Vcll ncvcr know
whcthcr thcsc vc words rcprcscnt somc dccp truth or mcrcly thc muttcr
ings ol a man losing scrutability along with consciousncss.
!n his clcgy lor Paul Goodman, Livcs ol thc Pocts (Beautiful False
Tings), Fcldman dwclls on doubling onc morc timc, now to hcartbrcaking
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
ccct. Tc pocm cnds with a mirrorcd imagc that cxquisitcly rccalls us to our
common dcstiny:
And so hcrc onc is bctwccn two cortgcs,
Pauls past and thc prcscnt writcrs asscmbling
(slowly, gcntlcmcn!) somcwhcrc up ahcad.
Vcll, Paul had his dccadc or so in thc sun,
his ncarly ltccn ycars ol lamc
which at this distancc sccm lorcshortcncd
to Andys lamous ltccn min.
Tc timcs took his hand and walkcd with him
a whilc, a milc. And thcn walkcd on.
His coronary whcn it camc along
was wholchcartcd, unrclusablc.
Tis is Fcldman at his dclicatc bcst. Tc lincs arc both casual (Vcll . . .)
and lormal, with thc impcrsonal onc and thc prcscnt writcr displacing !
bccausc, it would sccm, !, likc you and hc and shc, must onc day bc
cxtinguishcd. Tc nal pcrsonication is likc somcthing lrom an updatcd
Greek nthology: Timc accompanics thc man and thcn passcs him by. Most
moving ol all is thc concluding touch. Tc pun in wholchcartcd is no
mcrc display ol wit but an intimation ol thc blcsscdncss ol suddcn dcath.
Tat wholchcartcd is also a word wc oltcn usc to dcscribc cnthusiasm and
applausc, that it suggcsts thc languagc ol acsthctic apprcciation, is tting,
bccausc to Fcldman dcath, almost as much as lilc, is an cntcrtainmcnt lrom
which wc cannot aord to turn away.
For all his conncctions to somc ol thc stylcs and truisms ol postmodcrn
thought, Fcldman rcmains solidly rootcd in many traditions ol thc ninc
tccnth ccntury: not just in his rcvival ol dramatic monologucs, narrativc
pocms (unlikc thc socallcd ncw narrativc pocts, Fcldman is no mcrc rcac
tionary), and vaudcvillc routincs, but also in his commitmcnt to our com
mon humanity. Vith his rum charactcrs, his cxubcrantly rccctivc multiplc
sclvcs, his poctic rcndcrings ol philosophical puzzlcs, and his rccklcss vcrbal
cascadcs, Fcldman is a poct both antic and statcly. Vcirdncss, vitriol, and
zanincss arc onc part ol thcsc pocms. Tc othcr is solid good scnsc with an
undcrtonc ol gcnuincly clcgiac tcndcrncss.
+
L\N X
RPT!T!N AN S!NGULAR!TY l:oo
On Louise Gluck, Tc Scvcn Agcs, and
Jorie Graham, Ncvcr
8
ooks by pocts whosc work wc arc alrcady lamiliar with posc dicr
cnt challcngcs lrom rst bookscithcr work by ncw pocts or work
that is ncw to us as rcadcrsbccausc nothing takcs thc mcasurc ol
an artists progrcss so wcll as an cxamination ol hcr dcvclopmcnt ovcr thc
coursc ol a carccr. !l an author has not lound hcr voicc (curious phrasc) at
thc start, wc criticizc hcr lor sounding dcrivativc or imitativc ol somconc
clsc. ncc shc has lound or invcntcd thc mystcrious knot ol individual idcn
tity and ccmcntcd a singular pcrsona, a tcchniquc, abovc all a uniquc stylc,
wc might thcnparadoxicallycriticizc hcr lor a staid, unvarying samc
ncss. Audcn was thc bcst cxamplc ol thishis latc pocms wcrc mockcd
lor both triviality ol subjcct and scllrcpctition in mcthod. Grccdy rcadcrs
rcquirc, lcgitimatcly, samcncss and dicrcncc all at oncc.
Ncw volumcs by two ol thc most distinctivc pocts ol thcir gcncration
suggcst thc way that plus a changc plus ccst la mcmc chosc. Tcrc is no
mistaking a pocm by Joric Graham lor onc by anyonc clsc, and cvcn thc
morc austcrc, lcss amboyant Louisc Gluck, oncc onc undcrstands hcr stylc
and obscssions, sccms always, incvitably hcrscll. ach is sui generis. How to
rcmain truc to thc scll but also to kccp it uid, changing, and rcsponsivc is
any artists grcatcst challcngc. Although rcadcrs will dicr in thcir cvaluation
ol individual volumcs (somc nd Glucks !ita No.a lcss appcaling than Te
!ild Iris, somc think that Grahams mctaphysical spcculations and syntactic
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
lracturcs go madly awry in S.arm), it is clcar that both pocts would agrcc
with Kcats that thcy would sooncr lail than not bc among thc grcatcst,
that constant cxpcrimcntation (that which is crcativc must crcatc itscll,
Kcats continucs) is thc only way to lorgc a poctic idcntity. And as Ycats suc
cinctly said: !t is myscll that ! rcmakc.
Tcsc rclcrcnccs to carlicr pocts arc not gratuitous. Graham has always
inclincd toward thc cpistcmological dilcmmas plumbcd and articulatcd by thc
nglish Romantics. Hcr ncw book takcs an cpigraph lrom onc ol Kcatss lct
tcrs (How can ! bclicvc in that: Surcly it cannot bc:), in which cagcr wondcr
compctcs with incrcdulity as hc vicws thc sccncry ol thc Lakc istrict lor
thc rst timc. Gluckcspccially in hcr ncw volumcis rcvisiting Vordswor
thian sccncs ol childhood, dcvcloping hcr ongoing lyrical autobiography with
rclcrcncc to what hcr Romantic prccursor callcd spots ol timc, thc glory
and thc lrcshncss ol a drcam, and cvcn visionary drcarincss. !l hcr prcvi
ous work rcspondcd to Plato, Grcck myth and cpic, to antc, and to Milton
and his God, hcr latcst onc suggcsts that shc has bccn taking a lrcsh look at
pocts historically ncarcr. Tis is not to say that hcr autobiographical mancu
vcrs arc somcthing novcl, in all ol hcr books, cspccially rarat (+o), hcr
lamilial lilcas daughtcr, sistcr, wilc, and mothcrhas bccn ccntral. Somc
timcs ovcrtly, somctimcs through parablc, drcam, and lablc, Gluck has madc
hcr poctry out ol livcd cxpcricncc. 8ut now, in Te Se.en ges, Vordsworthian
rcpctition and a rcturn to thc past cngagc hcr morc lully than cvcr bclorc.
Gluck has always sharcd thc dcsirc articulatcd by Adricnnc Rich, to do
somcthing vcry common, in my own way, i.c., to rcmain laithlul simultanc
ously to individuality and ordinary cxpcricncc. !n Mcmoir shc says it sim
ply: |M|y story, in any casc, wasnt uniquc / though, likc cvcryonc clsc, ! had
a story, / a point ol vicw (6:). Hcr doublc goal accts hcr subjccts (thc cvcry
day intcrwovcn with thc mythic) and thc sizc ol hcr pocms (an cconomy that
inspircs dcpth). Hcr point ol vicw gcncratcs an cxquisitc scnsc ol poctic
lorm. Vitncss Tc Musc ol Happincss, a subjcct so atypical ol this usually
saturninc or skcptical poct that shc handlcs it cntircly in scntcncc lragmcnts
except in its cxact middlc, lrom which shapcly intcgratcd scntcnccs arisc.
Finally Glucks languagc lcans toward thc commonplacc and away lrom thc
mandarin. Shc always prclcrs thc simplcst vocabulary as shc acknowlcdgcs
in hcr autobiographical apologia ducation ol thc Poct.
!
8ut thc whittling
ol hcr austcrc cconomics docs not invariably rcsult in uttcr transparcncy.
8ccausc ol both rcpctition and omission, hcr work contains its own conun
drums, thc most important ol which touch on thc vcry naturc ol idcntity.
Lyric addrcss is crucial to all lyric uttcrancc. Vho is spcaking: And
to whom: !n many ol Glucks pocms wc may nd oursclvcs surpriscd to
bc addrcsscd, or clsc discomtcd to brcak in on a convcrsation in mcdias
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+
rcs. Tc much anthologizcd Mock rangc (Te Triumph of chilles) bcgins
with thc condcntial but angry chargc: !t is not thc moon, ! tcll you. And
it rcquircs anothcr sixtccn lincs lor rcadcrs to rcalizc that shc is addrcssing
womcn in gcncral but no onc in particular. !n thc samc book, Horsc is spo
kcn by a man to his young bridc, but rcadcrs oltcn automatically, but wrongly,
assumc that thc spcakcr is a vcrsion ol thc poct hcrscll. arlicr, in Tc Pond
(Te House on Marshland ), thc spcakcr addrcsscs an unspccicd you, a potcn
tial lovcr ol whom wc lcarn nothing clsc. nc could go through all ol hcr
volumcs and discovcr thc samc phcnomcna. !n all ol thcm, cvcn whcn shc
addrcsscs or cvcn mcntions pcoplc who wc inlcr arc gcnuinc in hcr lilcthc
mothcr, thc lathcr, thc sistcr who livcd, thc sistcr who dicd, thc husband (in a
marriagc now dissolvcd) namcd John, thc son namcd NoahGluck hcight
cns thc simplcst acts ol naming and addrcss through hcr chastcncd toncs,
somc chilling, somc angclic, somc mcrcly propositional. !n Moonbcam (Te
Se.en ges) shc addrcsscs a you |who is| likc mc, whcthcr or not you admit
it (). Tat is all wc know ol thc addrcsscc. Gluck has always rcspondcd, shc
has admittcd, to poctry that rcqucsts or cravcs a listcncr . . . ! nccd to lccl
addrcsscd: thc complcmcnt, ! supposc, ol spcaking in ordcr to bc hccdcd. As
a child shc took to Kcats and 8lakc, lccling that thcy wcrc talking dircctly to
hcr. As an adult, rcading Stcvcns ummoxcd hcr, shc lclt supcruous, part
ol somc marginal throng.
2
8ut oltcn hcr pocms makc us wondcr: who is thc
you to whom shc spcaks: !n thc ncw book somctimcs it is thc provcrbial
rcadcr: ! call to you across a monstrous rivcr or chasm / to caution you, to prc
parc you. // arth will scducc you, slowly, impcrccptibly, subtly, not to say with
connivancc (Tc Scnsual Vorld, 6). Somctimcs shc sccms to bc talking to
hcrscll: You wcrc // a bcast at thc cdgc ol its cavc, only / waking and slccping
(ccadc, 8). At lcast oncc it might not cvcn bc a pcrson but an inanimatc
titular gurc, hcr vcrsion ol Vordsworths singlc trcc in thc !ntimations dc:
And it was always this wc discusscd or alludcd to
whcn wc wcrc movcd to spcak.
Tc wcathcr. Tc quincc trcc.
You, in your innoccncc, what do you know ol this world:
(Quincc Trcc, :)
Although thc adolcsccnt Gluck rcvclcd in Kcatss poctry, as an adult (shc
oncc said in an intcrvicw), thc only pocm ol his to which shc rcturns with
cxcitcmcnt is thc mystcrious latc lragmcnt, Tis Living Hand, in which
thc dramatic situation ol thc spcakcr and, cvcn morc, thc idcntity ol thc
addrcsscc arc thoroughly ambiguous.
Gluck is also a mastcr ol dialoguc, but thc practical problcm ol quotation
marks complicatcs issucs ol idcntity. nly onc pocm in thc volumc (Tc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6o
Travclcr) uscs thcm. thcrwisc, dialoguc is signalcd by italics or by nothing
at all. Vc cannot tcll lor surc who is spcaking to whom. Midway through
Stars thc unsatislying morning addrcsscs thc waking poct. Tc last lour
tccn lincs look likc this:
! will ncvcr bc banishcd. ! am thc light,
your pcrsonal anguish and humiliation.
o you darc
scnd mc away as though
you wcrc waiting lor somcthing bcttcr:
Tcrc is no bcttcr.
nly (lor a short spacc)
thc night sky likc
a quarantinc that scts you
apart lrom your task.
nly (soltly, crccly)
thc stars shining. Hcrc,
in thc room, thc bcdroom.
Saying, I .as bra.e, I resisted,
I set myself on re. (+++:)
! is thc morning light, you is thc rccalcitrant poct. 8ut who is thc ! in
thc nal, italicizcd rcmarks: Tc stars ol thc night sky that pcnctratc thc
pocts darkncss and bccomc hcr symbols: Pcrhaps Tcrc is no bcttcr bcgins
a rcsponsc by thc poct hcrscll in which shc scparatcs thc night sky lrom thc
daylight. !n this casc, both thc tonality and thc ccct ol thc pocms conclu
sion havc altcrcd radically.
!dcntity is sharcd, just as lilcs rolcs and human articulations mclt into onc
anothcr. A covcrt continuity in human spccch (or human and supcr human
spccch, as abovc) matchcs othcr tcmporal or gcncrational continuitics. !n
Mothcr and Child, thc mothcr addrcsscs hcr ospring, but thc abscncc ol
quotation marks lorccs us to undcrstand that thc child litcrally rcpcats thc
parcnt and hcr words. Hc also, ol coursc, rcpcats thc gcnctic matcrial ol both
his parcnts and his grandparcnts. Tc pocms cnding can lcgitimatcly and
ccrily bc hcard as coming lrom onc or both ol thc pair:
Tis is why you wcrc born: to silcncc mc.
Cclls ol my mothcr and lathcr, it is your turn
to bc pivotal, to bc thc mastcrpiccc.
! improviscd, ! ncvcr rcmcmbcrcd.
Now its your turn to bc drivcn,
yourc thc onc who dcmands to know:
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+6+
Vhy do ! sucr: Vhy am ! ignorant:
Cclls in a grcat darkncss. Somc machinc madc us,
it is your turn to addrcss it, to go back asking
what am ! lor: Vhat am ! lor: (8)
\crbal rcpctition and acts ol rcal or rcmcmbcrcd rcturn providc thc kcys to
so many ol thcsc pocms that wc lccl Gluck has providcd lor thc lorward
movcmcnt ol hcr art by moving backward in hcr lilc.
Two rclatcd thcmatic clcmcnts match thc importancc ol ambiguous
addrcss in thcsc pocms: thc gcncrality ol myth and thc spccicity ol rcmcm
brancc. Gluck hcrc almost lorgocs hcr prcvious rcliancc on myth and parablc
in lavor ol morc ordinary acts ol mcmory. Child, daughtcr, sistcr, schoolgirl,
adult, wilc, divorcc (but only oncc in this volumc, mothcr) arc hcr looscr and
nonscqucntial vcrsions ol Shakcspcarcs Jaqucss scvcn agcs, thc parts cach
pcrson cnacts in thc play ol lilc. Tc world ol drcam and lablc still makcs an
appcarancc, howcvcr, surrounding (lor thc most part quitc litcrally) thc books
ccntral scction, which contains Glucks morc rcalistic pcrsonal rcminisccnccs.
Tc volumc opcns and closcs with drcams. Tc rst, thc titlc pocm, conccrns
crcation and a dcsccnt into lilc. Tc books last and shortcst pocm, Fablc,
dcals with lilc or dcath (or ctcrnal lilc), a dcsccnt into nirvana, a homc whosc
light providcs no pcacc. Tc world thc spcakcr cntcrs sccms likc thc hcavcn
lound unacccptablc to thc youth and palc virgin in 8lakcs Ah, Sunowcr,
who arrivc at thc swcct goldcn climc only to nd it wanting.
Glucks book is llcd with both prcmonitions (in drcams) and rctrospcc
tion. vcrything sccms to happcn at lcast twicc. Tc titlc pocm bcgins !n my
rst drcam thc world appcarcd / thc salt, thc bittcr, thc lorbiddcn, thc swcct /
!n my sccond ! dcsccndcd (). And !n my rst drcam thc world appcarcd
rccurs toward thc cnd ol thc pocm, as wcll. Likc Graham, Gluck has thc habit
ol giving scvcral pocms in onc volumc thc samc titlc. (Tcrc arc thrcc Fablc
pocms hcrc.) !n addition, all ol thc titlcs arc simplc nouns or noun phrascs,
thc ccct is onc ol naming discrctc itcms, incidcnts, chaptcrs, cvcn still lilcs.
Tc sccular, Vordsworthian pocms at thc books corc arc its strongcst. !n thc
languagc ol simplc lact thcy rclatc thc wish to rcturn, rcpcat, prolilcratc, to
rcncw thc scll in thc lacc ol thc knowlcdgc ol timcs incvitablc passing and
dcprcdations. And thcy rclatc as wcll thc pocts rcsistancc to and acccptancc
ol this knowlcdgc. Tc book is lull ol corts to stop timc. thc attcmpts ol
thc mind / to prcvcnt changc (8irthday, :o), whcn ! didnt movc ! was
pcrlcct (Summcr at thc 8cach, ), ! ncvcr changcd (Tc mpty Glass,
). Hcrc is thc bcautilul rst part ol thc tcnscction Ripc Pcach:
Tcrc was a timc
only ccrtainty gavc mc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6:
any joy. !maginc
ccrtainty, a dcad thing. (:)
Tc luturc is always lcthal, unstablc (Tc mpty Glass, o), and thc prcs
cnt is oltcn unbcarablc. !s it any wondcr that Gluck sounds likc Vordsworth
hcrc (Tcrc was a timc . . . bcgins thc !ntimations dc) and clscwhcrc
(my hcart would lcap up cxultant and collapsc / in dcsolatc anguish shc
writcs in 8irthday): Gluck rcvisits sccncs ol childhood somctimcs dispas
sionatcly, somctimcs nostalgically, somctimcs rcgrctlully. Unlikc somc ol hcr
carlicr, cryptic narrativcs, most ol thcsc arc crystallinc. Study ol My Sistcr
rcsponds to Vordsworths Anccdotc lor Fathcrs and Vc Arc Scvcn, thosc
lyrical ballads dramatizing thc incvitablc impassc in convcrsations bctwccn
adults and childrcn. Hcr parcnts ask hcr youngcr sistcr, who has bccn play
ing with blocks: !hat did you build : / and thcn, bccausc shc sccms / so
blank, so conluscd, / thcy rcpcat thc qucstion (+). 8lank and conluscd
arc strong Vordsworthian words. Hcrc is thc bcginning ol Quincc Trcc,
with its acknowlcdgcmcnt ol changc:
Vc had, in thc cnd, only thc wcathcr lor a subjcct.
Luckily, wc livcd in a world with scasons
wc lclt, still, acccss to varicty:
darkncss, cuphoria, various kinds ol waiting.
! supposc, in thc truc scnsc, our cxchangcs
couldnt bc callcd convcrsation, bcing
dominatcd by accord, by rcpctition. (+)
\aricty and rcpctition go hand in hand. And thcrc is, additionally, thc vcry
languagc ol Vordsworthian abstraction, ncly chisclcd to work against thc
spccicity, wcight, and mcaning ol thc quincc trcc itscll. Grandcur and
splcndor (:) (what Vordsworth callcd thc glory and thc lrcshncss ol
a drcam) inlorm thc mundanc dctails ol thc world ol thc backyard, thc
wcathcr, thc convcrsation.
!n spitc ol all thc motils ol mirroring and othcr rcpctitions in this vol
umc, Gluck scldom rcsorts to thc rhctorical tropc ol chiasmus, prclcrring thc
parallcl tropc ol anaphora. So whcn shc cmploys chiasmus in Timc (6+),
a crucial Romantic pocm, wc sit up and takc noticc. ncc again thc pocm
bcgins with a myth ol abundancc and a lall into nothingncss: Tcrc was
too much, always, thcn too littlc. Mcmory itscll works through chiastic
mirroring and rcpctition: Tings bccamc drcams, drcams bccamc things.
Tc nominal subjcct hcrc is childhood sickncss, and rcading in bcd, lol
lowcd by hcalth and growing up: Tc pcrccivcd bccamc thc rcmcmbcrcd, /
thc rcmcmbcrcd, thc pcrccivcd. Such rhctorical crossings arc matchcd by
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+6
a lincar crossingovcr: And timc wcnt on, cvcn whcn thcrc was almost noth
ing lclt. vcrything in this volumc is inlormcd by its authors awarcncss ol
having gonc bcyond lilcs hallway point. Shc rclcrs to hcr ability to think
back lty ycars. Shc rcturns to hcr childhood homc (Unpaintcd oor, ),
and nds it both thc samc and not thc samc:
Tc housc was thc samc, but
thc door was dicrcnt.
Not rcd anymorcunpaintcd wood.
Tc trccs wcrc thc samc: thc oak, thc coppcr bccch.
8ut thc pcoplcall thc inhabitants ol thc past
wcrc gonc: lost, dcad, movcd away.
Tc childrcn lrom across thc strcct
old mcn and womcn.
Vhat shc calls thc bcwildcring accuracy ol imagination and drcam works
backward and lorward. Hcr wholc childhood was a long wish to bc clsc
whcrc. Rcarriving at thc origin shc says simply: Tis is thc housc, this
must bc / thc childhood ! had in mind. Vhat a dclicious unpacking ol a
clich: had in mind rclcrs to both thc childhood shc intcndcd at thc timc
and thc childhood shc has bornc with hcr altcr a hall ccntury. Tc mind has
rcmaincd a constant altcr childhood has passcd.
Such constancy distinguishcs onc ol thc volumcs most moving pocms,
Mitosis, a psychological myth ol thc division bctwccn two antagonists
which wc likc to think wcrc at onc point idcntical: thc mind (always lingcr
ing, wanting morc, nally wanting to go back, to try lor a sccond chancc)
and thc body, implacably moving ahcad, as it had to, to stay alivc. !n child
hood thc mind wants innity, in middlc agc it wants a ncw bcginning:
!t wishcd simply to rcpcat thc wholc passagc,
likc thc cxultant conductor, who lccls only that
thc violins might havc bccn a littlc soltcr, morc plangcnt. (6)
Tc body has no drcam cxccpt thc drcam ol thc luturc. Tc pocm cnds
with thc kind ol scnsuous dclight that Gluck, in othcr moods, tcnds to sus
pcct. Vhilc hardly rising to cxultant hcights, and rcmaining truc to hcr con
gcnital sadncss, shc rcachcs a point ol what wc might labcl satislaction as
mind and body comc to rcjoin onc anothcr, at lcast gurativcly:
Limitlcss world! Tc vistas clcar, thc clouds riscn.
Tc watcr azurc, thc sca plants bcnding and sighing
among thc coral rccls, thc sullcn mcrmaids
all suddcnly angcls, or likc angcls. And music
rising ovcr thc opcn sca
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
xactly likc thc drcam ol thc mind.
Tc samc sca, thc samc shimmcring clds.
Tc platc ol lruit, thc idcntical
violin (in thc past and thc luturc) but
soltcr now, nally
su cicntly sad. ()
Samcncss and idcntity cxist primarily as rhctorical gurcs rathcr than as
actual phcnomcna, unity is a poctic construct.
Tc last thrcc pocms (bclorc thc nal cpitaphic Fablc) ocr a trio ol
Gluckian songs, an cpitomc ol hcr miniaturizing art. Tc largcly unpunc
tuatcd Aubadc (6) is an cxpcrimcnt in rcpctition: Tcrc was onc sum
mcr / that rcturncd many timcs ovcr / thcrc was onc owcr unlurling / taking
many lorms . . . , it bcgins. nc summcr, onc owcr, onc lovc, onc gardcn, all
rcpcatcd: Gluck cnds hcr incantation with onc summcr rcturning ovcr and
ovcr / thcrc was onc dawn / ! grcw old watching|.| Tc ardors ol obscrva
tion conncct hcr with Stcvcns, mastcr ol rcpctition (who said that wc movc
lrom that cvcrcarly candor to its latc plural), and Vordsworth, who spokc
ol thc singlc trcc, owcr, and cld in thc !ntimations dc, and who lound a
su cicnt challcngc in lilcs singlc, unidircctional path. Likc thc ovcrwhclm
ing majority ol pocms in thc book, Aubadc is in thc past tcnsc (thc lcw in
thc prcscnt rclcr to thc past), as is thc subscqucnt Scrccncd Porch, whosc
titlc rclcrs not just to a piccc ol domcstic architccturc but to thc scparation
ol thc nuclcar lamily lrom a natural world that ignorcs thc grcat drama
ol human lilc. Naturcs bcauty oncc providcd a solacing arrangcmcnt onto
which wc could projcct our nccd lor somcthing ctcrnal:
!mmunity to timc, to changc. Scnsation
ol pcrlcct salcty, thc scnsc ol bcing
protcctcd lrom what wc lovcd
And our intcnsc nccd was absorbcd by thc night
and rcturncd as sustcnancc. (66)
!n Scrccncd Porch Gluck achicvcs thc rarc pcrlcction that unitcs dctails
lrom a singlc lilc with gcncralizations about our sharcd humanity. Tcrc is
no ! in thc pocm, only a collcctivc wc that rclcrs to thc poct and hcr lam
ily and to thc rcst ol us as wcll.
Summcr Night, thc books pcnultimatc pocm, howcvcr, bcgins cntircly
in thc rstpcrsonal singular, as thc poct hcars hcr own hcart bcating. !ts
sound rcminds hcr ol thosc pluralitics lclt undonclcttcrs unscnt, journcys
unmadc, |a|nd thc lilc, in a scnsc, ncvcr complctcly livcd. At thc ccntcr ol
thc pocm Gluck makcs an cquation bctwccn hcr lilc and hcr work:
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+6
And thc art always in somc dangcr ol growing rcpctitious.
Vhy not: Vhy not: Vhy should my pocms not imitatc my lilc:
Vhosc lcsson is not thc apothcosis but thc pattcrn, whosc mcaning
is not in thc gcsturc but in thc incrtia, thc rcvcric. (6)
Gluck has ncvcr rcpcatcd hcrscll in hcr art althoughcspccially hcrc
rcpctition is onc ol hcr thcmatic constants. At thc cnd ol this pocm shc
movcs bcautilully bcyond thc scll. Now shc hcars in hcr hcartbcat not hcr
own past but a common, gcncral onc, and shc allics hcrscll with prccursor
pocts. Committing hcrscll to lilcs incxhaustiblc ordinarincss, shc simultanc
ously achicvcs a consoling music in Summcr Night likc that ol Mahlcr in
his Ruckcrt songs, or Strauss in thc Four Last Songs:
csirc, lonclincss, wind in thc owcring almond
surcly thcsc arc thc grcat, thc incxhaustiblc subjccts
to which my prcdcccssors apprcnticcd thcmsclvcs.
! hcar thcm ccho in my own hcart, disguiscd as convcntion.
8alm ol thc summcr night, balm ol thc ordinary,
impcrial joy and sorrow ol human cxistcncc,
thc drcamcd as wcll as thc livcd
what could bc dcarcr than this, givcn thc closcncss ol dcath: (6)
cath is thc mothcr ol bcauty: in his lamous rcpcatcd linc lrom Sun
day Morning Stcvcns showcd himscll, likc Kcats, scnsitivc to thc lacts ol
mortality. 8oth pocts undcrstood as wcll thc rclations among incrtia, rcv
cric, and pattcrn. Likc thcm, Gluck has committcd hcrscll to thc poctry
ol carth, and has lound in Vordsworthian spots ol timc, thosc sccncs ol
powcr in childhood, cvidcncc ol thc minds rcsistancc to both thc bodys will
and naturcs bcckoning scductions. Summcr Night is cspccially appcaling
whcn sct bcsidc thc momcnts and gcsturcs ol bittcr irony, scllloathing, and
skcpticism that havc always accompanicd Glucks rcsponscs to thc physi
cal world. Tis book docs not omit such gcsturcs. Vitncss Ancicnt Tcxt,
which bcgins as il it wcrc a homagc to Hcnry \aughan (Happy that rst
whitc agc whcn wc / Livcd by thc carths mcrc charity! or Happy thosc
carly days, whcn ! / Shincd in my angcl inlancy), but thcn continucs in a
distinctly sardonic, Gluckian tonc:
How dccply lortunatc my lilc, my cvcry praycr
hcard by thc angcls.
! askcd lor thc carth, ! rcccivcd carth, likc so much
mud in thc lacc. (::)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+66
Summcr Night rcsponds to such asscrtions with somcthingcan wc cvcn
usc thc word:likc happincss, or quict acccptancc. Gluck said in duca
tion ol thc Poct that thc lundamcntal cxpcricncc ol thc writcr is hclplcss
ncss,
1
but shc now sccms to nd it lcss tcrrilying than bclorc. Although shc
makcs us awarc ol Pascals silcncc tcrncl dc ccs cspaccs innis and ol thc
tcrrors ol thc cvcry day, and although shc ncvcr raiscs hcr voicc, Gluck has
now addcd somcthing to hcr undcrstanding ol lilcs disappointmcnts and
plcasurcs: wc might call it maturc wisdom. Hclplcssncss has turncd into an
accommodation with thc scll and thc world.
X
T
hc dicrcnccs bctwccn Grahams tcmpcr and art and Glucks arc many
and transparcnt. Glucks colossal but lowgradc sadncss makcs ccstasy
impossiblc, although in Te Se.en ges shc sccms surpriscd to havc achicvcd
ordinary human happincss. Grahams brcathlcss, cncrgctic onrush always
vcrgcs on scxual or rcligious rapturc. Tc hallmarks ol Glucks poctry arc hcr
modcratc, oltcn dispassionatc toncs and a prclcrcncc lor short lyric uttcr
anccs with simplc syntax and diction. Grahams cxpansivc, swirling, cxplosivc
articulations somctimcs (as in hcr rcccnt work) sccm not cvcn to bc scntcnccs.
Gluck maintains roots in scll and rclativcs that branch out in chastc pocms ol
obscrvation or rcminisccncc or in lyrics with incantatory anaphora, shc looks
primarily inward, or outward as lar as thc immcdiatc lamily. Graham, on thc
othcr hand, trics to imaginc what an idca might bc, as it is lclt on thc pulsc,
shc makcs us awarc ol thc vcry proccsscs ol thinking, ol thc act ol conscious
ncss. Shc movcs both dccp insidc thc mind and out into thc cosmos. And
whcrcas Gluck has always maintaincd an anccdotal basis lor many ol hcr
short pocms, Graham has bcgun to movc away lrom intcrtwincd, multilac
ctcd narrativcs that gavc substancc to such pocms as Vhat thc nd !s For,
Fission, From thc Ncw Vorld, Tc Phasc altcr History, and Mani
lcst cstiny. (Two ol thc ncw pocms, Tc Takcnown God, and High
Tidc, rctain thc oldcr narrativc structurc.) 8ccausc hcr major subjcct is our
pcrccptual ncgotiations with thc world, shc must crcatc or discovcr adcquatc
acsthctic lorm lor philosophical problcms: how thc world appcars, how wc
rcgistcr its appcarancc, and how it inhabits and cxpands our minds.
Tc pocms cxist along a spcctrum lrom thc di cult but comprchcn
siblc to thc di cult and impcnctrablc. ach rcadcr, ! supposc, will wcigh
in with dicrcnt prclcrcnccs and dcgrccs ol undcrstanding. Grahams rcp
ctitions dicr lrom Glucks but thcy ocr rcadcrsol this poct who has
always bccn obscsscd with cntranccs and thc rclation ol in and outa way
in. First ol all, shc lavors long, convolutcd, dccply subordinatcd scntcnccs,
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+6
oltcn lacking distinct, parsiblc grammatical coordinatcs. Vithin any singlc
pocm, shc rcpcats phrascs, words, and motils in a quasimusical way. Sccond,
thcrc is thc (annoying) habit ol prolilcrating parcnthcscs and brackcts |its
oltcn impossiblc to undcrstand why shc uscs onc markcr instcad ol thc othcr
at any givcn momcnt|, which suggcst unccrtainty, simultancity, hallucina
tion, or thc cquivalcncc ol a paintcrly montagc instcad ol a straight scqucncc.
Tird, Grahamsnot cntircly ncwlavoritc parts ol spccch arc gcrunds and
prcscnt participlcs, so that action sccms ncvcr to bcgin or nish but always to
bc progrcssing and rcpcating itscll. !n Te Errancy (+) a pocm titlcd Tc
Turning, in which an act ol dcscription bccomcs a kind ol narrativc, cnds
with thc qucstion: Vhosc turn is it now: And wc scc hcrc how Graham is
playing not only with two scnscs ol thc word turn but also with thc dicr
cnccs bctwccn thc gcrund and thc simplc noun. !n thc ncw book shc poscs
a simplc qucstion: Vhcrc docs this going go: (Philosophcrs Stonc, ).
Tc gcrunds go wild in Ne.er, much ol which has scasidc scttings. !n hcr
rcndcrings ol thc roiling (a muchuscd word), crcsting, and withdrawing
wavcs, and thc luccnt spcckling ol light upon watcr, Graham has lound a
stylc appositc to hcr subjcct. !n thc samc way that John Ashbcry is our bcst
poct ol wcathcr, Graham may bc thc bcst poct ol watcr.
Tc opulcnt activity mimickcd and produccd within hcr pocms comcs
oltcn at thc pricc ol clarity. (Adam Kirsch has alrcady writtcn, sympathcti
cally but quizzically, about whcthcr thcsc things arc pocms instcad ol somc
thing clsc.) Twcnty ycars ago shc cntcrtaincd many ol thc samc thcmatic
prcoccupations, but hcr scntcnccs and hcr lincs wcrc shortcr. Latcr, bcginning
with Te End of Beauty, hcr third book, cxpansion, prolilcration, and lracturc
took ovcr. !n most ol thc ncw pocms, Graham usually starts with simplicity
ol articulation and noticc, and thcn lcts spin hcr mctaphysical cncrgics as shc
hurls hcr mind into thc visiblc and its bordcrs with thc invisiblc. Morc than
hall ol thc twcntyscvcn pocms in Ne.er havc straightlorward bcginnings,
whcthcr simplc scntcnccs or mcrc phrascs. Likc Charlcs Vright, Graham
has borrowcdlrom Pound: lrom Gary Snydcr:thc habit ol moving lrom
phrascs to clauscs and ol somctimcs constructing lcngthy phrascs with no
simplc prcdicatc. Hcrc arc somc random opcnings: ! am bcncath thc trcc. To
thc right thc rivcr is mclting thc young sun (Altcrwards, ), !ts likc this.
Tcrc arc quantitics (Philosophcrs Stonc, 6), How old arc you: (volu
tion, :+), Tosc ncckpointing out lull bodylcngth and calling / outwards
ovcr thc brcaking wavcs (Gulls, :6), Clustcr ol birdchattcr a knot at thc
ccntcr ol a suprcmc / unlolding (Tc Timc 8cing, ), All day thcrc had
bccn clouds and thc cxpcctation / ol sun (Surl, +8+).
Tc last citation makcs a dcccptivc nod in thc dircction ol lizabcth
8ishop, whosc stcady cyc Graham prolcsscs to cmulatc, but whosc modcst
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+68
stylc shc scldom rcplicatcs. Likc 8ishop, Graham includcs acts ol scll
corrcction in thc vcry pattcrns ol hcr obscrvation. Graham movcs lrom thc
sccn to thc unsccn, gazing stcadily likc 8ishop but thcn whipping o in a
mclodramatic lrcnzy ol mctaphysical spcculation. Vhcrc 8ishop is lastidi
ous, Graham is lastidious and rhapsodic. Tc two pocts ask thc samc qucs
tions in dicrcnt dialccts: How is thc natural world scriptcd: How can wc
rcproducc it in our languagc: How might such languagc modcl itscll on
natural cbb and ow, waxing and waning: !n our sccular, postRomantic agc
thcsc constitutc thcological dilcmmas and statcmcnts not ol bclicl but ol
approach. Four ol hcr ncw pocms arc titlcd Praycr (as in prcvious volumcs
Graham ocrs multiplc takcs on a singlc subjcct), othcrs havc rcligious titlcs
(\ia Ncgativa, Covcnant) or subjcct mattcr (Tc Takcnown God).
Morc than a ccntury altcr thc dcath ol God thcrc is no onc to answcr hcr
qucstions, many ol which sccm likc pocms dircctcd outward into thc void or
into thc inncr dcpths. Likc 8ishop (in hcr carly vcr :ooo !llustrations and
a Complctc Concordancc) Graham conlronts thc potcntial lor rcligious
cxpcricncc only to look and look |hcr| inlant sight away.
!n a vidcotapc madc in + lor thc Lannan Foundation, Graham
rcplicd to an intcrvicwcrs qucstion about hcr di culty that shc docs not
nd hcr own poctry opaquc: ! think ! makc it as clcar as it can bc. Hcr
answcr may bc any authors rcsponscAshbcry and Frost said thc samc
thingor it may bc slightly disingcnuous, sincc shc is wcll awarc ol hcr
rcputation as an oltcn inscrutablc poct. Vhatcvcr shc says, hcr pocms
ocr us thc bcst cvidcncc ol thcir makcrs mcthods. (Cl. . H. Lawrcncc:
Ncvcr trust thc tcllcr, trust thc talc.) Tc shortcst and sccmingly simplcst
pocm in thc book (rst publishcd in thc Ne. Yorker) may makc us ask:
Vhy cant thcy all bc this clcar: !n a notc, Graham inlorms us that thc
last linc is bascd on somcthing by Zbignicw Hcrbcrt, that shc takc|s hcr|
pocm to bc in convcrsation with such notion ol thc godsand ol how his
tory translorms thcm, that thc pocm wondcrs what thc suitablc distancc
bctwccn subjcct and objcct, gods and humans, humans and naturc, might
indccd bc.
Likc much ol hcr work, Praycr (From 8chind Trccs) is an objcct lcs
son in what wc might call bctwccnncss. !t is also only dcccptivcly casy:
Tc branchlul ol dricd lcavcs blown about at thc ccntcr
ol thc road, turning on itscll is it a path:
snakc: graybrown updralting: drama:
wholc aair playcd out bctwccn thc winds quivcr, winds
dusty hastc, an almost impcccablc proccdurc,
bit ol sccncry lrom which all lcar
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+6
is dclctcd. So it
is right hcrc, whcrc ! am pccring, whcrc ! am supposcd to
disccrn,
how thc ncw gods walk bchind thc old gods at thc suitablc distancc. (+)
Praycr prays lor nothing, addrcsscs no onc othcr than thc rcadcr, and
achicvcs its cnds by rclativcly (lor Graham) simplc mcans. Tc pocm cmploys
no brackcts, no parcnthcscs. !t givcs instcad a scrics ol altcrnativcs dividcd by
colons, as thc poct lists possiblc answcrs to a qucstion (in a runon scntcncc)
provokcd by a natural phcnomcnon. Tis is as condcnscd a pocm as Gra
ham has cvcr writtcn, but it docs no morc than wondcr (hcr word) about
thc suitablc distancc. !t is a miniaturizcd, imagist mctamorphosis: not
a gcnuinc vidian talc, with mythic ctiology, only thc obscrvation ol changc
and a spcculation about thc possibility ol thc invisiblc cmanating lrom thc
visiblc.
Probably no living Amcrican poct has as much hungcr lor spcculation
and lor mctaphysical qucsting as Graham. Hcr work is a wclcomc altcrna
tivc to thc intcllcctual, linguistic, and cmotional impovcrishmcnt ol so much
contcmporary poctry. !n hcr avidity shc rcscmblcs Stcvcns, in hcr looking
at thc world shc rcscmblcs 8ishop, thc latc Amy Clampitt, and (onc ol
Clampitts and 8ishops lavoritc pocts) Hopkins. 8ut whcrcas paticncc is thc
virtuc most associatcd with looking at thc world, Grahams rarc talcnt has
rcsultcd in impatient obscrving. !nstcad ol thc calm attcntion ol Hopkins,
Ruskin, and arwin, thc grcatcst ol thc \ictorian lookcrsatthcsurround,
Graham ocrs swirling junkcts ol action, a mind and a world in pcrpctual
motion. ! am a lrcqucncy, currcnt ics through announccs thc rst linc ol
bbtidc (6), thc spcakcr charactcrizcs hcrscllin tcrms ol both clcctric
ity and watcras a lorcc ol rcpctition and uniqucncss.
Grahams most Stcvcnsian pocm, Hungcr, is virtually a homagc to
Crcdcnccs ol Summcr lrom which it takcs a linc as cpigraph. Sct at days
apogcc, it contains short scctions that havc timc signaturcs (++:8, ++:,
+::oo, +::o+, and so on) as noon comcs and gocs. At thc cnd thc poct makcs
a kind ol notc to hcrscll: Tc god: rcpctition without variant, and thcn
immcdiatcly ocrs a scllcorrccting altcrnativc: its spousc: incvitablc ncc
cssary variant. !n othcr words, thc pocm also uscs Stcvcnss thcmcand
variations lormat, and his idca ol pocms as notcs (lor Graham, not notcs
towards a suprcmc ction but toward an undcrstanding ol proccss and
objcct). Likc Stcvcns, Graham sccks but ncvcr nds a nakcd truth, what hc
labcls thc rock. Shc rcquircs and also rcsists what hc calls thc cvasions ol
as, bccausc all languagc is mctaphorical, gurativc, approximatc. !n thc last
lincs ol Hungcr shc asks lor A truth not a symbol. Grip it in scrutiny ().
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+o
Again, thc vcry lact that shc cchocs Stcvcns mcans that poctic articulation
may bc sccondary, indccd cvasivc:
. . . !t was di cult to sing in lacc
l thc objcct. Tc singcrs had to avcrt thcmsclvcs
r clsc avcrt thc objcct. ccp in thc woods
Tcy sang ol summcr in thc common clds.
Tcy sang dcsiring an objcct that was ncar,
!n lacc ol which dcsirc no longcr movcd,
Nor madc ol itscll that which it could not nd . . .
Trcc timcs thc conccntrcd scll takcs hold, thrcc timcs
Tc thricc conccntrcd scll, having posscsscd
Tc objcct, grips it in sa.age scrutiny . . .
(Crcdcnccs ol Summcr, \!!, my cmphasis)
Likc Stcvcns, Graham wishcs to tracc thc gold sun about thc whitcncd sky /
Vithout cvasion by a singlc mctaphor (Crcdcnccs, !!), and likc him shc
rcalizcs and dramatizcs thc impossibility ol hcr wish. 8oth pocts occasion
ally sound notcs ol dcspcration. !n Rclay Station, hcr volumcs concluding
pocm, shc claimsagainst hcr bcttcr judgmcnta thing and its dcscrip
tion can bc onc: can bc thc timc it takcs to say thc thing (+o6). No, it cannot.
vcn at noon, thc timc ol Hungcr, whcn thcrc arc no shadows, rcality itscll
comcs only in parts, ncvcr in nakcd csscnccs.
Stcvcns and Graham both scck // Tc pocm ol purc rcality, untouchcd /
8y tropc or dcviation, straight to thc word, / Straight to thc transxing
objcct . . . Vc scck / Nothing bcyond rcality (Stcvcns, An rdinary vc
ning in Ncw Havcn, !X). Tis is a sophisticatcd pcrsons nostalgic wish lor
prcscncc and rcality, lor an unmcdiatcd vision. You do undcrstand, dont
you, by looking: shc inquircs ovcr again as a rclrain in Lc Mantcau dc Pas
cal (Te Errancy), Vhosc many othcr compclling rcpctitions act as a lugal
strctto as wcll as a psychological gcsturc. Grahams compulsivc looking is
allicd to hcr doublc scnsc that, on thc onc hand, shc may bc savcd by look
ing or at lcasc lcarn somcthing by it, but that, on thc othcr, lookinglikc
languagcis mcdiatcd by human consciousncss and can ncvcr bc othcr than
partial. !n choosing sca, and light and air as objccts ol hcr corts, Gra
ham cnsurcs a plcnitudc ol mattcr, Tomas Vyatts linc Sincc in nct ! scck
to hold thc wind, thc cpigraph to Te Errancy, might bc hcr calling card.
Vhcrc 8ishop took Tc Monumcnt (ol wood) and a cabin on stilts (Tc
nd ol March) as objccts lor hcr dcscriptivc cncrgics and symbols ol matc
rial rcality, Graham makcs hcr poctic and cpistcmological task morc di cult
by looking at what shc cannot grasp.
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
++
At thc samc timc, thc shccr matcriality ol thc world inspircs thc lush,
almost tangiblc, dcnscly syntactic thickcts ol Grahams poctry. Tc \isiblc
Vorld (Materialism) bcgins mattcrollactly, ! dig my hands into thc abso
lutc, as shc gocs litcrally bcncath thc surlacc ol things. Actionphysical or
mcntalprcdominatcs so that all thc pocms sccm to bc prcscnt tcnsc (cvcn
whcn thcy arc not), whcrcas Gluck, likc Vordsworth, sccms always to bc liv
ing in thc past. Tc rst Praycr ol Ne.er rcproduccs an act ol watching with
an (uncharactcristic) long rst scntcncc, lollowcd by a scqucncc ol shortcr,
simplcr oncs. Tis is thc opcning:
vcr a dock railing, ! watch thc minnows, thousands, swirl
thcmsclvcs, cach a minusculc musclc, but also, without thc
way to create currcnt, making ol thcir unison (Turning, rc
inlolding,
cntcring and cxiting thcir own unison in unison) making ol
thcmsclvcs a
visual currcnt, onc that cannot lrcight or sway by
minutcst lractions thc watcrs downdralts and upswirls, thc
docksidc cyclcs ol nallyarriving boatwakcs, thcrc whcrc
thcy hit dccpcr rcsistancc, watcr that sccms to burst into
itscll (it has thosc laycrs), a rcal currcnt though mostly
invisiblc scnding into thc visiblc (minnows) arrowing
motion that lorccs changc
this is lrccdom. ()
Tc dcscription rcndcrs action variously: thc rst simplc vcrb (watch) is
succccdcd by onc implicd innitivc (swirl) and onc actual onc (to create
currcnt) and thcn thc onrush ol participlcs and gcrunds (making, Turn
ing, rcinlolding, cntcring and cxiting, making) cmbcddcd in which
comc thc rcdundancics ol sonic rcpctition (minusculc musclc, unison in
unison) and thc cntirc linc ol dcnscly rcpcatcd rhyming sounds: docksidc
cyclcs ol nallyarriving boatwakcs, thcrc whcrc . . . |.| nly Hopkins
ccrtainly not 8ishopcan so sumptuously match thc voraciousncss ol
thc cyc xcd on thc visiblc world to thc musical thickncss ol sound itscll
(! caught this morning mornings minion, kingdomoldaylights dau
phin). Tc pocm lollows up thc dcnsity ol dcscription with thc simplic
ity ol application: Nobody gcts / what thcy want. Ncvcr again arc you thc
samc. Tc longing / is to bc purc. Vhat you gct is to bc changcd. !nnity
thrcads itscll through timc, through spacc, through light and watcr, through
thc matcrial world, and wc arc both lrcc and actcd upon by thc lorcc ol
circumstancc. Tc sccing poct catchcs thc visiblc with hcr cyc, at thc samc
timc acknowlcdging a rcscmblancc bctwccn hcrscll and thc thousands ol
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
swirling minnows bclow hcr, caught in a currcnt both ol, and not ol, thcir
own making.
No othcr contcmporary poct wcavcs so richly syncsthctic a labric, or
vibratcs so cxcitcdly bctwccn thc sccn and thc hcard. !n Vhcrc: Tc Pcr
son, sccing and hcaring intcrtwinc with touch as thcy do in Shcllcys Mont
8lanc. Hcrc, Graham witncsscs thc hammcr in thc sun bchind thc lcncc
and, almost simultancously, thc way thc |w|ind silks thc lronds (). !n !n/
Silcncc shc idcntics |t|hc song that lalls upon thc listcncrs cyc (+). Likc
Vhitman, Stcvcns, and 8ishop, Graham lovcs to situatc hcrscll on a shorclinc
and to usc thc availablc scnsory data as a goad to, and a rccction ol, hcr mcta
physical aspirations. Tcsc arc also vocational oncs. Likc thcsc pocts in thc
Romantic tradition who scc cvidcncc ol natural writing in thc world, and who
listcn attcntivcly to thc sounds ol birds and wind, Graham challcngcs and
mcasurcs hcrscll with rcspcct to hcr witncssing. Tus, in usk Shorc Praycr,
shc pays homagc to thc 8ishop ol Tc Map and Tc nd ol March by
cxamining a shorclinc and sccing cvidcncc ol writing in and along it. Tc
pocm bcgins: Tc crccping rcvclation ol shorclinc. / Tc undcrshadowcd
paislcys scripting wavccdgc down / slopc / on thc barcst inclination . . .
(+). Shc wants to catch and takc hold ol what shc knows shc cannot just as
shc rcalizcs thc impossibility ol hcr analogous wish: to bclicvc this truly, / not
in mctaphor. Graham sccs thc impcrial sun go down. Vith it, thc human
will comcs to thc cnd (:). Tc motil ol natural writing, whcthcr a Christian
liber naturae, thc traditional cvidcncc ol Gods prcscncc, or a rccction ol thc
poct as a surrogatc god, rcquircs carclul looking and rcading, and Graham has
always attcmptcd to nd, to savc, and to rcndcr hcrscll through such looking.
8ut listcning is morc problcmatic still, il only bccausc sound is tcmporal
and morc di cult to catch than light, hardcr to grasp than wind. !n Tc
Complcx Mcchanism ol thc 8rcak (anothcr pocm whosc vcry titlc signals
thc rclationship ol a natural phcnomcnon to an artistic onc, in this casc
thc brcaks ol wavcs and lincs), Graham bcings with thc visiblc, trying to
dcscribc thc ccct ol wavcs waxing and waning. 8oth thc wavcs and thc rcal
rows ol lowying pclicans () movc and dissolvc, two natural clcmcnts
mirroring onc anothcr. !n trying to scc and to rccord thc wavcs, Graham
involvcs hcrscll in acts ol scllcorrcction. Hcr stringing togcthcr ol parcn
thctical phrascs, both simultancous and scqucntial in thcir ccct, mimics thc
motion ol thc wavcs and also stands in lor hcr grccdy imaginativc dcsirc to
rcarrangc lincar timc in ordcr to makc cvcrything visiblc at oncc. Shc says
straightlorwardly: Tc mind docsnt / want it to brcakuncasc whcrc thc
hcart pushcs outthc mind / wants only to kccp it coming, ycs, sun making
thc notyctbrcaking crcst / so gold whcrc thc / pclicans turn as thcy glidc
apping thcn glidingas long as possiblc without too much dropping ().
vvvv:i:iox ~xb sixcii~vi:v (:oo)
+
As usual hcr brcathlcss, onrushing cxcitcmcnt sounds a scxual notc. !t is as
though Molly 8loom had bccomc an intcllcctual.
Graham has always lookcd hard at thc world, now in midpocm, shc
turns hcr attcntion lrom thc visiblc to thc audiblc. Shc listcns hard. Shc asks
hcr rcadcr (or hcrscll :) to closc your cycs and thcn corrccts hcrscll, acknowl
cdging thc incvitablc ovcrlapping ol thc scnscs: although its only whcn you
opcn thcm you hcar thc scvcn / kinds ol / sound. (As with mpsons scvcn
typcs ol ambiguity, what is important is not so much thc distinct kinds as
thc human cort to distinguish thcm. nc is surpriscd not that it is donc
wcll but that it is donc at all.) Shc has attcndcd to lorcc and now shc mca
surcs it sonically, listcning to hissattcnings, thc pcbblcd wordlikc pull
ing down and rolling up, through thc crash ol onc wavc hitting anothcr,
subsiding into thc lowcring and suddcn soltcning ol all bctwccns, and thcn
hcaring thc rst crash yct oncc morc. Tc conclusion ol thc pocmltccn
lincsbcgins and cnds with parcnthcscs, cvcrything shc hcars, including
a momcntary lull, is brackctcd to givc a scnsc ol bctwccnncss. Likc thc
occan, thc music ol Grahams poctry ignorcs normal signaturcs ol kcy and
tcmpo, hcr most radical cxpcrimcnts may bc thosc in which shc both sig
nals and cschcws closurc. Grammatically and syntactically shc gocs bcyond
thc latc A. R. Ammons, who also lookcd closcly at his surround and who
mcticulously accumulatcd his obscrvations in a scrics ol phrascs or clauscs
scparatcd by his bclovcd colons. Grahams carlicr scnsitivity to thc visual
worldwhcthcr paintcd or naturalis complcmcntcd and supcrscdcd by
hcr musical scnsitivity in pocms likc this. Hcr philosophical thcmcs (sharcd
in part with Ammons) arc causc and ccct, origin and dcstination, and thc
way things work tcmporally. 8ut by looking at wavcs and watcr shc rcpro
duccs hcr obscssion with middlcs, bctwccns. Hcr hurlyburly, syncsthctic
rcsponsc to thc world allows hcr to combinc thc philosophcrs wondcr with
thc paintcrs cyc. !n a pocm titlcd High Tidc, Graham admits that oncc,
altcr high tidc, shc lound a bcachlong / scripting / ol dcbris (:8). Likc
8ishops kitc string in Tc nd ol March, what Graham discovcrs incvita
bly rcminds hcr, and hcr rcadcrs, ol all corts to pcnctratc thc visiblc through
to its origins and its mcanings, to conncct ccct with causc.
At thc samc timc (il ! may rcsort to hcr distinction bctwccn nouns
and gcrunds) shc is trying to distinguish bctwccn dccds and doings. Tc
gcnitivc phrasc, a scripting ol dcbris, rclcrs ambiguously to thc dcbris
as writtcn cvidcncc (a script writtcn in dcbris) and as thc dircct objcct ol
thc action ol scripting. No action sccms complctcd in Grahams poctry,
ccssation or lulllmcnt would bc cquivalcnt to dcath. (!ntcrcstingly, Gluck
cnds hcr bcautilul pocm Cclcstial Music in rarat with thc linc: Tc lovc
ol lorm is a lovc ol cndings.) !n his grcat autobiographical pocm Nutting
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
Vordsworth rccounts a momcnt whcn, at thc agc ol tcn, hc wandcrcd into
a hazcl grovc and rippcd it apart in an act ol rapacious, asscrtivc masculinity.
8ut bclorc doing so hc lolls about, taking his casc, hc hcars what hc calls
thc murmur and thc murmuring sound ol ncarby watcrs. ! takc this as a
distinction bctwccn an abstraction and a prcscnttcnsc activity, or bctwccn
thc Platonic idca ol a thing and that samc thing in a scllpcrlormancc. Tc
samc distinctionbctwccn a thing in its doncncss and in its doingis
vcry much at thc hcart ol Grahams rcccnt poctry. !n xit Vound shc
rclcrs to thc bluc bctwccn thc branchcs / pulling upwards and away so that
branchcs / bccomc / branching (:). Much ol thc book gcncratcs qucstions
about complction, about whcthcr a thing is cvcr donc. ! takc it as signicant
that in hcr carlicr Tc Phasc altcr History (Fegion of Unlikeness) Graham
cmbcddcd quotations lrom, and allusions to, Macbeth, thc play that asks thc
vcry Grahamian qucstion about whcthcr a thing is donc whcn tis donc.
Such qucrics arc practical as wcll as philosophical and psychological. !n
Ne.er Graham qucstions thc c cacy ol all action, and thc ways in which wc
rcsist and also acccpt changcs lrom within and lrom without.
!n hcr prcvious book, Te Errancy, Graham includcd a group ol pocms
spokcn by a scrics ol guardian angcls, whom shc idcnticd as witncsscs,
unablc to ccct changc. !n Ne.er it is thc poct hcrscll who wrcstlcs not only
with acts ol pcrccption but also with activitics ol control and thc dctcrmina
tion ol dcstiny. Tc rst pocm (Praycr) cnds with hcr unccrtaintics about hcr
powcr: ! could not choosc words. ! am lrcc to go. / ! cannot ol coursc comc
back. Not to this. Ncvcr. / !t is a ghost poscd on my lips. Hcrc: ncvcr (). Tc
biographical background ol thcsc short dcclarations is probably thc scrics ol
rcccnt changcs in Grahams lilca divorcc, a physical movc lrom thc Middlc
Vcst to thc ast Coastbut thcir lunction in thc pocm is to alcrt us, in a
scrics ol asscrtivc rcnunciations, to a rmations still to comc. |N|cvcr any
thing but cxpcctant: thc wavcs and thc tidc in thc books nal pocm (Rclay
Station, +o) arc also a standin lor thc pocts own statc ol mind. !n xit
Vound shc distanccs hcrscll lrom hcrscll, rclcrring (likc Stcvcns) to shc,
ncvcr to !. As shc cxamincs hcrscll, shc wondcrs about onc ol hcr habitual
qucstions: thc problcm as always was thc problcm ol how / somcthing could
comc out ol nothing. At thc cnd, rccalling a prcvious condition shc lclt
as il shc could / rcconcilc / this prcscnt to that onc, and that thc / thinking /
wantcd that so. And that it strivcd (6). ! takc this rcalization as thc pocts
dctcrmination to continuc hcr movcmcnt, howcvcr raggcd or ruggcd it might
bc, toward somc dcgrcc ol illumination. Ne.er is a vcry strong book. !t asks
qucstions, it assays answcrs, it a rms and thcn withdraws its a rmations.
Tc mind ol thc poct and thc activitics ol hcr poctic thinking rcscmblc thc
wavcs shc conlronts and dcscribcs. Likc thc wavcs, thcy arc cndlcss.
+
TVL\ X
PTRY !N R\!V
On the Collcctcd Pocms ol onald Justicc (:cc,)
!
wondcr whcthcr onald Justicc, bclorc his dcath two months ago, was
ablc to look at his Collected Poems and to cast himscll back in timc by
a hall ccntury and into thc placc ol his scptuagcnarian prccursor who
saw his own collcctcd works and dccidcd that hc was glad hc had writtcn
his pocms. / Tcy wcrc ol a rcmcmbcrcd timc / r ol somcthing sccn that
hc likcd. Tc Aricl ol Vallacc Stcvcnss Tc Planct on thc Tablc can say
somcwhat cavalicrly, or with laux navct, that it was not important that
thcy survivc. Rathcr, hc commits himscll to a doctrinc ol authcnticity, to thc
truc voicc ol lccling and ol witncss: Vhat mattcrcd was that thcy should
bcar / Somc lincamcnt or charactcr . . . l thc planct ol which thcy wcrc
part. Vhcn considcring thcir lcgacy and its possiblc pcrmancncc in thc
lacc ol human mortality, artists cxhibit a rangc ol rcsponscs, lrom thc asscr
tivc to thc nonchalant. n onc hand, wc havc Horacc and Shakcspcarc,
building thcir monumcnts that timc will not cacc. n thc othcr, Gcorgc
8alanchinc, who wcnt cvcn lurthcr than Stcvcns and told his chorcographic
hcirs that hc didnt carc whcthcr his ballcts survivcd bccausc hc kncw thcy
would incvitably changc ovcr timc and that dancc notation could ncvcr prc
scrvc in ambcr thc csscncc ol his work. 8ut whcrcas dancc livcs only in
thc momcnt ol its happcning, words rcmain imprintcd on thc pagc and
in thc mind ol thc rcading survivor. Vhat docs or should a poct cxpcct and
dcmand ol thc sccondary world (V. H. Audcns phrasc), thc planct on thc
tablc that hc has amasscd during a lilctimc ol wordcralting: Any Collected
Poems cncouragcs us to takc thc mcasurc ol its author, this particular planct
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
on thc rcvicwcrs tablc cstablishcs oncc morc Justicc as a major modcst poct,
a man who ncvcr publishcd a bad pocm. !n this rcgard hc is dicrcnt lrom
Robcrt Lowcll, Jamcs Mcrrill, and John Ashbcry, whosc worksgrcatcr in
lcngth and in rangcarc oltcn vitiatcd by poctic misstcps, scllindulgcncc,
or tonal cxccsscs. Justicc has stuck to his last in both subjccts (childhood and
nostalgia prcdominantly) and toncs (mclancholy, quict contcmplation, and
authorial rcticcncc). !n addition, his insistcnt rcvision and his stylistic varicty
mark him as a craltsman as carclul as lizabcth 8ishop and as cxpcrimcntal
(comparc Stcvcns again: All poctry is cxpcrimcntal poctry), as uid and
opcn to ncw gcsturcs as Lowcll and Ashbcry. Quict thoughtlulncss docs not
prccludc cvolutionary translormation.
My association ol Stcvcns and Justicc is not mcrcly lancilul. Justicc
always claimcd Stcvcns, along with Charlcs 8audclairc, as onc ol his major
inucnccs. Tc Planct on thc Tablc is, onc might say, an cxcrcisc in prolcp
tic nostalgiathc poct conlronts thc luturc but simultancously knows that
his rcadcrs will absorb his stoic gracc as thcy look backwardand as such
it suits thc moods and subjccts onald Justicc madc his own ovcr almost a
hall ccntury. Although thcrc havc bccn othcrs ol his gcncration with similar
conccrns ( Jamcs Mcrrill on childhood, Mcrrill and Richard Howard on art,
artists, and thc cntirc rcalm ol thc acsthctic), and although Charlcs Vright
vics with him as a mastcr ol mclancholy, Justicc spokc morc ucntly on
bchall ol nostalgia as a primary human cmotion than any othcr poct ol his
gcncration. Tracing how that nostalgia works and has changcd ovcr timc is
onc mcans ol calculating thc changcs in Justiccs art.
8y comparison to dcspair, angst, ragc, and libidinal surgings, nostalgia
sucrs lorm ncgligcncc or condcsccnsion among postmodcrn intcllcctuals,
who tcnd to prclcr raw opcnncss, cxistcntial lcar, or sclllaccration in thcir
art. !n hcr suggcstivc study On Longing, poctcritic Susan Stcwart calls it a
discasc. Shc allics it with still lilc, thc muchmaligncd lorm that tradition
ally occupics thc lowcst rung on thc laddcr ol paintings gcnrcs and that, by
conccaling history and tcmporality, . . . cngagcs in an illusion ol timclcss
ncss. Likc illusion and still lilc, nostalgia sccms a mattcr ol bad laith bccausc
it allows, indccd cncouragcs, us to cvadc or ignorc rcality. For Stcwart, such
lorgctlulncss and cvasion arc apparcntly thcmsclvcs to bc avoidcd. 8ut just
as still lilc as a gcnrc lor litcrary contcmplation has undcrgonc translorma
tions at thc hands ol such stcrn modcrnist mastcrs as Valtcr 8cnjamin,
\ladimir Nabokov, and V. G. Scbald, so also nostalgia must undcrgo an
upward rcvision. Morc than mcrc cscapism, it, too, cngagcs and connccts us
to rcality rathcr than distanccs us lrom it. Justicc, both an anatomist and a
practitioncr ol nostalgia, dcscrvcs sympathy, rcspcct, and attcntion. !t is timc
to rcndcr both him and his subjcct grcatcr justicc.
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+
Vhats wrong with nostalgia, anyway: !t docs not invariably mcan
rcgrct lor a bcttcr timc. For somconc likc Justicc, who livcd through thc
cprcssion, thc cquation ol mclancholy, rathcr than simplc drcamy long
ing, and homcsickncss (thc litcral scnsc ol nostalgia) sccms both natural
and dclcnsiblc. Hc was not always happy in an dcnic childhood, rathcr,
both past and prcscnt sccm imbucd with incxplicablc lowgradc dcprcs
sion. ! am rcmindcd ol a qucstion poscd to thc latc novclist Lauric Colwin,
who was accuscd ol bcing too Ne. Yorkerish, ol writing intcriordccoratcd
ction about wcllcducatcd, wcllbrcd, goodlooking pcoplc with a sul
cicncy ol incomc and an abundancc ol tastc and talcnt. Vhy did shc
writc only about rich pcoplc: Shc rcplicd to thc intcrvicwcr that, hav
ing oncc bccn poor hcrscll, shc didnt nd thc condition vcry intcrcsting,
that shc would rathcr writc about a cast ol charactcrs somcwhat highcr on
thc incomc scalc. Vho could dcny hcr that: Vhy would anyonc objcct to
Justiccs combination ol longing lor, and anxicty about, a past whosc lactu
ality hc could ncithcr dcny nor wish away: !n many cascs ( Justiccs is onc)
an artists subjccts sccm lcss choscn than givcn, thcy constitutc a kind ol
gcnctic matcrial or pokcr hand that hc has bccn dcalt and must, in turn, do
somcthing with.
All ol Justiccs rcvicwcrs and rcadcrs bring up thc mclancholy, nostalgia,
and sadncss in his pocms. Fcw ol thcm rccord how mclancholy masks tcr
ror in his work. !n + Jcromc McGann comparcd him to antc Gabricl
Rossctti, lor his pocms about poctry and a lilc in art. Rcading thc Selected
Poems (+) and thinking ol its homogcncity ol tonc and subjcct mattcr,
\crnon Young callcd him morc hcdgchog than lox. dward Hirsch in a
rcvicw ol Te Sunset Maker (+8) labclcd him thc rcsidcnt gcnius ol nostal
gia. Jocl Connaroc camc closcr to thc lull truth, obscrving in +6 that thc
poct brings his controllcd, urbanc intcnsity to his Chckhovian dcscriptions
ol loss and ol thc unlivcd lilc, ol thc solitary, cmpty, sad world ol thosc who
rcccivc no mail, havc no urgcnt hungcrswho, in short, lcad thcir livcs but
do not own thcm. Tis strikcs mc as accuratc, cxccpt that thcrcs a dicrcncc
bctwccn cxamining thc livcs ol othcrs and rcccting on oncscll. Justicc always
did both. !n his + cssay 8cnign bscurity hc writcs cloqucntly about
dwin Arlington Robinsons ros Turannos, that Jamcsian mastcrpiccc ol
uncxplaincd domcstic tragcdy. And thcrc arc momcnts in his poctry whcn
a movc outwardto storytclling, to obscrvation ol othcrsallows him his
own Robinsonsian or Chckhovian momcnts. 8y and largc, howcvcr, thc tcr
rors ol Justicc arc cntircly intcrnal oncs. Tcrcs an instructivc comparison
with thc young Robcrt Lowcll (My Last Altcrnoon with Unclc cvcrcux
Vinslow), who looks at his lamily and says unsccn and allsccing, ! was
Agrippina / in thc Goldcn Housc ol Ncro. Justicc lor thc most part docs
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
without hcroic, mythic aspiration or prctcnsc, thc ordinary insccuritics ol
childhood su cc lor him.
Tc insccuritics arc chronic and thcrclorc lcnd thcmsclvcs to rcpcatcd
itcration. Rcpctition signals obscssion or at lcast conccrn, and it clcarly
inspircs this pocts tcchniquc. Considcr thc ccct ol rcpctition in (to takc
two cxamplcs lrom many) Nostalgia ol thc Lakclronts ( publishcd in thc
+8os) and Sadncss (in thc +os). 8oth arc ( largcly) constructcd in six
linc stanzas and both lcaturc a dcvicc that Justicc alonc among contcmpo
rary pocts has obscssivcly likcd: rcpcating instcad ol rhyming words. ( !ts
lor this rcason that hc also likcs thc scstina, thc villancllc, and thc curtailcd
villancllc.) Tc rst pocm includcs two longcr middlc stanzas (thc third and
lourth, ol six, havc scvcn lincs apiccc), thc variation both brcaks thc samc
ncss and adds a ccrtain symmctry to thc wholc. Hcrc arc thc rst two:
Citics burn bchind us, thc lakc glittcrs.
A tall loudspcakcr is announcing prizcs,
Anothcr, by thc lakc, thc timcs ol cruiscs.
Childhood, oncc vast with tcrrors and surpriscs,
!s lading to a landscapc dccp with distancc
And always thc sad piano in thc distancc,
Faintly, in thc distancc, a ghostly tinkling
( indcciphcrablc blurrcd harmonics)
r somc lar horn rcpcating ovcr watcr
!ts high lost notc, cut loosc lrom all harmonics.
At such timcs, wakclul, a child will drcam thc world.
And this is thc world wc run to lrom thc world.
Unlikc Villiam Vordsworth, who also grcw up lostcrcd alikc by bcauty and
by lcar, Justicc tcnds not to singlc out spots ol timc but to mcrgc his mcmo
rics into gcsturcs and picturcs that typily a chronic condition. Such typily
ing can casily scducc us into thinking that thc picturcs arc mcrc washcs ol
color, aquarcllcs or miniaturcs. 8lurrcd harmonics, dark swcct altcrnoons
ol storm and rain (stanza ), and a local lakc lamcd among paintcrs lor its
blucs (stanza ) cannot cntircly crasc thc thudding horror ol words that
rhymc only with thcmsclvcs. istancc, distancc, distancc: its a tocsin ol
alicnation. !t is as though thc principlc ol all vcrbal rcpctitionwhcthcr ol
sounds, as in rhymcs, or ol wholc wordsmust countcr thc cccts ol histori
cal and pcrsonal changc. Justicc trics to x thc past by limiting thc numbcr
ol words at his disposal. Timc makcs its crasurcs. Altcr thc middlc stanzas,
cnrichcd with thcir addcd lincs, thc nal (again, sixlinc) stanzas rcturn us
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+
to a stylistic diminution as prool ol timcs incxorablc dcstructivcncss, against
which Justicc ocrs us, not thc scllcondcnt pronounccmcnts ol Horacc or
Shakcspcarc on his immortality, but a mutcd, saddcncd, sotto vocc dcspair.
Altcr thc war (altcr childhood), whcn thc grand hotcls havc bccn shuttcrcd,
whcn wc comc back . . . as parcnts, whcn thcrc arc no lantcrns now strung
bctwccn pincs / nly, likc history, thc stark barc northcrn pincs, thc poct
has only mcmorics, somc modcst picturcs, and Proustian associations:
And altcr a timc thc lakclront disappcars
!nto thc stubborn vcrscs ol its cxilcs
r a lcw giltcd skctchcs ol old picrs.
!t rains pcrhaps on thc othcr sidc ol thc hcart,
Tcn wc rcmcmbcr, whcthcr wc would or no.
Nostalgia comcs with thc smcll ol rain, you know.
Tc homonymic rcpctitions rcgistcr subtlc tonal shilts. 8ccausc things havc
vanishcd, thc clcan balancc ol harmonics with harmonics or world with
world must also go. So wc arc lclt with disappcars and a mutcd but hopc
lul rcappcaring picrs. Tc pocm cnds with its only sccondpcrson pronoun,
which brings us into thc pocts condcncc, and makcs a small community (as
in Stcvcns: Vhcrc bcing thcrc togcthcr is cnough). Vc havc thc satislac
tions ol nostalgia, but thcy arc braccd against thc thrcat ol undoing: know
gocs with no, and rccollcction is an involuntary proccss. !t is as though
Justicc wants to combat, or at lcast rcsist, thc incvitablc. Tis is hardly a dis
casc or thc illusion ol timclcssncss. Justicc hcard thc wingcd chariot morc
cmphatically than most ol his contcmporarics.
Tc latcr Sadncss sounds a similar tonc but with somc variations. !t
starts by trying to idcntily what was ncvcr spokcn, only intimatcd:
car ghosts, dcar prcscnccs, my dcar parcnts,
Vhy wcrc you so sad on porchcs, whispcring:
Vhat grcat mclancholics wcrc looscd among our swings!
As bclorc a storm onc hcars thc lcavcs whispcring
And marks cach small changc in thc atmosphcrc,
So was it thcn to ovcrhcar and to lcar.
Vhat distinguishcs Justiccs mclancholy lrom that ol Allrcd, Lord Tcnnyson
or Charlcs Vrightto pick two cxamplcs lrom thc past and thc prcscntis
that lor all ol his intcrcst in both music and painting, hc tcnds to cschcw
Tcnnysons mclliuousncss (Tc moan ol dovcs in immcmorial clms / And
murmur ol innumcrablc bccs) and Vrights gorgcous picturcs. Hc substi
tutcs an almost discursivc languagc, as in thc lourth stanza, in which thc vcry
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8o
vcrb dcscribcs and somc concluding abstractions movc us away lrom thc
physical world to its cccts on thc psychc:
8urchcld dcscribcs thc pinchcd whitc souls ol violcts
Frothing thc mouth ol a dcrclict old minc
Just as cvil August night comcs down,
All umbcr, but lor onc smudgc ol dusky carminc.
!t is thc sky ol a pcculiar sadncss
Tc othcr sidc pcrhaps ol somc rarc gladncss.
Tc strongcst, bccausc thc most clcarly antithctical rhymcd couplct in thc
pocm comcs in thc pairing ol sadncss and gladncss (with thc ccho ol
Vordsworths Vc pocts in our youth bcgin in gladncss, / but thcrcol comc
in thc cnd dcspondcncy and madncss). Audcns dcnition ol poctry as thc
clcar dcnition ol mixcd lcclings comcs to mind.
Justicc concludcs thc pocm on anothcr Romantic notc: Sadncss has its
own bcauty, ol coursc, bcgins thc scvcnth stanza. Hc is thinking ol John
Kcatss Mclancholy, who dwclls with 8cauty, 8cauty that must dic. Tc
colloquialism ol coursc is no at llcr. Likc thc modicd and rcpcatcd
cnd words, it dclibcratcly kccps tragcdy and dcspair at arms lcngth. Tc
rivcr darkcns at dusk, and wc stand looking out at it through rain. Tc
conclusion humanizcs lilc itscll, cchocs thc tcars at thc cnd ol thc !ntima
tions dc, and, most touchingly, modcstly joins cndings and bcginnings,
lactuality and guration:
!t is as il lilc itscll wcrc somchow bruiscd
And tcndcr at this hour, and a lcw tcars commcncc.
Not that thcy are but that thcy feel immcnsc.
Likc 8ishop at thc cnd ol nc Art, trying to prctcnd that shc lccls no pain
at hcr loss, Justicc kccps passion undcr thc control ol art, without whosc
asbcstos glovcs hc would bc lclt with an unstoppablc outpouring. Not, lor
him, a spontancous ovcrow ol powcrlul lcclings. 8ut this scllrcstraint
makcs us wcll awarc ol thc turbulcncc within.
nc ol thc compclling aspccts ol Justiccs poctry is its rcticcncc, clcarly
on display in thcsc pocms ol sadncss. Hc was not onc ol thc loudroyant
mastcrs whom Audcn (in Tc Horatians) dismisscs in lavor ol thc morc
mod cst toncs ol Horacc and his companionablc lollowcrs. Although wc
comc to know dctails ol thc pocts lilcthc Florida childhood, thc music
lcssons, thc lricnds who dicd carly and latcJusticc was pcrhaps thc lcast opcn
ol contcmporary pocts. 8y this ! do not mcrcly mcan that thc sparcd us
much ol his inncr lilc or that hc cvadcd thc conlcssional modc oncc madc
popular by pocts likc Lowcll, who disavowcd thc vcry tcrm. ! mcan that thc
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+8+
rstpcrson pronoun sccms lcss prcvalcnt in Justiccs work than in anyoncs
sincc Stcvcnss. Just as Stcvcns projccts himscll into thc hc ol thc Snow
Man, thc Canon Aspirin, Crispin thc Comcdian, Prolcssor ucalyptus, or
ol any thirdpcrson subjcct in his vcrsc, so Justicc, too, could rcgistcr uc
tuations ol lccling and pcrsonal obscrvation without ncccssarily calling our
attcntion to his own scll. !t is as though Justicc throughout his work wishcd
to harncss thc conccrns ol thc 8ritish Romantics to thc rcstraint ol (at lcast
onc sidc ol ) Stcvcns, but with thc discursivc casc and clarity ol 8ishop or his
own studcnt and somcwhat youngcr contcmporary Mark Strand.
Comparc, lor cxamplc, Justiccs Fragmcnt: to a Mirror to Jamcs Mcr
rills carly Mirror. Ncithcr givcs what wc might initially cxpcct: an occa
sion lor scllcxamination and scrutiny that lcads to undcrstanding. Vith
its obliqucly rhymcd couplcts (a strcsscd pcnultimatc syllablc in an odd
numbcrcd linc rhymcs with thc last syllablc ol its partncr in thc lollow
ing, cvcn onc: arrangcmcnt and changc, supcrcial and sh), its arch
diction charactcristic ol thc youthlul acsthctc, its tircd spcakcr (thc mirror
itscll ), Mcrrills pocm conccrns thc naturc ol looking. Tc mirror rccords thc
glanccs ol lamily mcmbcrs, who arc rcgarding and mcasuring thcmsclvcs,
and it thcn adrcsscs thc windowthat complcmcntary lramcr ol a sccnc
on thc oppositc wall. Looking out, looking across, looking in, Narcissus and
thc wholc principlc ol scllknowlcdgc arc not lar lrom thc pocts mind,
nor is cho, prcscnt in thc rhymcs, and in thc mirrors last acknowlcdgmcnt:
to a lacclcss will, / cho ol minc, ! am amcnablc. For his part, Justicc
addrcsscs a mirror but (and hcrc is his distinctivcncss) docs not involvc thc
scll: cvcn morc than Mcrrills, his pocm is typically not an cxcrcisc in human
scllknowlcdgc or rccction. A scrics ol qucstions, thc pocm dcmands what
cxists 8cyond that bland laadc ol yours and what bclorc it, as wcll. Tc
nal qucstion gurcs a world with no pcoplc, no qucstioncrs, thcrclorc no
lunction lor thc mirror and no human scllknowlcdgc:
!s this thc promiscd abscncc ! lorcscc
!n you, whcn no brcath anymorc shall stir
Tc milky surlacc ol thc slccping pond,
And you shall havc back your rcst at last,
Your hall ol nothingncss:
Justicc ncvcr wrotc about dward Hoppcr, but hc should havc. Hoppcrs
picturcs ol cxistcntial lonclincss cithcr with or without human bcings givc
us an appropriatc analogy to pocms in which pcoplc, cvcn whcn thcy arc
togcthcr, arc invariably alonc. Justiccs stylistic rcticcncc dcrivcs lrom his
uninching scnsc ol not bclonging. Tc warm and luzzy lcclings wc nor
mally associatc with nostalgia havc bccn largcly rcplaccd by thc chisclcd
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8:
coldncss that accompanics an acccptancc ol alicnation and that (in Justiccs
midcarccr) lound a stylistic cquivalcnt in cxpcrimcntal lrcc vcrsc and a sur
rcalism that conncctcd him lor a whilc with Mark Strand and paintcrs likc
Giorgio c Chirico.
Tc icy ars poetica Pocm ignorcs both spcakcr and rcadcr: Tis pocm
is not addrcsscd to you. / You may comc into it bricy, / 8ut no onc will
nd you hcrc, no onc. / You will havc changcd bclorc thc pocm will. Tis
is as closc as Justicc comcs to Horaccs monumcntum acrc pcrcnnius, but
it ocrs littlc consolation. Hc has takcn thc Ncw Critical idcal ol a pocm as
an autotclic phcnomcnon and pushcd it to its horrilyingly logical conclu
sion. And hc turns his back on thc kind ol consolations Vallacc Stcvcns
might havc ocrcd, his pocm comcs without guitar, / Ncithcr in rags nor
any purplc lashion. / And thcrc is nothing in it to comlort you. xcunt both
Hoon and thc Man on thc ump. xcunt, in lact, all human bcings, as wcll
as thcir wontcd cmotional satislactions: Nostalgias wcrc pcclcd lrom it long
ago. Strippcddown, barc, prosaic and uncaring, thc pocm ol Pocm will
ccrtainly not hclp us cithcr to cnjoy lilc or to cndurc it.
Justiccs rcadjustmcnt to his scnsc ol idcntity coincidcd, as it always docs
in pocts ol thc grcatcst scrupulousncss, with thc constant rcvision ol his
work. (You didnt writc, you rcwrotc, says thc ghost ol Randall Jarrcll to
Robcrt Lowcll in onc ol Lowclls sonncts.) From thc samc timc as Pocm,
ScllPortrait as Still Lilc has undcrgonc a translormation ol its own as
thc poct wavcrcd bctwccn vcrsions: lrom an initial appcarancc, to a rcvision
in thc Ne. and Selected Poems (+), to a nal rcturn hcrc to thc original
vcrsion. Far lrom rcprcscnting what Stcwart calls an illusion ol timclcss
ncss, Justiccs tinkcring with his pocm provcs that scllportraiturc and cvcn
paintcd still lilcs undcrgo constant changc, pocm and painting arc both, in
Paul \alrys lamous pronounccmcnt, ncvcr complctcd, mcrcly abandoncd.
!n addition to changcs in thc incidcntal dctails ol thc picturc in thc pocm,
thc most important uctuation is thc dcgrcc ol Justiccs scllinvolvcmcnt.
!n both vcrsions (ol six unrhymcd quatrains) hc makcs his bricl appcarancc
only in thc sccond hall. Hcrc arc lincs +6: ol thc + vcrsion:
And whcrc am !: ! dont
Comc into thc picturc.
Pocts, lcllow cxilcs,
Lisping your purc Spanish,
!ts your sccnc now, and wclcomc.
You takc up thc guitar.
You cut up thc mclon.
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+8
Myscll, !m not about to
isturb thc composition.
8ut thc poct obviously had sccond thoughts about his modcst cvasions,
his rclusal to disturb or cvcn to cntcr his picturc, his insistcncc on rcndcr
ing a scllportrait through gcsturcs ol abscncc. Tc original vcrsion, which
now rcappcars in thc Collected Poems, involvcd its crcator to an cvcn smallcr
dcgrcc. Hcrc arc lincs ++8:
| . . . | n thc wall,
A guitar, in shadow,
Rcmcmbcring hands . . .
! dont comc in to thc picturc.
Pocts, lcllow cxilcs,
!ts your sccnc now, and wclcomc.
As an cxilc himscll, Justicc now prclcrs cvcn lcss ol himscll. From thrcc
!s hc movcs back to a singlc onc. !ts as il hc rcalizcs that cvcn a modcst
incrcasc in thc numbcr ol his sclldcnials puts too much ol himscll into
his pocm. Can thcrc cvcr havc bccn a lcss rcvcaling scllportrait: Hop
kins obscrvcd that thc just man justiccs, in this pocm Justicc justiccs or
absolvcs himscll by mcans ol his cxit stratcgics. Tc clcarcst prool ol such
absolution is thc uniquc appcarancc ol thc pocts namc in his \ariations
on a Tcxt by \allcjo: onald Justicc is dcad. Tis is Justiccs vcrsion ol liza
bcth 8ishops You arc an I, you arc an Eli.abeth in !n thc Vaiting Room:
a singlc act ol scllnaming in a writcrs ocuvrc, in hcr casc associatcd with a
momcnt ol hallucinating and loss ol consciousncss, in his with dcath itscll.
!nvctcratc lussing, somctimcs at thc lcvcl ol singlc words, minor substi
tutions, or cvcn changcs ol punctuation, occurrcd throughout Justiccs carccr.
Tc Poct at Scvcn, a sonnct lrom his awardwinning rst book, Te Sum-
mer nni.ersaries (+6o), contains thc linc And summcr cvcnings hc would
whirl around, which hc latcr changcd to hc would spin around, to changc,
! supposc, thc allitcration. Subtlc dctails likc this abound, but thc changc ol
cvcn a singlc world might producc major cccts. For cxamplc, anothcr pocm,
originally callcd Sonnct, dcals with Adam and vc. Altcr its rst appcar
ancc, Justicc rctitlcd it Tc Vall, not only lor grcatcr spccicity but also lor
grcatcr mcnacc, thc mcnacc ol omission. Tis miniaturizcd account ol lilc in
thc Gardcn until thc momcnt ol cxilc cnds:
Tcy had bccn told and told about thc wall.
Tcy saw it now, thc gatc was standing opcn.
As thcy advanccd, thc giant wings unlurlcd.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+8
Vhat is cvcrywhcrc prcscnt but ncvcr mcntioncd in thc pocm is its rcal
subjcct, prcscnt as an unspokcn rhymc on thc titlc: thc Fall.
nc can go on. Start at thc vcry bcginning with Tc Annivcrsarics, thc
rst pocm in Te Summer nni.ersaries. !n lour twclvclinc stanzas it traccs
thc pocts lilc lrom his birth, at which Grcat Lco roarcd, to his thirti
cth birthday, whcn hc saw / Tc trccs arc bricy likc / Tc candlcs upon
a cakc / As thc sun wcnt down thc sky. Subscqucntly, through thc +
Selected Poems, a rcviscd pocm callcd Tc Summcr Annivcrsarics climi
natcd thc original rst stanza, bcgan with thc poct at tcn, and inscrtcd a ncw
stanza about thc twcntyoncycarold poct, now on thc Lowcr ast Sidc
listcning to a mclancholy tugboats blast, which rcmindcd mc ! was lost.
Flash lorward to :oo: thc original pocm has bccn rcstorcd, thc rcviscd onc
climinatcd. Usually Justicc prclcrrcd thc latcst vcrsions ol his pocms, in this
casc hc rcturncd to thc carlicst onc. Vhy: Surcly a \ariorum cdition will
bc nccdcdas it will bc lor Lowcllso that luturc rcadcrs can makc thcir
own asscssmcnts. Until thcn wc wont bc ablc to gurc out whcthcr Justiccs
tampcrings constitutc improvcmcnts, unccrtaintics and doubts, nostalgia lor
rst thoughts, or simply sccond (and third) thoughts. Vc might also ask
oursclvcs why thc poct could not simply combinc thc two vcrsions, making a
vcstanza pocm that marks dicrcnt points along thc path ol his rst thirty
ycars. Tis volumc omits thc rst vcrsion, a narrativc, ol !ncidcnt in a Rosc
Gardcn lrom Night Light (+6), prclcrring a sccond vcrsion, in dialoguc
lorm, cvcn though cach ol Justiccs prcvious collcctions includcd both pocms.
A Collcctcd Pocms is ncvcr thc samc as a Complctc onc (which is gcncr
ally posthumous), but ! am rcmindcd ol lizabcth 8ishops ironic dccision to
titlc hcr volumc ol +6 Te Complete Poems, mcaning ol coursc complctc up
until this point. !n Justiccs casc, thc currcnt collcction will stand until somc
onc docs lor him what Frank 8idart did, albcit incomplctcly, lor Lowcll.
Vhcthcr wc takc Justiccs rcvisions as compulsivc impaticncc, ncrvous
discontcnt, or ncurotic hcsitation, thcsc small gcsturcs point to thc cralts
mans tinkcrings as cvidcncc ol a high dcgrcc ol scllconsciousncss. A scll
abncgating poct can still asscrt himscll through mcans othcr than ovcrt
proclamations. Lcarn to bc anonymous, hc adviscs in For a Frcshman
Rcadcr. Lcss trumpcting and scllpromoting than Robcrt Lowcll, Justicc
always took surprising turns in his ncgotiations with poctic lorm and lan
guagc. Likc Lowcll hc bcgan as a lormal poct, prclcrring thc tricd and
truc rhythms and gcnrcs ol nglish vcrsc. Although Lowcll manipulatcd or
wrcnchcd thc sonnct in thc hundrcds ol pagcs ol Notebook, History, For Li..ie
and Harriet, and Te Dolphin, his poctry lrom Life Studies onward bccamc
incrcasingly rclaxcd. Justicc cxpcrimcntcd with lrcc vcrsc (as with surrcalism)
in his middlc volumcs but has comc back in thc pocms ol thc past ltccn
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+8
ycars to many ol his carlicr, traditional choiccs. A pocts stylc rathcr than
his subjcct mattcr might ocr us thc surcst guidc to his sclltranslorming.
8ccausc Justiccs subjccts staycd thc samc, thc lormal varicty ol his prcscnta
tions bccomcs that much morc powcrlul a mcans ol apprcciating him.
! havc alrcady glanccd at Justiccs rhymcs, cspccially thc rcpcatcd words,
and thc homonyms or rimc richc, that hc uscd throughout his carccr. As
a principlc ol sound, rcpctition bccomcs a causc ol cccts, a constitucnt ol
mcaning. vcn with a prcpondcrancc ol laconic diction (as in thc charac
tcristic cpitaphic carly pocm n thc cath ol Fricnds in Childhood) and
straightlorward syntax, a Justicc pocm likc thc carly, arch Southcrn Gothic
can crcatc an ccct ol thickncssappropriatc to thc landscapcthrough
rcpctition ol kcy words cvcn whcn thcy arc not placcd in cnd positions. Tc
last cight lincs rcad:
Grcat oaks, morc monumcntally grcat oaks now
Tan cvcr whcn thc living rosc was ncw,
Cast shadc that is thc morc complctcly shadc
Upon a housc ol brokcn windows mcrcly
And cmpty ncsts up undcr brokcn cavcs.
No damask any morc prcvcnts thc moon,
8ut it unravcls, pccling lrom a wall,
Rcd roscs within roscs within roscs.
!t sounds as il thc Robcrt Frost ol ircctivc and thc Stcvcns ol Tc Plain
Scnsc ol Tings had movcd lor a momcnt to thc ccp South. Latcr on,
Justicc lookcd back at his arly Pocms with scllcorrccting, scllsatirizing
awarcncss: How lashionably sad thosc carly pocms arc! / . . . / Tc rhymcs,
thc mctcrs, how thcy paralyzc! 8ut its not always lush sadncss. Justicc
rcndcrs his grim scnsc ol human dcclinc and dcprivation with hall rhymcs
to charactcrizc thc hallknowlcdgc ol Mcn at Forty (whosc vcry titlc hc
lamously borrowcd lrom thc vcry unlaconic Comcdian as thc Lcttcr C).
Tc bcginning and cnd ol thc pocm:
Mcn at lorty
Lcarn to closc soltly
Tc doors to rooms thcy will not bc
Coming back to.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Somcthing is lling thcm, somcthing . . .
Tat is likc thc twilight sound
l thc crickcts, immcnsc,
Filling thc woods at thc loot ol thc slopc
8chind thcir mortgagcd houscs.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+86
Forty and soltly bcgin thc solt music that bccomcs thc twilight sound
ol progrcssivcly thrcatcning crickcts. A mixcd, simultancous diminucndo
and slor zando accompanics lurthcr hallrhymcs (woods and loot) as music
itscll dcvclops a symbolic powcr to complcmcnt thc clcar suggcstion ol
slippcry in slopc and thc jarring nal adjcctivc, which puts us in mind ol
thc dcath that bclongs linguistically to any mortgagc.
Tus, Justicc in midlilc, chastc, sad, anonymous, lond ol lrcc vcrsc or syl
labics in his schcmcs and ol synccdochc in his tropcs. Tc man who carlicr
addrcsscd a mirror still has no rccction, as in Tc Missing Pcrson (Hc
sccs what is missing. / !t is himscll ) or bcgins his shutdown as in Tc
Man Closing Up (Likc a dcscrtcd bcach, / Tc man closing up). Sim
plc dcclaration accompanics thc usc ol parts lor wholcs: No longcr do thc
hands know / Tc happincss ol pockcts (Hands). Tc twilight sound has
an intcrnal componcnt: Now comcs thc cvcning ol thc mind. / Hcrc arc
thc rcics twitching in thc blood (Tc vcning ol thc Mind). And in a
minor modc:
!l wc rccall your voiccs
As soltcr now, its only
Tat thcy must havc driltcd back
A long way to havc rcachcd us
Hcrc, and upon such a wind
As crosscs thc high passcs.
|For thc Suicidcs ol +6:|
And in Hoppcrcsquc rccctions:
Lights arc burning
!n quict rooms
Vhcrc livcs go on
Rcscmbling ours.
|8us Stop|
Tc rccctions, rcvcnants, and othcr rcmindcrs ol a common mortality dclivcr
thcir scnsc ol acccptancc all thc morc powcrlully lor bcing writtcn in thc
prcscnt tcnsc, and scldom in thc rstpcrson singular.
Tc pocms ol thc last dccadcboth thosc includcd in thc + Ne. and
Selected and thc tcn ncw oncs at thc cnd ol this collcctionadvancc and
rcpcat Justiccs ability to nd ncw bottlcs lor old winc, ncw music lor his
old congcnial thcmcs. \aguc Mcmory lrom Childhood movcs nostalgia
to thc cdgc ol apocalypsc, cnclosing its imagcry ol sound and sight within
quatrains that thcmsclvcs ocr vcrbal containmcnt. Hcrc is thc rst stanza:
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+8
!t was thc cnd ol day
\ast lar clouds
!n thc zcnith darkcning
At thc cnd ol day.
Tc voiccs ol thc pocts aunts minglc with thc sound ol birdspccch as
cvcning gradually comcs upon thc child who, playing alonc outdoors, noticcs
a light indoors printing a lrail gold gcomctry / n thc dust. Tc last ol vc
stanzas:
Shadows camc cngulng
Tc grcat charmcd sycamorc.
!t was thc cnd ol day.
Shado.s came engulng.
Tc syntax is complctcly paratactic throughout, thcrc is not a singlc dcpcn
dcnt clausc. Tc middlc stanza is cnjambcd into thc lourth, othcrwisc, cach
stanzaic room is scllcontaincd by both its nal pcriod and thc word that
rccurs at thc cnd ol its rst and lourth lincs (or, rathcr, variations on thc
phrasc that boxcs in thc cntirc stanza). Tc last stanza is thc only onc with
thrcc scntcnccs, which signal a dclibcratc slowdown. arkncss, cndings,
and thc nal ominous italicizcd rcpctition arc hcightcncd by thc most spc
cic cxtcnsion and dccpcning ol thc vaguc thrcat prcscnt sincc thc bcgin
ning: thc initial vcrb (camc cngulng) is transitivc, accting a singlc objcct
(thc grcat charmcd sycamorc). Now, thc shadows comc cngulng . . . what:
Nothing spccic and thcrclorc cvcrything in thc world. Justicc applics uttcr
clarity ol mcthod to thc articulation ol a vaguc, intransitivc horror. Con
scqucntly, wc rcspond to thc pocm with a shivcr ol drcad and a smilc ol
acsthctic satislaction.
Rcpctition, rcpctition, rcpctition: thc ncw pocms arc llcd with it. At
thc Young Composcrs Conccrt makcs rhymc thc connccting link bctwccn,
rathcr than within, its couplcts, in ordcr to producc a chain ol samcncss and
dicrcncc. Tus:
Tc mclancholy ol thcsc young composcrs
!mprcsscs mc. Tcrc will bc timc lor joy.
Mcanwhilc, onc cant hclp noticing thc boy
Vho bcnds down to his violin as il
To comlort it in its too carly gricl.
!t is his composition, conluscd and sad,
Madc out ol lcclings hc has not yct had | . . . |
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+88
Couplcts Conccrning Timc crs cpigrammatic cxamplcs ol timcs pass
ing, starting with a (singlc) rstpcrson conlcssion:
Havc ! not waitcd with a numbcd impaticncc
!n politc palc rooms with politc anonymous paticnts:
Applying Ycatss politc mcaninglcss words (astcr, ++6) to (prcsum
ably) thc poct himscll in a hospital waiting room, Justicc movcs to sccncs ol
grcatcr impcrsonality, concluding his quintct ol couplcts with a blcak mctco
rological vigncttc:
Tc clouds, thc vast whitc Saturday altcrnoon,
And thc high mournlul whistlc crying, Nooon, Nooon.
Surcly Justicc intcnds Nooon not mcrcly as an onomatopocic transcription
ol a train whistlc but also as a rcmindcr ol Stcvcns (Tc Coursc ol a Par
ticular), who givcs us thc abscncc ol lantasia whcn at last thc cry ol thc
lcavcs conccrns no onc at all. Tc pocm has movcd lrom ! to no onc.
xcunt omncs, yct oncc morc.
8ut not quitc. Tc volumcs last pocmplaccd thcrc dclibcratcly, ! am
surcis a thrccstanza mcditation (Tere is a gold light in certain old paint-
ings ) on thc dcpiction ol sucring or simplc unhappincss through thc mcdi
ums ol picturcs, music, and drama. ach stanza stands scparatc by virtuc ol
its subjcct and by its vigorously cmphatic rcpcatcd words. Tc gold light ol
old paintings is likc happincs, whcn wc arc happy, asscrts thc rst stanza,
cvcn in sccncs ol thc Crucixion, whcn thc soldicrs Sharc in its charity
cqually with thc cross. !n stanza :, rphcus, having turncd to scc urydicc,
sings a song asking lor thc prolonging ol his sorrow, If that is all there is to
prolong. And, at thc cnd, wc havc Justiccs nonChristian vcrsion ol Sonias
hcartbrcaking nal spccch in Uncle !anya:
Tc world is vcry dusty, unclc. Lct us work.
nc day thc sickncss shall pass lrom thc carth lor good.
Tc orchard will bloom, somconc will play thc guitar.
ur work will bc sccn as strong and clcan and good.
And all that wc sucrcd through having cxistcd
Shall bc lorgottcn as though it had ncvcr cxistcd.
Tc couplct movcs away lrom thc simplc scntcnccs and cndstoppcd lincs
that prcccdc it. !t also picks up a morc lilting rhythm. Linc , in my car, gcts
lour strcsscs as opposcd to thc vc in thc othcrs. Spccd cntcrs at thc vcry
cnd. Tc couplct rcminds us asscrtivcly ol thc goodncss ol our work and ol
our cxistcncc. Likc God cxamining his crcation at thc bcginning ol Gcncsis,
! hopc that onald Justicc was ablc to takc a rctrospcctivc glancc and nd
ox :nv COLLECTED POEMS OF DONLD JUSTICE (:oo)
+8
his own work strong and clcan and good. Tc last linc ol Justiccs last pocm
rcquircs us to rcalizc both that sucring does cxist and cannot bc wishcd
away, and that somc kind ol rccompcnsc lor it will bc allottcd. Tc rccom
pcnsc comcs mctaphorically (as though) and through thc witncssing ol art.
onald Justicc madc himscll into an imprcssivc witncss.
+o
TH!RTN X
R!TA \, ANC!NG l:oo
A
lmost thrcc ccnturics ago, in his youthlul ssay on Criticism,
Alcxandcr Popc pcrccptivcly obscrvcd: Truc asc in Vriting
comcs lrom Art, not Chancc, / As thosc movc casicst who havc
lcarnd to dancc. Hc hcrc supplcmcnts thc traditional comparisonswhich
hc ccrtainly also kncw wcllbctwccn thc sistcr arts ol poctry and painting,
and bctwccn poctry and music, and hc thcn gocs on to praisc thc namclcss
Gracc . . . bcyond thc rcach ol art that constitutcs thc highcst achicvcmcnt
in all acsthctic activity. Tc bcst practitioncrs makc thc di cult look casy,
thc dcviant look normal. vcryonc lcarns to walk and talk, danccrs walk,
and pocts talk, bcttcr than thc rcst ol us.
So how comc thcrc arcnt morc dancing pocts: Tc titlc ol Rita ovcs
ncw volumc promiscs a littlc morc than thc contcnts dclivcr, but onc should
bc gratclul lor what lics within. Hcr carlicr Grace Notes (+8) showcd ovcs
intcrcst in thosc dclicacics ol thought, lccling, and cxprcssion that dccora
tion adds to artistic cntcrpriscs. merican Smooth continucs its authors com
mitmcnt to intcgrating thc ornamcntal, thc nominally supcruous, into
thc wcight ol scrious subjcct mattcr. As a kind ol cpigraph, shc quotcs two
dcnitions lrom Te merican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
(ol Amcrican and smooth), bclorc producing hcr own titular dcnition:
Amcrican Smooth is a lorm ol ballroom dancing dcrivcd lrom thc tradi
tional Standard danccs (c.g., Valtz, Fox Trot, Tango), in which thc partncrs
arc lrcc to rclcasc cach othcr lrom thc closcd cmbracc and dancc without any
physical contact, thus pcrmitting improvisation and individual cxprcssion.
vi:~ bovv, b~xcixc (:oo)
++
ovc is taking (undcrstandablc) libcrtics hcrc, but thats what a crcativc art
ist docs. As anyonc knows who has bccn put through his or hcr paccs in
ballroom instruction, thcrcs only minimal room lor improvisation in thc
waltz and loxtrot, but as with sonnct writing, strict limits somctimcs makc
lor innovativc, libcrating gcsturcs. ovcs takc on dancing has conscqucnccs
lor, and parallcls in, hcr poctry.
Plcnty ol pocts havc bccn Sunday paintcrs or cvcn scrious oncs. Many
pocts havc had cxpcricncc with music, as composcrs, librcttists, or talcntcd
amatcur pcrlormcrs. And thcrc havc bccn still morc pocts who havc cnjoycd
looking at picturcs and listcning to music. 8ut dancc is ol thc body, and its
hard to think ol many pocts comlortablc cnough in thcir own bodics to sway
thcm to music or cvcn to watch othcrs in action. A dancing poct is rarcr
thcsc days than a dancing bcar. Pocts, likc Popc abovc, havc traditionally
lound dancc usclul as a mctaphor il not a practicc. Shakcspcarcs Florizcl
(in Te !inters Tale) courts Pcrdita in rhythms that approximatc his sub
jcct: Vhcn you do dancc, ! wish you / A wavc o thc sca, that you might
cvcr do / Nothing but that, movc still, still, so, / And own no othcr particu
lar. And T. S. liot, whom it is di cult to imaginc cutting a rug, alludcs to
dancc throughout Four Quartets as a symbol ol gracc, harmony, and intcgrity,
rcminding us (in Tc ry Salvagcs) ol thc oncncss born ol participation
in a nonscmantic art: you arc thc music / Vhilc thc music lasts. Morc
rcccntly, in rstpcrson rcminisccnccs, wc havc thc latc onald Justiccs
poignant ancc Lcssons ol thc Tirtics, a rccollcction ol thc littlc lost
8ohcmias ol thc suburbs and thosc bravc ladics who taught him thc lox
trot in thc makcshilt dancc studio ol thcir living room. And thcn, ol coursc,
cvcry poctry tcachcrs lavoritc dancc pocm, My Papas Valtz, which uscs
an iambic trimctcr linc to hammcr out Tcodorc Rocthkcs mcmory ol his
lathcrs drunkcn lurchings.
At last, in twirls Rita ovc, who actually danccs as wcll as thinks about
dancing. Any rcadcr ol this volumc who happcns also to bc a danccr (as ! am)
will sucr somc disappointmcnt at not nding more dancing in thc pocms.
Tc volumc sccms to bc a loosc collcction, a misccllany in vc parts. nly
ninc pocms conccrn dancing, although music gurcs in many othcrs. nc
cntirc scction, callcd Not Vclcomc Hcrc, dcals, through thc rstpcrson
rccollcctions ol mcn in action, with thc 6th Rcgimcnt ol Alrican Amcri
can soldicrs (spccically thc musicians in thc rcgimcnt) who lought in Vorld
Var !. Anothcr, Twclvc Chairs, is a scrics ol inscriptions carvcd on thc
backs ol chairs in thc lcdcral courthousc in Sacramcnto. Most ol thc othcr
pocms arc rstpcrson lyrics, although rcal and litcrary charactcrs (Hattic
Mcanicl and Salomc) also appcar. !t is thc rcadcrs job to nd a thrcad that
wcavcs thc wholc into somcthing grcatcr than a random asscmblagc. And,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+:
it turns out, onc cxists: thc books lcitmotil is thc way all idcntity ( pcrsonal,
cultural, historical) dcpcnds on thc rclationship bctwccn rcccivcd lorms and
pcrsonal improvisation, bctwccn command, cxpcctation, and historical prcs
surc (in thc casc ol thc black soldicrs) and rcsponsc, pcrlormancc, and out
comc. And, as a corollary, thc way any artist (a poct, a danccr, cvcn a soldicr)
must train himscll or hcrscll to makc thc di cult look casy. Pcrhaps Horacc
was right whcn hc said that pocts arc born, not madc, and pcrhaps thcrc arc
born danccrs. Most ol us, howcvcr, train oursclvcs and gct put through our
paccsin thc schoolroom at our dcsks, or on thc dancc oorin ordcr to
accomplish insouciant lcats without swcating. Tc nonchalancc ol 8yron
(! am likc a Tigcr: il ! miss thc rst spring, ! go growling back to my Junglc
again, but il ! do hit, it is crushing) and Nijinsky (! mcrcly lcap and pausc)
is what cvcryonc aspircs to but lcw, il any, cvcr achicvc.
!n ovcs casc, it was a spccic hardship that lcd to hcr currcnt danc
ing obscssion and to thc subscqucnt usc ol dancc in hcr writing. !n +8
hcr housc was struck by lightning and cntirc collcctions ol art, manuscripts,
lcs, and photos wcrc lost. A whilc latcr, somc ncighbors insistcd on taking
thc poct and hcr husband, Frcd \icbahn, out dancing. Tcy got hookcd.
merican Smooth rccords thc rcsults ol countlcss hoursand moncyspcnt
and lcssons takcn. Fox Trot Fridays was thc rst pocm to comc lrom thc
cxpcricncc. !s it coincidcntal that thc loxtrot is thc rst, thc basic dancc
that a pcrson, or a couplc, must lcarn bclorc moving to morc complicatcd
pattcrns: r that it is thc quintcsscntial smooth Amcrican dancc: Prob
ably not. !n scvcntccn lincs (cight couplcts and a singlc concluding linca
tcchniquc ovc has always likcd and pcrhaps inhcritcd lrom Robcrt Pcnn
Varrcn, who uscd it cxtcnsivcly) and only two scntcnccs, thc lyric starts in
gratitudc (Tank thc stars thcrcs a day /cach wcck to tuck in // thc gricl, lilt
your pcarls, and / stridc brush stridc // quickquick with a / hcclballtoc.).
Tc loxtrotsmooth and casyjoins thc couplc rib to rib, as though
Adam and vc havc bccn rcunitcd undcr thc mcllow toncs ol Nat King Colc
and arc rcturncd to dcn, with no hcartbrcak in sight
just thc swccp ol Paradisc
and thc spacc ol a song
to count all thc wondcrs in it.
Tis rst dancc pocm in thc book lcd mc to ask two qucstionsonc spc
cic, thc othcr gcncralabout writing about dancc and about asscmbling a
volumc ol pocms. Tc rst was about rhythm: How docs a poct rcplicatc thc
distinctivc mcasurc ol a spccic dancc: Rocthkc lamously uscd iambic trimc
tcr, laithlul to thc thrccncss ol thc waltz, cvcn though a dactylic loot, with its
vi:~ bovv, b~xcixc (:oo)
+
hcavicr rst bcat and two lightcr subscqucnt oncs, would morc appropriatcly
mimic thc risc and lall ol thc waltz than an iambic linc. ovc nowhcrc rcp
licatcs an actual dancc rhythm, but shc oltcn comcs closc. Hcrc shc trics lor
an analogy to thc loxtrots slowslowquickquick or slowquickquick
slow timing in short lincs that opcn and swccp along with thc brcczincss ol
ordinary spccch, in thc prcpondcrancc ol monosyllabic words (thc rst ol only
vc twosyllablc words docsnt appcar until linc 8, and Paradisc, thc pocms
longcst word, comcs appropriatcly, ncar thc cnd), and in thc dclicatc asso
nantal rhymcs (stridc, stridc, smilc, timc, sight, Paradisc) that kccp
things moving. thcr pocms lollow similar analogical pattcrns. !n 8olcro,
lor cxamplc, ovc uscs a thrcclinc stanza in which thc rst, long linc prc
ccdcs two shortcr oncs, in thc samc way that thc rst long, dramatic swccp ol
this slow, scxy dancc rcadics a dancing couplc lor thc two collccting stcps that
lollow. Rhumba, onc ol thc books longcst pocms, docsnt so much mimic thc
rhythm ol thc slowquickquickslow, basic Latin dancc as rcmind us visually
ol a pair ol danccrs. Tc pocm combincs two scparatc voiccs, two typclaccs, wc
must rcad, hcar, and scc it in thc samc way wc would rcgistcr a couplc on thc
dancc oor as a wholc grcatcr than thc sum ol thc two rcspcctivc parts.
Tc pocm bcgins this way:
Vait.
Here comes
At his touch
the music:
( just undcr thc triccp)
lean back, look at me
lock your knccs,
the straighter your legs
look, straight up
the easier to fall,
into him, his hand stroking
to descend
your chcck. . . .
lightly.
And so on, through to thc cnd. Tc rst spcakcr (ush lclt) is thc woman spcak
ing to hcrscll in thc sccond pcrson, thc sccond spcakcr (ush right: cvcn thc
typography scparatcs and joins) is thc man, and thc pocm cnds with hcr lccling
thc audicnccs gratitudc and his lccling or taking total posscssion ol hcr:
stay on your tocs now
lean into me,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+
dcnc thc lcngth ol him . . .
thats right . . .
thc audicncc
forget them
thc audicncc
your body
shuddcring
all mine
into applausc
no.
Vc rcalizcil wc havcnt yct rcgistcrcd thc lactthc pocms multiplc idcn
titics. Vc havc hcrc two monologucs that may bc thought ol as simultanc
ous or as provocationandrcsponsc, an antiphonal backandlorth. And wc
also havc thc mcrging ol thc two voiccs, just likc thc mcrging ol two bodics
moving as onc, in thosc lincs that ask to bc hcard cithcr as scparatc or ovcr
lapping: thc audicncc shuddcring . . . your body shuddcring, shuddcring
into applausc, into applausc now. As scparatc, or ovcrlapping, or both:
thc wondcrlul thing about this doublccolumn writing is that it shows how
ovc has rcluscd a too casy rhythmic accompanimcnt or sctting lor hcr
dancc pocms. !nstcad, shc has substitutcd somcthing at oncc casicr to scc
and hardcr to hcar, which lorccs thc rcadcr to pcrlorm his job with a gracc
lul, daring combination ol cort and attcntivcncss, ol activcly lcading and
passivcly submitting to anothcrs lcad. Tc rcadcr must turn himscll into
both halvcs ol thc dancing couplc.
Fox Trot Fridays provokcd a dicrcnt qucstion as wcll, onc that applics
to virtually all volumcs ol poctry publishcd in thc Unitcd Statcs within thc
past lty ycars: to what cxtcnt can or should wc attcmpt to considcr a book
as a scllcontaincd work with its own intcrnal logic, thcmcs, and music, and
to what cxtcnt as a group ol discrctc pocms brought undcr covcr by a combi
nation ol convcnicncc and ncccssity: A poct has a ccrtain numbcr ol pocms,
writtcn ovcr a pcriod ol vc or six ycars, a publishcr rcqucsts a book, and
thc poct willingly complics. ocs a rcadcr dcrivc morc satislaction lrom a
wholc that is grcatcr than thc sum ol its individual parts, howcvcr lovcly thc
singlc lyrics may bc: Louisc Gluck has sct thc standard lor books that cohcrc.
Te !ild Iris, cspccially, howcvcr it dcvclopcd ovcr timc in thc pocts hcad,
imprcsscs us in part by thc ongoing naturc ol thc monologucs, thc addrcsscs,
and thc growing convcrsation bctwccn thc poctgardcncr, thc individual
owcrs in hcr yard, and thc God who supcrviscs and looks down upon all ol
His crcations. ovcs own Pulitzcrwinning Tomas and Beulah told a lamily
story in two parts and had a purposclul dcsign. ocs merican Smooth:
vi:~ bovv, b~xcixc (:oo)
+
Not ovcrtly. Just as ovcs individual dancc pocms tacitly makc us listcn
lor a vcrbal music appropriatc to thc music ol thc ballroom, so all ol thc
pocms rcquirc us to makc scnsc ol thcir rclation to onc anothcr. ancing is
only onc ol hcr subjccts. Twclvc Chairs arc thc cpigrammatic rcsponscs
somc ol thcm unpunctuatcd, somc ol thcm gnomicol pcoplc rcquircd to
sit in judgmcnt. Tc Vorld Var ! scction works lrom history books and thc
diarics ol a vctcran namcd rval Pcyton, whom ovc mct in +8. Vhat, il
anything, brings thcm togcthcr:
Fox Trot Fridays bcgins at thc cnd ol thc workwcck (My Papas Valtz
is also, almost ccrtainly, a Friday night pocm, unlcss Rocthkcs lathcr had a
sixday workwcck) and cnds with a rcturn to Paradisc. Tc dancing couplc in
Rhumba, likc any malc /lcmalc partncrship, could bc tropcd as a vcrsion
howcvcr lallcnol Adam and vc. Paradisc turns out to onc ol thc scv
cral motils linking individual pocms throughout thc book. Grace Notes took
thc cmbcllishmcnts suggcstcd in thc titlc and askcd us to considcr thcm as
morc than random, irrational, insignicant lrills and garnishcs. !nstcad, thcy
bccamc instrumcnts ol gracc, rcdccming thcir makcrs and uscrs in thc samc
way that art rcachcs lor thc gracc bcyond it. So it camc clcar to mc only altcr
rcading Fox Trot Fridays why thc book bcgins with two sccmingly unrc
latcd pocms, All Souls and ! Havc 8ccn a Strangcr in a Strangc Land.
Tc rst rccounts thc Fall, without cvcr naming our rst parcnts, and thc
changcs that attcndcd thcir lcaving our carlicst and only idcal homc. Vith
cxccllcncc and concord bchind thcm,
thcy hunkcrcd down to busincss,
lling thc world with sighs
thcsc anonymous, pompous crcaturcs,
hcads tiltcd as il straining
to makc out thc words to a song
playcd long ago, in a lorcign land.
Vhat docs thc lcmalc partncr in a dancing couplc do il not tilt hcr hcad and
try to rcachicvc thc actual and symbolic harmonics lost long ago: ancing
is a momcntary attcmpt to rcgain dcn, vc and Adam rcjoining at thc hip
closc to thc rib hc oncc lost. Tc sccond pocm gocs back in thc story by a
pagc or two: now wc havc vc still in thc Gardcn, apart lrom Adam and
discovcring thc trcc and its spccchlcss bounty. Just noticing thc tcmptation
is cquivalcnt to succumbing to thc rcd hclt ol |thc lruit| / warming hcr
outstrctchcd palm. Tc tropc is hcrc paradoxically invcrtcd: an invitation to
thc dancc, a hand cxtcndcd to lcad a partncr out onto thc oor, consolingly
rcpcats that carlicr, morc catastrophic invitation to stcp down and into thc
world. (And considcr how Milton lamously madc usc ol hands, unitcd,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
+6
droppcd, and rcunitcd at his cpics cnd, in Paradise Lost.) Tc tcmporary
dclight ol thc dancc momcntarily allows us to rcgain thc blisslul scat wc lclt
bchind. Somc invitations arc issucd out ol malicc, othcrs out ol thc promisc
ol rcdcmption. ancing uplilts thc soul as wcll as thc body.
merican Smooth bcgins with thc Fall. !t cnds with somcthing likc a rising.
!n othcr words, thc volumc mimics in morc ways than onc thc risc and lall ol
all smooth danccs. Tc titlc pocm rccounts ovcs dclightcd rccognition that
lor a momcnt in somc loxtrot or waltz shc and hcr partncr had achicvcd
ight, / that swilt and scrcnc / magniccncc, / bclorc thc carth / rcmcmbcrcd
who wc wcrc / and brought us down. !n addition, thc cntirc last scction ol
random lyrics (cntitlcd vcning Primrosc) is hcld togcthcr by a common
strand, namcly, thc idca ol surprisc. r ol not bclonging and thcn nding a
placc. r ol things lost and rcturncd, ol dcstruction and rccrcation. Rcvcric
in pcn Air bcgins, ! acknowlcdgc my status as a strangcr, Sic !tur Ad
Astra (thc titlc is \irgils this way to thc stars) dcals with a drcam ol rising
to thc stars in slccp, a child spcakcr in onc pocm cagcrly awaits growing up,
and an adult, in anothcr, wants to rcst in hcr mothcrs lap as shc did whcn shc
was a child. csk rcams rcvisits various placcs in ovcs past, cach with
its own writing dcsk, thc last ol which was thc onc in Charlottcsvillc that
now stands likc honcy in thc ashcs.
Tc pcnultimatc pocm argucs Against Flight, but thc last onc, Looking
Up lrom thc Pagc, ! Am Rcmindcd ol Tis Mortal Coil, signals a rclcasc,
an acccptancc, a conrmation ol thc ordinary lilc lrom which thc spcakcr
chooscs not to shu c o. Unsurc whcthcr what shc sccs lrom hcr win
dow is daybrcak / or thc cnd, thc poct comcs to hcr scnscs by asking, and
thcn implicitly answcring, thc qucstions that havc occupicd hcr attcntion
throughout thc volumc: Vhat good is thc brain without travcling shocs: /
Vc put our thoughts out thcrc on thc cosmos cxprcss / and thcy hurtlc on,
tircd and lrightcncd, / bundlcd up in thcir worrisomc / shawls and glovcs.
Likc lizabcth 8ishop, in thc grcat titlc pocm ol Questions of Tra.el, inquir
ing whcthcr wc should havc staycd at homc, whcrcvcr that may bc, ovc
wondcrs about thosc twinncd impulscs: motion and stasis. Shc also sccms to
bc taking a last look at thc carlicr pocms in this volumc. Vc hcar a rcmindcr
ol thc military band ol hcr Alrican Amcrican Vorld Var ! troop whcn shc
lccls shc is ignoring thc bodys marching ordcrs, all kinds ol movcmcnt
(dancing as wcll as walking) arc implicit in thc travcling shocs abovc. Tc
dcn ol thc books rst pocms is rcplaccd at thc cnd by thc dawn ol a ncw
day, with avian musicians: Tc blazc lrcshcns, / vc or six miniaturc birds /
strikc up thc band. ovc introduccs art into hcr last pocm only to natural
izc it. As shc awakcs to an ordinary daybrcak, shc rcturns lrom thc thcatcr
vi:~ bovv, b~xcixc (:oo)
+
ol thc mindand lrom all artistic corts that strctch us towards graccto
a simplc, quict lilc:
. . . no morc strobc and pink gcls
lrom thc hcavcnly paint shop: just
housc lights, plays ovcr, timc to gathcr your things and go homc.
Going homc mcans rcturning to thc lilc ol a prolcssorpoct in a rcbuilt
housc, ol hcaring birds instcad ol human musicians strikc up thc band, and
it also mcans acccpting both thc allurc and thc incvitablc disappointmcnts
ol all hcavcnly aspirations.
+8
FURTN X
TH N!NT!S R\!S!T l:oo+
H
crc is a litcrary parlor gamc lor thc n dc siclc. Vhat do thc lol
lowing pocts havc in common: Louisc Gluck, Joric Graham, Yuscl
Komunyakaa, Philip Lcvinc, Liscl Mucllcr, Charlcs Simic, Mark
Strand, Jamcs Tatc, Mona \an uyn, and Charlcs Vright: And what do
thc lollowing havc in common: A. R. Ammons, John Ashbcry, Frank 8idart,
Amy Clampitt, Allrcd Corn, Robcrt Crcclcy, Allcn Ginsbcrg, Tom Gunn,
Robcrt Hass, Scamus Hcancy, Anthony Hccht, John Hollandcr, Richard
Howard, Susan Howc, onald Justicc, Hcathcr McHugh, Jamcs Mcrrill,
Robcrt Pinsky, Adricnnc Rich, Gary Snydcr and crck Valcott:
Tc answcr: Tosc in thc rst group won thc Pulitzcr Prizc lor Poctry
during thc last dccadc ol our ccntury, thosc in thc sccond did not. Litcr
ary prizcs oltcn indicatc littlc asidc lrom thc vagarics ol tastc, thc winds ol
changc and lashion, and thc pcrcnnial inucncc ol politics, cronyism, and
backscratching, as wcll as thc lrcqucnt rising to thc top ol cvcry committcc
mcmbcrs second choicc. Vc may rccall thc bittcr words Robcrt Lowcll puts
into thc mouth ol Hart Cranc: Vhcn thc Pulitzcrs showcrcd on somc dopc /
or scrcw who ushcd out dry mouths out with soap . . . (Lowcll, Life Stud-
ies, ). 8ut can wc asccrtain lrom this list ol tcn somcthing about thc statc
ol poctry in this country at ccnturys and millcnniums cnd: Vhcthcr or not
thcsc volumcs arc thc bcst ol thcir ycars, arc thcy at lcast rcprcscntativc:
And, il so, ol what:
Can wc dctcct in thcsc two handluls ol books any millcnnial intima
tions: ocs cndcdncss or thc dcmarcation ol an cra makc an unconscious
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
+
il not an incvitablc appcarancc in thc works ol pocts who havc othcr ovcrt
conccrns and thcmcs: And il ns dc siclc arc typically markcd by latiguc,
ctiolation, and hopc ol rcncwal, what do wc lcarn lrom Amcrican poctry in
thc dccadc bclorc thc much ballyhoocd Y:K, whosc cxcitcmcnt and bruitcd,
wouldbc disastcrs camc and wcnt with littlc noisc and lcss ccct: vcn
whcn wc arc skcptical, as Frank Kcrmodc long ago obscrvcd, wc arc most
ol us givcn to somc lorm ol ccnturial mysticism, and cvcn to morc cxtrava
gant apocalyptic practiccs. . . . thc imagc ol thc cnd can ncvcr bc permanently
lalsicd (+).
Arguing through thc cvidcncc ol thc Pulitzcrs is likc doing lm studics
by watching only Acadcmy Award winncrs. missions arc always important,
art advanccs indcpcndcntly, rcgardlcss ol popular acclaim, tastcs changc. Vill
this dccadcs pocts havc mcaning onc hundrcd, or cvcn twcntyvc, ycars
lrom now: ccadcs ago, R. P. 8lackmur proclaimcd thc only basis lor poctic
ctcrnity: Tc art ol poctry is amply distinguishcd lrom thc manulacturc ol
vcrsc by thc animating prcscncc in thc poctry ol a lrcsh idiom: languagc
so twistcd and poscd in a lorm that it not only cxprcsscs thc mattcr in hand
but adds to thc stock ol availablc rcality (). Noncthclcss, zcitgcist diag
noscs rcmain tcmpting, cvcn lashionablc, and not only in thc mcdium ol cul
tural studics. !l thcsc volumcs wcrc to bc placcd in a timc capsulc, and thcn
opcncd two ccnturics lrom now, what would a litcrary anthropologist con
cludc about thc timc ol thcir making:
Tc scnsc ol an cnding, il not ol the cnding, has alrcady promptcd rct
rospcctivcs and thcorctical positions lrom pocts and critics. !n thc middlc
ol thc last dccadc, lainc Scarry asscmblcd a collcction dcvotcd to poctry
at ccnturics cnds. Hcr introduction, Counting at usk (Vhy Poctry
Mattcrs Vhcn thc Ccntury nds), constitutcs an cxtcndcd mcditation on
numbcrsthc plcasurcs that mathcmaticians and othcrs takc in thcmand
an asscssmcnt ol thc rclationships bctwccn acsthctic gratication, count
ing, and poctic numbcrs. Scarrys argumcnt lor an cnlargcd acsthcticism
at ccnturys cnd dcpcnds on a strong dcgrcc ol coincidcncc as wcll as spc
cial plcading. Vhilc lassitudc, malaisc, and cncrvation arc oltcn associatcd
with thc n dc siclc, shc balanccs calcndrical and mathcmatical cndings
with a picturc ol thc human will bascd on thc poetic lcgacy ol thc nal
dccadcs to limn an opposing condition, which inspircs inaugurating lin
guistic acts. . . . Tc cnd ol thc ccntury . . . sccms instcad to prompt thc dcsirc
to rcconstitutc thc world linguistically (+o). Surcly this is a truth avail
ablc only in rctrospcct and through carclul sclcction: had Scarry dcalt with
sccondratc pocts instcad ol Chauccr, Sidncy, Shakcspcarc, 8lakc, Colcridgc,
and Vordsworth, shc might havc shown us a morc random panorama. Tc
spiritcd hopclulncss ol, lor cxamplc, thc prclacc to Lyrical Ballads is visiblc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:oo
across thc Atlantic in mcrson and Vhitman in a ccnturys midst rathcr
than its bcginning or conclusion. Tc past and thc luturc can ncvcr cxist
apart lrom out prcscncc bctwccn thcm.
Poct Robcrt Shaw ocrs a dicrcnt backward glancc. For him, thc last
dccadc has bccn a much lcss pcrilous timc lor pocts than thc n-de-sicle
prcccding it (:+o). Mcasuring his contcmporarics against thc gcncration
ol Sylvia Plath, John 8crryman, and Robcrt Lowcll, Shaw nds that risk
taking in poctry, as in lilc, has lost much ol its tragic glamour: Tc drink
ol thc +8os was absinthc, that ol midccntury was gin, that ol thc +os
appcars to bc Cranapplc Juicc (:+). Hc has updatcd a classic myth: thc
giant racc was bornc away by thc ood ol its own making, lcaving in its
wakc a landscapc at oncc dricr and lcss lcrtilc and, paradoxically, morc com
lorting. ur sclldcstructivc lorcbcars bcqucathcd to us thc inhibiting
modcl ol thcir artistic bravura and thc ncgativc cxamplc ol thcir psycho
logical bravado. Shaw nds a lack ol scllcondcncc in his cautious, wclllcd
contcmporaricsowing both to thcir ncw commitmcnt to cardiovascular
hcalth and othcr lorms ol sobricty and to ocdipal lcars ol thc covcring chcr
ubs ol ycstcrycar. His conclusion is not cntircly unrcalistic: Rcading our
pocms lty or a hundrcd ycars lrom now, postcrity will havc to dccidc il this
rccxivc caution among pocts ol my gcncration was a tragic statc ol aairs,
a lorlcit ol grand opportunitics. . . . !l wc choosc to cultivatc a poctry that
is small in its aim and in its scopc, wc shall havc only oursclvcs to blamc lor
thc rcsults (:+).
Tis asscssmcnt cannot account lor thc mctaphysical cxtravagancc
ol Joric Graham, who along with Louisc Gluck and Jamcs Tatc ccrtainly
bclongs to Shaws gcncration. For onc poctic myth Shaw mcrcly substitutcs
anothcr. Vhcrc Lowcll clcgizcd 8crryman by rccalling thc gcncric lilc
sharcd by thcir gcncration ol lcs maudits (Lowcll, Day by Day, :), Shaw
discovcrs pocts ol tastc and solidity, avcrsc to risk. To such an appraisal, thc
Pulitzcr winncrs ol thc past dccadc ocr a sobcring corrcctivc. For onc thing,
thc list attcsts to thc divcrsity ol thc art and its practitioncrs. Morc so than
thc lists ol National 8ook Award and National 8ook Critics Circlc Award
winncrs, this onc has a strong gcndcr and racial mix. !t also bcars traccs
ol thc intcrnationalism cncompasscd by Amcrican litcraturc, or litcraturc
writtcn in nglish by nonnativc spcakcrs such as Liscl Mucllcr and Charlcs
Simic.
!
Vc noticc morc signicant lorms ol varicty as wcll. Charlcs Vright
is lushly Romantic. Mark Strand and Mona \an uyn still rcsort (although
not cxclusivcly) to lormal pattcrns ol rhymc and mctcr. Tatc carrics thc ban
ncr ol onc kind ol surrcalism, Simic ol anothcr (indccd, his volumc ol prosc
pocms is dcdicatcd to Tatc). Gluck has writtcn a book with an organiz
ing principlc, a durchkomponiert scqucncc. Yuscl Komunyakaa, Philip Lcvinc,
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:o+
and Mucllcrand thc othcrs to varying dcgrccsrcminiscc and rcvisit
sccncs ol lamily, childhood, and pcrsonal history in gcncral. Sincc all ol thc
pocts havc attaincd scnior status (Graham turns lty in :oo+), thcrc is
thc incvitablc, occasionally gloomy, obscssion with pcrsonal rathcr than his
torical cndings. Mortality, loss, and dccay gurc hcavily in thc books, dcath
hangs ovcr thc pocts hcads. Finally, onc can rcad and asscss thc pocts along a
scalc moving lrom rclativc simplicity (or transparcncy) to di culty (or opac
ity). Poctic mcans and cnds, stylcs and subjccts, rhythm and diction, syntax
and troping vary widcly within thcsc books.
l thc tcn, lour (thosc by Graham, Komunyakaa, Mucllcr, and Tatc)
contain sclcctcd pocms. l thcsc, Grahams and Tatcs do not contain
ncw work, but Graham has sclcctions lrom hcr two volumcs ol thc +os,
Fegion of Unlikeness and Materialism, and lor that rcason (among othcrs)
! includc hcr in thc lollowing pagcs, whcrcas ! cxcludc Tatc lrom lurthcr
considcration.
X
A
staplc ol contcmporary poctry is thc autobiographical rcminisccncc,
which attcsts to Vordsworths long and various lcgacy and to thc trans
lormations ol nostalgia during thc past two ccnturics. Komunyakaa, Lcvinc,
Mucllcr, Simic and \an uyn all minc this vcin, attcmpting, likc Vords
worth, to givc Substancc and lilc to what ! lccl, cnshrining, / Such is my
hopc, thc spirit ol thc Past / For luturc rcstoration (Te Prelude, +8o vcrsion,
+:::886). A rcturn to sourccschildhood and lamily, ritcs ol passagc,
initiations, rcvclatory or inspirational momcntsbrings sustcnancc and thc
ability to gct on with lilc. nc vcrsion ol thc n dc siclc involvcs crosion,
cvasion, dcsiccation, and anomic and a concomitant commitmcnt to poctry
ol scriousncss and amboyancc, hypcrbolc and arbitrarincss (\cndlcr, +:).
8ut thc ccntral tonalitics in thcsc vc books arc convcrsational, and oltcn
at, thc pocts sccm to think that a movc bcyond thc koinc might undcrminc
thc sobricty ol thc spcaking voicc and thc sinccrity ol mcmory. !n ordcr to
attcst to scriousncss, thcy lorswcar amboyancc and hypcrbolc. (And Simic,
in this volumc at lcast, lorswcars cvcn vcrsc, using thc magical rcalism ol
prosc anccdotcs, vigncttcs, and mood picccs to rcconstruct a historical or
mythical past and to rcinvcnt a scll.)
!n his sclcction ol twclvc ncw pocms, Komunyakaa (likc Charlcs Vright,
anothcr southcrncr) shows a prclcrcncc lor nounhcavy, adjcctivcladcn
dcscriptivc vcrsc, but without Vrights dccp mclancholia or his rcligious
qucstionings. Vith no capacity lor abstraction (unlikc Vright and Gra
ham), Komunyakaa rcvcls in scnsuous rccollcctions and makcs his poctic
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o:
stockintradc out ol dcscription and narrativc. Tus thc rst pocm scts thc
sccnc. !t marks a rcturn to homc basc:
Horschcadcd clouds, ags
& pcnnants ticd to black
Smokcstacks in swamp mist.
From thc quick grccn calm
Somc nocturnal bird calls
Ship ahoy, ship ahoy!
! prcss against thc taxicab
Vindow. !m back hcrc, intcrlaccd
Vith a dcad phosphorcsccncc,
Tc wholc town smclls
Likc thc worlds oldcst angcr.
(Fog Gallcon, )
Tc mcthod is charactcristic not only ol Komunyakaa but also ol many ol
his contcmporarics. !t is his vcrsion ol Tintcrn Abbcy, saying, Hcrc ! am
again and this is what ! noticc, hcrcs what has changcd and what has not.
Hc procccds lrom a scntcncc lragmcnt to a lull scntcncc, lrom a visual imagc
to an aural onc, lrom thc obscrvcd cxtcrnal world to a stationing ol thc scll.
Tc uncxpcctcd intcrlaccd introduccs thc languagc ol contcmporary tcch
nology into a pollutcd landscapc, and a lurthcr similc cxtcnds thc picturc
lrom thc prcscnt on thc Gull Coast to a dicrcnt placc and timc in ordcr to
univcrsalizc a pcrsonal cxpcricncc:
Scabrous rcsiduc hunkcrs down undcr
Sullur & dioxidc, waiting
For sunrisc, likc cargo
n a phantom ship outsidc Gaul.
Ncutral languagc, thc habitual, annoying ampcrsand, and an inlormal but
stcady bcat (thc lincs havc an unstrict but disccrniblc rhythm ol mostly thrcc
strcsscs) prcparc us lor Komunyakaas complicatcd lcclings, in subscqucnt
pocms, lor his nativc landscapc and thc pcoplc lrom whom hc cd but to
whom hc rcturns Antacuslikc.
Tcsc arc lamily pocms, and likc Vordsworths thcy contain lcssons:
My rst lcsson: / 8cauty can bitc (Praising ark Placcs, +). Homc is
incscapablc. 8ccausc Komunyakaa has no intcrcst in mcditation, hc rclics on
narrativc to dramatizc thc lcssons hc has lcarncd. A tcnpart scqucncc cnti
tlcd A Good Mcmory is typical ol much ol his (and his contcmporarics)
rcappraisals ol thc past. Likc Lcvinc, Komunyakaa cxpccts pcrsonal cxpcri
cncc to su cc and ordinary languagc to givc ballast to mcmory. Tcrc is no
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:o
hankcring altcr hcightcncd spccch, rich musicality, or sinuous syntax. ach
numbcrcd and titlcd scction rcprcscnts a singlc momcnt, itcm, or vigncttc,
thc individual parts (among thcm, Vild Fruit, Mcat, 8rcaking Ground,
Shotguns) capturc still vivid spots ol timc. Scnsuousncss is both a subjcct
and a poctic tcchniquc:
Figs. Plums. Stolcn
Rcd applcs wcrc sour
Vhcn wcighcd against your body
!n thc kitchcn doorway
Vhcrc latc July
Shonc through your owcrcd drcss
Vorn thin by a hundrcd washings.
Likc colors & strcngth
8oilcd out ol cloth,
Somc dccp & tall sccnt
Madc thc daylilics cowcr.
(Cousins, +)
How docs mcaning dcvclop in poctry: nc way, abjurcd by Komunyakaa
and othcr contcmporary pocts, is through such conscious linguistic manipu
lation that thc rcadcr lccls that nglish is now somcthing strangc and lor
cign. A poct can usc words in strikingly original ways or discovcr old or
unusual words that scnd a rcadcr to a dictionary. Such was Audcns lcgacy,
which most ol todays pocts havc ignorcd in lavor ol lcs mots dc la tribu,
puricd (thcy would likc to think) by thc doublc cauldrons ol sinccrity (this
is what happcncd to mc! prcscnt it to you clcarly) and dcmocracy (what
happcncd to mc is probably likc somcthing that happcncd to you)
8ut as John Hollandcr has suggcstcd, a poct is somconc with an intcrcst
in languagc both diachronic and synchronic, who attcnds to thc rcsonanccs ol
words at a spccic timc and to thc dcvclopmcnt ol words through timc itscll.
Suggcstivcncss and ctymology bccomc cousins in thc poctic arscnal (Hol
landcr, +66). Komunyakaa and Philip Lcvinc both spurn, by and largc, thc
arcanc, thc archaic, thc clcvatcdin diction as in syntaxin ordcr to rcmain
laithlul to thc honcsty ol cxpcricncc and rccollcction. Komunyakaa has a
scrics ol lourtccn lrccvcrsc sonncts (Songs lor My Fathcr) that dcpicts thc
di cult but acctionatc, physically and psychologically turbulcnt ocdipal
rclationship. Tc last lincs ol thc nal, dcathbcd pocm show thc linguistic
richncss oltcn missing in this poctry: You wcrc skinny, bony, but strong
cnough to try / Swaggcring through that cclcstial door (). Tc two trisyl
labic words rcprcscnt thc lathcrs hcightcncd powcr, now sadly diminishcd.
For a rarc momcnt, linguistic ccct convcys thc lorcc and lorm ol lccling.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
Tc last pocm in Lcvincs book (My Fathcr with Cigarcttc Twclvc Ycars
bclorc thc Nazis Could 8rcak His Hcart), likc Komunyakaas, is a sons
tcstamcnt to his lathcr. !n a book ol lamilyand workccntcrcd pocms, in
which machismo and swaggcr go hand in hand with hctcroscxual tcndcr
ncss and clcgiac rcminisccncc, this onc rcprcscnts thc pcrlcction ol Lcvincs
mcthod. Figuration, syntax, and cvcn musicality play lcss promincnt parts
than thc (at lcast apparcntly) opcn dircctncss ol addrcss and plain spccch.
lscwhcrc in thc book Lcvinc has askcd us to blcss thc imagination. !t
givcs / us thc myths wc livc by and thc visionary powcr ol thc human ().
!n My Fathcr with Cigarcttc, Lcvinc procccds lrom thc assumption that
accuratc mcmory, judicious dctail, and languagc that rcsists thc highlalu
tin and thc abstract will ncvcrthclcss raisc what might bc othcrwisc con
structcd as a prosc vigncttc to thc lcvcl ol poctic uttcrancc. Tc lormula, statcd
ovcrtly hcrc, but implicit cvcrywhcrc in Lcvincs autobiographical works, is
simplca scrics ol variations on this pocms opcning ! rcmcmbcr (6).
Lcvinc spins lrccranging improvisations in long, lancilul scntcnccs. His
pocms constitutc cxpcrimcnts in workingclass cmbroidcry. ach contains
an unanticipatcd surprisc, lor us or lor thc charactcrs: Lcvinc has a story
tcllcrs instinct and knows how to pacc a plot, to withhold a punch linc or an
cpiphany, to cmbcllish, augmcnt, or undcrminc his opcning prcmiscs. Vith
its modcst accumulations ol dctails, and virtually unnoticcablc variations on
a thcmc, thc pocm about his lathcr sounds dclicatc changcs ol tonc, it builds
subtly to a climax that takcs in lathcr and son, world history, and thc gcnial
rclractions through which lilc and art mcrgc. Tc pocm circlcs away lrom
sccmingly incidcntal dctails and rcturns to thcm in thc manncr ol a Roman
tic naturc lyric. !t vccrs bctwccn prcscnt and past tcnscs, bringing his lathcr
into locus causcs thc son, sixty ycars latcr, to rcturn to an originary placc
and to stand thcrc in mcmory as though thcn wcrc rcally now. Tc con
struction ol a Lcvinc pocm is, typically, lugal. Motils rccur with variation,
rcpctition bccomcs a structural and an cmotional principlc. Singlc imagcs,
pcoplc, phrascs, and things dcvclop iconic status: lor cxamplc, thc picturc ol
thc lathcr with his match, thc room, an unplaycd piano, thc motil ol moncy,
thc scnsc ol a drama bcing playcd in prcscnt tcnsc, a picturc ol Hindcnburg
in military rcgalia, and thc dating ol thc mcmory (in thc pocms long antc
pcnultimatc scntcncc) to thc ycar Hitlcr camc / to powcr, whcn Lcvincs
grandmothcr lcarncd nglish by rcading ickcns. Tc pocm cnds:
vcrything tclls you this is a prclacc
to somcthing important, thc Sccond Vorld Var,
thc ncws that lcakcd back lrom Poland
that thc villagcs wcrc gonc. Tc truth is
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:o
il thcrc is a truth! rcmcmbcr thc room,
! rcmcmbcr thc amc, thc bluc smokc,
how bright and slippcry wcrc thc sccrct coins,
how avid Coppcrcld doubtcd his own namc,
how swcct thc stars sccmcd, pccping and blinking,
how closc thc moon, how uttcrly silcnt thc piano.
(66)
Likc othcr lorms ol rcpctition, anaphora has its own rhythm, Lcvinc has
lcarncd lrom Vhitman thc spccial wondcrs ol listbuilding.
Kcatsian truth and bcauty arc onc though ncvcr mcant to bc (6): Lcvinc
sccms ncvcr to havc surmountcd his workingclass anxictics about lorm, clc
gancc, and bcauty itscll. His simplc truth is simplc in thc way ol Shakcr lur
niturc: honcd, rcncd, burnishcd until it glcams. !n thc titlc pocm hc rcvcrts
to a dclcnsc lrom naturc, not nurturc:
Somc things
you know all your lilc. Tcy arc so simplc and truc
thcy must bc said without clcgancc, mctcr and rhymc,
thcy must bc laid on thc tablc bcsidc thc salt shakcr,
thc glass ol watcr, thc abscncc ol light gathcring
in thc shadows ol picturc lramcs, thcy must bc
nakcd and alonc, thcy must stand lor thcmsclvcs.
()
Tis Amcrican myth ol innoccncc, nakcdncss, and simplicity is highly arti
cial. Lcvinc would agrcc with Ycats that thcrcs morc cntcrprisc in going
nakcd, but nakcdncss is not possiblc unlcss onc is also, or has bccn, clothcd,
just as thc truth is ncvcr simplc. Lilcs dctails do not stand alonc, instcad,
thcy arc gathcrcd through rcpctition, in shadows ol picturc lramcs that
thcmsclvcs contain othcr rcprcscntations. For Lcvinc, truth is an acsthctic
construct and a supplcmcnt. Plainncss, likc utilitarianism, comcs with its
own bcautics. For this rcason, work, povcrty, cvcn truth, thosc staplcs ol
Lcvincs subjcct mattcr, ncvcr producc unhappincss.
Liscl Mucllcr (likc Simic) rcprcscnts thc ncw intcrnational Amcrican
languagc ol thc sccond hall ol thc twcnticth ccntury. Likc Lcvinc, shc lavors
mctonymy, thc tropc ol substitution, as a poctic stratcgy. Mctonymy sccms
a natural ally to a poct who has sucrcd displaccmcnt and rcscttling, and
who trics to domcsticatc things by naming thcm:
Vhat happcncd is wc grcw loncly
living among thc things,
so wc gavc thc clock a lacc,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o6
thc chair a back,
thc tablc lour stout lcgs
which will ncvcr sucr latiguc.
(Tings, :6)
Tc pocm dramatizcs thc rclationship bctwccn thc scttlcd lilc and poctic
acts ol rcplaccmcnt. Lonclincss, thc immigrants condition, provokcs poctic
rcclaimings through thc tropc ol catachrcsis. Tings is not only an ars
poctica but also an introduction to acts ol rccstablishing an cgo and its placc
in thc world. vcrything cxtcnds lrom thc scll. !n ordcr to rclocatc it, to
makc it comlortablc, wc gavc thc country a hcart, / . . . so wc could pass into
salcty. Mucllcr dwclls on loss, in hcr casc thc homcland itscll, symbolizcd
by hcr mothcrs piano (Placc and Timc, ), instantly rctricvablc through
poctic rccall. Tc lragilc bcautics ol naturc and domcstic lilc survivc as pcr
mancnt artilacts ol consciousncss.
Likc Lcvinc, Mucllcr has a moralizing, labular impulsc, shc wishcs to
makc scnsc ol ordinary things and to prcscrvc thcm by simplc acts ol cxpla
nation, in onc casc a lairy talc. (Hcr usc ol magic is likc Charlcs Simics sur
rcalism, anothcr pcrhaps incvitablc modc lor displaccd pcrsons who havc
bornc witncss to world calamitics.) Tc longcst ol thc ncw pocms in this
volumc, Captivity, rcgurcs thc Patty HcarstSymbioncsc Libcration Army
cpisodc primarily as a domcstic cvcnt: ight wccks in that closct: / a childs
worst nightmarc, / bcing lockcd up in thc dark (). Hcarst bccomcs a child
again, a surrogatc (anothcr mctonymy) lor thc Gcrman rclugcc who sought
ncw lilc in Amcrica. Tc pocm is rcally about thc audicncc lor thc ncw and
our individual and collcctivc nccd to havc lairy talcs with clcar moral mcan
ings and casy answcrs: Vc could not copc with thc hugc / complcxitics ol thc
hcart, / that mclting pot ol sclvcs (o). At last, Patty disappcars (likc Mona
\an uyns Lcda) into thc dapplcd / indistinct tapcstry / ol thc common
crowd, passing into thc cvcraltcr / ol thc lrcc, anonymous lilc (o).
2
omcstication rcprcscnts onc way in which contcmporary lcmalc pocts
tamc and rcvisc oldcr myths ol violcncc, or history itscll. Mucllcr has in
no way translormcd thc languagc ol poctry (it would bc a rarcindccd
uniqucpoct who could do so in hcr sccond tonguc), shc ocrs, instcad,
a clarication ol ordinary lilc, cvcn at its most bizarrc. Charlcs Simic, youngcr
but cqually displaccd, gocs onc stcp lurthcr in Te !orld Doesnt End, his vol
umc ol prosc pocms. Although his titlc implics a rcbuttal ol apocalyptic n
dc siclc lassitudc, Simics parcddown surrcalisma mixturc ol vigncttcs,
domcstic dcscription, and drcamssuggcsts a lailurc ol dircct cngagcmcnt
with thc world, and a rctrcat into a parallcl univcrsc that bcars somc tangcn
tial rcscmblancc to our own.
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:o
Tc award ol a prizc to a book ol prosc poctry validatcs a lorm that
howcvcr cstablishcd it has bccomc in thc past ccnturystill sccms likc thc
ncglcctcd stcpchild in thc Housc ol Poctry. Simic rclics on simplc dcclara
tivc scntcnccs lor thc most bizarrc rcportagc. Growing up in 8clgradc during
Vorld Var !!, hc writcs nglish in thc way ol an immigrant or a scdulous
schoolboywith an cyc to corrcctncss. Tc diction is limitcd (unlikc, say,
that ol copious Vhitmanian wordmongcrs such as Amy Clampitt and Joric
Graham). Tc prosc is propcr, although thc imagcs arc lantastic. Tc indi
vidual picccs, ncvcr morc than a pagc long and usually shortcr, lorcground
structurc, not signicancc, thcy seem allcgorical or symbolic, and thcy invitc
dccpcr probings, but thcy rcsist or dcly intcrprctation.
Tc book constructs a lilc story, but ol .hom wc cannot know. Tc pcr
son who spcaks most ol thc picccs bcars a rcscmblancc to somconc namcd
Charlcs Simic, who oncc answcrcd a qucstion about thc autobiographical
basis ol his pocms by tcmporizing:
Tcy sound morc autobiographical. Tcyrc ccrtainly bascd on things !
did, but !m lar morc intcrcstcd in thc ction. Tc ! is many ctions.
Tc objcct is always truth, but not thc litcral onc.
. . . !m morc intcrcstcd in history than in autobiography.
(Mctaphysician, :::)
\cntriloquism, lyric projcction, and thc crcation ol a pcrsona havc bccn
staplcs ol lyric poctry sincc thc Rcnaissancc, and Simic ncatly luscs thc sin
ccrity ol a Romantic poct with thc masks that Pound, liot & Co. urgcd
pocts to wcar at thc bcginning ol thc high modcrn pcriod. Jc cst un autrc
as wcll as thc ! ol Simic himscll. Autobiography always rcvcals somcthing,
howcvcr covcrtly, but thc artlul litcralism ol Simics prosc (or, in his othcr
volumcs, ol thc pocms) always thwarts a rcadcrs dcsirc to nd mcanings in
his parablcs and allcgorics.
Simics parallcl univcrscs cxplain his londncss lor Giorgio c Chirico
and lor Joscph Corncll, to whom hc wrotc a booklcngth homagc, Dime-
Store lchemy (+:). Likc Cornclls boxcs, Simics vcrbal objets trou.es arc
asscmblcd both simply and wcirdly. ! havc suggcstcd thc appcal ol mctonymy
(or synccdochc) to pocts likc Mucllcr and Simic, who did not havc nglish as
a rst languagc. 8oth ol thcm qualily as domcstic pocts, lascinatcd by objccts,
although thc sccncs in Simics book would hardly match anyoncs idcas ol
ordinary lilc. Hc oltcn articulatcs dctails in phrascs instcad ol scntcnccs, but
cvcn whcn hc writcs lull, but grammatically simplc, dcclarativc scntcnccs,
hc withholds mcaning. Pcoplc and parts arc anonymous and rcplaccablc. Tc
wcathcr takcs on mctonymic propcrtics: ur wintcr altcrnoons havc bccn
known at timcs to last a hundrcd ycars (!orld, ), or A ccntury ol gathcring
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o8
clouds. Ghost ships arriving and lcaving (). Tc gods havc lost thcir lustcr:
Hcrmcs showcd up in thc lourth ycar ol thc war but was not much to look
at (+). Tc last Napolconic soldicr, who has bccn rctrcating lrom Moscow
lor two hundrcd ycars, crosscs paths with thc Russians and thc Gcrmans,
going in oppositc dircctions, and mordantly obscrvcs: ! havc a ccrcmonial
sabcr. ! usc it to cut my hair, which is lour lcct long ().
Vondcr and ignorancc go togcthcr. ncc ! kncw, thcn ! lorgot, a
spcakcr obscrvcs in a littlc vigncttc about lalling aslccp and waking to nd
that a grovc ol trccs had grown up around mc. Tis Rip van Vinklc rcdi
vivus lcarns, howcvcr, nothing:
! was alrcady dozing o in thc shadc, drcaming
that thc rustling trccs wcrc my many sclvcs cxplaining
thcmsclvcs all at thc samc timc so that ! could
not makc out a singlc word. My lilc was a bcautilul
mystcry on thc vcrgc ol undcrstanding, always on
thc vcrgc! Tink ol it!
(6)
Tcsc intimations ol dclicacy, mcnacc, irony, and wackincss bccomc a min
iaturizcd vcrsion ol thc promiscs as wcll as thc horrors ol thc twcnticth
ccntury. Tcy also adumbratc Simics acsthctic prcmiscs:
Tc idcal spcctator who livcs only lor art,
hands loldcd bchind his back. A blank canvas
appropriatcly cntitlcd 8lank bclorc him. !ts cxactly
++ ~.:. in thc provincial muscum. nc can hcar
thc rumbling stomach ol thc unilormcd guard, who
has thc lacc ol somconc drowncd by moonlight.
()
Tc noncommittal spcctator poscs bclorc a Magrittclikc picturc that is callcd
what it isthc nothing that is thcrcdircctly across lrom his phantom dou
blc, a prcsumably borcd guard bathcd in whitc light rccctcd lrom a sccondary
sourcc. Vith its alchcmy, drcams, translormations, littlc rival univcrscs madc
lrom words, Simics surrcalism abjurcs thought in lavor ol scnsation, contcm
plation in lavor ol aphorism, wholcs in lavor ol parts. No wondcr that thc last
pocm, onc ol thc lcw with a titlc, movcs scamlcssly in an unpunctuatcd ow:
My Sccrct !dcntity !S
Tc room is cmpty,
And thc window is opcn
()
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:o
ncc rcvcalcd, a sccrct is no longcr a sccrct. Vhat rcmains: A rcvclation
should constitutc somcthing substantial, but Simics volumc cnds with a dis
appcarancc. Such ironic troping on scllprcscntation is thc poctic cquivalcnt ol
a Houdini cscapc. Vc ncvcr rcally sa. Charlcs Simic anyway, whocvcr hc was,
hc is now gonc. 8ut sincc thc world docsnt cnd, pcrhaps hc will rcturn.
cspitc his quirky, mcrcurial prcscntation ol scll and world, ! havc placcd
Simic with morc convcntionally autobiographical writcrs likc Komunyakaa,
Lcvinc, and Mucllcr bccausc hc sharcs with thcm a commitmcnt to thc dom
inant, postwar middlc stylc. !n Mona \an uyn wc havc a slightly dicrcnt
cxamplc ol autobiographical vcrsc, il only bccausc shc makcs hcr middlcclass,
suburban obscrvations in a lyric vcin that in addition to its casual casc and
Horatian wisdom aspircs to thc lcvcl ol music. Tirty ycars ago, \an uyn
occupicd a ccntral placc in a momcntarily lamous skirmish. To See, to Take won
thc National 8ook Award, much to thc constcrnation ol Allcn Ginsbcrg, who
thcn wcnt public with his gricvanccs against his lcllow committcc mcmbcrs
and lockcd horns in print with Richard Howard in thc pagcs ol Te Ne. York
Times Book Fe.ie.. !t is a classic conlrontation bctwccn palclacc and rcd man,
thc cookcd and thc raw, thc lancy and thc plain, art and gcnius, cxccllcncc and
ccstasy, intclligcncc and prophccy, thc lcgacics ol Stcvcns and Villiams, thc
avatars ol lorm against thosc ol inspiration.
1
\an uyn was scvcnty whcn shc
won thc Pulitzcr, and hcr largcly rctrospcctivc volumc (containing clcgics,
rcasscssmcnts, considcrations ol thc banking ol lovcs amcs, and othcr, morc
gcncral diminishmcnts) cxcmplics thc ncgativc as wcll as thc positivc con
notations ol cvcrything wc associatc with traditional vcrsc.
\an uyn docs not mcrcly talk, shc oltcn sings, and conscqucntly shc
bridgcs a gap that Vyatt Prunty has idcnticd as a charactcristic mcasurc
ol postwar Amcrican poctry.
4
Unlikc Lcvinc, who dcvclops rhythm out of
syntax and scntcncc variations, \an uyn has an car lor lormal rhythms
that allics hcr, in this group ol pocts, only with Mark Strand. Shc writcs in
couplcts, in villancllcs, but shc lavors thc casual lincs that sound mostly likc
rational spccch with rarc riscs in cmotional or sonic pitch to aria:
Pctcr, Tom, avid, Jim and Howard arc gonc.
own hallways, in longkcpt rooms, lour othcrs arc in dangcr.
!n Lovcs old boardinghousc thc shadcs ol vc rooms arc drawn.
At tablc thcir placcs arc sct, thcir tcatimc kcttlc is on,
no spacc has bccn aircd and cmpticd lor thc nccdy strangcr,
though Pctcr, Tom, avid, Jim and Howard arc gonc.
(Condcmncd Sitc, Near Changes, )
Tis villancllc opcns with a tonclcss roll call ol namcs and continucs in
lincs ol varying lcngths, with phrascs altcrnating bctwccn triplc bcats and
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:+o
somcthing likc twosyllablc lcct. Gcntlc, uninsistcnt music sounds thc notc
ol thc sccmingly random but incxorablc lorcc that takcs us all away.
Tc 8lock dcals with thc lilc cyclc through thc tropc ol rcal cstatc and
thc risc, lall, and incvitablc rcsurrcction ol a suburban ncighborhood as
young pcoplc buy propcrty, movc in, raisc lamilics, losc childrcn, grow old,
ship out, and arc gradually rcplaccd by thc ncxt gcncration. Tc vc vcrsc
paragraphs arc composcd ol inlormal lincs ol mostly six strcsscsthc kind
ol rambling rhythm that sounds likc talkand usc litcrary gurations in
ways that dclight but ncvcr startlc:
Tc cnd camc bclorc wc kncw it. All in onc ycar
my husband rctircd and hall ol thc houscs cmpticd.
Canccr atc lour, hcart attacks topplcd somc othcrs,
a nursinghomc closcd ovcr onc, thc rcst cancd o
to apartmcnts with clcvators. For Salc signs loomcd
likc papcr tombstoncs on thc wccdy lawns.
Tc gcntlc ycars turncd vicious all ol a suddcn.
()
Nothing hcrc strains crcdulity or comprchcnsion. Tc strong but prcdictablc
vcrbs that dcpict dccay and dcath (atc, topplcd, closcd ovcr, cancd)
and thc tclling similc (likc papcr tombstoncs) ocr just cnough mcnacc to
saddcn but not to shock. Vc ncvcr lccl, rcading \an uyn, as though thc
top ol our hcad has bccn blown o. (Tis is a morc ncutral rcphrasing ol
Allcn Ginsbcrgs swccping criticism ol gcntccl poctry.) Hcr subjccts includc
lound ncwspapcr rcports, Fcrris whccls, car washcs, backyard birds, ncsts,
and hair dycs. Hcr angst and plcasurcs arc thosc ol sybaritically cnlightcncd
middlc Amcrica (awarc ol lood additivcs, blood prcssurc, and cardiovascu
lar cxcrcisc), which shc trcats with dclight tcmpcrcd by gcntlc skcpticism.
Tc prccursors ol this kind ol poctry arc Audcn and Randall Jarrcll, ltcrcd
through thc postwar suburbanism ol Howard Moss and Howard Ncm
crov.

Vhat \an uyn gratclully calls thc swcct quotidian ol supcrmarkcts

(Glad Hcart at thc Supcrmarkct, ), with thcir combination ol samcncss
and novclty, might ocnd amboyant or politically mindcd pocts, but shc
rcmains truc to hcr Matissclikc scnsc ol bourgcois plcasurcs.
Vhat onc nally misscs in poctry likc this is what J. Hillis Millcr has
lamously rclcrrcd to as thc linguistic momcnt . . . thc momcnt in a work ol
litcraturc whcn its own mcdium is put in qucstion (:o). Such a position is
a morc stringcnt vcrsion ol Vallacc Stcvcnss claim that poctry must rcsist
thc intclligcncc, almost succcsslully (+). !t is only partly synonymous with
di culty in poctry, which comcs, ol coursc, in many lorms. John Ashbcry
and Amy Clampitt dcmand attcntion to syntax. Tc scrupulous musical cccts
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:++
ol Richard Vilbur and onald Justicc lrustratc our attcmpts to dcscribc
thcm. Ncithcr \an uyns suburban rccctions nor Lcvincs autobiographical
rcconstructions rcquirc sccond rcadings. Likc Komunyakaas and Mucllcrs
thcir poctry, howcvcr accomplishcd, ocrs littlc rcsistancc. Tc last lour
pocts in this scrics sccm to movc us bcyond such charms by virtuc ol quirki
ncss, musical dcltncss, lormal invcntivcncss, and thc ambitions ol intcllcct.
Mark Strand and Charlcs Vright work in thc nostalgic modc, but with
striking dicrcnccs. 8oth havc lookcd carclully at painting, both usc dclt
musical phrasing to producc harmonics and rhythms that gcncratc schadcn
lrcudc. Tcy arc scnsuous, rcncd pocts, but Strand lacks Vrights insistcnt
capacity lor abstract spcculations, his lcar ol mortality, and his Tcnnysonian
mclancholia.Tcy sharc a comparablc ndcsiclc acsthcticism and latiguc.
Strands has a whirling, giddy quality: thc longcst pocm in Bli..ard of One,
Tc clirium Valtz (a combination ol prosc scctions and pantoum qua
trains), circlcs cndlcssly as it plays itscll out at ccnturys cnd. For lrom bcing
movcd to tircdncss, Charlcs Vright sccms to havc bccn sitting lor ycars in
thc samc placchis own backyardcontcmplating his position in thc uni
vcrsc, thc joys ocrcd by landscapc, and thc dccp sadncss undcrlying his own
vision. Strand is likc a tircd athlctc, moving with gracc and occasional bursts
ol spccd as thc sands ol timc makc thcir incxorablc ow through thc hour
glass, Vright just watchcs thc hands ol a clock as hc survcys his surround.
!n both pocts, timc tcnds toward latcncss: likc \irgil and Tcnnyson, thcy
arc pocts ol shadows and ol cvcning. Tc thrcc parts ol Strands ironically
titlcd Tc Ncxt Timc (thcrc will bc no ncxt timc) rchcarsc bclatcdncss
with a scnsc ol surprisc and rcsignation. Likc Ashbcry, Strand is onc ol thc
hcirs ol Stcvcnss discursivc mancuvcrs and wistlul Romantic longing in thc
lacc ol strongcr knowlcdgc:
Nobody can stop thc ow, but nobody can start it cithcr.
Timc slips by, our sorrows do not turn into pocms,
And what is invisiblc stays that way. csirc has cd,
Lcaving only a tracc ol pcrlumc in its wakc,
And so many pcoplc wc lovcd havc gonc,
And no voicc comcs lrom outcr spacc, lrom thc lolds
l dust and carpcts ol wind to tcll us that this
!s thc way it was mcant to happcn . . .
()
Such troping ol cndings minglcs acccptancc, rcsignation, rcgrct, and shccr
wondcr. How did wc managc to comc this lar: hc always sccms to ask. Tc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:+:
natural world holds incvitablc tcmptations, but Strand, likc Ashbcry, oltcn
shrugs thcm o, knowing too much to acccdc to thc lurc ol landscapc. !n thc
third pocm hc rcalizcs thc shortsightcdncss ol bclicving that thc intcndcd
story would havc bccn likc a day in thc wcst whcn cvcrything // !s tirc
lcssly prcscnt. !nstcad, hc looks grimly lorward (but signicantly in thc past
tcnsccvcn thc luturc has a past ol its own!) to thc timc whcn thc lcal that
was going to lall will havc lallcn:
For soon thc lcavcs,
Having gonc black, would lall, and thc annulling snow
Vould pillow thc walk, and wc, with shovcls in hand, would mcct,
8ow, and scrapc thc sidcwalk clcan. Vhat clsc would thcrc bc
Tis latc in thc day lor us but dcsirc to makc amcnds
And start again, thc suns compassion as it disappcars:
()
Allitcration and assonancc, and thc bracing ol monosyllablcs against thc
rarc trisyllabic word, maintain a ucnt music in Stands musings. For two
dccadcs, hc has bccn a poct ol bclatcndcss (scc his +8 volumc Te Late
Hour). !t is al.ays too latc in thc day, thc likclihood ol starting again sccms
slight. His unccrtaintysuggcstions and thcn rcbuttals ol thc possibilitics
ol rcbirthis carricd by thc vaguc apposition in thc last linc. How arc wc
mcant to takc thc suns compassion: !s it cquivalcnt, or opposcd, to what
clsc thcrc might bc latc in thc day: !ts cvasivc grammatical position at thc
cnd ol a qucstion undcrmincs thc likclihood ol any gcnuinc compassion
lrom it or any othcr natural itcm.
Altcr such agnosticism, what stratcgy: picurcanism, and acsthcticism,
abovc all. ur Mastcrpiccc !s thc Privatc Lilc, anothcr thrccpart pocm,
rcviscs Stcvcnss admonition that a Suprcmc Fiction must givc, intcr alia,
plcasurc: Vc drank Mcrsault, atc lobstcr 8ombay with mango / Chutncy
(Notcs toward a Suprcmc Fiction, part ). Latc in thc ccntury, thc lancy
larc has bccomc lcss cxotic:
And now, whilc thc advocatcs ol awlulncss and sorrow
Push thcir dripping bargc up and down thc bcach, lcts cat
ur brill, and sip this bcautilul whitc 8caunc.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . why livc
For anything clsc: ur mastcrpiccc is thc privatc lilc.
(+6)
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:+
Much political poctry was writtcn in thc past dccadc, but Stand casts his lot
with a dicrcnt crcw. Although ncithcr suburban likc \an uyn nor ovcrtly
autobiographical likc Lcvinc, hc has madc a stratcgic rctrcat as a mcans ol
protccting himscll lrom thc shrillncss ol thosc advocatcs ol awlulncss and
sorrow. Hc prclcrs thc acsthctcs cnlightcncd hcdonism and thc draincd,
mutcd sadncss hc cxprcsscs in two villancllcs about c Chirico paintings,
whosc two rcpcatcd lincs arc a lcitmotil throughout his work:
Tis mclancholy momcnt will rcmain,
And always thc towcr, thc boat, thc distant train.
(:8)
8orcdom scts in rst, and thcn dcspair.
Somcthing about thc silcncc ol thc squarc.
(:)
!t is no wondcr that c Chirico, a paintcr with littlc intcrcst in human
bcings, should provokc thcsc mcditations, or that two ol Strands othcr lavo
ritc paintcrs, Villiam 8ailcy and dward Hoppcr, arc lamous lor nature morte
or sccncs ol anomic, with or with out pcoplc.
Tc bittcrswcct tonality that lls this book, likc its prcdcccssor, Dark
Harbor (+), has comlorts ol its own, vcn thc titlc convcys a scnsc ol
mcnacc miniaturizcd: both lcars and hopcs havc bccn scalcd down, Sadncss
insulatcs, saturating thc scll in wistlulncss. Vintcr can kccp us warm. Strand
wants his rcadcrs to takc solacc lrom his nostalgia. As hc announccs in thc
prosc introduction to Tc clirium Valtz: Anxicty has its incctions
wastclul, sad, tragic at timcsbut hcrc it had nonc. !n its harmlcss hovcring
it was mcrcly lantastic, so wc kcpt dancing (6). Vc can rclish anxicty with
out thrcat, simply by giving oursclvcs to thc musics mcllow rapturc. Strand
articulatcs thc lccling ol dissolution as thc airs and harmonics ol cvcning,
bclatcdncss, and darkncss dcsccnd upon him.
Translormations ol harm into plcasurc charactcrizc many ol thcsc
pocms, starting with Untitlcd, about carly lovc and carly vcrsc, both long gonc
but still rccallcd with plcasurc in lavcndcr light undcr thc shadc ol thc pincs:
Tc dust ol a passion, thc dark crumblc ol imagcs
own thc pagc arc all that rcmain. And shc was bcautilul,
And thc pocm, you thought at thc timc, was cqually so.
Tc lavcndcr turns to ash. Tc clouds disappcar. Vhcrc
!s shc now: And whcrc is that boy who stood lor hours
utsidc hcr housc, lcarning too latc that somcthing is always
About to happcn just at thc momcnt it scrvcs no purposc at all:
()
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:+
Stcphcn cdalus might havc bccn proud ol such crcpuscular dclicacy. Strand
always prclcrs to takc covcr in thc shadc. Likc Ashbcry, hc wavcrs bctwccn
cxpcctation and disappointmcnt, hopc and rcgrct, giddincss and sadncss, but
thc lattcr always gains his trucr asscnt. And thc musical samcncss ol his
pocmswhcthcr rhymcd or notas wcll as thc lush imagcry containcd within
syntactically smooth scntcnccs, produccs an unwavcring surlacc that would
ncvcr makc us mistakc his pocms lor prosc choppcd arbitrarily into lincs.
Pcoplc, likc snowakcs, momcnts, pcrccptions, lcclings, and cvcn colors
comc mystcriously into thcsc pocms, lingcr lor awhilc, thcn disappcar. Strand
docs no do portraiturc, as Komunyakaa, Lcvinc, and \an uyn do. His sig
naturc salutc is a kind ol larcwcll, in thc opcning pocm (quotcd abovc), or
in thc last onc, Tc \icw. Again, thc thirdpcrson gurc is prcsumably a
scllrcprcscntation whos always bccn drawn to thc wcathcr ol lcavctaking, /
Arranging itscll so that griclcvcn thc most intimatc / Might bc rcad
lrom a distancc. !n a chastc scasidc sctting, a man having a solitary drink in
thc waning light sits and rcccts (in both scnscs ol thc word):
Slowly thc sky bccomcs darkcr,
Tc wind rclcnts, thc vicw sublimcs. Tc violct swccp ol it
Sccms, in this cortlcss nightlall, morc than a rcason
For bcing thcrc, lor sccing it, sccms itscll a kind
l happincss, as il that plain lact wcrc cnough and would last.
()
Tis is latc Vallacc Stcvcns madc cvcn latcr. A poct rcduccd by agc but
sublimcd by contcntmcnt, Strand rcccts on thosc signicantly Stcvcnsian
notions ol plainncss and su cicncy.
Strand and Vright arc our prccmincnt pocts ol tristesse, but Strand
manilcsts rcstraint and propricty in tonc, rhythm, and thc brcvity ol his
lyrics, whcrcas Vright, in his long diary pocms, survcys thc univcrsc, likc
A. R. Ammons, lrom an armchair in or ncar thc backyard. His lamcnt, scl
dom qucrulous, has two toncs: sad and saddcr. Mclancholias got mc, hc
announccs carly on in Black Zodiac (8). !n ncithcr dcspair nor clation, Vright
rcccivcs plcasurc only lrom his acsthctic rcsponscs to landscapc and paint
ing, and occasionally lrom mcmorics. Pcoplc scldom appcar in thcsc pocms,
and only in thc past tcnsc. Companionship sccms to bc ncithcr a sub jcct
nor a sourcc ol solacc lor a man who basks in his own isolation. Timc and
spacc arc pcrcnnial topics. Vright has thc gilt and cursc ol a nativc landscapc
lrom which hc has bccn scparatcd only during his carly military scrvicc in
!taly and his ycars in Calilornia. Tc South has bccn a homc in actuality
and rctrospcct, and thc pocms havc bccomc, ovcr thc past twcnty ycars, onc
long pocm.
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:+
!t is a pocm ol thc prcscnt, cvcn whcn Vright rcmcmbcrs thc past, onc
has thc scnsc that rcliving lcclings and sights brings thcm to thc lorc lor
rcpcatcd cxamination: Vhat ! rcmcmbcr rcdccms mc, / strips mc and brings
mc to rcst, / An cnd to what has bcgun, / A bcginning to what is about
to bc cndcd (+). Tis is liots Four Quartets with thc Christianity lclt
out. Vrights rcligion is all natural. bscsscd by cndings (ut ol any two
thoughts ! havc, onc is dcvotcd to dcath |:|, hc is conccrncd with thc
bcyond but is rootcd to carth: !ll takc as icon and tcstamcnt / Tc daytimc
mctaphysics ol thc natural world / Sun on tic post, rock on rock(+). Linda
Grcgcrson aphoristically summarizcs Vrights proccdurc: !t is thc busincss
ol his pocms to conccivc transccndcncc by mcans that lorcstall it (:+).
Among thc Pulitzcr winncrs, Vright joins Gluck and Graham as thc only
oncs whom wc might labcl spiritual pocts. Although hc long ago abandoncd
thc piscopalianism ol his childhood, hc rctains a hankcring lor rcligions
solacc, hc has substitutcd qucstioning, obscrvation, and acsthctic gratica
tion lor orthodox spirituality.
Christmas ast ol thc 8luc Ridgc dcvclops a poctics ol loss and dimin
ishmcnt cvcn in thc lacc ol thc cclcbration ol Christs birth:
So autumn comcs to an cnd with thcsc lcw wct sad stains
Stuck to thc landscapc,
cccmbcr dark
Running its hands through thc lank hair ol latc altcrnoon,
Littlc tongucs ol thc rain holding lorth
undcr thc cavcs,
Such wash, such watcry words . . .
So autumn comcs to this cnd,
And wintcrs vocabulary, downsizcd and distanccd,
rop by drop
Capturcs thc convcrsation with its monosyllabic gutturals
And tin music,
gravclly consonants, scratchcd vowcls.
(6)
Tc rst two stanzas ol this vcstanza lyric arc a good summary ol Vrights
habits, stylc, and obscssions sincc thc publication ol Te Southern Cross two
dccadcs ago. Tc jaggcd vclinc units, cmblcms ol continuity ovcr and abovc
lragmcntation, suggcst scparatc vigncttcs cvcn as thcy blcnd togcthcr. Land
scapc is invariably pcrsonicdspacc and timc havc bccomc lull partncrs in
thc human souls mystcricsand Vright (likc Joric Graham and, lrom an
carlicr gcncration, Howard Ncmcrov) sccs cvidcncc cvcrywhcrc ol languagc,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:+6
a sccular vcrsion ol Gods liber naturae. Tc dclicatc Shakcspcarcan ccho in
thc opcning linc (ycllow lcavcs, or nonc, or lcw) prcparcs us lor multiplc
cxprcssions ol latcncss: in thc pocts lilc, in thc ycar (and, lrom thc stand
point ol thc cra, ol thc ccntury), in thc Christian agc, and in thc annals ol
litcraturc. 8ccausc thc abscncc ol humanity lrom his poctry compcls Vright
to populatc his world with pcrsonicd abstractions, clision and rcplaccmcnt
bccomc his lavorcd tropcs. As Shakcspcarcs lcavcs havc bccn rcduccd to
stains, so thc only languagc Vright hcars is natural music.
Vright works both by accumulationol dcscription obscrvation, and
commcntaryand by rcduction, through ccho, tropcs ol diminishmcnt, and
ovcrt statcmcnts ol loss: Tcrc is no csscncc unlcss / nothing has bccn lclt
out (6:). Vhat Grcgcrson callcd lorcstalling or dclcrral dcncs Vrights
clongations and also touchcs upon thc crucial abscnccs in his pocms. Somc
thing is always missing, and in this particular pocm (Sitting at usk in thc
8ack Yard altcr thc Mondrian Rctrospcctivc) what is lclt out, as in a Mon
drian painting, is morc important than thc lorm that contains and organizcs
thc availablc matcrials. Tc gods and thcir namcs havc disappcarcd. / nly
thc clouds rcmain (6:). !n othcr words, thc dcath ol God has bccn both a
catastrophc and a boon to thc imagination. Vright updatcs what Stcvcns
did in Sunday Morning and clscwhcrc to thc grcat ninctccnthccntury
thcmc ol rcligious doubt. Hc rcitcratcs thc sad opportunitics availablc to
him as a pricst ol sccular mctaphysics. Although hc trics to hccd a lcsson
hc lcarns lrom a swallowomit, omit (6o)Vright mcditatcs so com
pulsivcly that his pocms thrcatcn to ovcrwhclm thc rcadcr with thc richcs,
rathcr than thc povcrty, ol thc natural world and ol thc pocts capacity to
rcplicatc thcm.
Tc harmonious tcnsion bctwccn a poctics ol accumulation and onc ol
rcduction is sccn most clcarly in isjccta Mcmbra, thc books last pocm,
which gulps altcr lorm and lormlcssncss, likc Stcvcnss dazzling northcrn
lights, which scrpcntlikc shcd and rcconstitutc thcmsclvcs (Tc Auroras ol
Autumn). Naturc docs not mirror Gods prcscncc, it rcccts us. !n Vrights
landscapc all is contingcncy, all is intcrconncctcd:
8ack yard, dry owcr hallbordcr, unpcoplcd landscapc
Strippcd ol cmbcllishmcnt and anccdotal conccrn:
A mirror ol pcrsonality,
unworldly and scllcacing,
Tc onlookcr sccs himscll in,
a monk among thc oak trccs . . .
How silly, thc way wc placc oursclvcsthc struck posturcs,
Tc soothing words, thc slcightsolhand
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:+
to hoodwink thc Paraclctc
For our rcgard, how always thc objccts wc draw out
To show oursclvcs to ccct
(Tc chiaroscuro ol charactcr wc ycarn lor)
Find us a shadc untruc and a shadc unticd.
8ad looking glass, bad things,
(+)
Although thc last linc may ring lalsc or comic in our car (as il Vright wcrc
saying bad dog, bad dog), thc stanza dramatizcs his movc toward rcvcla
tion. His usual proccdurc is to start with phrascs instcad ol clauscs (a habit
inhcritcd lrom Pound), and thcn to inscrt himscll within thc surround, as
hc docs in linc . Tc willcd projcction ol scll into landscapc and thc cqually
willcd dcsirc to scc thc scll rccctcd in thc physical world arc doomcd to
lailurc. Vc can ncvcr hoodwink thc Paraclctc, our words scldom soothc any
onc othcr than oursclvcs, and thcn only bricy. ur rccctions arc inadc
quatc bccausc cvcry cort to draw oursclvcs into or out ol objccts rcsults in
scllcaccmcnt as wcll as scllportraiturc. Vrights scllrccctions havc thc
uniquc rcsult in contcmporary poctry ol crcating a spcakcr whosc isolation
docs not glorily his own cgo. Hc has managcd to rcplacc narcissism with
scllrcvision, thc charactcristic aws ol which hc wcll knows: Vhatcvcr it
was ! had to say, / !vc said two timcs, and thcn a third (8o).
To thc swcltcr and humidity ol Vrights accumulatcd dcscriptions, thc
richncss ol his mclancholia, and thc rhctoric ol rcligious or mctaphysical
longing that works it way into his poctry, thcrc is no strongcr, chastcr anti
dotc than thc austcrc passions ol Louisc Glucks Te !ild Iris, thc only Pulit
zcr winncr with thc intcnsity ol a dclibcratcly thoughtthrough volumc. Tc
organization ol Strands book and thc buildup in Vrights lcavc us with thc
scnsc that thc authors havc asscmblcd misccllanics. 8ut Glucks, probably
thc most powcrlul singlc volumc ol lyric poctry in thc past quartcr ccntury,
has thc additional virtucs ol scrious rcligious qucsting and uttcrly simplc
cconomy ol mcans. !l wc could mix thc rhythms ol thc ld Tcstamcnt,
cxprcssions ol John Ruskins pathctic lallacy, thc intimacics ol Gcorgc
Hcrbcrt or mily ickinson addrcssing God, and thc philosophical mcdi
tativcncss ol Four Quartets, wc would arrivc at somcthing likc a blucprint lor
Te !ild Iris. l thc pocts who havc won thc Pulitzcr, Gluck (along with
Joric Graham) bids lair to lcavc thc strongcst ccct on thc ncxt gcncration,
owing to hcr intcntion, scopc, and complcx cxpcrimcnts with problcms ol
poctic voicc in a volumc ol many spcakcrs, all ol whom bcar thc imprint
ol thcir author yct rcmain distinct lrom onc anothcr. Shc rcsorts to lyric,
instcad ol capacious mcditations (as Vright docs) or dramatic, multipart,
somctimcs hallucinatcd and rapturous longcr pocms (as Graham docs).
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:+8
Lyric voiccs intcrwcavc. God sharcs spacc with a human spcakcr and a
bounty ol oral oncs, which rcprcscnt both thc pocts handiwork (as human
bcings arc Gods) and hcr challcngcrs. Shc is poiscd bctwccn hcr crcations or
hcr arrangcmcnts and thc divinity whosc crcation shc is. Tc poct bccomcs
both subjcct and objcct, in a cosmic backyard drama. Glucks diction is
always thc plain languagc ol scrious convcrsation, unlikc Graham, ovcr
whom Rilkc and Hcidcggcr hovcr likc covcring chcrubs, Gluck has no truck
with mctaphysical abstraction. Hcr sobcr diction, likc hcr gardcn, is rootcd
in thc world ol immcdiacy. Statcly, somctimcs biblical cadcnccs work along
sidc orthodox anaphora and parataxis:
Your voicc is gonc now, ! hardly hcar you.
Your starry voicc all shadow now
and thc carth dark again
with your grcat changcs ol hcart.
And by day thc grass going brown in placcs
undcr thc broad shadows ol thc maplc trccs.
Now, cvcrywhcrc ! am talkcd to by silcncc
so it is clcar ! havc no acccss to you,
! do not cxist lor you, you havc drawn
a linc through my namc.
()
Tc syncsthcsia ol thc opcning lincs bcautilully capturcs a scnsc ol aban
donmcnt in thc cvcning and in autumn (a lorctastc ol cndings yct to comc),
thc idiomatic acccss rcminds us that wc arc in our own ccntury. Likc thc
spcakcr, thc owcrs can also sound biblical. Gluck ccctivcly uscs cnjamb
mcnt, that contcmporary clich, to hcightcn thc slow intcnsity ol spccch.
Hcrc, lor cxamplc, is Tc Gold Lily:
As ! pcrccivc
! am dying now and know
! will not spcak again, will not
survivc thc carth, bc summoncd
out ol it again, not
a owcr yct, a spinc only, raw dirt
catching my ribs, ! call you,
lathcr and mastcr: all around,
my companions arc lailing, thinking
you do not scc.
(6:)
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
:+
Vith a mctalcptic ccho (Cavalcanti and sh !ednesday: 8ccausc ! do not
hopc to turn again . . .), thc lyric lily rcluscs to mourn. Tc owcrs arc
ncvcr gcndcrcd, but thcy always sccm lcmalc, likc thc lily ol thc vallcy
in 8lakcs Book of Tel (And ! am vcry small, and lovc to dwcll in lowly
valcs).
Likc thc human spcakcr, thc owcrs addrcss God, but thcy also addrcss
hcr. Tc titular owcr, whosc pocm introduccs thc volumc, rcmcmbcrs dcath
and rcbirth, surviving thc wintcr and coming to consciousncss in thc spring,
and cxtcnds solacc and warning togcthcr:
You who do not rcmcmbcr
passagc lrom thc othcr world
! tcll you ! could spcak again: whatcvcr
rcturns lrom oblivion rcturns
to nd a voicc,
lrom thc ccntcr ol my lilc camc
a grcat lountain, dccp bluc
shadows on azurc scawatcr.
(+)
!t is in hcr trcatmcnt ol God that Gluck conlronts most dcxtcrously thc
problcms ol voicc and thc rhythms appropriatc to thc dialoguc bctwccn crc
ator and crcation throughout a scason ol birth, growth, and dccay. Shc sharcs
thc dilcmma laccd by orthodox pocts likc Milton, as wcll as cxtravagant and
thcologically hctcrodox oncs likc Jamcs Mcrrill, ol nding an appropriatc
voicc lor him. Hcr human spcakcr may bc, by turns, bcholdcn, qucrulous,
compliant, pcrvcrsc, stoic, and wondcring, hcr dcity cxprcsscs pity, condc
sccnsion, vcxation, and stcrnncss as hc listcns and rcsponds to thc words
ol thc human and oral spcakcrs. ! havc shown you what you want: / not
bclicl, but capitulation / to authority, which dcpcnds on violcncc (). Tus
thc voicc ol patriarchy. r thc altcrnatc voicc ol God thc makcr, loving but
lar lrom omniscicnt:
Vhcn ! madc you, ! lovcd you.
Now ! pity you.
! gavc you all you nccdcd:
bcd ol carth, blankct ol bluc air
As ! gct lurthcr away lrom you
! scc you morc clcarly.
(+)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::o
r God thc Paraclctc, whosc cold comlort may do littlc to assuagc our lcars.
! cannot succccd / with all ol you, hc says, and thcn placcs rcsponsibility
on our will:
Ncvcr lorgct you arc my childrcn.
You arc not sucring bccausc you touchcd cach othcr
but bccausc you wcrc born,
bccausc you rcquircd lilc
scparatc lrom mc.
()
Vith thc cxccption ol Mcrrill in his cpic trilogy, no contcmporary poct has
so succcsslully charactcrizcd God, and not cvcn Mcrrill makcs God spcak in
such a human voicc and in thc mcdium ol lyric. Tcsc quict pocms projcct
authority and inspirc acccptancc not in spitc ol but bccausc ol thcir auda
cious cconomics. 8lakcan vision: A hcavcn in a wild owcr: Ccrtainly.
Such cconomics do not suit thc voraciousncss ol Joric Grahams intcl
lcct. Glucks daring consists ol rcdcning thc spcakcrs, but not thc spccch,
ol lyric, by rclying on simplc syntax, rhythm, and diction. Grahams gocs thc
othcr way. Hcr philosophical qucsting brcaks down syntax, linc, scntcnccs,
and pattcrns ol thought, likc thc Languagc pocts, shc rcsists paraphrasc,
but unlikc thcm shc ishowcvcr unconvcntionallyautobiographical, lyri
cal, and dcscriptivc, somctimcs by turns, somctimcs virtually simultancously.
And il, according to Howard Ncmcrovs lamous lormulation, poctry is a way
ol gctting somcthing right in languagc (+:), lor Graham it appcars that
thc qucst lrcqucntly lails, and that somcthing in languagc is always inad
cquatc, cvcn wrong. !l hcr pocms sccm to rcsist thc intclligcncc complctcly
it is only bccausc wc havc not takcn thc mcasurc ol hcr tcchniquc, wc havc
not lcarncd how to rcad hcr. Vhcrcas Gluck has inhcritcd ccrtain ol liots
syntactic and rhythmic habits, Graham alonc among our contcmporarics
has inhcritcd his ambitions, oltcn synonymous with occlusion and di culty.
!n an intcrvicw, shc idcnticd hcr involvcmcnt in our historical momcnt:
! lccl likc !m writing as part ol a group ol poctshistoricallywho arc
potcntially looking at thc cnd ol thc mcdium itscll as a vital part ol thcir
culturcunlcss thcy do somcthing to hclp it rcconncct itscll to mystcry and
powcr (!ntcrvicw, :+).
So wc cnd with cndings and bcginnings. Graham makcs thc acknowl
cdgmcnt that poctry is lailing and that its rcbirth rcquircs nothing lcss than
a rcturn to ancicnt sourccs. Scarry would associatc this claim with thc cnd ol
thc ccntury, to mc, it sccms pcrcnnial. Powcr dcpcnds upon mystcry. Gra
ham scants clarity, whcthcr in thc Horatian mildncss ol Ncmcrov and othcrs
who camc ol agc during Vorld Var !!, or in thc now normativc languagc
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
::+
ol much workshop vcrsc, or cvcn in thc rcncd austcrity ol Louisc Gluck,
rcplacing it with gaps, blanks, lacunac, dismcmbcrcd scntcnccs, occasionally
hallucinatcd lragmcnts. Vc arc back at thc originary momcnt ol contcm
porary poctrythc work ol Vordsworth and Colcridgc, and thc rival dis
pcnsations ol organic wholcncss and what Tomas McFarland rclcrs to as
thc modalitics ol lragmcntation. 8lackmurs cvaluativc dictum is still trcn
chantly accuratc. Any strong poct inhcrits a vocabulary and a thcmatics lrom
a tradition, shc rclashions, rclormulatcs thcm and makcs thcm ncw. Tus thc
availablc stock ol rcality is both a constant and an incrcasing cntity. Charlcs
Vrights lush rcvisions ol Romantic tropcs, Mark Strands musical rcncwals
ol Stcvcns and his syntax, and Louisc Glucks surprising appropriation
ol oldlashioncd dcviccs arc all ways ol inscrting a ncw pocts voicc into thc
ongoing convcrsation. Graham outdocs hcr contcmporarics in hcr cxpcri
mcnts with diction, lincation, and syntax, in hcr vigilant attcntivcncss shc
cstablishcs radical ncw conncctions among thc matcrial, inncr, and spiritual
rcalms that appcar congrucnt at somc timcs and disjunctivc at othcrs.
Tcrc arc no bcttcr cxamplcs ol Grahams rclationship to harmony and
disjunction, or clarity and opacity, than thc two handluls ol pocms lrom hcr
+ volumc Materialism, a volumc at oncc mctaphysical and scrupulously
obscrvant. Te Errancy and S.arm, Grahams subscqucnt volumcs, go in dil
lcrcnt dircctions cntircly, but hcrc, what shc calls the e.idence of the .isual
henceforth (+6o) dominatcs hcr lormal and spcculativc mancuvcrs. Graham
typically bcgins pocms with thc matcrial world, with simplc lact or rccol
lcction. Tus, Vatching thc rivcr, cach handlul ol it closing ovcr thc ncxt, /
brown and swollcn (Notcs on thc Rcality ol thc Scll, +), n my way
to bringing you thc lcotard / you lorgot to includc in your ovcrnight bag, /
thc snow startcd coming down hardcr (Tc rcam ol thc Unicd Ficld,
+6), ! dig my hands into thc absolutc (Tc \isiblc Vorld, +). And
thcn rcticulation and ramication takc ovcr.
Grahams pocms branch casily, luminously. Shc is a poct ol dircctions, who
makcs prcpositions and advcrbs ol placc into nouns (Tc angcls in ranks,
thc about , Tap tap thc undcrncath, +). A sccond pocm titlcd Notcs on
thc Rcality ol thc Scll (+6:) bcgins casily and compactly cnough:
!n my bushcs lacing thc bandpracticc cld,
in thc last light, surroundcd by drumbcats, drumrolls,
thcrc is a wind that tips thc rcddish lcavcs
cxactly all onc way, scizing thcm up lrom undcrncath, making thcm
barbarous in unison.
Tcrc lollow thrcc long scntcnccs, thc last ol which sputtcrs to a conclusion,
intcrruptcd by parcnthctical rcmarks and dashcs, thc hallmarks ol Grahams
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:::
rcccnt stylc. Vhat might havc bccomc hcr vcrsion ol Te Music Man
dcvolvcs into somcthing morc spcculativc, as Rilkc joins Mcrcdith Villson on
thc !owa playing clds. Tc wind takcs ovcr. Participlcs and gcrunds, which
Graham uscs morc lcrociously than most pocts, crcatc a wash ol movcmcnt
and sound:
thc coupling and uncoupling
limbsthc racks ol limbsthc luminositics ol branchings
ospring and morc ospringroil(cxccpt whcn a suddcn
stillncss rcvcals
an appall ol purc lorm, purc light
cvcry rim clcar, cvcry lcal scrratcd, tongucdstrippcd
ol thc gauzy quickncsscs which sccmcd its csh)but thcn
thc instabilitics
rcgroup, and thc uppcr limbs ol thc tall oaks
bcgin to whinc again with widc slappings
which sccp cvcrdownward to my bushcs . . .
Such syntactic volumc and hcavy vcrbal impasto swccp cvcr onward, as thc
poct and thc sccnc shc witncsscsvision is now accompanicd by music
whirl toward somc virtually unspcakablc conclusion. Proccss is cvcrything,
rcsult nothing. Tc bushcs rcspond not at all to thc band music:
not a molcculc ol sound
lrom thc tactics ol this glistcning bcast,
lorclimbs ol silvcr (tromboncs, lrcnch horns)
(anointcd by thc day itscll ) cxpanding, rctracting,
bits ol rcd lrom thc surrounding loliagc dccp
in all thc lulgid
instrumcntsoricntablazc whcrc thc sound is rclcascd
trumpcting, unlolding
scrccching, rolling, pattcrning, mcasuring
scintillant bcast thc bushcs do not know cxists
as thc wind bcats thcm, bcats in thcm, bcats round thcm,
thcm in a wind that docs not rcally cvcn now
cxist,
in which thcsc knobby rcddish limbs that do not sway
by so much as an inch
its arctic coursc
thcmsclvcs now sway
(+6)
:nv xixv:ivs vvvisi:vb (:oo+)
::
Tc brcathlcss outpouring ol thc pocms cnding sounds likc a combination
ol Valt Vhitman and Gcrard Manlcy Hopkins sct to Vagncrs Licbc
stod. No contcmporary poct is as alivc to thc dangcrous cncrgics ol thc
cxtcrnal world as Graham, or as cagcr to tracc its spiritual outlinc. Vhcrc
Gluck takcs as hcr grcat tool thc tropc ol voicc, Graham unlcashcs torrcnts
ol syntax, whcrc Vright looks lor thc shadows cast by thc invisiblc ovcr thc
visiblc world, Graham cvcrywhcrc scoops up largc buckctluls ol physical
mctaphysical ovcrlappings, conccntrating on what shc calls, in thc books last
pocm (Tc Surlacc), a rivcrs
chill cnlightcnmcnts, tightknottcd
quickcnings
and looscningswhispcrcd mcssagcs dissolving
thc mcsscngcrs
thc rivcr still glintingup into its handluls, hcapings,
glassy
lorgcttings undcr thc rivcr ol
my attcntion
(+)
Tc 8ritish poct Charlcs Tomlinson, who works within a lar dicrcnt tra
dition, although cqually attcntivc to thc dcmands ol cyc and car, oncc
noticcd that |t|hc timc is in lovc with cndings (+6). Grahams disruptions
and cruptions oltcn sound an apocalyptic notc appropriatc to millcnnial
cnds, but thcy suggcst cvcn morc a dclcrral and cxtcnsion ol hcr passion and
obscrvation. Hcr hcightcncd languagc ol ccstasyunlikc that ol Shcllcy in
Epipsychidionhcavcs into thc luturc on thc crcst ol an ongoing wavc that
ncvcr sccms to brcak. For Graham, thc prcscnt sccms to bc thc only momcnt
wc can know. For thc roiling onslaught ol timc itscll shc has dcviscd a lan
guagc twistcd and poscd (in 8lackmurs tcrms) appositc to hcr subjcct,
which also adds to an availablc stock ol rcality lor hcr rcadcrs and, pcrhaps
morc important, lor hcr succcssors in a ncw ccntury.
VRKS C!T
8lackmur, R. P. Form and !alue in Modern Poetry. Gardcn City, N.Y.: oublcday
Anchor, +.
Gluck, Louisc. Te !ild Iris. Hopcwcll, N.J.: cco, +:.
Graham, Joric. Te Dream of the Unied Field: Selected Poems, :,,:,,,. Hopcwcll,
N.J.: cco, +.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
Graham, Joric. An !ntcrvicw with Joric Graham. Conductcd by Tomas Gardncr.
Fegions of Unlikeness. Lincoln: Univcrsity ol Ncbraska Prcss, +, :+.
Grcgcrson, Linda. Short Rcvicws, Poetry ( cccmbcr +8): ::+.
Hollandcr, John. Te !ork of Poetry. Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss, +.
Kcrmodc, Frank. Te Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Teory of Fiction. Ncw York:
xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +6.
Komunyakaa, Yuscl. Neon !ernacular. Hanovcr, N.H.: Univcrsity Prcss ol Ncw
ngland, +.
Lcvinc, Philip. Te Simple Truth. Ncw York: Knopl, +.
Lowcll, Robcrt. Day by Day. Ncw York: Farrar, +.
. Life Studies. Ncw York: Farrar, +.
McFarland, Tomas. Fomanticism and the Forms of Fuin: !ords.orth, Coleridge,
and Modalities of Fragmentation. Princcton, N.J.: Princcton Univcrsity Prcss,
+8+.
Millcr, J. Hillis. Tc Critic as Host, in Deconstruction and Criticism, cd. Harold
8loom ct al. Ncw York: Scabury, +, :+.
Mucllcr, Liscl. li.e Together: Ne. and Selected Poems. 8aton Rougc: Louisiana
Statc Univcrsity Prcss, +6.
Ncmcrov, Howard. Poctry and Mcaning, in Ne. and Selected Essays. Carbondalc:
Southcrn !llinois Univcrsity Prcss, +8, +:86.
Prunty, Vyatt. Fallen from the Symboled !orld: Precedents for the Ne. Formalism.
Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +o.
Scarry, lainc, cd. Fins de Sicle: English Poetry in :,c, :&,c, :,c, :,c, :,,c.
8altimorc, Md. Johns Hopkins Univcrsity Prcss, +.
Shaw, Robcrt. Tragic Gcncrations, Poetry ( Jan. :ooo): :+o+.
Simic, Charlcs. Tc Mctaphysician in thc ark: An !ntcrvicw. Vith 8rucc
Vcigl. ++. Charles Simic: Essays on the Poetry, cd. 8rucc Vcigl. Ann Arbor:
Univcrsity ol Michigan Prcss, +6, :o8:.
. Te !orld Doesnt End. San icgo: Harcourt, +8.
Stcvcns, Vallacc. dagia. Opus Posthumous, cd. Milton J. 8atcs. Ncw York: Knopl,
+8, :+.
. Collected Poems. Ncw York: Knopl, +6.
Strand, Mark. Bli..ard of One. Ncw York: Knopl, +8.
Tatc, Jamcs. Selected Poems. Hanovcr, N.H.: Univcrsity Prcss ol Ncw ngland,
++.
Tomlinson, Charlcs. Collected Poems. Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +8.
\an uyn, Mona. Near Changes. Ncw York: Knopl, +o.
. To See, To Take. Ncw York: Athcncum, +o.
\cndlcr, Hclcn. FindcSiclc Lyric: V. 8. Ycats and Joric Graham, Scarry
+:o.
\on Hallbcrg, Robcrt. merican Poetry and Culture, :,,:,c. Cambridgc, Mass .
Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, +8.
Vright, Charlcs. Black Zodiac. Ncw York: Farrar, +.
::
F!FTN X
JR! GRAHAM TALK!NG l:oo6
!
n Postcrity, thc last ol thc twcntyvc pocms in O.erload, hcr ncw
book, Joric Graham says, twicc, ! havc talkcd too much (8688). ! am
surc that cvcn somc ol hcr sympathctic rcadcrs havc bccn thinking thc
samc thing, impaticntly, lor much ol thc past dccadc, pcrhaps longcr. Has
rcdundancy sct in: Not only docs Graham rcpcat hcrscll hcrc but shc also
continucs hcr habit ol rcpcating titlcs. Six arc callcd Praying, about which
morc latcr. Trcc at thc ccntcr arc callcd Spokcn lrom thc Hcdgcrows. Hcr
lovc ol wordslots ol thcmbcspcaks a swirling spirit, somctimcs out ol
control. !t was not always thus. Nor did shc uscd to worry about rcpctition.
Tc poct whosc rst two volumcs, Hybrids of Plants and of Ghosts and Ero-
sion, consistcd ol short lyrics, in short lincs and short stanzas, has movcd lor
thc past two dccadcs into largcr, morc lrccranging, indccd chaotic lorms.
xpansion has rcplaccd concision, mctaphysical spcculation has gonc wild,
as havc Grahams scntcnccs, somc ol which arc not rcally scntcnccs, rcplctc
with thcir lrustrating parcnthcscs, brackcts, and lacunac. 8rcaking out,
brcaking away, shc has sccmcd simultancously and paradoxically airy in hcr
bodilcss abstractions and hcavy in thc shccr wcight ol hcr uttcranccs. Shc
has bccn talking a lot. Tc qucstion ol whcthcr thc talk makcs scnsc, or
sounds instcad likc prctcntious palavcr, whcthcr thc talk riscs to thc lcvcl
ol music, and whcthcr what shc has bccn writing can bc lcgitimatcly callcd
pocms has bccn on thc minds ol hcr lricnds as wcll as hcr locs lor a long
timc. Vhcn thc latc Howard Ncmcrov wittily obscrvcd (in Strangc Mcta
morphosis ol Pocts) that From cpigram to cpic is thc coursc / For ridcrs ol
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::6
thc Amcrican wingcd horsc and that most pocts start out mily and wind
up Valt, hc was thinking ol his malc contcmporarics. Graham may bc thc
only lcmalc poctasidc lrom thc latc Amy Clampittto havc assumcd thc
mantlc ol Vhitmanian largcncss altcr having madc a morc modcst start.
Hcr skcptical rcadcrs, likc Vhitmans, would accusc thc poct ol mcrc
bloviation. Tc writcrs ol thc volumcs dust jackct copy play right into thc
hands ol Grahams doubtcrs. Tcy (or thc poct hcrscll ) tcll us that thc work
mcditatcs on our ncw world, ghostcd by, and thrcatcncd by, compcting
dcscriptions ol thc past, thc luturc, and what it mcans to bc, as individuals,
and as a pcoplc, lrcc. Vcll, ycs, ! supposc it docs, but whcthcr it docs so
convincingly, whcthcr it has lound thc propcr poctic lorm lor thc articulat
ing ol Grahams philosophical, social, and political qucstions, rcmains opcn.
Tc comparison to Vhitman rcmains instructivc. Vhitmans gcnius allowcd
him to producc a ncw kind ol pocm with a ncw subjcct, to lorgc a hct
crogcncous stylc out ol thc hctcrogcncity ol thc Unitcd Statcs thcmsclvcs.
Vhitmans linc, his robustncss, and his addrcsscs to his rcadcrs all bcspcak a
radical condcncc. Likcwisc, his languagc cncompasscs a rangc unduplicatcd
by any poct sincc, cxccpt John Ashbcry. Graham has somcthing ol Vhit
mans braggadocio but lacks his vigorous buoyancy, optimism, his humor (no
othcr contcmporary poct asidc lrom Adricnnc Rich has so littlc lightncss),
and cvcn his dclicacy. Shc docs not loal and invitc hcr soul, although shc
thinks a lot about soul and othcr spiritual mattcrs. Unlikc Vhitmans, Gra
hams spontancity oltcn sccms lorccd. For all hcr scnsuousncss, Graham is
a rcmarkably alicnatcd poct. Plcasurc docs not t into hcr schcmc ol things,
at lcast as shc placcs hcrscll in thc univcrsc ol thc twcntyrst ccntury. Tc
worlds richcs and bcautics givc hcr apparcntly littlc consolation, although
shc rcgistcrs thcm capaciously. ncc again, its Vhitman without joy. For a
pcrson so alcrt to thc scnscs shc sccms rcmarkably puritanical, rcsistant to
ordinary happincss.
Likc Vhitman, howcvcr, Joric Graham has bccn ablc to put hcr n
gcr on thc pulsc ol thc zcitgcist, and rcgardlcss ol whcthcr hcr vision and
hcr announccmcnts will last longcr than thcir historical momcnt, no othcr
poct has tricd to comc to grips with thc largcr world so much as shc has.
8y largcr ! mcan both public (political) and philosophical (mctaphysical).
Morc than any ol hcr volumcs lrom Materialism through Ne.er, burdcncd
with somcwhat rcconditc rclcrcnccs to thc turmoil in hcr lilc (divorcc, rclo
cation, rcmarriagc, morc rclocation), O.erlord takcs on thc problcm ol public
thcmcshistory, ccology, and cconomicsin toncs ol anxicty, lcar, contcm
plation, rcmcmbrancc, and praycr. spccially praycr. All ol a suddcn Graham
has got, il not that oldtimc rcligion, thcn at lcast thc urgc to spcak to somc
highcr lorcc. ( !t docs not answcr.) Four pocms lorm hcr prcvious volumc,
,oviv cv~n~: :~ixixc (:oo6)
::
Ne.er (:oo:), havc praycr in thcir titlc. Aubadcs and annunciations appcar
in othcr volumcs. Tc subjccts at thc hcart ol O.erlord, which is in many
ways hcr most locuscd ol thc past dccadc, and thc onc with thc clcarcst scnsc
ol organization, arc twinncd. First ol all, thc pocts thoughts about thc war that
took placc sixty ycars ago on thc bcachcs at Normandy, whcrc shc now spcnds
part ol hcr timc and, as a rcsponsc to /++, hcr thoughts on thc growth ol
antiAmcricanism, global warming, and political uphcavals. Sccond, a scrics
ol addrcsscs to a deus absconditus who shows no signs ol rcturning, or cvcn
ol hcaring hcr. Although thcsc pocms will not appcal to all tastcs, somc ol
thcm contain scctions ol urgcncy as wcll as topical rclcvancc. Grahams hon
cst rcligious qucstioning comcs as a wclcomc altcrnativc to thc incrcasing
rcligious ccrtainty now prcvalcnt in much Amcrican lilc. 8cttcr, onc thinks,
an cxccssivc, vcrbosc indccision than a narrow, straightcncd, cxclusivc dcl
ity, or a scllrightcous, smug scnsc ol oncs own salvation and thc damnation
ol all unbclicvcrs. ! takc it as a dclibcratc rcimagining on hcr part that Gra
ham now calls hcr pocms Praying instcad ol (as carlicr) Praycr, by rclying
on thc gcrund shc calls attcntion to thc cort ol making an addrcss rathcr
than thc accomplishmcnt ol it. !n contrast to praying, praycr rctains an
almost matcrial solidity. As always in hcr pocms, Graham prclcrs proccsscs
to things.
Tc volumc opcns with a Proustian lyric (thcr), which prcparcs thc
way lor thc lollowing spcculativc pocms. Tis rccollcction lrom carly
childhood (thc poct, sick at homc and abscnt lrom school) locuscs on
thc childs rst awarcncss ol prcscncc, in timc and spacc, ol what now
mcans, and ol how onc can bc abscnt and not abscnt at thc samc timc. !t
is a picturc ol thc littlc Joric Graham in thc rst owcring ol hcr abstract
spcculations: Vc can bc in and out ol hcrc, now, / at oncc, and not dic
(:). And lrom this conjccturc thc rcst ol thc volumc cxtcnds. Graham has
dclibcratcly minglcd two halvcs ol hcr poctic tcmpcramcntthc modcstly
autobiographical, and thc hcroically ambitious: Proust (or Vordsworth)
and Vhitman.
nc pocm cspccially stands out as an cxamplc ol thc modcst and thc
ambitious togcthcr, or ol old Graham and ncw. !mprcssionism (), in
scvcn numbcrcd scctions, bcgins with clcar, carclul attcntion to an cxtcrnal
sccnc. (Tc lact that Graham can writc plainly whcn shc wants to makcs onc
wondcr what makcs hcr not want to, much ol thc timc, prclcrring instcad
hcr looping, loping, lragmcntcd uttcranccs). Tc poct is watching a silcnt
littlc girl ncar St. Laurcnt sur Mcr whosc lrock (thc vcry word is sul
cicntly archaic to put us in mind ol a Rcnoir painting) is jaggcd in its /
privatc wind / ol starch and straightcnings and clcanlincss. !n hcr incan
dcsccnt pinalorc thc girl lcans ovcr a bridgc railing and shcs lor crabs.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::8
!mmcdiatcly thc poct thinks ol dircction, ol thc bottom ol things, and by thc
midpoint shc is o, a la modc dc Graham, thinking in imagcs and abstrac
tions, ol trccs with swollcn lruit rctrcating to barrcnncss, and ol qucstions
about surlaccs, dcpths, matcriality, and its oppositc. Hcrc is Scction , thc
pocms cxact middlc:
As il a trcc could siphon all its swollcn lruit
back in, down into its limbs, dry up thc
tiny opcning
whcrc manilcstation slippcd out
taking it all back inuntil it disappcarsuntil
thats it: thc cmpty trcc with all insidc it still
vcrsus this branchingout bclorc mc ol dierence, all
brilliantly lit, out
rcaching, varicgating,
lccding a massivc hungcr.
Tc hcron is lull ol hungcr.
Tc milcs ol oncthoughtdrivcn grasscs lull ol
hungcr.
Although not in this rcgistcr.
Tis sounds likc no onc clsc but Graham, in both ol hcr modcs, thc obscrvant
and thc spcculativc, or what ! prcviously tcrmcd thc modcst and thc ambi
tious. !t bcgins with a dclibcratc antiKcatsian stratcgy. Vhcrc hc lookcd
at thc stubblc clds (in To Autumn) and pcrlormcd an act ol imagina
tivc rcparation, thinking back to spring and summcr, Graham obscrvcs lull
ncss and imagincs cmptincss. Shc, too, is going backward in timc, but lrom
actual ripcncss to cmpty possibility. From lilc shc travcls back to thc womb,
lrom outsidc to insidc. !n onc long nonscntcncc (lollowcd by thrcc short
lincsonc scntcncc and two lragmcnts), shc thinks ol visiblc lilc as mani
lcstation and dierence lccding a hungcr that bclongs cqually to thc trcc
and to hcrscll. Hungcr (as shc cxplains in thc ncxt scction) movcs through
thc through covcrcd by thc shinc ol manilcstation. ncc again, movc
mcnt, dircction, and proccss takc prcccdcncc ovcr stasis and pcrmancncc, or,
rathcr, by making a noun out ol a prcposition (through) shc givcs action its
own placc.
Likc Vordsworth talking to any ol thc childrcn or old pcoplc hc cncoun
tcrs in his country walks, Graham cngagcs thc child in convcrsation and
rcgistcrs at thc cnd an almost arwinian picturc ol naturcs huntcrs and prcy.
A blcachcdout jumbo turkcylcg on thc girls string pulls up clcvcn crabs,
all lccding / wildly and thcn crushcd with thc childs hammcr on thc dock,
onc by onc, and pickcd up clawcnd by many / hands that sccm to suddcnly
,oviv cv~n~: :~ixixc (:oo6)
::
matcrializc / out ol thc nowhcrc to which ! am / now scnt. Tc pocm cnds
with thc poct hcrscll, somcwhat ominously:
Tcrcs no way back bclicvc mc.
!m writing you lrom thcrc.
Trolling lor poctic matcrial, out picking up imprcssions, Graham gocs
lor a walk and comcs upon what starts out as a fte champtre and cnds as a
vision ol naturc rcd in tooth and claw. All lincsol shing polc or pocm
movc in onc dircction only, a stark tcrmination.
Vc might takc thc arwinian schcmc ol !mprcssionism as a micro
cosm lor thc cntirc volumc, in which Graham minglcs pcrsonal dctails (in
hcr praying to an ovcrlord) with historical oncs. pcration vcrlord was
thc codc namc lor thc Allicd invasion ol uropc that bcgan at Normandy on
ay. At thc ccric dcad ccntcr ol thc book, thc trio ol pocms cntitlcd Spo
kcn lrom thc Hcdgcrows borrows lrom lcttcrs and othcr writtcn sourccs thc
voiccs ol Amcrican soldicrs, who spcak to us not only lrom thc hcdgcrows
but also lrom bcyond thc gravc. Tcir laconic, mattcrollact account ol thc
cvcnts bclorc, during, and altcr ay plays o against thc lacy spidcrwcbs
ol Grahams own propria pcrsona spcculations. Lconidas and his Spartan
soldicrs havc comc alivc oncc morc. !s Graham grcat: ocs shc contain,
Vhitmanlikc, multitudcs: As shc did in carlicr volumcs (notably Material-
ism), thc poct incorporatcs thc words ol othcrs within hcr own. Quotation
bccomcs part ol a pocts arscnal, and thc lact that in somc cascs shc dispcnscs
altogcthcr with quotation marks makcs thc voiccs ol scvcral soldicrs blcnd
togcthcr in a chorus and yct rcmain scparatc at thc samc timc. Tc words
ol thc noblc dcad bclong as wcll to Joric Graham, thcir poctic incorporator.
Shc has bccomc thcm through an act ol absorption.
And likc Vhitman himscll, Graham calls into qucstion thc cntirc issuc
ol poctic addrcss: who is spcaking, and to whom, throughout thcsc pagcs: !n
awn ay nc shc rcmcmbcrs having lookcd at hcrscll in a mirror (Latin:
speculum, as shc wcll knows) and spins a ri on scllandothcr, thc you and
thc not you whom you (or onc, or shc hcrscll ) might scc. As markcrs
ol idcntity, pronouns idcntily and also dcccivc. Tc pocm cnds with a Gra
hamian spcculation on thc naturc ol idcntity that sounds as wcll thc crotic
notc ol Vhitman talking to his rcadcrs through thc agcs:
Hcrc. You arc at thc bcginning ol somcthing. At thc cxact
bcginning. k. Tis is awakcning
numbcr two in hcrc, in this pocm. Tcn thcrc arc
thcsc: mc: you: you there. !m actually staring up at
you, you know, right hcrc, right lrom thc pool ol this pagc.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
ont worry whcrc clsc ! am, ! am hcrc. ont
worry il !m still alivc, you arc. (6)
Failing to lctch mc at rst kccp cncouragcd, / Missing mc onc placc scarch
anothcr, / ! stop somcwhcrc waiting lor you: thus Vhitman at thc lamous
cnd ol Song ol Myscll. Tc crotic, thc political, thc cpistcmological all
comc togcthcr in both pocts, as docs thc possibility ol multiplc idcntitics.
!n Praying ( ttempt of June c) Graham mixcs hcr own awaking with
sccncs lrom ay, oncc morc addrcssing God, or a lovcr, or somc com
bination, and saysin a gurc ol spccch that vcrgcs on thc litcral! am
bcsidc myscll, ! am bcsidc thcsc words. Somc strangc mciosis scts in as thc
poct rccalls counting thc stars in childhood and losing hcr placc and bcgin
ning again. Tc pocm cnds with an cnumcration, a Vhitmanian list, which
rcturns thc poct to origins, thc placc ol starting out, with a combincd scnsc
ol accumulation and loss:
. . . oh lord it is a
small thing, no:, to havc to
bcgin thc count
againthc stars, thc buttcrics, thc ics, thc scars,
thc dcad, thc rooms, thc sand, thc words, thc woundcd, thc roads, thc
missing limbs
thc .hose
ol thc missing limbs, thc missing, thc starlings, thc praycrs, thc in
dividual sccrcts, thc bullcts, thc days, lrom thc bcginning again, thc
days. Start counting. Too much blood. Undcr thc bridgc.
Start. Start putting things back. To still us. Start. (++)
Tc hallucinatcd commands sccm dircctcd cqually outward and inward, to
God and to thc scll. Shc is bcsidc hcrscll, and shc is bcsidc hcr words, but ol
coursc shc is also thcir sourcc. Tcy cmanatc lrom within hcr.
8ut who is shc, and how docs shc wish us to think ol hcr: Vhitman
distinguishcs thc Mc myscll lrom cvcrything around him, howcvcr impor
tant lovcrs and othcr pcoplc may bc. Standing apart lrom thc pulling and
hauling is what ! am, but at thc samc timc hc asks Vho nccd bc alraid
ol thc mcrgc: Hc asscrts himscll in part through acts ol withdrawal, in
part through acts ol absorption. And his most important, primcval qucstion
is also Grahams: To bc in any lorm, what is that: Likc Vhitman, Gra
ham asscrts hcr scll at thc samc timc that shc rcduccs it: ! cannot makc
out what bordcrs arc shc announccs in Praying (ttempt of June & c)
(+8). Tis is what a pop psychologist today would call boundary issucs.
For a poct so attuncd to thc worlds body, its lush physicality, Graham also
,oviv cv~n~: :~ixixc (:oo6)
:+
sccms paradoxically unsurc ol hcr own corporcal status. nc somctimcs has
thc lccling that, likc thc young Vordsworth on his way homc lrom school,
Graham must grab onto a wall or a trcc to rccall hcrscll lrom thc abyss ol
idcalism. Hcr Romantic prccursor, dcscribing thc motivation bchind thc
!ntimations dc, lamously wrotc: ! was oltcn unablc to think ol cxtcrnal
things as having cxtcrnal cxistcncc, that ! communcd with all that ! saw
as somcthing not apart lrom, but inhcrcnt in, my own immatcrial naturc.
8oth Vordsworth and Graham dcal constantly with physical rcality and
thcy both qucstion its pcrmancncc, its rcliability, and thcir own ambiguous
placc within it.
At thc bcginning ol thc lollowing pocm, Upon mcrgcncc, shc asks a
qucstion with a complicatcd scnsc ol hcr own idcntity: Havc ! that to which
to dcvotc my / scll: (:o). Not only docs shc wondcr about an appropriatc
objcct lor hcr qucstions, hcr addrcsscs, hcr dcvotional aspirations, but shc
also thinks ol hcr scll as somcthing scparatc lrom hcrscll. Tc linc brcak
tclls all. Hcr scll is dicrcnt lrom hcrscll. Shc has a proud humility, say
ing that shc can make myself vcry small (:6), cmphasizing both hcr powcr
and hcr pcttincss. Shc trics lor Zcnlikc cmptincss and crasurc but cgo kccps
gctting in thc way, via hcr volubility. !n a pocm about illncss (Physician)
shc scparatcs hcr body lrom hcr scll: My pcrson is sick. !t trcmblcs (8).
8ut likc Vhitman and Allcn Ginsbcrg (in his jovial, mockparanoid Amcr
ica) shc also idcntics with hcr nation: My pcrson, ah, Amcrica, sinks into
its bcd. !s thc country in apposition to hcr scll: (Hcr body is likc onncs
ncwlound land, hcr own Amcrica.) r is it thc objcct ol hcr addrcss: Tc
linc can bc rcad in two distinct but complcmcntary ways. Shc thinks ol hcr
body as dicrcnt lrom hcrscll. Likc Rimbaud, shc might say je est un autre,
having cxtcrnalizcd hcr bodyinpain lrom thc Rcal Mc: How do ! tcll
my pcrson it is not my body that is ill. / Not my body, not mc, that is right.
To bc surc, thcrc is / tcrminal illncss, but this is not pcrsonal, thcrc is no
longcr / personal illness (6o). 8y intcriorizing and cxtcriorizing illncss at thc
samc timc, thc poct both bcars and rcjccts thc possibilitics ol tcrmination.
r, rathcr, shc acccpts hcr mortal scll and simultancously transccnds it.
Similarly, in thc lollowing pocm (iscnchantmcnt), shc continucs hcr
cort to idcntily a scll. Tc pocm bcgins:
! shilt my scll. !ts mc ! shout to thc trcc out thc window
dont you know its mc, a mc! rcally dont carc what wc call it,
this pcrsonhooda hood isnt a bad thing, a placc to livc, a
scllblinding. (6+)
So thc scllashood mcrcly covcrs, indccd supprcsscs, thc rcal mc. Vhat
cvcr wc call it, individual idcntity hidcs as much as it rcvcals. Graham
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
contains multitudcs, many possiblc mes. Shc managcs to livc within thcm
just as smoothly, casually, as thcy cxist within hcr. Hood: both a piccc ol
protcctivc clothing and, colloquially, a ncighborhood in which to livc with
othcr pcoplc.
Tis rcvicw bcgan with thc opcning scntcncc lrom Postcrity. Likc
many ol Grahams pocms this onc surrounds an anccdotal basc, in this casc
thc handing ovcr ol thc pocts dinncr, a storcprcparcd chickcn in loil, to a
homclcss bcggar. A spccic cxpcricncc involving anothcr pcrson oltcn scts
thc poct and hcr pocm going. Tc wholc pocm rccalls in principlc thc bcst
ol somc ol Grahams carlicr work, likc Vhat thc nd !s For and !mpcrial
ism (Te End of Beauty), Fission and Tc Phasc altcr History (Fegion of
Unlikeness), and Tc rcam ol thc Unicd Ficld (Materialism). All ol thcsc
minglc narrativc, lyric, and conjccturc, and it is in this kind ol mixing that
Graham is most mcmorablc, authcntic, and original. 8ut mcrc spcculation, or
thinking, likc mcrc talk, is not cnough to makc a pocm. A poct must work
hcr languagc into shapcly uttcrancc, hcr talk into music. Shc must do morc
than mix thc scparatc ingrcdicnts. Vithout music, wc havc prosc musings.
Tc poct must also rcnc thought into artilact, othcrwisc it rcmains uy
abstractions. Graham has achicvcd such rcncmcnt somcwhcrc in most ol
hcr volumcs. (S.arm continucs to ba c or cludc mc, howcvcr.) Postcrity
combincs thc bcst as wcll as somc ol thc most annoying ol Grahams poctic
habits. !ts idca (as Vallacc Stcvcns might havc it), that is its conccpt, its
lorm and shapc, is scrious, wcighty, important. !ts particulars (thc pocm ol
thc words in Stcvcnss lormulation) vccr bctwccn thc clcgantly simplc, thc
banal, and thc prctcntious. Vhcrc is thc rcal Joric Graham:
Tc pocm opcns with somcthing likc a conlcssion olil not cxactly
sinswcakncsscs, aws, and a mcditation on thc historical, mythical, prop
crtics ol thc Holy Grail, that instrumcnt ol salvation. Tcn thc introduction
ol thc strcct pcrson cncountcrcd in Harvard Squarc lollows, and thc gilt ol
thc storcbought chickcn, which ! takc as thc pocms cxpcricntial bcginning.
Tc pocm cnds with thc pocts rccctions on thc c cacy ol hcr poctry, and
rcally ol anything that smacks ol too much talking. Somctimcs thc languagc
sccms mcrcly banal: !t was in a papcr bag with aluminum / lining. vcn so it
was cxtrcmcly hot. Somctimcs thc straincd simplicity ol hcr diction courts
prctcnsion: ! gavc it him in both hands. Tis is 8ritish rathcr than Amcri
can usagc. Vc might rcmcmbcr that Colcridgc criticizcd Vordsworth lor
bombastic diction, imagcs too grcat lor thc thoughts thcy carry, and also lor
mctaphysical hcavincss. !s Grahams chickcn thc grail ol thc twcntyrst
ccntury: Likc thc LccchGathcrcr, or thc ischargcd Soldicr in Te Pre-
lude, or thc old mcn in Tc ld Cumbcrland 8cggar and Animal Tran
quility and ccay, Grahams Harvard Squarc bcggar is mcant to bc both a
,oviv cv~n~: :~ixixc (:oo6)
:
rcprcscntativc (ol thc poor wc shall havc always with us) and a corrcctivc to
thc pocts own condcsccnding act ol prcsumptivc charity.
Postcrity comcs last in this book at lcast in part bccausc it dcals with
thc noblc idca ol bcqucsts, charitablc and othcrwisc. !t givcs an adcquatc
scnsc ol closurc. !t also, howcvcr, contains gcsturcs and momcnts that sccm
at oncc too ordinary (as abovc) and too grandiosc. Tc homclcss man appar
cntly ncvcr gcts to cat thc chickcn, hc docsnt cvcn spcak. Tc poct walks
on, lrustratcd il not actually dclcatcd in hcr charitablc aims. Shc turns hcr
attcntion upon hcrscll, on thc naturc ol thc subjcct (both pcrsonhood and
poctic tropcs). And shc acknowlcdgcs that thc wholc cvcnt was all an occa
sion lor poctry: Forgivc mc ! am pcrhaps not spcaking to you individually.
Tc individual has bccomc a tropc, thc poct has uscd thc bcggar, absorbing
him to hcr own nccd to ocr charity. Hc bccomcs thc rcason lor a pocm, and
Graham lccls inspircd and also chastcncd:
To praisc to rccall to mcmorializc to summon to mind
thc thing itsclllorgivc mcthe gi.en thingthat you might havc
pcrsuadcd yourscll is
invisiblc,
unknowablc, crcaturc ol contcxtit is thcrc, it is thcrc, it nccds to bc
thcrc. ! awakcn
again. Tc
man, last night, his hands
no longcr opcrational. (88)
Vhcn shc nds hcrscll cxaspcratcd by thc noncompatibility ol ways and
mcans, morality and acsthctics, giving and acknowlcdgmcnt, Graham sum
mons a dcspcratc tonc right out ol Vallacc Stcvcns: it is thcrc, it is thcrc, it
is thcrc ccrtainly sounds a lot likc !t is possiblc, possiblc, possiblc. !t must /
8c possiblc (Notcs toward a Suprcmc Fiction). Pcrhaps thcrc is no Tingin
!tscll (Kants Ding-an-Sich), thcrc is mcrcly what onc conlronts, what onc
is givcn, provisionally or by accidcnt. Poctrys traditional justicationto
praisc, to rccall, to mcmorializcis invokcd only, it sccms, to bc shuntcd
away. Tc bcggar, his hands no longcr opcrational, stands lor cvcrything
wcak, impovcrishcd, unlunctional, and also ungratclul.
Tc poct awakcns thc ncxt day il not saddcr but wiscr thcn at lcast modcstly
chastiscd as wcll as opcrational, and shc wondcrs, in two scnscs ol that word:
! wakc up opcrational
ovcr what country now.
Tc rain has ccascd,
! starc at thc glcaming gardcn. (88)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
!n a book that has cxplorcd public thcmcs, Graham asks about (onc scnsc
ol wondcring) what country shc now occupics, or rathcr what kind ol
polis makcs possiblc thc kind ol cncountcr shc had thc day bclorc. 8ut shc
looks inward as wcll as outward: in hcr privatc lilc, in hcr own pcrson, shc
marvcls (thc othcr scnsc ol wondcring), spcaking with uttcr clarity and sim
plicity ol thc ncw day and thc natural bcauty to which shc awakcns. Has shc
dccidcd, Candidclikc, to cultivatc hcr own gardcn: Adricnnc Rich, anothcr
poct givcn to public thcmcs, has sccmcd in hcr poctry ol thc past tcn ycars
to havc madc a comparablc rctrcat lrom thc public to thc privatc lilc. Tc
poctcritic Jamcs Longcnbach has alrcady dcscribcd Joric Grahams 8ig
Hungcr, and Graham hcrscll uscs hungcr as a motil lor both hcr charactcrs
and hcrscll throughout many ol hcr books.
!
Tc big qucstion is what Gra
ham will nccd ncxt. Vhat will shc bc hungry lor: Vhcrc will hcr hungcr
lcad hcr: !nto largcr swirls ol mctaphysical and political anxicty, or to thc
smallcr plcasurcs ol thc scll and its privilcgcd cncloscd domain, signalcd by
a glcaming gardcn, about to continuc growing:
:
S!XTN X
PTRY !N R\!V
On . F. mmons and John shbery (:cc&)
A
bout what is it that thcy arc ncvcr supposcd to bc wrong, thc old
mastcrs: Not just, pacc V. H. Audcn, sucring, but also thc lull
gamut ol human cxpcricncc: sorrow, wondcr, and cvcn, occasionally,
joy. And by old mastcrs wc might think not mcrcly ol thosc long gonc
but also, and morc closc by, ol thosc scnior pocts who havc carncd thc right
to bc labclcd sagcs. Tcir wisdom kccps us coming back to thcm and also
cncouragcs us to consult thcm lor thcir guidancc in rcgard to what Socratcs
thought thc only philosophical qucstion: How do wc approach dcath:
Vhat can thc goldcn codgcrs (Ycatss phrasc) tcach us:
Somcthing must havc bccn in thc air, thc watcr, or thc Zcitgcist in thc
scvcral ycars bclorc thc Grcat cprcssion. 8ctwccn +: and +: thc
lollowing pocts wcrc born: Carolyn Kizcr, onald Justicc, Frank Hara,
Robcrt 8ly, Robcrt Crcclcy, Allcn Ginsbcrg, V. . Snodgrass, Jamcs Mcr
rill, V. S. Mcrwin, A. R. Ammons, John Ashbcry, Jamcs Vright, Galway
Kinncll, Annc Scxton, Philip Lcvinc, !rving Fcldman, John Hollandcr, Rich
ard Howard, and Adricnnc Rich. Hara and Scxton dicd rclativcly young. Vc
might obscrvc ol thc othcrs, both thosc who havc dicd rcccntly and thosc
who rcmain, that thcy givc thc lic to thc clich that pocts in thcir youth burn
with glory and gladncss, and thcn lcad a dull, posthumous lilc in thc manncr
ol Villiam Vordsworth. And not just thcy but othcr signicant postwar
pocts (Vallacc Stcvcns, lizabcth 8ishop, Amy Clampitt, Anthony Hccht)
wrotc somc ol thcir bcst work in thcir last ycars. All ol thcsc old mastcrs
lcnd support to T. S. liots claim (ast Cokcr) that old mcn ought to bc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
cxplorcrs. 8ut liot also admonishcd: o not lct mc hcar / l thc wisdom
ol old mcn, but rathcr ol thcir lolly, / Tcir lcar ol lcar and lrcnzy, thcir lcar
ol posscssion. Hc wantcd, or so hc claimcd, only humility.
Somcwhcrc bctwccn lcar, humility, lolly, and wisdom, thc latc A. R.
Ammons and thc still with us (and with it) John Ashbcry havc stakcd thcir
latcst claims on our attcntion in thcir most rcccnt books, Ammonss a post
humous collcction composcd during a sixwcck pcriod in latc +6 and
lusscd with until his dcath in :oo+, and Ashbcrys thc currcnt production in
a voluminous latc owcring that kccps on coming. cath hangs ovcr both
books, as docs a combination ol rclusal to go gcntlc and a rcsigncd acccptancc
ol incvitability. 8lack humor, nostalgia, rcgrct, anticipation, and wondcr ll
both ol thcm. Vhcn Ashbcry says, as a jackct blurb lor Ammonss book, that
nothing will altcr thc ccrtaintics ol old agc, but his clcarsightcd acccptancc
and cclcbration ol it sccm distantly rclatcd to joy, hc must bc looking at his
contcmporary with his own combination ol cnvy and gratitudc. istantly
tclls us morc about Ashbcry than Ammons, who is oltcn giddy with plcasurc,
rclishing lilcs ordinary cvcnts. 8oth pocts havc mastcrcd thc Amcrican dia
lcct, cspccially its slang, and ncithcr shics away lrom plain gooncss, nor docs
Ammons shy away lrom bad puns. !n Ammons wc nd joy as wcll as plcnty ol
othcr cmotions, in Ashbcry wc nd thc dcsirc to nd a joy that has cvadcd him,
a partial clcgy lor misscd opportunitics, but also an ccric, stubborn willingncss
to acccpt |what Jack Gilbcrt calls| our gladncss in thc ruthlcss lurnacc ol this
world. Ncithcr book is unilormly wondcrlul. 8oth havc thcir longucurs but
also contain sublimc cvidcncc ol thcir authors insistcnt charms.
l thc two books, Bosh and Flapdoodle is thc morc prcdictablc, and not
only bccausc its author was living with a clcar scnsc ol his mortality whilc
writing it. Ammons has in thcsc pocmshad, ! must say, now that hc is
gonctwo rcgistcrs, thc ironic and thc stoic. As in all ol his books, hc also
has two subjccts: thc largc and thc small, thc univcrsc and thc scll, pcriphcrics
and ccntcrs. n thc othcr hand, thcsc pocms comc in only onc sizc, ncithcr
thc booklcngth lorm that Ammons lavorcd in Tape for the Turn of the Year,
Sphere: Te Form of Motion, and Garbage, nor thc rcally shortas hc callcd
thcmminiaturcs that hc also lavorcd, but onc and twopagc lyrics (only a
handlul arc longcr), all in couplcts cxccpt Toughts (in tcrccts), a mcdita
tion on ars longa, .ita bre.is that takcs as its cxamplc A. . Housman, whom
Ammons addrcsscs as though hc wcrc talking to or about Valt Vhitman and
his rcal mc:
in lact, tho, A.., yourc not in your gravc,
not thc rcal you: whatcvcr ol thc rcal you
is lclt is hcrc with us: yourc hcrc with
ox ~. v. ~::oxs ~xb ,onx ~snnvvv (:oo6)
:
us, in a scnsc: thc gravc holds nothing, or
what soon will bc: but no onc, now, dcad or
alivc can hold you in his arms and dry your cycs
Tis clcarcycd rccognition ol thc dust to which wc shall rcturn, thc lailurc
ol anything but art to givc somc solacc, and thc rcinvigoration ol thc clich
about arts cndurancc do not rcally conccrn Housman but Ammons himscll.
!t is Archic hc mourns lor, or rcluscs to. !n !n \icw ol thc Fact hc statcs
clcarly: Tc pcoplc ol my timc arc passing away. Hc is part ol a gcncra
tion, any gcncration, all ol which havc onc thing in common. First wcddings
comc, thcn babics, and now luncrals: wc ncvcr // thought wc would livc lor
cvcr (although wc did) / and now it looks likc wc wont. Tcrcs a dclicious
ambiguity within thc parcnthcsis: although thc phrasc mcans primarily that
wc thought at somc lcvcl that wc actually would livc lorcvcr, cvcn in thc
lacc ol grcatcr knowlcdgc, it also mcans that wc actually did havc a hcalthy,
long lilcspan. Ammons kccps mourning in chcck, but hc ncvcr supprcsscs it
altogcthcr. His Vordsworthian simplicity ol mcans rcminds us that tcars to
human sucring arc duc (Vordsworths acknowlcdgmcnt in Laodamia)
and that mcmory can givc rclicl rathcr than rcgrct:
until wc dic wc will rcmcmbcr cvcry
singlc thing, rccall cvcry word, lovc cvcry
loss: thcn wc will, as wc must, lcavc it to
othcrs to lovc, lovc that can grow brightcr
and dccpcr till thc vcry cnd, gaining strcngth
and gctting morc prccious all thc way.
!n othcr words, its not just Horaccs monumcntum acrc pcrcnnius but
also a rclishing ol ordinary human cmotion that givcs plcasurc. Ammonss
awkward syntax works to his advantagc hcrc, as thc vcrb to lovc strangcly
bccomcs a noun (lovc that can grow brightcr), as il to dcmonstratc how
thc doing ol somcthing gcts translormcd into a lact, as a proccss bccomcs
an cvcnt, a solid thing.
Ammons ncvcr lost his londncss lor thc downtocarth, and thc down
anddirty. !l scntimcnt lls thc lincs abovc, hc was also always capablc ol
thinking ol thc body at its most clcmcntary lcvcl. A bricl invcntory would
includc thc lollowing phrascs, imagcs, topics, and titlcs: Givc a shit, gct
thc luck out, an intcrcst in oncs bowcls (how many pocts gct thcm into
thcir pocms:), his wondcr and dismay at a now nonlunctional organ (!t uscd
to ick up so oltcn, ! callcd it / ickcr: but now, drooping, it nods awakc // or,
losing it, slips back aslccp), vo::vx viss, thc dcsirc to cxaminc oncs own
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
shit and snot (was it just a clcar // gclatinous blob or crusty skin shicld or a
// buttcrball ol goocy glop), an ccological pocm callcd \omit, onc callcd
Shit Facc, and anothcr callcd Spit. !n an carlicr work hc wondcrcd why
mcdicval pocts ncvcr tcll us about how and whcrc knights in armor wcrc
ablc to movc thcir bowcls. Hc takcs thcsc things vcry scriously, howcvcr
lightly hc sccms to trcat thcm.
Troughout his poctic carccr, Ammons was, likc Vhitman, a poct ol thc
body as wcll as ol thc soul, and a poct scnsitivc to thcir ovcrlappings and intcr
scctions. Hc allows that wc arc such dust as houscmitcs / husband on, at thc
cnd ol umb Clucks, a pocm that bcgins on Ammonss bclovcd pcriphcr
ics: thc aboriginal // cmptincss, sourcc ol all bcginnings, whcrc / spirit at last
totally prcvails, up thcrc. Univcrsc and wisp hc calls thc two polcs ol our
attcntion, or swcctncss and pain, but Ammons is always too mcrcurial or vola
tilc to rcmain attachcd to any onc thing lor too long. Tc / daytoday plungcd
into ctcrnity: thc look / back thcn lrom ctcrnity to thc daytoday hc puts it
in !nlorming ynamics. !n Quibbling thc Colossal, a pocm about poctry
addrcsscd to Harold 8loom, onc ol his carlicst promotcrs, Ammons shimmics
his way bctwccn an old man whosc lcct swcll whcn hcs sitting still too long
at his typcwritcr, and thc sky, thc land ol spcctral cncrgics: in othcr words,
bctwccn thc scll and thc cosmos. And hc mancuvcrs slyly bctwccn chattincss
and clich on onc hand and a atus on thc othcr, although wc may bc surpriscd
by thc casc ol his transitions:
thc disjunctivcncss ol my
rcccnt vcrsc cracks up thc dark cloud and
covcring shicld ol inucncc and lcts lrcsh
light in, morc than what littlc was lclt, a
slivcr along thc larthcst horizon: room to
brcathc and strctch and not givc a shit, room
to turn my armics ol words around in or camp
out and hidc.
Hc looks lor and thcn nds thc silvcr lining in thc clouds, whcrc rcsidcs
thc 8loomian motil ol thc vcning Land. To thc appcal ol clcgy itscll,
Ammons countcrs with Torcauvian optimism: thc grcatcst dawn cvcr
is / rosy in thc skics. Tc pocm cnds (as do scvcral throughout thc vol
umc) with a capitalizcd summary: c~s: :nv ovvvc~s:. Ammons always
bounccs back. Hc givcs 8loom thc bcst ripostc hc can, his vcrsion ol thc
ngcr: thc rosyngcrcd bloom ol sunrisc.
ox ~. v. ~::oxs ~xb ,onx ~snnvvv (:oo6)
:
Ashbcrys bcsctting aw is opacity (about which morc latcr), his cor
rcsponding virtuc is surprisc. Vith Ammons thc aw is garrulousncss, or
annoying scllattcntivcncss, and thc rcprcscntativc virtuc is casc. Tcrc is
no morc companionablc guidc in latctwcnticthccntury Amcrican poctry
cxccpt lor thc morc lormally conncd Howard Ncmcrov. Along with Ncm
crov, Ammonss only compctitors lor thc titlc ol 8cst bscrvcr arc Charlcs
Vright (imbucd with mclancholy) and Amy Clampitt ( givcn to thc sponta
ncous ovcrow ol powcrlul lcclings). Ammons is givcn to dclight and chuck
ling, cvcn whcn acknowlcdging latiguc. Tus, in Callcd into Play, hc dcals
with thc artists pcrcnnial problcm ol locating matcrial: Fall lcll: so thats it
lor thc lcal poctry. Hc knows hc isnt going to // nd somcthing to writc
about ! havcnt alrcady / writtcn away. Hc wondcrs: is // somcthing going
on: somcthing bcsidcs this / diddlcdccdiddlc cvcryday mattcrollact. vcn
at his most banal, hc can sound lunny and touching, although a littlc ol this
gocs a long way. r, whcn annoyingly scllattcntivc hc touchcs on thc issuc
ol nding an answcrablc stylc (onc ol my mcancst problcms), a pcrcnnial
mattcr lor such scllconscious artists. !n thc books nal pocm, Vay own
upon thc Voodsy Roads, as clscwhcrc, hc comcs down in lavor ol discinct
(his coinagc) rathcr than succinct pocms and, in spitc ol his brcvity, against
comprcssion. Hc wants to rattlc |his| old prattlc, and prattlc hc ccrtainly
docs. A happy man cnds his last volumc with imagcs ol homc and wandcr
ing to thc pcriphcry ol chancc and surprisc.
8ccausc Ammons was ill during thc composition ol thcsc pocms, hc
llcd thcm with intimations ol mortality, and two kinds ol backward glanccs.
Tc rst (as in thc lovcly Hooliganism, a rcvcric ovcr old rcal and imag
incd amcs) looks to his past. Tc sccondlcss cxpcctcd in a poct not nor
mally allusivclooks to carlicr pocts, cspccially Shakcspcarc, to whom hc
alludcs scvcral timcs, oltcn unobtrusivcly: wc arc such dust as houscmitcs /
husband on (umb Clucks), that is thc qucstion (8ody Marks), a
placc drcams // and drcamcrs arc madc on (Lincagc), ncithcr a saycr nor
a docr // bc: bc a bccr (ishcs and ashcs), nothing // is got lor nothing
(TrccLimbs own, hcrc Lcar and Ralph Valdo mcrson join voiccs),
oh, how // at it is (Sucking Flics).
Somctimcs thc quotations, likc Ammonss lcrvor lor allitcration, sound
lacilc. !n too many ol thcsc pocms Ammons scttlcs lor mcrc cutcncss. At his
bcst, howcvcr, both allitcration and allusion allow thc poct to build to thc
musical crcst ol his own wavc, as in thc lincs that lollow thc ccho ol Hamlct
in Sucking Flics:
is it wisc to ddlc with lragilitics,
littlc drcams and hopcs and loolish bclicls:
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
thcrc is a smallncss runs undcr things likc a
crumbly soil that takcs in what rcmains and
givcs back thc bcautics ol thc cld: our
bodics sharc thcsc wormshakcn roads: but our
spirit, it is lrom bclorc and knows no changcs
through all thc lincations ol conscqucncc. . . .
Tis is Ammons at his bcst, dclicatc and nondoctrinally rcligious. Tc spirit
ol Gcrard Manlcy Hopkins hovcrs ovcr thc lincs (thcrc livcs thc dcarcst
lrcshncss dccp down things), as docs an almost ld Tcstamcnt grandcur
that rcplaccs thc lilics ol thc cld with thc morc gcncric, Romantic, and
Amcrican bcautics ol thc cld, and through all thc days ol our lilc with
thc scicntically alcrt abstraction ol thc nal linc (through all thc lincations
ol conscqucncc) that trails o into wondcr or daydrcaming.
Although Hopkins, Shakcspcarc, and cvcn Samucl Johnson makc ran
dom appcaranccs in this book, Ammons rcmains trucst to his nativc mcr
sonian spirituality. !n onc ol thc long (that is, thrccpagc) pocms (Now
Tcn) hc rcturns to thc thcmc ol praisc and a rcaching lor thc sublimc that
wcrc his staplcs in his grcat work ol almost a hall ccntury ago, thc pocms or
individual lincs most ol us rcmcmbcr whcn wc say Ammons: Mcchanism
(Honor a going thing), Guidc (to bc glad and sad at oncc is also unity /
and dcath), Tcrrain (Tc soul is rcgion without dcnitc boundarics),
Cut thc Grass (lcss than total is a buckctlul ol radiant toys), Tc City
Limits (Vhcn you considcr thc radiancc). No onc can sound both scll
dcprccating and magistcrial at oncc as wcll as hc docs. Now Tcn bcgins
with an ordinary domcstic situation (thc ccct ol wind blowing through an
opcn window on a bathroom door) and an ordinary idca (major cccts / can
comc ol slcndcr spacings), and thcn o it gocs.
As so oltcn in thc past, Ammons dividcs his attcntion bctwccn thc vcry
largc (in this casc, gorillas) and thc vcry small (hcrc, ycllowjackcts), and con
tcmplatcs thc naturc and thc divinity ol cach spccics (shadcs ol Hopkins,
oncc again). Hc asscrts that
nothing is so truc as what brcaks into bcing
this minutc lrom colossal pctrications ol
past timc and hugc issuanccs into timctobc:
Such brcaking into bcing signals both crcation and dcstruction, but Archic
in his backyard is unalraid. !l thc world cxplodcs, nothing will bc lost, cvcry /
littlc tiny atom will bc spinning lor // thc lord (cchocs ol Jamcs Mcrrill,
Lost in Translation). Hc lls his nal book with clcgics and turns lrom
ox ~. v. ~::oxs ~xb ,onx ~snnvvv (:oo6)
:+
clcgy, always coming down on thc sidc ol mcrsonian compcnsation and
Amcrican optimism:
havc no lcar: wccp but movc
on: il thc god is not in rcsidcncc, hc is in
motion, and it is hard to tcll which is which:
coco rico, thc roostcr crows: it is day again.
Tc sun is always about to comc out, again. Ammons is thc latcst, pcrhaps
thc last, truc avatar ol Hcnry avid Torcau.
No such constant, condcnt optimism inluscs !here Shall I !ander. !l
Ammons oltcn sounds likc thc man ncxt door, Ashbcry sounds likc somconc
who livcs ncxt door to dward Gorcy. His toncs and situationslaconic,
innoccnt, and rcportorial but at thc samc timc arch, sinistcr, mcnacing
cvokc thc crccpy charactcrs and scttings in Gorcys sinuously drawn cartoon
storics, in part bccausc both artists can usc ncutrality in dangcrous ways.
Likc an illustratcd Gorcy narrativc, an Ashbcry pocm can convcrt mattcr
ollactncss into thc csscncc ol tcrror. At agc scvcntycight, Ashbcry has
carncd a right to sound autumnal, nostalgic, cvcn lcarlul, but thc wondcrlul
thing about his latcst book is that hc maintains thc samc balancc bctwccn
giddincss and lcar, satislaction and anxicty, acccptancc and doubt, that has
markcd his grcatcst prcvious work.
From thc bcginning ol thc book, warnings and dangcr, gricl and a scnsc
ol loss, intrudc. !gnorancc ol thc Law !s No xcusc and Fortuna, thc
rcsonant opcning pocms, rccall and lorctcll disastcr: Vc wcrc warncd about
spidcrs, and thc occasional laminc, bcgins thc rst ol thcsc. And although
it starts in thc past, it cnds with thc luturc: nly bcwarc thc bcars and
wolvcs that lrcqucnt |a chilly spring| / and thc shadow that comcs whcn
you cxpcct dawn. Tc sccond, which bcgins with laux bonhomic (Good
luck! 8cst wishcs! Tc bcst ol luck!), subsidcs into a scnsc ol disappoint
mcnt and a clarication ol thc dicrcncc bctwccn tragcdy and thc lacts ol
ordinary lilc:
!t wasnt until a rcal cmcrgcncy arosc, that somconc
had thc scnsc to rccognizc lor what it was.
All hcll didnt brcak loosc, it was likc a rising psalm
matcrializing likc snow on an unsccn mountain.
All that was undcrloot was good, but lost.
Somc kind ol displaccmcnt cxists hcrc, likc thc shadow ol thc unsccn prcs
cncc in Pcrcy 8ysshc Shcllcys Hymn to !ntcllcctual 8cauty. Tc disillu
sions in Ashbcrys pocms arc gradual and yct irrcvocablc. Nothing works
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
ol a suddcn, what Vordsworth would call a gcntlc shock ol mild surprisc
undcrlics all thc rcvclations, positivc and ncgativc, that inlorm thc pocms.
!n ays ol Rcckoning wc nd a morc docilc vcrsion ol somc putativc Last
Judgmcnt, with a small cast ol charactcrs who would lccl at homc in a Gorcy
story. Alicnation comcs as an unwarrantcd disclosurc: Tcn thcy brought
up // thc wholc othcr issuc ol bclonging. / Sccms wc wcrcnt wclcomc
dcspitc / having occupicd Hollyhock Housc / lor gcncrations upon gcncra
tions. Vhat might havc bccn cndlcssworld without cndturns out to
providc no dclcnsc against tcrminations. Tc mcnacc ol dcath looms largc
cvcrywhcrc, in both thc immcdiatc past and thc impcnding luturc. Ammons
sccms always to occupy a position in thc prcscnt tcnsc. Ashbcry, rcgardlcss
ol thc tcnsc ol his uttcrancc, is looking back ovcr his shouldcr or lorward to
a ncw tcrminus hcaving into vicw. Hc is too ncrvous to sit still, actually or
mctaphorically, lor long.
Hc himscll, howcvcr, oltcn docs not know thc mcaning ol thc cvcnts hc
narratcs, thc sccncs hc dcscribcs. !n thc wcird Coma 8crcniccs, a vcpagc
prosc pocm, hc imitatcs thc voicc ol a diary writcr or somconc scnding out a
Christmas lcttcr to cvcryonc on hcr list. Tc pocm cnds:
All in all this has bccn an activc and satislying ycar, and !m
looking
lorward to thc ncxt onc. Vhcrc it will takc mc ! do not
know. ! just hang on and try to cnjoy thc ridc. Snow
brings wintcr mcmorics. Tcrc is
a warning somcwhcrc in this but ! do not know il it will bc
transmittcd.
Likc Ammons, Ashbcry has mastcrcd banality, but unlikc his contcmporary,
hc knows how to invcst it with mcnacc. As ! mcntioncd abovc, Ashbcry
vccrs bctwccn opacity and surprisc. His unprcdictability kccps him alivc and
us intcrcstcd. Just whcn you think you may bc on thc vcrgc ol undcrstanding,
just whcn hc may dcviatc into scnsc, hc catchcs you up and takcs you clsc
whcrc, with a dicrcnt lingo, a changc in syntax, or a rclusal to signily. Part
ol thc pcrcnnial lrustrations as wcll as thc satislaction in rcading Ashbcry
comcs lrom cach rcadcrs cort to discntanglc thc undcrbrush, to distin
guish thc morc approachablc lrom thc lcss approachablc tcrrain. !l Ammons
rcprcscnts onc kind ol poct (pcrhaps this kinds last important avatar), who
subscribcs to a Romantic scnsc ol organic unity in a pocm, Ashbcry sccms to
havc movcd to anothcr paradigm: wc oltcn undcrstand him in parts, not in
wholcs. Charlcs Vright oncc said that thc parts arc always grcatcr than thc
ox ~. v. ~::oxs ~xb ,onx ~snnvvv (:oo6)
:
wholc, Ashbcrys pocms somctimcs but not always cohcrc. And cohcrcncc,
or thc lack thcrcol, is oltcn a mattcr ol tonc, which changcs swiltly, likc
imagcry and syntax, within a stanza, cvcn a linc.
Part ol thc lun ol rcading through a volumc ol Ashbcry pocms involvcs
making prcliminary dctcrminations: Vhich pocms comc clcar as wholcs,
which in parts, which not (on rst rcading) at all: No onc insinuatcs as wcll
as Ashbcry docs. Somctimcs thc lincs ol a pocm sound likc captions lor car
toons that wc dont havc: Tc horsc chcstnut shcltcrs thc housc ol princcs. /
Tc laurcl nudgcs thc catalpa. / Mussolini ocrs a diamond to Corot. / Tc
proud, thc lamous, thc magniccnt / cxudc gcntlcncss and mcgalomania.
Tus, thc opcning ol VcllLit Placcs, which continucs in thc samc vcin
but in cxpanding lincs and with vcrbs in thc luturc tcnsc, all implying mini
storics, all bcgging lor illustration.
Tc pcrlcctly banal bccomcs, in Ashbcrys hands, thc pcrlcctly sinistcr.
Takc, lor instancc, !ntcrcsting Pcoplc ol Ncwloundland, which has thc
samc dramatic and cmotional hclt, and thc samc casy acccssibility as Tc
!nstruction Manual lrom Some Trees, Ashbcrys rst book ol a hall ccntury
ago. Likc Coma 8crcniccs, it ncvcr riscs bcyond a rcportorial tonc that
capturcs a nostalgia that you just know cannot bc sinccrc although you cant
put your ngcr on thc causc ol your own doubt. !s it thc mingling ol clich with
dangcr (oc Hanks, thc sawboncs, was a rcal good surgcon / whcn hc wasnt
complctcly drunk, which was most ol thc timc): !s it thc adhcrcncc to an
obligatory linguistic political corrcctncss (Tcn it was timc to rcturn homc,
which was K with cvcrybody, / cach ol thcm having discovcrcd hc or shc
could usc a littlc shutcyc): r, pcrhaps, thc rhctorical doublings that dont
rcally cohcrc (wc lovcd cach othcr and had intcrcsting timcs / picking cach
othcrs brain and drying ncts on thc woodcn docks): As so oltcn happcns,
thc clinchcr comcs at thc cnd:
!t was too much ol a good thing
but at lcast its ovcr now. Tcy arc making a pagcant out ol it,
onc ol thcm told mc. !ts coming to a thcatcr ncar you.
How much ol a good thing is too much: Vill it bc bcttcr and improvcd, or
rcduccd and somchow lcss intcnsc oncc it gcts rcpcatcd as art: !s this thc
rcturn ol thc rcprcsscd: motion rccollcctcd in tranquility: r thc larcc that
cvcry tragcdy gcts rcpcatcd as: Scc, also, Novclty Lovc Trot, which sounds
likc answcrs to a cclcbrity journalists insipid qucstions: ! cnjoy biographics
and bibliographics, / and cultural studics, but cnds with a nakcd statcmcnt
ol scparation: You arc stu ng squash blossoms / with porcini mushrooms.
! am somcwhcrc clsc, alonc as usual. // ! must gct back to my clcgy.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
thcr pocms also cnd with a combination ol rcgrct, nostalgia, plcasurc,
and lcar. lcgy abounds. For cxamplc:
!n summcr it was straw hats and licoricc,
which, lading, lcavc a tastc lor othcr novcltics
and sundrics. !t is ncvcr too latc lor stcalth,
mourning itscll, or thc othcr irrcgular phantoms.
(Vastrcl)
r, with a lcar ol tcrmination and arrival (standins lor dcath itscll ):
8cttcr thc long way homc, than homc, bcttcr an unlit rc
than thc lrozcn mantclpiccc. 8cttcr toys than a blankct
ol stars waiting lor you upstairs. 8ankruptcy, maam: !m
bcttcr at it than most. !t dcnitcly nccds morc salt.
(ryncss ol Mouth)
r rcsignation and acccptancc ol impotcncc in thc lacc ol ncccssity:
wc ncvcr
mcant it to, this strcam that outpours now
haplcssly into thc vcstibulc that awaits.
Vc havc shapcs but no powcr.
(Annuals and Pcrcnnials)
Ashbcry sustains cntirc pocms, as wcll as parts ol thcm, with an incrcasing
scnsc ol having surrcndcrcd to incvitability, but hc ncvcr (hcrcin lics part ol
his appcaling originality) givcs in cntircly, nor docs hc cvcr losc his scnsc
ol humor. Morc Fccdback, lor cxamplc, bcgins with a nod to Shcllcy and
YcatsTc passionatc arc immobilizcdand procccds through a scrics ol
imagcs, gcsturcs, and cxamplcs ol stasis, unccrtainty, conlusion, contradic
tion, ostracism, and gcncral impassc. !t cnds:
Tcrcs no turning back thc man says,
thc onc waiting to takc tickcts at thc top
ol thc gangplank. Still, in thc past,
wc could always wait a littlc. !ndccd,
wc arc waiting now, Tats what happcns.
Tis sounds likc somcthing lrom Samucl 8cckctt! cant go on, ! must go
on, !ll just stand hcrc and waitbut imbucd with a mordant scnsc that thc
march lrom thc gangplank is nothing morc than a circus gamc. Vhcthcr
this is mcant to conlound or comlort onc can only gucss.
ox ~. v. ~::oxs ~xb ,onx ~snnvvv (:oo6)
:
!n spitc or bccausc ol his awarcncss ol timcs passing, ol thc lact that
thcrcs no turning back, Ashbcry insistcntly turns nostalgic, cspccially at
thc cnd ol this book. A scnsc ol wcarincss, ol having livcd through it all,
complcmcnts an cqual scnsc ol gratitudc lor still bcing around. Many ol thcsc
pocms arc ol thc cvcning. Vhcthcr addrcsscd to a singlc pcrson (avid Kcr
mani, his longtimc companion, to whom thc book is dcdicatcd) or scvcral, an
intcrior paramour or somc othcr ction, thcsc pocmsand thc momcnts ol
dircct addrcss in picccs ol othcrsrcprcscnt Ashbcrys cquivalcnt ol Vallacc
Stcvcns touchingly intimatc linc: whcrc bcing thcrc togcthcr is cnough. Tc
books titlc pocm, in prosc, is also its last, and it cnds: Togcthcr wc / wcrc a
couplc lorcvcr.
Tis swcct acknowlcdgmcnt lollows pocms that also minglc tcndcrncss
and lovc with a scnsc ol bclatcdncss. Tc 8lcd Vcascl cnds Tat was in thc
timc whcn it was just as wcll / to bc, A 8clowPar Star addrcsscs somc
onc or somcthing thats a combination ol a rcal pcrson, a movic star, and a
hcavcnly body: Tcy said youd bc hcrc sooncr. !ts still carly, but ! can wait /
no longcr. !ts bcd and thc movics lor mc. !n Composition hc also sounds
likc an carlytobcd kind ol guy, but not bccausc hc rclishcs thc domcstic
plcasurcs: ncxt month is a purc but troublcd timc, which is why thc spcakcr
docsnt go out much, though / staying at homc ncvcr sccmcd much ol an
option. !ndccd, hc says, spcaking ol nutty conccpts, surcly homc / is way
up thcrc on thc list. Tc Proustian Tcnsion in thc Rocks rcvicws thc past
through landscapc: You can scc how thc past has comc to pass / in thc lcrns
and swccpings ol orc and tcxt / that shadowcd such narrativcs as had bccn
scratchcd. Tc pocms mcditatc on, or at lcast takc glancing nods at, misscd
occasions, unlulllcd aairs, ccting passions. Timc is both lricnd and loc, as
Ashbcry acknowlcdgcs at thc cnd ol Composition in a wry turn ol phrasc
that cxprcsscs his pcrcnnial prclcrcncc lor timc to placc. Having turncd away
lrom thc nutty conccpt ol homc, hc says:
! lccl morc ccrtain about now
and thcn, bccausc thcy arc closc to mc,
likc lovcrs, though apparcntly not in lovc with mc,
as ! am with thcm. ! likc to call to thcm,
and somctimcs thcy rcply, out ol thc dccp busincss ol somc
drcam.
A man in lovc with Timc, invoking thc past and thc prcscnt as a mcans,
prcsumably, ol both acccpting and dcccting thc incvitablc luturc, Ashbcry
rcsponds to thc call ol thc bcyond, drcaming and also composing himscll.
Two bcautilul pocms at books cnd suggcst thc motils ol contcntmcnt
and acccptancc that movc Ashbcry bcyond clcgy and simplc rcgrct. Likc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
Most Scas starts with a paragraph in prcscnt tcnsc and movcs to a sccond
onc in thc past. 8oth dcal with changcs in thc landscapc and thc wcathcr,
pcrsistcnt Ashbcryan thcmcs. Tc sccond cnds with thc possiblc thrcat ol a
tidal wavc or hurricanc lollowcd by a dctcrmination to stay put:
No onc thought about lcaving, or rathcr it was moving
that no onc thought about. Vc wcrc cach happy in thc ccll
ol our sclldctcrmination, attcntivcly lalling out ol lovc
with thc atrium ol tomorrow, its musclc, its bravado.
Now and thcn mcrgc hcrc bccausc thc pocm trcats a momcnt in thc
past (thcn) whcn no thought was givcn to anything othcr than thc prcs
cnt (now). !ts as il all adhcrcs, or rathcr adhcrcd, in prcscnt timc, but that
timc has cndcd. vcn morc sympathctic is Tc Lovc !ntcrcst, thc tcndcrcst
ol Ashbcrys lovc pocms. !t minglcs timc and spacc, a scnsc ol somcthing
coming lrom lorcvcr that thcn arrivcs parallcl / to thc days walking. Tc
spcakcr and his lovcr arc satiscd, although hc admits that thcy kccp com
ing back / lor morcthats part ol thc human aspcct / ol thc paradc. 8ut
hc rccognizcs that darkncss lics ahcad:
And thcrc arc darkcr rcgions
pcncilcd in, that wc should cxplorc somc timc.
For now its cnough that this day is ovcr.
!t brought us its load ol lrcshncss, droppcd it o
And lclt. As lor us, wcrc still hcrc, arcnt wc:
Such a quictly striking cnding attcsts to Ashbcrys way ol turning a phrasc.
!ts Vallacc StcvcnsmcctsStcphcn Sondhcim: Tc Final Soliloquy ol thc
!ntcrior Paramour and Yvonnc c Carlo in Follies singing !m Still Hcrc.
So, thank goodncss, is John Ashbcry.
:
S\NTN X
NAK V!THUT MY L!NNS
Fobert Lo.ell in His Letters (:cc&)
!
n thc namc ol lull disclosurc, ! must bcgin this rcvicw by admitting to
bc a not cntircly disintcrcstcd party. Having rcccntly complctcd an cdi
tion ol a pocts lcttcrs myscll, and having sccn my volumc (Lo.e, my:
Te Selected Letters of my Clampitt) paircd by various rcvicwcrs with Saskia
Hamiltons impcccablc sclcction ol Lowclls corrcspondcncc, ! approachcd
my task with a combination ol curiosity and critical wondcr, ! camc away
lrom it with a combination ol gratitudc (lor Hamiltons dcdication, prcci
sion, carc, and stalwartncss) and sadncss (lor thc scllportrait ol Lowcll that
cmcrgcs hcrc). Lowcll and Clampitt wcrc almost cxact contcmporarics, shc
born in +:o, hc in ++, although hc dicd in + bclorc hcr rst pocms
wcrc publishcd. Tcy bclongcd, in othcr words, both to thc samc gcncration
and to dicrcnt oncs. !n +6 !rvin hrcnprcis said that thc postwar ycars
constitutcd thc agc ol Lowcll, Clampitts agc, il thcrc is to bc onc, has
yct to comc. Clampitt livcd a complctcly privatc lilc until shc burst onto thc
litcrary sccnc in hcr latc ltics, shc said in a +8: lcttcr that shc rcgardcd
hcrscll in spitc ol cvcrything, as onc ol thc lortunatc pcoplc who happcn to
bc around. Robcrt Lowcll was hcraldcd, whcn a young man, as thc savior ol
postVorld Var !! Amcrican poctry: in +, at thirty, hc won thc Pulitzcr
lor Lord !earys Castle. Morc important, hc had dcmons.
Clampitt lound hcr gcnrc, il not quitc hcr vocation, latc in lilc and stuck
with it: thcrc arc lcw changcs, cspccially with rcgard to diction and syntax,
bctwccn hcr rst and last books. Lowcll was constantly rcinvcnting himscll.
!ts this rcinvcntion, in part, that justics giving him a ccntral placc in thc
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
history ol midccntury Amcrican poctry. Tc pocts lcttcrs, likc thcir pocms,
livcs, and tcmpcramcnts, arc complctcly dissimilar. Tc lcttcrs tcll a dicrcnt
story lrom that ol thc poctry. !ts not just thc subjccts, or thc rccipicnts, ol
thc missivcs that distinguish thc two volumcs, but also, and morc intcrcst
ingly, thcir stylcs. As a rcadcr, ! was imprcsscd by Clampitts prosc, as an
cditor ! was thwartcd by thc lcgacy ol hcr bclatcdncss. Tc rst lcttcr
! uncovcrcd was onc lrom +o (shc was thirty at thc timc) to an nglish
woman who bccamc a lricnd thc prcvious ycar whcn Clampitt madc hcr rst
trip to ngland. !t is politc, rcportorial and, likc all ol thc othcrs, writtcn
with lucidity and corrcctncss. Clampitts poctry ismostlyswirling and
baroquc, cxploding with passion, obscrvation, and cnthusiasm. Hcr lcttcrs,
on thc othcr hand, arc by turns mcditativc, narrativc, and sclldcning. Shc
was ablc to think in prosc, and in part bccausc shc was living an anonymous,
quict, normal lilc shc was also ablc to writc long journal lcttcrs (mostly, in
thc carly ycars, to hcr lamily) likc Kcatss to his brothcr and sistcrinlaw in
Amcrica. vcn during thc ycars ol lamc thcrc wcrc rclativcly lcw lcttcrs to
litcrary pcoplc. Vhat would shc gain by writing to thcm: Tc whirlwind ol
travcl, awards, and rcadings shortcncd thc lcngth ol individual lcttcrs but
ncvcr intcrlcrcd with Clampitts kccnsightcd ability to look at hcr subjccts
with humor and sanity. Shc was a natural lcttcr writcr. !n othcr words, shc
was a litcrary pcrson cvcn bclorc shc alit, quitc latc, on poctry, hcr truc gcnrc,
and discovcrcd, as thcy say, hcr voicc as wcll as hcr public.
How dicrcnt was Robcrt Lowcll. 8ccausc hc camc lrom a promincnt
lamily, bccausc hc had conncctions as wcll as an cnormous cgo, bccausc hc
hit thc litcrary sccnc as a tccnagcr and ncvcr lclt it, wc havc lots ol lcttcrs
lrom him. (Hamilton obscrvcs that his two childrcn havc kcpt privatc thcir
lcttcrs lrom him. ! suspcct that othcr lcttcrs to his rst and third wivcs,
Jcan Staord and Carolinc 8lackwood, havc cithcr disappcarcd or also bccn
withhcld.) Tc rst, writtcn whcn Lowcll was ninctccn, is addrcsscd to zra
Pound and scts thc tonc lor thc rcst ol thc corrcspondcncc as wcll as Lowclls
cntirc crcativc lilc: You will probably think that ! am vcry impudcnt and prc
sumptuous. Ycs, indccd. Proud, somcwhat sullcn and violcnt (): thc scll
portrait in + Rcvcrc Strcct (Life Studies) is both twcnty ycars in thc luturc
and also cmbryonically availablc right hcrc. Lowcll wantcd to put himscll to
school at Pounds zuvcrsity in Rapallo. Hc was always looking lor lathcr
gurcs, and his ocdipal conicts, both with his own lathcr and his poctic
mcntors, arc writ largc throughout both thc poctry and thc lcttcrs, hc comcs
to thc mastcr with his wontcd combination ol cncrgy (which has yct to turn
lully manic), pridc, ambition, and submission: ! will bring thc stccl and rc,
! am not thcatric, and my lilc is sobcr not scnsational. . . . ! would likc to
bring back momcntum and movcmcnt in poctry on a grand scalc. . . . ! shant
vonvv: iowvii ix nis iv::vvs (:oo6)
:
bring any strings ol principlcs, but will throw myscll into thc ght and stay
thcrc (, 6). Hc is thcatrical and sobcr at oncc: machismo is onc ol his
middlc namcs, but tcrror, unlortunatcly, is thc othcr.
From thc start hc knows himscll. Hc puts himscll vcry much in thc
Flaubcrtliot linc, which dcmands that an artist livc likc a bourgcois in
ordcr to writc likc a radical, whcn hc says to Mcrrill Moorc: ! havc bccomc
morc and morc awarc ol thc nccd lor an at lcast surlacc conlormity, drcssing
inconspicuously and ncatly, living by a stablc cconomy, aunting convcntion
by pcnctration rathcr than by ccccntricity (:). Hc was, altcr all, a 8oston
Lowcll. All ol thc lcttcrs to his cldcrs (starting with Pound and including
liot, Villiam Carlos Villiams, Frost, Santayana, and Tatc) arc politc, oltcn
dclcrcntial, as arc thc lcttcrs to his contcmporarics, cvcn whcn hc disagrccs
with thcm. Vriting to Allcn Ginsbcrg, and discussing critically but lairly all
ol Ginsbcrgs cnthusiasms lor thosc pocts Lowcll dccms unimportant, hc
says: ! think lcttcrs ought to bc writtcn thc way you think poctry ought bc.
So lct this bc brcczy, bricl, incomplctc, but spontancous and not dishoncstly
holding back ().
Vhat rcgistcrs almost immcdiatcly is Lowclls discomlort with thc
mcdium ol lcttcr writing. Hc was not a natural at this gamc. Too much
lorcc, not cnough lcisurc: his disposition and lilcstylc arc thc cxact oppo
sitcs ol Clampitts, and somchow hc could ncvcr lccl comlortablc in prosc.
Hamilton obscrvcs in hcr introduction that its as il, writing prosc, hc is a
racchorsc in a stall tcnscd lor rclcasc onto thc track ol a pocm (viii). Lcttcr
writcrs nccd to bc tortoiscs, not thoroughbrcds. And, unlikc mc, Hamilton
must havc had an cditors nightmarc. Clampitts lcttcrs, cvcn thosc that wcrc
writtcn in hcr awlul spidcry hand, wcrc lcttcr as wcll as pitchpcrlcct,
shc did not makc crrors in spclling or grammar. vcry paragraph has ordcr,
dcnition, and shapc. Lowclls lcttcrs, on thc othcr hand, wcrc mcssy in thcir
appcarancc, ungrammatical, rcading oltcn likc rst dralts lor somcthing clsc.
Hamilton obscrvcs thcir odd, intricatc, sincwy scntcnccs that sccm to run
scvcral syntaxcs togcthcr (viii), all ol which givc us a dicrcnt kind ol acccss
to his inncr lilc and his crcativc thinking than do his pocms. !n a lcttcr to
his school lricnd 8lair Clark, writtcn during a manic cpisodc, hc attachcs a
P.S.: !l this lcttcr sounds rapid its bccausc ! can typc lastcr than ! can think
(:+). To John 8crryman, in +, prcLife Studies: !vc just startcd mcssing
around with my autobiographical monstcr. Prosc is hcll. ! want to changc
cvcry two words but whilc ! toy with rcvisions, thc subjcct stinks likc a dcad
whalc and lics in thc mud ol thc minds bottom (:o). At thc samc timc, hc
calls writing prosc a hcll ol a job, it starts nakcd|,| cnds as lakc vclvct (::).
And in a lcttcr to lizabcth 8ishop, onc ycar bclorc his dcath, hc writcs:
Vithout vcrsc, without philosophy, ! lound it hard, ! was nakcd without
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
my linccnds (68). !n othcr words, Lowcll thought bcst, or most naturally,
in vcrsc. ! am rcmindcd ol Jamcs Mcrrills rcmark at thc start ol Te Book
of Ephraim, whcn hc is considcring writing his story in prosc: Sincc it had
ncvcr truly t, why wcar / Tc shoc ol prosc: !n vcrsc thc lcct wcnt barc.
Nakcd, clothcd, whichcvcr: Lowclls lcttcrs arc not lakc vclvct at all.
Hc wcars thc shoc ol prosc, and il it somctimcs chalcs and blistcrs, most
oltcn bcing shod allows him to trcad on thc ground and to kccp in touch,
Antacuslikc, with rcality, cvcn at thosc timcs whcn mania or dcprcssion
distorts that rcality. Hc might lccl nakcd, but a rcadcr scnscs a dicrcnt kind
ol craltsmanship at work hcrc. Tc lcttcrs arc rcvclatory and hcartbrcaking at
oncc. nc thing that docs not changc bctwccn Lowclls prosc and his pocms
is his wondrous cyc lor dctail, a gilt lor mctaphor, and a sardonic wit that
hc applics to charactcrs and social situations. Likc his dclicious prosc in +
Rcvcrc Strcct and likc somc ol thc pocms, Lowclls lcttcrs rcvcal a tcmpcra
mcnt that would not bc out ol placc in thc world ol ncoAugustan satirc.
Hc might havc cqualcd Jarrcll or Mary McCarthy as a mordant obscrvcr ol
social morcs in gcncral, and thc acadcmic lilc in particular. Hcrc arc somc
cxamplcs ol apcrus. Vriting to 8ishop lrom uropc about a visit lrom
his mothcr: Shc is a vcry compctcnt, stubborn, uncurious, un8ohcmian
woman with a gcnius lor squcczing luxury out ol rocks. Tat is, shc has a
long mcmory lor prcwar and prcrstworldwar scrvicc, and thinks noth
ing ol calling thc Amcrican ambassador il thcrcs no toilctpapcr on thc
train, ctc. (+). n Randall Jarrcll: Hc is likc a knottcd, brown old gladi
ator, and will bc still morc so whcn his Mcrccdcs raccr arrivcs (:8). n
lizabcth Hardwicks prcgnancy: Vc lic about on solas all day cating corn
akcs, nocaloric gingcralc and yoghurt. lizabcth ncvcr movcs cxccpt to
turn thc pagc ol an nglish ncwspapcr or buy a drcss. . . . Vc hcar ol womcn
(lcanor Clark) who ski all through prcgnancy, givc birth in bomb shcltcrs
without doctors, ctc. 8ut wc dont approvc, and arc timid, dclicatc and antc
bcllum (:). n Adricnnc Rich gctting rcady lor hcr third child: rcading
Simonc dc 8cauvoir and bursting with 8cnzcdrinc and cmancipation (:8).
To 8ishop on a +66 birthday party lor Jackic Kcnncdy in Mainc: a slightly
tawdry untimcly Maric Antoincttc lccling ol a lcstival whcn thc agc lor
bcing wholchcartcd about such things has passcd, thc ash ol thc jctsct, a
littlc lurid and in bad tastc in a world ol povcrty and blood ().
Tc bulk ol thc volumc rcvcals thc hcart ol thc man and thc two things
that occupicd all ol his cncrgics and imaginings: his scnsc ol scll and his
work, scparatc but intcrchangcablc. nc disadvantagc ol rcading lcttcrs is
that onc docs not havc thc othcr sidc ol thc corrcspondcncc, and cspccially
with rcgard to Lowclls wivcs and othcr lovcrs, wc cannot gct thc wholc story.
!t is good to know that a volumc will soon appcar ol thc 8ishopLowcll
vonvv: iowvii ix nis iv::vvs (:oo6)
:+
corrcspondcncc. Although both halvcs havc bccn publishcd individually, wc
shall bc bcttcr ablc to takc thc mcasurc ol this cxtraordinary rclationship
by lollowing thc backandlorthing ol thcir idcas. Vhcrcas Clampitt is
inquisitivc and alcrt in hcr pursuit ol acsthctic truth, with a Quakcr tcn
dcncy to invcstigatc paticntly, Lowcll always sccms to know his own mind,
his commitmcnt to art and his scnsc ol scllworth ncvcr wavcrs. Ncvcrthc
lcss, thcrc is oltcn a kind ol vacillation, a morc modcst vcrsion ol thc manic
dcprcssivc swings, which makcs him all thc morc human in a rcadcrs cycs.
Hc writcs to 8ishop: Maybc its just my naturc, but onc sccms to sccsaw
lrom a sort ol rosy blandncss to a blank, barc cracking lccling. !ts likc swim
ming across a pond littcrcd with picccs ol wood, onc wondcrs il onc has thc
cncrgy to push through it all, thcn onc oats gaily and thc curry |currcnt:|
draws onc lorward (+). Tc lormality ol onc bctrays modcst sobricty,
and thc stcadincss ol his articulation balanccs his conlcssion ol a sccsawing
rosy blandncss.
Lowclls tonc is always at lcast assurcd, cvcn whcn hc lrcts, morc oltcn
it is asscrtivc, with an undcrtonc ol compctitivcncss. nly with 8ishop (as
abovc) docs hc somctimcs sound likc a child scnt down to thc principals
o cc. r: You always makc mc lccl that ! havc a rathcr obvious brcczy,
impcrsonal liking lor thc grcat and obviousin contrast with your adult pcr
sonal lccling lor thc odd and gcnuinc (+86). !ts an important distinction
thc brcczy against thc adult and thc grcat against thc gcnuincand
it shows Lowclls undcrstanding ol thc dicrcnccs bctwccn his tastc and
pcrsonality, and 8ishops at oncc morc modcst, and yct morc authcntic scll
hood. Art and lilc go handinhand, as thc lollowing, pcrhaps dclibcratcly,
mixcd mctaphor attcsts: ! gucss ! dont rcally likc solitudc. Tc lun is ham
mcring bits ol it out ol a crowdcd lilc. For oncs scll, ! think onc should kccp
|thc| door opcn lor strict, disordcrly and lrcc mctcrs (68). Vith barcly a
transition hc movcs lorm lilc to work, cliding whatcvcr scparatcs thcm. !n
addition, thc strangc mingling ol strictncss and lrccdom has ramications
lor Lowclls publicly tcmpcstuous lilc and his hammcrcdout vcrsc. !n a lct
tcr to thc critic Clcanth 8rooks hc sounds a Frostian notc: ! scc poctry as a
mixturc ol dccpsccing and a gamc or cralt (). And no onc playcd that
gamc lor mortal stakcs morc passionatcly than Lowcll.
An intcrcsting rcdaction ol this volumc might bc a sclcction ol thc lct
tcrs to othcr pocts in which Lowcll discusscs poctry in gcncral and thc nuts
and bolts ol his own work in particular. Such a grouping would constitutc as
much ol an ars poetica as all ol Lowclls othcr prosc writing on thc subjcct.
Fcw writcrs havc cvcr had such a kccnly accuratc scllundcrstanding whcn it
comcs to what thcy arc up to. !n this rcgard, ol coursc, thc pathos ol Lowclls
own manicdcprcssivc cyclcs, his inability to know what was happcning at
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
thc hcight ol his mania, and his subscqucnt apologics and shamc, rcprcscnt
thc man who sucrcd rathcr than thc man who composcd. Hc strovc, in
Ycatss lamous distinction, lor pcrlcction ol thc work, not ol thc lilc. Combat
was ncvcr lar lrom his mindin ordinary as wcll as lucid momcntsand
lor Lowcll, labor was a way ol cxorcising his inncr dcmons and struggling
with his living contcmporarics. lizabcth Hardwick notcs his disciplinc and
hcroic work cthic as wcll as his gilt lor lricndship, many lovcd him, and
almost no onc cvcr rcpudiatcd him. Hc writcs to both Tcodorc Rocthkc
and Jcromc Mazzaro about rivalry in poctry, thc compctition, thc boxing
match (+6). Hc is obscsscd with writing, hc asks his old lricnd Pctcr Tay
lor whcthcr hc has cvcr tricd to stop (Clampitt madc a similar attcmpt, wcll
bclorc shc achicvcd hcr lamc, and lound that stopping was impossiblc.) !ts
hardcr than alcohol (6), hc ruclully acknowlcdgcs. Tc asccnt to Parnas
sus, as Milton wcll kncw, is all labor and littlc plcasurc: ! think thc ambition
ol art . . . givcs a mixturc ol glory and cxhaustion. ! think in thc cnd, thcrc is
no cnd, thc thrcad lrays rathcr than is cut, or il it is cut suddcnly, it usually
hurtingly lrays bclorc bcing cut (66). Tis rcmark to his cditor and lricnd
Frank 8idart camc onc ycar bclorc Lowclls dcath.
n thc pcrsonal lront, thc ncws is not happy. Vc havc laid bclorc us hcrc
thc cvidcncc ol Lowclls marriagcs, his brcakups and brcakdowns, his crazcd
and inappropriatc momcntary attachmcnts to various womcn. To Lady Car
olinc 8lackwood, his third wilc, whom hc lclt nally to rcturn to Ncw York
and lizabcth Hardwick, his sccond, hc writcs: Ncithcr ol us havc madc
it any bcttcr lor thc othcr. !t hasnt bccn a quarrcl, but two cruptions, two
carthquakcs crashing (668). Most ol all wc havc rst thc happincss, thcn
thc lraying (to appropriatc his word abovc about art), thc sad battlcs and thc
rcconncctings with Hardwick, thc cntirc lracas provokcd by his dccision to
usc hcr lcttcrs to him in parts ol Te Dolphin, an cpisodc lrom litcrary his
tory which docs not put Lowcll in thc bcst light. Tcrc arc somc things, as
lizabcth 8ishop rcmindcd him, morc important than art itscll.
8ut not lor Lowcll. Vhcthcr tailoring his vcrsc as a mcans ol prcscnting
and clothing himscll, or going nakcd without linccnds, as hc docs in thc
privatc communiqus collcctcd hcrc, Lowcll was in cvcry bcr and vcin ol
his bcing a man ol thc book. Hc was omnivorous in his rcading, catholic, as
wcll as lor thosc lcw momcnts in thc midlortics, Catholic. Vho would havc
thought hc would say: ! havc bccn rcading masscs ol Popc and Faulkncra
wondcrlul pair to havc togcthcr (86): r, whilc complaining about his stu
dcnts unwillingncss to rcad old pocts: !m on a Vordsworth and 8lakc
jag. !d likc to do pocms that would hit all in onc ash, though loadcd with
subtlctics ol art and passion undcrncath. r grcat clumsy structurcs likc
Vordsworths Lccch Gathcrcr, that somchow lilt thc grcat sail and catch
vonvv: iowvii ix nis iv::vvs (:oo6)
:
thc wind (o8). r saying to Hardwick how thrillcd hc is to lcarn that shc
and thcir daughtcr Harrict arc rcading poctry togcthcr: To mc poetry mcans
poctry writtcn bclorc +o6 (8:). !l, on thc onc hand, thc Letters givcs us
a portrait ol a discrctc individual, on thc othcr hand it scrvcs as a rcmindcr
ol an cntirc gcncration ol pocts who ourishcd altcr Vorld Var !! in thc
wakc ol thc modcrnist giants bclorc thc ood. !n both his pocms and his
lcttcrs Lowcll dcscribcs his scnsc ol thc gcncric lilc hc sharcd with 8crry
man, Taylor, Jarrcll, Rocthkc, and othcrs. Hc mcans both thc marriagcs,
divorccs, aairs, alcohol, pillsall thc mcssincss ol lilcand also, morc
important, what now sccms likc a tcrribly oldlashioncd dcdication to art, to
cralt, and to a tradition that gocs back to Homcr. Lowcll was a summa cum
laudc graduatc ol Kcnyon Collcgc, and his dcgrcc was in classics. Tcrc was
no such thing as a crcativc writing program lor him to cnroll in. !nstcad, hc
lamously pitchcd his tcnt on Allcn Tatcs lront lawn in thc summcr ol +,
in ordcr to lcarn lrom him. Tc truc hcroism that cmcrgcs lrom this volumc
is that ol a man with an allconsuming commitmcnt to a lilc in and through
his art, crcating thc lormcr by mcans ol thc lattcr.
:
!GHTN X
TH ACH!\MNT F
R8RT LVLL l:oo
T
hc publication ol Robcrt Lowclls Collected Poems in :oo initi
atcd a wclcomc rcncwal ol intcrcst in thc writcr who, a hall ccn
tury bclorc, had bccn hcraldcd as thc goldcn boy, pcrhaps cvcn
thc savior, ol postwar Amcrican poctry. Rcvicws and lcaturcslikc that by
Charlcs McGrath in thc Ne. York Times Sunday Maga.ine, not normally
a vcnuc lor litcrary covcragcdcvotcd what sccmcd likc disproportion
atc cncrgy and spacc to rcviving Lowcll thc man. Attcntion was paid to
his aristocratic lincagc, his rcbcllions against propcr 8rahmin 8oston and
othcr rcprcscntativcs ol authority that includcd two prcsidcnt (Franklin
clano Rooscvclt and Lyndon 8. Johnson), his discovcry ol crsatz lathcr
gurcs in Allcn Tatc and John Crowc Ransom, with whom hc studicd and
lor whom hc pcrlormcd brilliantly at Kcnyon altcr hc droppcd out ol Har
vard, his marriagcs, divorccs, and aairs, and, most promincntly, his manic
dcprcssivc cyclcs, hospitalizations, and pharmacological trcatmcnts. Tis
was thc man who madc a houschold world ol conlcssional poctry (not
his tcrm, and onc most pocts and critics alikc havc comc to disavow) as thc
supposcdly uptight, straightlaccd ltics gavc way to thc rcbcllious, lctit
allhangout sixtics. !n thc piloguc to his last book, Day by Day, Lowcll
asks: why not say what happcncd: (88). Vhat happcncd is ncvcr as
important as what thc artist makcs ol it, a good pocm is not a conlcssion.
8idart thoughtlully and pcrmancntly disposcs ol thc tcrm in an clcgant
altcrword, rcminding us that Lowclls candor, likc that ol all grcat artists,
is an illusion crcatcd by art (). Hclcn \cndlcr did thc samc somc ycars
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
ago whcn commcnting on thc opcning linc ol 8right ay in 8oston, a
latc pocm: Joy ol standing up my dcntist (). Lowcll shccpishly con
lcsscd to hcr that hc had always wantcd to do this, but in rcal lilc could not.
Collected Poems givcs us a lilc crcatcd, not rccctcd or rcportcd. !t is lilc as
pcrlcction and rctribution.
Somchow, howcvcr, rcading scvcral ol thc rcvicws ol this book, onc had
thc lccling that thc poctry had bccn scantcd or was mcrcly thc backdrop or
cxcusc lor what Joycc Carol atcs oncc dismisscd as pruricnt pathography.
Tc man in all ol his largcrthanlilc powcr and in his tircd pathos sccms to
havc prccmptcd thc work. ! kcpt looking lor People magazinc to grant Low
cll his pagc ol cclcbrity. Vhatcvcr its locus, howcvcr, thc covcragc pcrlorms
at lcast two important lunctions: it rcminds us that most artists, ccrtainly
most writcrs, undcrgo a diminishmcnt ol rcnown and rcspcct immcdiatcly
altcr thcir dcaths (lizabcth 8ishop bcing thc rulcproving cxccption: hcr
works havc sold considcrably morc in thc quartcr ccntury sincc hcr dcath
than thcy cvcr did in hcr lilctimc), and it prompts a gcncral rcasscssmcnt ol
Robcrt Lowcll thc poct, whosc lilc, likc that ol any writcr, was thc ncccssary
but lar lrom su cicnt causc ol his work. Looking back, what do wc scc:
Robcrt Trail Spcncc Lowcll !\ was a poct whosc bcst critics and gcn
cral rcadcrs will always bc thosc who sharc his imaginativc intuition that
thc most lascinating as wcll as thc most important pcoplc in history havc
bccn its warriors, princcs, statcsmcn, and othcr pcrsons ol public powcr. His
intcrcst in thc civic rcalm, thc rclations bctwccn privatc livcs and historical
cvcnts, and his own rolc as obscrvcr ol and somctimc participant on thc
public stagc makc lor a poctry that may not suit contcmporary audicnccs.
Can wc, postVatcrgatc, post!rangatc, postHill vs. Tomas, postMonica,
think ol politics and politicians as anything othcr than mcndacious, conniv
ing, mcrctricious, and slcazy: As rcadcrs, how can wc assimilatc a poctry
that takcs politics so scriously: thcr than a major dosc ol Schadcnlrcudc
or masochism, what could impcl a scnsitivc intcllcctual to continuc to pay
attcntion to thc buoons, criminals, hypocritcs, actors, and tcmporizcrs who
constitutc, with thcir scllscrving rhctoric and pious platitudcs, thcir quick
changing bclicls or noncommitmcnts, thc bulk ol our public o cials: And
morc spccically, how docs lyric poctry, traditionally and thcorctically thc
gcnrc ol thc privatc, inward lilc, accommodatc itscll to subjccts and charac
tcrs who might bc bcttcr scrvcd by thc mimctic, rcprcscntational mcdiums
ol ction and drama:
!l thcrc rcmains any validity to thc claim madc by !rvin hrcnprcis in
+6 (London and 8oycrs, +86) that thc immcdiatc postwar ycars con
stitutcd thc agc ol Lowcll (as opposcd to, say, thc agc ol 8ishop or ol
somconc clsc, or ol no onc in particular) it comcs in thc way that Lowcll
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
pcrlcctcdor possibly violcntly asscmblcda languagc and a stylc capablc
ol rcprcscnting or cnacting thc intcrscctions and ovcrlapping ol thc privatc
lilc and thc public arcna, ol dcning thc scll by virtuc ol its rclations with
othcrs, whcthcr lamily mcmbcrs and lricnds or historical gurcs living or
long dcad. And morc particularly in thc way that thc lcrtilizing inspiration
as wcll as thc 8loomian anxicty ol inucncc could rcquirc ol a makcr ol
pocms, and his rcadcrs, a lull commitmcnt to thc intcllcctual traditions ol
Vcstcrn litcraturc. !n spitc ol his clcar and multiplc attachmcnts to litcrary
guidcs and mastcrs ranging lrom Tatc and Ransom to Hopkins and Hardy,
and in spitc ol his appropriation ol Marvclls octosyllabic linc and his imi
tations ol nonnglish pocts, Lowcll most clcarly rcscmblcs Milton in his
unswcrving ambition. (Among his contcmporarics, only Jamcs Mcrrill would
qualily as an cqually, but lar dicrcnt, cpic poct.) Samucl Johnsons lamous
dismissal ol Miltons sonncts as an cxamplc ol his misguidcd cncrgics (hc
was a gcnius that could cut a colossus lrom a rock, but hc could not carvc
hcads upon chcrrystoncs), might bc takcn as an appropriatc commcntary
on Lowclls insistcncc on lorging History lrom thc two vcrsions ol Notebook
and cnding up with a sonnct scqucncc as opprcssivc as Vordsworths ill
conccivcd Ecclesiastical Sonnets and much lcss varicd in music and tonc than
John 8crrymans sonnctlikc Dream Songs.
Trough a lortuitous combination ol dclibcratc stylistic choiccs and
unconscious gcsturcs, Lowclls cntirc work, starting with Lord !earys Castle,
thc volumc that thrcw its notyctthirtyycarold author into thc spotlight
and won lor him thc + Pulitzcr Prizc, consists ol short pocms all ol
which might bccomc big oncs. Tc Collected Poems opcns us to thc lull
gurc ol Lowcll as an cpic poct whosc major subjcct, it turns out, is his
tory itscll. (Tc books publication clicitcd barbs lrom Jamcs Fcnton in
Te Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books last ycar, cspccially with rcgard to cditorial
principlcs and annotations. l thc lattcr, ! shall rcmark only that cvcry
rcadcr will nd somc hclplul and othcrs supcruous, and cvcry rcadcr will
also rcquirc inlormation as yct unprovidcd. A luturc Lowcll industry will
involvc dccpcr scholarship.) Vhcrcas Pound callcd thc cpic a pocm con
taining history, Lowclls ocuvrc, cvcn bclorc thc ovcrwrought and oltcn
indigcstiblc History, is a scrics ol cxpcrimcnts that, considcrcd togcthcr,
cmbracc and cnvclop thc coursc ol Vcstcrn civilization. At its ccntcr is its
makcr, thc man who could not rcsist taking himscll as thc mirror ol an agc.
His tcmpcramcnt (a word adaptcd to criticism by thc latc avid Kal
stonc) was composcd ol cqual parts ol classical lcarning, litcrary ambition,
and historical insight.
X
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
M
y own cxpcricncc ol rcading Lowclls poctry was not atypical. Com
ing to it lrcsh lrom our training in thc Ncw Critical classrooms ol thc
midsixtics, my contcmporarics and ! wcrc intoxicatcd by thc shccr powcr ol
its litcrarincss, by which ! mcan both thc bookishncss that dcmandcd anno
tation lrom othcrs or library rcscarch lrom oursclvcs, and thc knottincss ol
sound, syntax, grammar, and thought that lorccd us to rcad thc work through
thc samc lcnscs wc had uscd on onnc and liot. A plain stylc, whatcvcr
subtlc bcauty it might strivc lor or achicvc, was lor noviccs, lightwcights,
philistincs. i culty was lor grownups, lor thosc who aspircd to thc condi
tion ol hcroic rcading. ! could not rcsist thc gorgcous, mouthlling sonority
ol thc opcning ol Lord !earys Salcm:
!n Salcm scasick spindrilt drilts or skips
To thc canvas apping on thc scaward pancs
Until thc knitting sailor stabs at ships
Nosing likc shccp ol Morphcus through his brains
Asylum. (:)
Tat somconc had writtcn a tcchnically pcrlcct sonnct in his mid
twcntics (thc pocm appcarcd in a slightly dicrcnt lorm in Lowclls rst
volumc, Land of Unlikeness, in +) madc us rcalizc that the tradition that
liot had insistcd upon still rcachcd into our lilctimc. Tc lact that ! could
not quitc unravcl or crack thc actual mcaning ol thc scntcncc abovc mcrcly
addcd to thc cxcitcmcnt ol its powcr. ur nativc tonguc could posscss all
thc glamour ol a lorcign languagc. A lilc dcvotcd to litcraturcwhcthcr as
makcr or consumcrdcmandcd hcroic askcsis cqual to thc task ol dcciphcr
ing what Lowcll latcr rclcrrcd to as his craggy, dark, apocalyptic poctry
(Collected Prose, :o). Such hcroism rcquircd, abovc all, a commitmcnt to thc
mcanings and sounds ol nglish, and a willingncss to inundatc thc car and
thc mind with an cnriching linguistic ood.
To comc upon, as a ninctccnycarold collcgc junior, Tc Quakcr Gravc
yard in Nantuckct, was to discovcr that Milton, Torcau, Hopkins, liot,
Hart Cranc, and Tatc still brcathcd lilc into thc languagc ol contcmporary
poctry. Although Ycats had claimcd that out ol thc quarrcl with othcrs wc
makc rhctoric, out ol thc quarrcl with oursclvcs wc makc poctry, it appcarcd
that in Lowcll, rhctoric and poctry occupicd onc spacc. Tcy wcrc two words
lor thc samc proccss and phcnomcnon. hrcnprcis thought that Lowcll
had a habit ol substituting rhctoric, in thc lorm ol scllconscious sublimity,
lor poctry (London and 8oycrs, +6), although hc hcsitatcd to say whcthcr
what was imprcssivc as aspiration was cqually so as achicvcmcnt. Rhcto
ric in lact was thc word uscd ovcr and ovcr by Lowclls champions and
bcst rcadcrs as wcll as his dctractors. From thc lortics through thc sixtics,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
thc litcrary world was still so much in thrall to thc principlcs ol Frcnch
symbolismto \crlaincs dcmand that wc wring rhctoric by its ncckthat
it lclt uncasy, squcamish, or unccrtain whcn conlrontcd by somconc pcr
lcctly contcntcd to usc a big voicc in orotund mcasurcs. !n +66, John 8ay
lcy, on Tc Quakcr Gravcyard, suggcstcd that thc carly poctry is a signal
instancc ol what T.S. liot callcd a poctry that is purcly vcrbal, in that thc
pocm will givc us morc ol thc samc thing, an accumulation rathcr than a
rcal dcvclopmcnt ol thought or lccling. !t crcatcs no world into which wc
can movc, cxplorc, discovcr (London and 8oycrs, +88). Surcly this is not
cntircly right. Tc Quakcr Gravcyard dcmands that wc lollow a compli
catcd scrics ol artistic and cmotional mancuvcrs, lrom thc gnarlcd opcning
that vcntriloquizcs Torcau (A brackish rcach ol shoal o Madakct |+|),
through thc various homagcs to Lycidas, to thc oltcn unclcar mingling
ol dctails lrom thc lilc and dcath ol Varrcn Vinslow with thosc ol ninc
tccnthccntury sailors, thc combincd Mclvillian and Christian gurc ol
!S, thc whitcd monstcr (+6) which practically scrcams Symbol! Symbol!
at us, thc thundcring toncs ol Jonathan dwards, who appcars clscwhcrc
in Lowclls carly work, thc mcditativc liotic harmonics ol Part \!, ur
Lady ol Valsingham, and thc nal rcturn to thc brackish winds ol Nan
tuckct and thc primal momcnt ol crcation . . .
Vhcn thc Lord God lormcd man lrom thc scas slimc
And brcathcd into his lacc thc brcath ol lilc,
And bluclungd combcrs lumbcrcd to thc kill.
Tc Lord survivcs thc rainbow ol his will. (+8)
Tc lincs arc a challcnging combination ol Gcncsis and arwin (God
did not crcatc man lrom thc scas slimc but lrom rcd clay), ol murdcrous
ncss and sanctity, ol dcstruction and thc promisc cmbodicd in thc gurc ol a
rainbow. Tc pocm has dcvclopcd, painlully and pcrhaps arthritically, it docs
not mcrcly accumulatc. vcn morc than unpacking and rcarranging sym
bols and gurcs ol spccch lor intcllcctual cohcrcncc, it is thc rcadcrs job to
makc scnsc ol a syntactically simplc unit likc thc last linc, which might bc
takcn as mcrc rcdundancy (God survivcs cvcrything), as thc kind ol paradox
prizcd by thc Ncw Critics (thc rainbow rcprcscnts Gods promisc ol sccond
chanccs, but thc only living crcaturcs who havc survivcd havc bccn Noah
and his shipmatcs), and as a musical cxpcrimcnt pcrlormcd by a man bcsot
tcd, as carly Lowcll clcarly was, with thc sound ol his own voicc in particular
and ol thc nglish languagc in gcncral. Tc clottcd bluclungd combcrs
lumbcrcd is particularly nc, cspccially bclorc thc casc ol articulation pcr
mittcd by thc last linc, and thc rhyming ol kill and will in thc nal couplct
makcs lor thcmatic irony as wcll as harmonious music.
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
Not 8aylcy but, as usual, Randall Jarrcll, dcscribcd thc ccct ol this carly
poctry with absolutc prccision:
. . . a good dcal ol what is cxccssivc in thc cxtraordinary rhctori
cal machinc ol a pocm likc Tc Quakcr Gravcyard in Nantuckct,
which rst traps and thcn wrings to picccs thc hclplcss rcadcrwho
rathcr cnjoys itis gonc lrom somc ol his latcr pocms, or clsc dra
matically justicd and no longcr cxccssivc. |Tc Quakcr Gravcyard
is| a baroquc work, likc Paradise Lost, but all thc extase ol baroquc
has disappcarcdthc coiling violcncc ol its rhctoric, thc harsh and
stubborn intcnsity that accompanics all its vcrbs and vcrbals, thc
clustcring strcsscs lcarncd lrom acccntual vcrsc, comc lrom a man
contracting cvcry musclc, grinding his tccth togcthcr till his shut cycs
achc. (Axclrod, )
Vc morc than cnjoycd thc strugglc, thc cxccsscs, thc violcncc and thc
tccth grinding: wc sharcd in, and wcrc upliltcd by thcm. Lowclls musclc
bound vcrsc movcd away lrom thc rcal languagc ol mcn that had bccn
thc goal ol onc strand ol poctry sincc Vordsworth lormulatcd his dcmo
cratic idcal in +8oo. A rcadcrs strugglc is invariably a rcpctition ol a writcrs,
although in a ncr or attcnuatcd tonc, and by this ! do not mcan thc mcntal
and cmotional strugglcs ol Robcrt Lowcll thc man, but thc artistic chiscl
ing, wrcnching, and twisting ol Robcrt Lowcll thc vcrbal sculptor. Tis is
what Jarrcll mcant whcn hc callcd Lowcll a thoroughly prolcssional poct
(Axclrod, ) at a timc wcll bclorc our contcmporary institutionalization
ol MFAs, crcativc writing workshops, and thc prolilcration ol prizcs and
publications that havc madc a dicrcnt kind ol crcdcntials ncccssary lor
scllproclaimcd prolcssional pocts. 8clorc it bccamc a univcrsity cottagc
industry, poctry rcquircd only arduous intcllcctual pcrscvcrancc.
X
H
is strugglc could not continuc in quitc thc samc way, ol coursc, and
as thc cataclysmic lortics gavc way to thc tranquillizcd Fifties (+8),
and thcn to thc impaticnt and rcbcllious sixtics, Lowcll lound dicrcnt ways
to match his stylc and litcrary tcmpcramcnt to thc timcs. Again, wc mcasurc
than man through his involvcmcnt in history. And his involvcmcnt in his
tory always ncccssitatcd ncw poctic mcasurcs. Tc torturcd stanzas, con
volutcd syntax, opaquc symbols, rigid mctcr, and stubborn intcllcctualism
subsidcd, undcr thc inucncc ol lilc changcs (loss ol rcligious laith, divorcc,
rcmarriagc, manicdcprcssivc cpisodcs, ncw drugs), into looscr and lrccr lincs
and music, whilc thc samc scnsibility or tcmpcramcnt rcmaincd in cvidcncc.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6o
Tc surcst tcst ol a major artist is whcthcr hc can both changc and at thc
samc timc rcmain rccognizably thc samc or truc to himscll. !n this rcgard
Lowcll maintains prccmincncc. Unlikc 8ishop, lor cxamplc, whosc latc work
is hard to distinguish in tonc and mcthod lrom hcr carlicr work (bccausc
shc was always so carclul an artist that shc oltcn hcld onto pocms lor ycars
bclorc nishing or publishing thcm), Lowcll was ablc to lrcc himscll lrom
thc shacklcs ol Catholicism and baroquc stanzas and yct rctain thc tough
ncss ol mind, thc accuracy ol pcrccption, thc intcrcst in particularity ol dctail
and articulation that rcmaincd onc componcnt ol his pcrmancnt armor. Hc
lamously attributcd thc looscning ol stylc that bccamc thc hallmark ol Life
Studies (+) in part to his hcaring Allcn Ginsbcrg rcad Ho.l in San Fran
cisco. As an artist, in othcr words, Lowcll could bcnct lrom thc cxamplcs
ol his contcmporaricscvcn, or cspccially, whcn thcy wcrc sccmingly dil
lcrcnt lrom himas rcadily as hc protcd lrom his prccursors. Tc bcst
artist lcarns lrom, and absorbs, cvcrything. Vitncss Picasso and Stravinsky
in othcr arcnas.
Sitting down with anyoncs collcctcd work is not an casy task. Lowclls is
morc daunting, virtually unapproachablc, than most. nc thing that rccom
mcnds such an activity (othcr than thc obligation ol having acccptcd a pro
lcssional rcvicw assignmcnt) is thc way it cnablcs a rcadcr to scc thc lorcst as
wcll as thc trccs. Vc can pcrccivc thc continuity ol, as wcll as thc changcs in,
Lowclls poctry. From thc start, Lowclls voicc is always (as thc young critic
Nick Halpcrn has rcccntly writtcn) pitchcd lor thc cnd ol history (+). Vc
can takc cnd to mcan not just tcrmination (i.c., Lowclls apocalyptic toncs)
but also purposc. And sincc history includcs politics, according to Halpcrn
political spccch was lor Lowcll thc most trustworthy, thc most rcliablc way
ol spcaking in prophctic and cvcryday voiccs at oncc (:). So cvcn whcn
thc subjccts and stylcs ol Lord !earys Castle yicldcd to thc lamily romancc
and cdipal outragcs ol Life Studies, Lowcll was still practicing historical
rcscarchcs. !n somc ways, thc invcstigation ol domcstic lilc challcngcd him
cvcn morc than his lorays into thc Amcrican past. Tc lamily, lar lrom bcing
a rclugc, was always a complication lraught with political strugglc. Tc tcr
ric prcssurc that organizcd thc lormal structurcs ol pocms in Lord !earys
Castle did not disappcar, it mcrcly wcnt tcmporarily undcrground in ordcr to
translorm itscll in thc lattcr volumc within thc individual lyrics that build
to a sustaincd, wondcrlully articulatcd, autobiographical narrativc. !n a lcttcr
to Villiam Carlos Villiams, Lowcll said that hc took Villiams and 8ishop
as modcls bccausc thcy both kccp thcir cycs (in a Vordsworthian man
ncr) on thcir objcct, and thcy givcr rhctoric a nap (Axclrod, :). Admir
ing thcir absorption in thcir subjccts, Lowcll now trics his own hand at thc
sturdy rcalism ol Tolstoy and Chckhov, attcnding to charactcrs within social,
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:6+
lamilial, and historical contcxts. !n his rcminisccncc ol thc writing ol Skunk
Hour Lowcll admits that his own pocms sccmcd likc prchistoric monstcrs
draggcd down into thc bog and dcath by thcir pondcrous armor. . . . Vhat
inucnccd mc morc than San Francisco and rcading aloud was that lor somc
timc ! had bccn writing prosc. ! lclt that thc bcst stylc lor poctry was nonc ol
thc many poctic stylcs in nglish, but somcthing likc thc prosc ol Chckhov
or Flaubcrt (Collected Prose, ::). ! shall rcturn latcr to thc many poctic
stylcs in nglish in a considcration ol Lowclls contcmporancous (and con
trovcrsial) translations in Imitations, at this point it is important to considcr
thc prosing ol Life Studies and thc ways Lowclls apparcnt artlcssncss cnliv
cncd his art.
Although Lowcll callcd his own ocuvrc a smallscalc Prelude (:) it
docs not rccord thc growth ol a pocts mind, nor docs it providc a lcsson
and an cxamplc. Vordsworths didactic scllabsorption is not his modcl. Hc
could ncvcr ask, cvcn rhctorically, Vordsworths qucstion: Vhat onc man is
why may not thousands bc: Rathcr, my journcy is always stumbling on thc
unlorcsccn and cvcn unlorcsccablc (:). Vordsworth (and Vhitman and
latcr avatars) asidc, prosc has always bccn thc normal modc ol autobiography.
Vhat strikcs a rcadcr rst about Life Studies is both thc surprising appcar
ancc ol thc chisclcd, pcrlcctly articulatcd prosc ol + Rcvcrc Strcct at its
ccntcr (surcly onc ol thc most moving and polytonal mcmoirs ol thc past
hall ccntury), and also thc ways in which this piccc maintains a hold on
thc pocms that surround it. Likc Mcrrill, who always claimcd that writing
prosc was unnatural and that in vcrsc thc lcct wcnt barc, but whosc prosc is
braccd by thc samc control ol tonc and lucidity ol obscrvation as his poctry,
Lowcll writcs scntcnccs that anyonc might cnvy.
Tc mcmoir opcns on a singlc picturc, now lost, ol his distant cousin
Major Mordccai Mycrs, a Gcrman Jcw with qualitics associatcd with othcr
kinds ol lorcignncss as wcll: Mcditcrrancan, Moorish, Spanish. And thcn
hc warms to his subjccta childhood housc in which objccts lunction as
strongly as pcoplcand his mcthod, thc uscs to which portraiturc may bc
put. !t is cspccially appropriatc that thc cntirc mcmoir rccords Lowclls scnsc
ol bcing, likc his anccstor, alicnatcd, out ol placc, oltcn alonc (as an only
child, among othcr rcasons). Tc solidity ol things hcld in mcmory works
(paradoxically, as a good Ncw Critic might dcmand) to balancc thc childs
scnsc ol smallncss and worthlcssncss. Tc mcmoir includcs both Vords
worthian spots ol timc and Lowclls matcrial cquivalcnts ol thcm, objccts
that, although lost, still rctain thc vibrancy ol lilc:
Major Mordccai Mycrs |sic| portrait has bccn mislaid past nding,
but out ol my mcmorics ! oltcn comc upon it in thc sctting ol our
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6:
Rcvcrc Strcct housc, a sctting now xcd in thc mind, whcrc it survivcs
all thc distortions ol lantasy, all thc blank bcloggings ol lorgctlulncss.
Tcrc, thc vast numbcr ol rcmcmbcrcd things rcmains rocklikc. ach
is in its placc, cach has its lunction, its history, its drama. Tcrc, all is
prcscrvcd by that mothcrly carc that onc cithcr ignorcd or rcscntcd in
his youth. Tc things and thcir owncrs comc back urgcnt with lilc and
mcaningbccausc nishcd, thcy arc cndurablc and pcrlcct. (+::)
Tc cntirc cort ol Life Studies is containcd within thcsc vc scntcnccs.
bjccts, likc pcoplc, cxist within thc minds rcpository, cvcn altcr thcy havc
vanishcd. Tc mothcrly carc, likc Lowclls own mothcr, whom hc rcscntcd
in youth, has bccn intcrnalizcd as a principlc ol ordcr. cath conlcrs pcrlcc
tion, thc .ernissage that givcs a nish in scvcral scnscs. Mcmory rcvivcs thc
past, ocring what Vordsworth would call rcstoration. (As an cxamplc ol
Lowclls longstanding attachmcnt to thc pcrmancncc ol things, considcr
thc imagc ol a burcau in Ccntral Park lrom Day by Day: thc drawcrs
havc thc solidity ol Spanish kings, / obscrvcrs ol succcssivc pcaks ol dcca
dcncc, / sct on racks in idcntical bassviol co ns ||).
Troughout thc mcmoir, Lowclls cyc lor thc prccisc dctail ncvcr lails
him, nor docs his choicc ol thc mot juste (hc calls thc housc a sctting lor
arthritic spiritual pains |+:|, to bc a boy at 8rimmcr was to bc small,
dcnicd, and wcak |+|), or his car lor rhythm (thc blank bcloggings ol
lorgctlulncss is pcrlcct iambic pcntamctcr). And his scnsc ol quitc ordinary
charactcrs sccms artlcssly to raisc parcnts and child to a hcightcncd, mythic
lcvcl. Tc inccctivc, mumbling, wcak lathcr, a sh out ol watcr altcr lcaving
thc navy, can ncvcr quitc makc a go ol it in civilian lilc but rctains a paticncc
compoundcd ol thc stoic and thc pathctic: Likc a chaucur, hc watchcd
his car, a Hudson, with an inlormcd vigilancc, always giving its cnginc hair
triggcr littlc tinkcrings ol adjustmcnt or lricndship, always lcarlul lcst thc
black body, unbcautilul as his boilcd shirts, should losc its outlinc and gloss.
Hc drovc with awlcss, almost instrumcntal, monotony (+o+). Lowcll
has absorbcd mctonymy, thc basic tropc ol rcalistic ctionhis inhcritancc
lrom thc Frcnch and Russian mastcrs hc was trying to cmulatcand so dcltly
intcrtwincs car and drivcr that thc rcadcr casily lorgcts which stands lor, or
rcprcscnts, which. Charlottc Vinslow Lowcll, thc snobbish mothcr with
hcr latuous compcnsatory drcams ol Vagncrian hcrocs and Napolconic
grandcur (lrom whom Lowcll surcly dcrivcd his lilclong Nictzschcan intcr
cst in supcrmcn and hcroics), spcaks which a cozy cpigrammatic shrillncss
that tcrrics and cxcitcs hcr son: Vc arc barcly pcrchcd on thc outcr rim
ol dcccncy, A man must makc up his own mind, ! usually managc to
makc myscll prctty comlortablc, ! havc always bclicvcd carving to bc the
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:6
gcntlcmanly art, A rcally grcat pcrson . . . known how to bc courtcous to
his supcriors ( passim). Tc combination ol acid social satirc and psychologi
cal accuracy makcs lor a mcmoir both humorous and dangcrous, and it also
prcparcs us lor thc lilc studics that lollow.
Although Jamcs Longcnbach has rcccntly tricd to undcrminc thc now
popular truism that many contcmporary pocts achicvc a brcakthrough with
a third or lourth volumc, it is clcar that Life Studies stands wcll apart lrom its
prcdcccssors, Lord !earys Castle and Te Mills of the Ka.anaughs. !l Lowclls
truc subjcct throughout all ol his poctry is history, thcn hcrc at last pcrsonal
and lamily history comc alivc with thc vibrancy ol color, dctail, and anccdotc
that givc wcight and mcaning to wondcrlul particularitics. Vc can look back
at thc ngcrwagging, skcptical rcsponsc to thc volumc by Joscph 8cnnctt
in Te Hudson Fe.ie. (+) and only wondcr at a critics myopia: Lazy
and anccdotal, it is morc suitcd as an appcndix to somc snobbish socicty
magazinc, to To.n and Country or Harpers Ba.aar, rathcr than as a purposc
lul work. And ol thc prosc mcmoir: a mixturc ol Clcvcland Amory and
John Marquand (London and 8oycrs, 8). !n lact, Lowclls admiring,
cnvying asscssmcnt ol 8ishopuncrring Musc who makcs thc casual pcr
lcct ()can bc applicd to his own achicvcmcnt in thc ncly spun but
sccmingly untailorcd stylc ol thcsc pocms.
Tc languagc in Life Studies is cvcrywhcrc prccisc and mcticulous, and
cvcn its rhythms, lamously looscncd lrom thc tightly bound pcntamctcr lincs
ol Lowclls carly poctry, still rctain a lormidablc mixturc ol clasticity and
tautncss. Tus, thc opcning ol thc clcgy to Ford Madox Ford:
Tc lobbcd ball plops, thcn dribblcs to thc cup. . . .
(a birdic Fordic!) 8ut it ncarly killcd
thc ministcrs. Lloyd Gcorgc was holding up
thc ag. Hc gabblcd, Hoptoad, hoptoad, hoptoad!
Huccr has uscd a niblick on thc grccn,
!ts lthy art, Sir, lthy art! (+)
Tc rst linc provcs Lowclls mastcry ol monosyllablcssomcthing hc
lcarncd lrom Hopkins, sharcd with Frost, and passcd on to Scamus Hcancy
as thc rst lour words convcy an imagc through sounds that mimic awk
wardncss, altcr which thc linc, likc thc ball, thcn glidcs smoothly along
as it subsidcs into rcgular iambs. r considcr thc opcning ol To clmorc
Schwartz, which sccms to havc absorbcd somc ol thc music ol Prulrock,
that carlicr pocm in which uncxpcctcd and suddcn rhythmic changcs intcr
rupt rcgularity:
Vc couldnt cvcn kccp thc lurnacc lit!
vcn whcn wc had disconncctcd it,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
thc antiquatcd
rclrigcrator gurglcd mustard gas
through your mustardycllow housc,
and spoilcd our long mancuvcrcd visit
lrom T. S. liots brothcr, Hcnry Varc. . . . (+)
Vhat starts in rhymcd pcntamctcr couplcts immcdiatcly brcaks down
as rcadily as thc lurnacc and rclrigcrator, and thc haphazard rcpctition ol
anothcr it sound (visit) rcadics us lor thc irrcgularly rhymcd rcmaindcr
ol thc pocm and thc drunkcn scmijoylul momcnt sharcd by thc two pocts.
Tc nal six lincs rcpcat a similar tactic:
Tc Charlcs
Rivcr was turning silvcr. !n thc cbb
light ol morning, wc stuck
thc duck
s wcb
loot, likc a candlc, in a quart ol gin wcd killcd. (+8)
Tc ncly brokcn but cnjambcd phrascs (cbb//light and duck//s
wcb//loot) signily diminishmcnt and slowdown, and thc hard monosyl
labic tonguctightcning in thc rhymcd cbb, stuck, duck, wcb brings
thc music to an adagio pacc bclorc thc looscning rclcasc ol thc upwardly
acccntcd a candlc, in a quart ol gin wcd killcd.
vcryonc has long agrccd that thc anatomics ol lailurc and thc clcgiac
toncs that pcrvadc thc volumc rcach thcir ncst momcnts in thc cponymous
lourth scction ol Life Studies. Morc than lour dccadcs altcr thcir publica
tion thcsc pocms rctain thcir patina ol lrcshncss and cncrgy, cvcn wit and
passion, dcspitc thc pcrvasivc haunting that makcs Lowcll and his lamily
into gurcs who bclong partly to thc world ol classical myth and history,
partly to thc world ol Jamcs and Vharton. Any ol thc individual gurcs,
as wcll as thc rclations among thcm, could bc cnlargcd into matcrial lor
prosc ction or Chckhovian drama. Finally, it is not thc 8ritish Vords
worth but thc Amcrican . A. Robinson and dgar Lcc Mastcrs, and cvcn
Frost, who stand bchind thc charactcr portrayals hcrc. Tc scnsc ol a sharcd
lamily idcntitypartly gcnctic, partly situationalrcminds us that what
. H. Lawrcncc onc callcd thc old stablc cgo is gonc lor good, that all
idcntity is sharcd. nc ol Lowclls distinctivc achicvcmcnts was his cmbcd
ding ol thc singlc scll (thc traditional subjcct ol lyric, as ! mcntioncd at thc
start ol this cssay) into a wcb ol social and lamilial rclationships. Tc othcr
putativc conlcssional pocts did thc samc thing, but nonc with Lowclls nc
journalists attcntion to social dctail and his pocts car lor thc right musical
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:6
phrasing. Not only Lowcll but the Lowcllspast and prcscntmakc his
tory comc alivc, and givc lilc as wcll to thc poct who had bccn rclativcly
abscnt as a charactcr lrom his rst two volumcs. ! am rcmindcd ol a rcmark
by thc Amcrica biologist Lcwis Tomas: Tc wholc dcar notion ol oncs
own Scllmarvclous old lrccwillcd, lrcccntcrprising, autonomous, indc
pcndcnt, isolatcd island ol a Scllis a myth. !dcntity, in othcr words, is
ncithcr unitary, nor irrcduciblc, nor unchanging, nor indcpcndcnt. !t cxists,
as wc all do, as a rccctcd and a rcccting objcct, and bcncath masks, and
within communitics.
Pcoplc arc points ol rclcrcncc as wcll as objccts ol intcrcst in thcir own
right. !n thirty pagcs Lowcll rcvivcs thc past, tracing his own history lrom
thc agc ol vc (in +::, thc ycar ol thc rst pocm in thc scqucncc, My Last
Altcrnoon with Unclc cvcrcux Vinslow) through thc dcaths ol grand
parcnts and parcnts, largcly skipping ovcr his adolcsccncc, cducation, and
rst marriagc. Hc cnds with his incarccration as a rcbrcathing Catholic
C.. (Mcmorics ol Vcst Strcct and Lcpkc), and as anothcr manic sort
ol pcrson at McLcans sanitarium (Vaking in thc 8luc), with himscll as
lathcr and husband, but su cicntly scllawarc to assumc (in To Spcak ol
Voc Tat !s in Marriagc ), a wilcs pcrsona (although as Lowcll pointcd out,
thc wilc was bascd on clmorc Schwartzs, not lizabcth Hardwick). And hc
rounds o thc scqucncc with thc contcmporancous Skunk Hour, which now
occupics a quasicanonical status in anthologics and collcgc poctry courscs. !n
all ol thcsc pocms, thc cxtcrnal as wcll as thc intcrnal circumstanccs ol human
idcntity arc dcpictcd with a combination ol sympathy, undcrstanding, out
ragc, and good humor.
Ncar thc Unbalanccd Aquarium, a prosc piccc writtcn probably in
+, rccalls Lowclls incarccration at thc PayncVhitncy Clinic thrcc ycars
carlicr and contains inlormation that hc would latcr lold into thc pocms ol
Life Studies. A comparison shows how thc pocts art translormcd rccollcctcd
minutiac into poctry that is morc than just lrcc or loosclincd vcrsc. For
cxamplc, in My Last Altcrnoon with Unclc cvcrcux Vinslow, Lowcll
thinks back to his rst brush with dcath, whcn his unclc, sick with Hodgkins
discasc, packcd up lor a last trip to uropc with his wilc (lcaving thcir thrcc
daughtcrs at homc), bclorc dying thc lollowing wintcr. !n thc prosc piccc,
Lowcll mcntions thc lamily larm, Char-de-sa, namcd lor thc thrcc Vinslow
childrcn: No onc, cxccpt a silly gunshy scttcr, had cvcr dicd thcrc. ! sat on
thc tilcs, all ol thrcc and hall (Collected Prose, 6o). Accuracy ol rccollcc
tion is not thc major issuc, but in thc pocm Lowcll corrccts himscll: ! was
vc and a hall. Morc intcrcstingly, hc rcviscs or rcimagincs thc lamily dog,
at lcast as much lor sound as lor accuracy: No onc had cvcn dicd thcrc in
my lilctimc . . . / nly Cindcr, our Scottic puppy paralyzcd lrom gobbling
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:66
toads. / ! sat mixing black carth and limc (+6). Vhcthcr rcal or invcntcd,
Cindcr appropriatcly prcparcs us lor carth and limc and cvcn morc lor
thc dcath ol Unclc cvcrcux in thc pocms last lincs:
My hands wcrc warm, thcn cool, on thc pilcs
ol carth and limc,
a black pilc and a whitc pilc . . .
Comc wintcr,
Unclc cvcrcux would blcnd to thc onc color. (+6)
Most moving, thc spccic dctail ol dcath by paralysis ts in with a rangc
ol thc othcr paralyscs that bcsct all thc human charactcrs in thc scqucncc.
Tc gcntlc musicality (thc hall rhymcs that join Scottic and puppy, and
Scottic and gobblcd, thc allitcration ol puppy paralyzcd) attcsts to thc
pocts rcvisionary car.
Frank 8idarts introduction (with its subtitlc lrom Randall Jarrcll, whosc
ghost appcars to Lowcll altcr dcath and tclls him: You didnt writc, you
rewrotc |:|) inlorms us that Lowcll was an invctcratc rcviscr, and that
his rcvisions wcrc onc causc ol thc quartcr ccntury dclay bctwccn his dcath
and thc production ol this volumc. Still, an cvcn morc compcndious vari
orum will bc nccdcd at somc point, containing thc now omittcd vol umcs ol
Notebook, thc carlicr vcrsions ol pocms that appcarcd latcr in History, and
ocring an cxtcnsivc scholarly apparatus dctailing as prcciscly as possiblc
thc naturc ol Lowclls writing proccsscs. Somcthing likc thosc cditions ol
Te Prelude, with thc +8o vcrsion on thc lclt, and thc +8o onc on thc
right, would allow studcnts and cvcn intcrcstcd gcncral rcadcrs to comparc
and contrast (as wc uscd to bc askcd to do in school) scvcral takcs on a
singlc subjcct.
Mcanwhilc, thc prool ol Lowclls achicvcmcnt will bc lound within thc
pocms thcmsclvcs and thc rclations among thcm, and bctwccn thc various
singlc volumcs as wcll. Tc gurc ol thc stubbornly rcbcllious boy, altcrnatcly
truculcnt and cowcring, appcars in Lilc Studics as in + Rcvcrc Strcct.
So docs thc gcntlc, laithlul, and dim lathcr (as Lowcll rclcrs to him in
Ncar thc Unbalanccd Aquarium |Collected Prose, &|). Charlottc Lowcll
has bccn signicantly rcplaccd or prccmptcd by thc Vinslow lamilyhcr
brothcr and hcr lathcr (who is thc rcal lathcr gurc lor young Cal)and
makcs hcr only major appcaranccs in onc stanza in Commandcr Lowcll
and latcr as a corpsc in Sailing Homc lrom Rapallo. Hcr abscncc hcrc,
givcn hcr dominccring prcscncc in thc prosc mcmoir, indicatcs that Low
cll is working (as ! havc mcntioncd prcviously) through mctonymy, gur
ing things and pcoplc through standins and rcplaccmcnts. For all ol hcr
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:6
strong will, Charlottc Lowcll rcquircs pcrsonal attachmcnts in hcr lilc, as
wc lcarn at thc cnd ol For Salc, thc short pocm dcscribing what happcns
to thc 8cvcrly Farms housc altcr hcr husbands dcath. Tc pocm has thrcc
vclinc scntcnccs, ol which thcsc arc thc last two:
mpty, opcn, intimatc,
its townhousc lurniturc
had an on tiptoc air
ol waiting lor thc movcr
on thc hccls ol thc undcrtakcr.
Rcady, alraid
ol living alonc till cighty,
Mothcr mooncd in a window,
as il shc had staycd on a train
onc stop past hcr dcstination. (+8)
8oth housc and widow arc in statcs ol anticipation. Tc housc and lurni
turc havc bccn humanizcd, thc mothcr, having lost hcr original cncrgctic
rc, is now lcss than human. Rcading thc lincs, wc might naturally takc
Rcady, alraid to continuc to rclcr to inanimatc objccts, instcad, Lowcll
tricks us by both changing thc subjcct ol his last scntcncc (although bcgin
ning both scntcnccs with a sct ol adjcctivcs) and thcrcby connccting it to thc
prcvious onc.
Altcr almost hall a ccntury thc brilliancc ol Life Studies still glcams in
thc dctails. ! can vividly rccall thc plcasurc ! dcrivcd lrom thc opcning ol
My Last Altcrnoon with Unclc cvcrcux Vinslow, whcn thc surly vc
ycarold 8obby rcluscs to go with his parcnts, prclcrring thc company ol his
Vinslow grandlathcr:
! wont go with you. ! want to stay with Grandpa!
Tats how ! thrcw cold watcr
on my Mothcr and Fathcrs
watcry martini pipc drcams at Sunday dinncr.
. . . Fontaincblcau, Mattapoisctt, Pugct Sound. . . .
Nowhcrc was anywhcrc altcr a summcr
at my Grandlathcrs larm.
iamondpointcd, athirst and Norman,
its allcy ol poplars
paradcd lrom Grandmothcrs rosc gardcn
to a scary stand ol virgin pinc,
scrub, and paths lorcvcr pionccring. (+6)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:68
Vhcrcin lay thc appcal: Vatcr and watcry makc an appcalingly
drcamy pair, watcry martini pipc drcams gcntly connccts two dicrcnt
imagcs, thc list ol placc namcs is arrangcd solcly, but thrillingly, to achicvc
thc rhythmic prccision ol a lootball chccr, adjcctivcs arc choscn lor dicring
cccts (iamondpointcd lor visual prccision, athirst lor human aspira
tion, and Norman lor social cxoticism). Abovc all, onc rcgistcrs thc music
(as wcll as thc continucd human application) ol thc last lour lincs, with thcir
military imagcry and plosivc allitcration (poplars, paradcd, pinc, paths,
pionccring) that ovcrhaul human bcings and thcir natural surroundings
into partncrs in a common dcstiny.
For a man lamous lor ncarsightcdncss, Lowcll cithcr saw cvcrything
or compcnsatcd lor myopia with aggrcssivcly imaginativc pcrccptions. Tc
shccr visual qualitics ol this pocm and thc othcrs in thc scqucncc, thc con
stant but dclicatc insistcncc on animal imagcry and similcs, thc usc ol appro
priatcly ironic dctails, thc ohandcd rhyming and othcr sonic dctails, makc
othcr pocts work pallid by comparison. Tcrc is grandcur cvcn (or cspccially)
in imagcs ol lailurc, c.g., thc dcpiction ol Grcat Aunt Sarah, thundcring on
thc kcyboard ol hcr dummy piano, now riscn likc thc phocnix as potcn
tial prcy lor toncdcal Grandmothcr, who is hcrscll quick as a crickct and
grccdily looking lor a bridgc partncr:
Forty ycars carlicr,
twcnty, auburn hcadcd,
grasshoppcr notcs ol gcnius!
Family gossip says Aunt Sarah
tiltcd hcr archaic Athcnian nosc
and jiltcd an Astor. (+6)
Tiltcd . . . and jiltcd: thc movcmcnt lrom this litcral noscturning to Aunt
Sarahs lailurc ol will on thc day ol hcr Symphony Hall rccital makcs lor a
mockhcroism that cvcn Popc would cnvy. Pcrsonal and social disintcgration
havc scldom sccmcd so automatic, so incvitablc.
ctails such as this stand both in contrast to, and in support ol, othcr
scmiuplilting oncs. Tc young Lowcll, in lormal short pants, lashions him
scll on thc lympian / poisc ol my modcls (alrcady hc has bccn traincd as a
classicist ol sorts) in thc impcrishablc autumn / display windows ol a local
boys storc (+6). !mpcrishablc autumn suggcsts his inhcritancc lrom thc
ironic stanccs ol his tcachcr Allcn Tatc: ! think ol thc wondcrlul paradox
at thc opcning ol dc to thc Conlcdcratc cad in which dcad lcavcs arc
callcd naturcs casual sacramcnt / To thc scasonal ctcrnity ol dcath. At thc
samc timc, hc is also a stucd toucan / with a bibulous, multicolorcd bcak,
showing thc gcnc pool in actioni.c., bibulous cvokcs his parcnts watcry
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:6
martini pipc drcams, and thc cxotic bird, his grandlathcrs manly, scnsuous,
and comlortablc huntinglodgc surroundings.
And all this cvcn bclorc thc cponymous charactcr makcs his appcar
ancc in thc pocms last quartcr. 8y thc timc hc arrivcs at a picturc ol his
unclc, Lowcll has alrcady sct thc sccncwith othcr lamily mcmbcrs, dcor,
dctails ol social class and history, and with himscllso it is appropriatc that
thc dcpiction ol cvcrcux closing his camp lor thc wintcr and cscaping to
uropc with his wilc should comc lrom thc vicwpoint ol a child at oncc
wcak and strong, tcrricd and omniscicnt, modcrn and ancicnt:
! cowcrcd in tcrror.
! wasnt a child at all
unsccn and allsccing, ! was Agrippina
in thc Goldcn Housc ol Ncro. . . . (+66)
His prcvious lympian / poisc has bccn rcplaccd by a dicrcnt classical
imagc, and thc changc in gcndcr also rcminds us ol thc lcminization Lowcll
lclt as a boy at thc 8rimmcr School (+ Rcvcrc Strcct). His pocm cnds
with a charactcrization ol cvcrcux that both animatcs and dcadcns him.
Linc by linc, through a rhctoric ol anaphora (Hc, His, His, His, Hc,
and so on), cvcrcux comcs to lilc but only as a gurc in a wax muscum. Hc
is alrcady, partially, dcad:
Hc was as brushcd as 8ayard, our riding horsc.
His lacc was putty.
His bluc coat and whitc trouscrs
grcw sharpcr and straightcr.
His coat was a bluc jays tail,
his trouscrs wcrc solid crcam lrom thc top ol thc bottlc.
Hc was animatcd, hicrarchical,
likc a gingcrsnap man in a clothcsprcss.
Hc was dying ol thc incurablc Hodgkins discasc. (+6)
Many ol thcsc dctails appcar in thc prosc mcmoir, but Lowcll has also madc
signicant changcs. Formcrly it was Lowcll himscll who rcscmblcd 8ayard.
Hicrarchical, with its ovcrtoncs ol social class, was prcviously hicratic.
(Solid crcam was thcrc at thc start.) Tc most brilliant imagc, thc brittlc
gingcrsnap man, which rccalls Lowclls own lympian poisc, was addcd
lor thc pocm. Lowcll thc invctcratc rcviscr litcrally rcsaw and rcimagincd as
hc cditcd and hammcrcd his prosc into vcrsc.
X
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:o
!
havc conccntratcd on this pocm not only bccausc it introduccs thc most
lamous singlc scction ol Lowclls complctc works but also bccausc it rcp
rcscnts what Lowcll did imprcssivcly and charactcristically. Tc individual
dctails that mount and mount, and that ccho othcrs ( just as mcmbcrs ol a
singlc lamily rcpcat and ccho onc anothcr gcnctically and bchaviorally) arc
hallmarks ol thc bcst parts ol Life Studies, For the Union Dead (cspccially its
grcat titlc pocm), and Near the Ocean, rcgardlcss ol othcr stylistic dicrcnccs
among thc pocms. As with any grcat artist, a changc ol stylc or mcthod
cntails a changc ol vision (although which comcs rst is oltcn a knotty
problcm to discntanglc). 8ut in somc ways Lowcll did not rcmain laithlul
to his achicvcmcnts ol thc latc ltics. Rcading through thc Collected Poems
onc comcs upon two stumbling blocks, cach ol which constitutcs a sccm
ing intcrruption ol lorward movcmcnt. Lowclls controvcrsial +6+ volumc
ol translations (Imitations) is contcmporancous with his bcst pocms, but
it provokcd grcat critical hostility as did, though lor dicrcnt rcasons, thc
hundrcds ol pagcs ol unrhymcd sonncts that constitutc thc thrcc volumcs
ol History, For Li..ie and Harriet, and Te Dolphin in thc scvcntics. Vhat
intcrcsts mc is thc ccct ol rcading thcsc lour volumcs in thc contcxt ol thc
wholc ocuvrc, and tracing within thcm thc changcs in Lowclls imagination
and thc mustcring ol his various cncrgics.
bjcctions to thc accuracy ol thc translations camc lrom many lronts.
Marjoric Pcrlo dcvotcs scvcral pagcs in hcr + Te Poetic rt of Fobert
Lo.ell to an analysis ol his vcrsion ol Rimbauds Mmoirc, concluding
that hc dcstroys a carclully conccivcd imagistic dcsign .ithout replacing it
.ith anything else (+). 8cn 8clitt, writing sympathctically ol Lowclls vcr
sions ol Montalc, lamcnts incidcntal collapscs and lumblcd opportunitics,
but nds lclicitics as wcll as crrors. Hc also rcmarks in an obitcr dictum
that translation may scrvc thc translator as a lorm ol surrogatc idcntity, as
wcll as a labor ol lovc (London and 8oycrs, :6), an asscssmcnt to which
! shall rcturn. Stcphcn Ycnscr, in what is still thc bcst critical work about
Lowcll, attcnds lcss to translation pcr sc than to thc structurc ol thc volumc,
calling thc book an autobiography ol thc spirit (Ycnscr, +o). Likc 8clitt,
in othcr words, hc rcalizcs that Lowcll is up to somcthing in this book othcr
than pcrlorming acts ol homagc and rcvision. Tc most hostilc ol all com
mcntators, John Simon, carclully wcavcs a path through Lowclls distor
tions, cgrcgious mistakcs, thc violcncc hc pcrlorms against his originals, and
his troubling altcrnation bctwccn thc ovcrabstract and thc ovcrspccic. 8ut
what Simon says as criticism may bc as hclplully truc as it is (or at lcast
sccms to bc) ungcncrous: ! cannot cscapc thc lccling that Lowcll translatcs
whcn hc is unablc to writc anything ol his own, not so much out ol lovc lor
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:+
thc pocm translatcd as out ol lovc lor thc sound ol his own poctic voicc
(London and 8oycrs, +6).
Tc ccct ol rcading thc morc than onc hundrcd pagcs ol Imitations in
thc midst ol this almost onc thousandpagc volumc is a libcrating onc, lor
rcasons ! havc spccicd abovc. Lowcll is rcmaking his idcntity, writing a
chaptcr ol his litcrary (il not his spiritual) autobiography, spccically by tcst
ing thc sound ol his poctic voicc. Vhatcvcr his intcntions, cxpcrimcnts with,
or adaptations ol syntax strikc mc as thc most important rcsult ol Lowclls
translations. Stcpping back to cxaminc his carlicr books, wc noticc that thc
scntcnccs in Lord !earys Castle arc long, sinuous, baroquc, and hypotactic.
8y thc timc ol History, thc singlc linc has comc to prcdominatc as a unit
ol scnsc and ol mcaning. !n bctwccn, as at thc cnd ol My Last Altcrnoon
with Unclc cvcrcux Vinslow, itcration through anaphora and amplica
tion bcgins to dcvclop thc lorcc ol a hallucinatcd attachmcnt to thc sub
jcct. !n Imitations Lowcll convincingly oscillatcs bctwccn dircct trcatmcnts
and simplc articulations on thc onc hand, and morc claboratc wcavings on
thc othcr.
Translation allows him thc powcr to bc himscll and not himscll at thc
samc timc, to translorm, or in somc cascs to conrm, his prcvious poctic
practiccs. His vcrsions (or willlul transmutations) ol lorcign pocms cnablc us
to scc his own lrcshncss. Lct mc considcr mcrcly two cxamplcs. rphcus.
urydikc. Hcrmcs, Rilkcs statcly, mystcrious dcpiction ol rphcuss lailurc
to kccp his cycs in lront ol him, would appcal naturally to Lowclls lccl
ing lor mctamorphosis and classical mythology, and his instinctual crotic
imaginings. 8ut whcrc Rilkc roots his picturc in thc natural world, with its
conncctions to thc human drama bcing playcd out, Lowcll lrom thc start
politicizcs thc advcnturc. vcn thc punctuation in thc Gcrman titlcwith
pcriods as indications ol rm scparationhas bccn changcd to suggcst pro
ccss and rclationality. Rilkc bcgins with a dclibcratc pun on vcins (Adcrn),
a word that suggcsts both blood and silvcr orc:
as war dcr Scclcn wundcrlichcs 8crgwcrk.
Vic stillc Silbcrcrzc gingcn sic
als Adcrn durch scin unkcl. Zwischcn Vurzcln
cntsprang das 8lut, das lortgcht zu dcn Mcnschcn,
und schwcr wic Porphyr sah cs aus im unkcl.
Sonst war nichts Rotcs.
!t was thc souls strangc minc.
Likc silcnt silvcr orc thcy wandcrcd
through its dark likc vcins. 8ctwccn roots
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
::
thc blood wcllcd up that issucs lorth to man,
and it lookcd hard as porphyry in thc dark.
Nothing clsc was rcd.
(trans. dward Snow, ++)
Lowclls lcss rcliablc vcrsion lorgocs thc casy pun (hc has movcd bcyond
thc wordplay lavorcd by his Ncw Critical modcls in thc lortics) and takcs
substantial libcrtics with his original:
Tats thc strangc rcgalia ol souls.
\ibrant
as platinum lamcnts thcy wcnt,
likc artcrics through thcir darkncss. From thc holcs
ol powdcr bcctlcs, lrom thc ottcrs bcd,
lrom thc oak king judging by thc royal oak
blood likc our own lilcblood, sprang.
thcrwisc nothing was rcd.
Tc dark was hcavicr than Cacsars loot. (:)
Vc havc movcd out ol thc world ol myth and into that ol politics and judg
mcnt: rcgalia, oak king, and thc cntircly uncallcdlor appcarancc ol Cac
sar, as wcll as thc ccric zoology ol bcctlcs and ottcrs (a manilcstation ol
Lowclls pcrpctual intcrcst in thc animal kingdom) suggcst willlulncss.
An cqually important cxamplc ol Lowclls autonomy is his handling ol
syntactic and phrasal translormation. Tc singlc word .ibrant constituting
its own linc rcminds us ol thc gamcs in To clmorc Schwartz, and thc
singlclinc stanza ol Cacsars loot is anothcr sign that Lowcll is cagcr, cvcn
anxious, to brcak thc stanzas that had bound him in his pocms ol thc lortics
and ltics. A nal singlc dctail conrms our scnsc ol Lowclls cngagcmcnt
in an imagincd rcalm slightly dicrcnt lrom that ol Rilkcs rphcus. Tc
last stanza, altcr rphcus has turncd around, and urydicc bccomc root
(Vurzcl), dcpicts Hcrmcs lollowing hcr back to thc undcrworld, rctracing
hcr carlicr stcps, this timc ohnc Ungcduld, without impaticncc. Lowclls
sccnc is not so much sad as chargcd with dangcr, and poiscd on thc brink ol
somcthing cxplosivc. rphcus
. . . stood and starcd
at thc onc lcvcl, incvitablc road,
as thc rcproachlul god ol mcsscngcrs
looking round, pushcd o again.
His caduccus was likc a shotgun on his shouldcr. (:)
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
Rilkcs god has a mournlul (traucrvollcm) look, but Lowclls is rcproach
lul. Tcrc is no mcntion ol thc caduccus, lct alonc a gun, in thc original.
Lowcll simply cannot cvadc his Ncw ngland Calvinist background, or his
own childhood attachmcnt to instrumcnts ol powcr, to military dctail. !t is
as though Hcrmcs thc mcsscngcr god has bccomc onc ol thc toy soldicrs, or
onc ol thc two hundrcd Frcnch gcncrals whom thc young Lowcll, bristling
and manic, kncw by namc (Commandcr Lowcll |+:|). !n othcr words,
Lowcll is libcratcd in somc ways via anothcr poct, but in othcrs hc takcs thc
libcrty ol Lowcllizing him, in thc samc way that Popc nglishcd Te Iliad
(A vcry prctty pocm, Mr. Popc, but you mustnt call it Homcr).
Rilkcs transccndcntal Gcrmanic mysticism providcd onc sct ol chal
lcngcs to Lowcll, whosc rcsponscs may strikc us as quirky and inappropriatc.
His translations ol ugcnio Montalc ocr a dicrcnt cxamplc ol provocation
and rcsponsc. Lowcll was clcarly inspircd by Montalcs tcrsc, oltcn gnomic
lincs, rcdolcnt ol thc hard, dusty Ligurian landscapc lrom which hc sprang.
To somconc who prcviously thought in tcrms ol thc stanza, or in richly
subordinatcd scntcnccs, Montalc ocrcd a modcl ol a poct who tought in
phrascs and imagcs, as Lowcll would incrcasingly comc to do. Tcsc particu
lars accumulatc and cxtcnd, whcthcr in a singlc scntcncc (onc ol Montalcs
most lamous lyrics, Languilla |Tc cl|, lollows thc gcographical routc
ol thc sh lrom 8altic to Mcditcrrancan in an accrction ol participlcs) or in
stanzas ol limpid, vibrant imagcry and dircct addrcss. Lowcll is incapablc ol
a simplc mancuvcr, hc hcightcns or brightcns his original. Considcr Tc
Magnolias Shadow, a larcwcll to a lovcr. Montalc bcgins dclicatcly:
Lombra dclla magnolia giapponcsc
si sloltiscc or chc i bocci paonazzi
sono caduti. \ibra intcrmittcntc
in vctta una cicala.
Tc shadow ol thc Japancsc magnolia
is thinning now that its royalbluc
buds havc lallcn. At thc top a lonc cicada
chirrs o and on.
(trans. Jonathan Galassi, 8o8+)
Lowcll raiscs thc stakcs, adds a couplc ol animal imagcs, and ncrvously cxag
gcratcs thc air ol autumnal abandonmcnt and ncglcct:
Tc shadow ol thc dwarl magnolia
is a scarccrow now that thc turkcywattlc
blossoms arc blown. Likc somcthing wircd,
thc cicada vibratcs at timcd intcrvals. (:8)
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:
vcn thc cicada sccms morc likc a mcnacing piccc ol mcchanical cquipmcnt
than a part ol naturc (thc timcd intcrvals ol the cicada sound planncd, as
opposcd to thc morc natural vibra intcrmittcntc, which capturcs thc buzz
ol a singlc, haphazard inscct).
And considcr still morc animals, in Lowclls vcrsion ol Sc thanno asso
mi gliato (!l thcy havc comparcd you . . .), which cnhanccs and dccpcns
Montalcs clcvating passion and thc dangcrous charm ol his bclovcd. Mon
talc says shc has bccn comparcd to a lox bccausc ol hcr darting movcmcnts,
or thc glcaming wavc (onda luminosa) ol hcr almond cycs, or lor thc
sharpncss ol your quick amazcmcnt (my translation),
pcr lo strazio
di piumc laccratc chc pu darc
la tua mano dinlantc in una strctta,
sc thanno assomigliato
a un carnivoro biondo, al gcnio pcrdo
dcllc lrattc (c pcrch non allimmondo
pcscc chc da la scossa, alla torpcdinc:) . . .
lor thc havoc
ol shrcddcd lcathcrs your babys
hand can wrcak with a tug,
il thcyvc comparcd you
to a blond carnivorc, thc laithlcss
gcnius ol thc thickct (and why not to thc loul
sh that shocks, thc stingray:)
(Galassi, :)
As usual, Lowcll inatcs crotic dangcr:
. . . lor thc cralt ol your alcrt panic,
lor thc annihilation ol dishcvclcd lcathcrs
in your childs hands pythons hug,
il thcy havc likcncd you to thc blond lioncss,
to thc avaricious dcmon ol thc undcrgrowth
(and why not to thc lthy sh
that clcctrocutcs, thc torpcdo sh:) . . . (:)
Lowcll takcs somcthing originally hard and chiscls it to makc it hardcr. As
hc makcs thc Ligurian landscapc brightcr, so hc makcs thc cnd ol a lovc
aair sccm likc somcthing out ol !uthering Heights, all gnashing animal
passion. Vhy not substitutc lioncss lor carnivorc: Vhy not turn human
bcings into thcir cousins a bit lowcr on thc lood chain:
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
Not all ol thc pocms in Imitations makc such spcctacular lcaps into pcril
ous scas, ol coursc, thc translations ol Pastcrnak cspccially sccm to clicit gcn
tlcr articulations lrom Lowcll, and a syntax that carrics ovcr into thc sparcr,
shortcrlincd pocms that opcn For the Union Dead (+6), his ncxt volumc.
!t rcquircd thc cauldron ol translation lor Lowcll to producc thc morc straight
lorward, dry, and colloquial Vatcr, Tc ld Flamc, Middlc Agc, Fall
+6+, Allrcd Corning Clark, and Myopia: A Night as wcll as thc casicr
stanzaic arrangcmcnts ol Tcnth Musc, Solt Vood, and 8ucnos Aircs.
Lowcll ncvcr lackcd lor clarity, but it sccms that lollowing thc lootstcps ol
othcrs cnablcd him simultancously to absorb and distill thcir lcssons in For
thc Union cad, composcd whilc hc was also working on thc translations.
Hc might havc absorbcd or takcn crisp imagcry and casy quatrains lrom mul
tiplc sourccs. Still, thc most signicant ccct ol his cxpcricnccs as a translator,
! think, was Lowclls ability to distancc himscll lrom, and to takc an objcctivc
vicw at, itcms in a surround. His attcntion to .erbal objccts in a lorcign pocm
allowcd him to incrcasc his attcntion to himscll in a grcat historical pocm
(Form thc Union cad) that dramatizcs, as wcll as proposcs, an archacol
ogy ol history and scllhood, a laycring ol dctails through timc, and multiplc
vicwpoints on politics, socicty, and human growth. !n middlc agc Lowcll
bcgan nding himscll through othcrs. Vhcrcas in his rst two books hc
lookcd primarily outward, and in Life Studies inward, now hc movcs inward
and outward simultancously. Subscqucntly, in Near the Ocean (+6), hc camc
as closc as hc cvcr would to casy acccssibility, rcaching out to his audicncc
as a rcsult ol having listcncd and rcspondcd to othcr pocts in Imitations.
X
8
ut thcn camc Notebook (in two lorms, both ol which arc cxcludcd lrom
this cdition, lor rcasons ol cost and wcight), and its rccasting as History.
Tis, plus For Li..ie and Harriet and Te Dolphin, will ( ! prcdict) bc judgcd
most harshly by postcrity lor poctic, not lor pcrsonal, rcasons. Tc lattcr camc
thirty ycars ago in lorcc lrom a chorus ol outragcd rcadcrs, most notably
Adricnnc Rich, who objcctcd to thc bullshit cloqucncc, thc aggrandizcd
and mcrcilcss masculinity and thc vindictivc and mcanspiritcd inclusion
ol privatc lcttcrs lrom lizabcth Hardwick (Axclrod, +86). onald Hall,
whom Lowcll citcs without naming in Last Night (History), rclcrrcd in a
rcvicw to thc sccdy grandiloqucncc ol Notebook (6o+). lizabcth 8ishop
also cxprcsscd rcscrvations, privatcly wondcring how much art is rcally
worth. For at lcast onc kind ol artistFaulkncr is in thc samc lamily
cvcrything is grist lor thc mill, and il a poct will not sparc himscll, why
should hc sparc othcrs: ianc Vakoski took a slightly longcr vicw (which
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:6
passing timc, ! suspcct, will warrant), saying that thcsc vcry pcrsonal pocms
constitutcd a mythology with charactcrs namcd lizabcth and Harrict and
Carolinc in it (Axclrod, +8).
Although pocms arc writtcn, and rcad, individually, thc lorcc ol His-
tory is a collcctivc, convulsivc, totalizing onc that tcnds to oblitcratc thc
individual lyrics and, in lact, to ovcrwhclm thc rcadcr. At lcast that sccms
thc books intcnt, its rcality is somcwhat dicrcnt. Calvin 8cdicnt was right
to suggcst that both singlc pocms and thc volumc as a wholc markcd an
improvcmcnt ovcr Notebook, but still constitutc thc rcworking ol rubblc.
8locks arc shiltcd or rccut, but usually thc pocm is still random, not cvcn a
ruin (Axclrod, +8). Not only has Lowcll (in 8cdicnts words) razcd and
dcstructurcd thc sonnct, but also, in spitc ol thc cpic hclt or prctcnsion
ol thc wholc, what thc rcadcr is lclt with is parts instcad ol wholcs. Tcsc
lragmcnts ! havc shorcd against my ruins: Pcrhaps. Many ol thc pocms
sound likc privatc ncgotiations with historys dctails, which rcquirc morc
annotation than thc cditors havc providcd. Lowcll oltcn sccms to bc writing
in codc, having movcd bcyond thc clarity ol his bcst pocms lrom thc six
tics. Vhat troublcs most is thc way Lowclls cxpcrimcnts with sonnct lorm
rcmakc many pocms into mcrc accumulations ol singlc imagcs, or singlc
lincs. Lowcll had movcd, during his carccr, through dicrcnt kinds ol stanzas,
but hcrc hc scldom pays attcntion to thc sonncts 8/6 or ///: structurc,
with a volta altcr linc 8 and /or a capitulating Shakcspcarcan couplct. Scldom
havc ! cvcr wishcd lor more cnjambmcnt. !t is as though Lowcll has absorbcd
thc modcl ol Valt Vhitman, an unlikcly prccursorcxccpt with rcgard to
ambition and cgowho oltcn thinks and composcs in tcrms ol long indi
vidual lincs, any onc ol which might grow into a pocm, or story, ol its own.
Considcr 8lizzard in Cambridgc, not onc ol thc bcst pocms in thc volumc
(Hclcn \cndlcr has rightly singlcd out thc two pocms about thc +6 March
on thc Pcntagon as cxamplcs ol Lowcll at thc top ol his gamc), and not onc ol
thc morc rcconditc oncs, but typical ol Lowclls accumulativc mcthods:
Riscn lrom thc blindncss ol tcaching to bright snow,
cvcrything mcchanical stoppcd dcad,
taxis nolarcs . . . the .heels gro. hot from dri.ing
icccyclashcs, in my spring coat, thc subway
too jammcd and latc to stop lor passcngcrs,
snowtrckking thc milc lrom subway cnd to airport . . .
to allightscancclcd, ghting qucucs congcalcd
to tclcphoncs out ol ordcr, stamping buscs,
rich, strandcd Ncw Yorkcrs staring with thc wild, mild cycs
ol stccrs at thc lorcign subwaythcn thc train homc,
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
Jolting with statcly grumbling: an hour in Providcncc,
in Ncw Havcn . . . thc 8iblc. !n darkncss sccing
whitc arscnic numbcrs on thc tail ol a downcd planc,
thc smokcstacks ol abandoncd cldguns burning skyward. ()
Tis is ncrvous, provisional poctry, and not mcrcly bccausc it rapidly jots
down imprcssions ol a man anxious to gct homc. You hcar thc occasional
iambic pcntamctcr linc (, ) and othcr lcints toward rcgularity (thc sccond
hall ol + and most ol :), but thc cntirc pocm consists ol random rhythms and
singlc dctails tclcgraphically alcrting us to thc passagc ol timc. 8ccausc both
ol thc two scntcnccs (onc long, onc short) lack a main vcrb thc pocm rcg
istcrs as an cxtcndcd lragmcnt, in which cllipscs and othcr pauscs (as wcll as
thc ongoing push ol participlcs and noun phrascs) suggcst that thc chain ol
itcms and imagcs might bc cxtcndcd still lurthcr and has ccascd only bccausc
ol thc sonncts procrustcan dcmands. Still, much ol Lowclls charactcristic
brilliancc shincs through, phrasc by phrasc: onc kind ol blindncss prcpar
ing thc loggy tcachcr and his rcadcr lor anothcr kind ol physical occlusion
and lor darkncss at thc cnd, thc insistcnt intcrnal rhymc ol blindncss,
bright, driving, icccyclashcs, milc, ghts, ghting, wild, mild
cycs, 8iblc, cnding in whitc, Ncw Yorkcrs translormcd to wondcring
bcasts, modcst scllirony and satirc in thc blindncss ol tcaching and jolting
with statcly grumbling, thc apocalyptic insinuations ol thc nal two lincs.
Many ol thc pocms in History arc rcdccmcd by individual imagcs (c.g.,
Gcorgc liot with thc prolc ol a whitc rhinoccros |86|), or singlc statcly,
iambic lincs (thc sickrooms crimclcss mortuary calm |Mothcr and Fathcr :,
++|), or placcs whcrc you know that Lowcll is thinking ol himscll via his
nominal subjcct (ol thc dcists Vatchmakcr God hc says: Hc lovcd to
tinkcr, / but having pcrlcctcd what Hc had to do, / stood o shroudcd in his
lonclincss |o|). 8ut hundrcds ol pagcs ol such pocms can tirc thc rcadcr,
and thc ashcs ol imposcd imagistic and cpigrammatic brightncss can losc
thcir radiancc. vcr all, thc rcadcr has thc lccling that Lowcll has not so
much rcviscd thc sonnct as appropriatcd it, wrung it out, and hung it up to
dry. Rcading Te Dream Songs is a morc various cxpcricncc, il only bccausc
ol 8crryman / Hcnrys antic cncrgy and glcclul wit. ( !n Day by Day Low
cll writcs an clcgy lor 8crryman in which hc acknowlcdgcs: ! discovcrcd
how wc dicrhumor |8|). Randomncss cannot providc a basis lor any
pcrsonal narrativc bcyond diary jottings, lct alonc lor a rcndcring ol history
itscll. Tis is why, lor all his tinkcring with thc pocms in History, and lor
thc lrank conlcssions and scllanalyscs (in thc subscqucnt two books) that
accompany his morc objcctivc historical rccctions, Lowcll tircs himscll out
altcr thrcc hundrcd pagcs ol sonncts.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
Tc sccond hall ol his last, cponymous pocm in Te Dolphin pays homagc
to Lady Carolinc 8lackwood, his third wilc, and makcs its own honcst, not
quitc abjcct, conlcssion ol injurics and crimcs lor which hc can ask ncithcr
lorgivcncss nor compassion. Tc rst hall dcvclops an imagc ol a compositc
poct (Lowcll and Jcan Racinc) as a man ol cralt guidcd by a musc, or dol
phin, who savcs him lrom capturc in a hangmansknot ol sinking lincs.
Coming out ol this dclicatc mctaphor, thc sccond part strikcs us as all thc
morc poignant:
! havc sat and listcncd to too many
words ol thc collaborating musc,
and plottcd pcrhaps too lrccly with my lilc,
not avoiding injury to othcrs,
not avoiding injury to myscll
to ask compassion . . . this book, hall ction,
an cclnct madc by man lor thc ccl ghting
my cycs havc sccn what my hand did. (o8)
For oncc Lowcll has ncatly dividcd two parts ol his artistic tcmpcramcnt
call thcm hcrc thc complcx and thc straightlorward, or thc historical and thc
pcrsonalinto two parts ol thc pocm. Tc wandcring ol thc rst hall givcs
way to thc lrank opcnncss ol thc sccond. 8idarts notc is cspccially illumi
nating. Hc tclls us that Lowcll was thinking, in thc last linc (which hc sub
stitutcd lor a morc imagistic onc: Vhy should shark bc catcn whcn thc bait
swims lrcc:), ol a rcmark madc by Hcmmingc and Condcll, Shakcspcarcs
printcrs: His cycs saw what his hand did. 8ut it turns out that Lowclls
mcmory had invcntcd thc linc (++). Hcmmingc and Condcll had madc a
morc commonplacc obscrvation about Shakcspcarcs rcluctancc to rcvisc:
His mind and hand wcnt togcthcr. Lowclls mistakc allows us to takc thc
mcasurc ol his achicvcmcnt. Tc simplc diction, thc rhctorical parallclism
(not avoiding . . . not avoiding), thc singlc conccntratcd imagc ol thc pcn
ultimatc lincall lcad to a conlcssion that rclcrs cqually to cvcnts in lilc and
to cvcnts in thc rctclling ol lilc. !l thcrc is an ccric, slightly ld Tcstamcnt
quality to thc rcvclation at thc cnd, it comcs appropriatcly with an cxtcnsion
or brcaking ol lorm. Linc + ol thc sonnct, pcrlcct tctramctcr monosyllablcs,
cxudcs rclicl and casc ol articulation.
X

asc and rclicl arc thc hallmarks ol Lowclls last book, whosc publi
cation prcccdcd his dcath by lcss than a ycar. !n thc samc way that
Life Studies markcd a changc in tcchniquc lrom its two prcdcccssors, Day
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:
by Day announccs its authors libcration lrom thc scllimposcd shacklcs
and what hc callcd thc cramping and military bcat () ol thc sonnct,
cvcn his own irrcgular oncs. Ncvcr has lrcc vcrsc, with its lincs irrcgularly
cnjambcd and its stanzas ol random lcngths, sccmcd so wclcomc. !t sig
nals morc than thc cxhaustion ol a poct who, likc his vcrsion ol dysscus,
has grown blcakboncd with survival (+). And although hc claimcd that
thc volumc lacks public cvcnts, Lowcll could ncvcr avoid historical rclcr
cncc, and this largcly pcrsonal diary gains addcd powcr by thc dclicacy ol
its cnlolding ol thc privatc and thc public in onc last intcgrating gcsturc. !t
starts with dysscus (Ulysscs and Circc), an appropriatc symbol ol rcturn,
and throughout it makcs darting mcntion ol contcmporary writcrs, Frcud,
Lincoln, Longlcllow, Vhitman and Hart Cranc, Hitlcr and Munich, thc
abortion dcbatc, Napolcon and Villiam thc Conqucror, thc Arnolni Vcd
ding Portrait, Ciccro, and \crmccr. (!t also contains onc political allcgory,
Ants, whosc titlc gurcs invcntcd thc statc bclorc and altcr / Platos grim
arithmctic, and crowncd slavcry with socialism ||). Lowcll could ncvcr
stccr cntircly clcar ol rclcrcntiality: it was his mcans ol connccting himscll
to thc cxtcrnal world and it was also thc prool ol his intcnscly acquisitivc
and absorbcnt intcllcct. 8ut cspccially altcr History, which has, in Kcatss
words, a palpablc dcsign upon us, thc last pocms sccm liltcd up rathcr than
wcightcd down by thcir allusions.
Tc most touching ol thcm lorcgo allusions cntircly or clsc usc thcm
gcntly. Likc Life Studies thc bulk ol thc book locuscs on Lowcll, his lamily
past and prcscnt, his marriagcs, his last hospital stays. Tcy arc pocms about
a tircd man but thcy arc not always tircd pocms. Aspiration morc or lcss
givcs way to acccptancc:
arling,
tcrror in happincss may not curc thc hungry luturc,
thc timc whcn any illncss is chronic,
and thc ycars ol discrction arc spcnt on complaint
until thc wristwatch is takcn lrom thc wrist.
(Tc Vithdrawal, 8)
Touchcs ol thc old mania arc projcctcd outward, as whcn Lowcll charactcr
izcs thc rcturning Ulysscs as a vcrsion ol his manic scll:
. . . hc circlcs as a shark circlcs
visibly bchind thc window
cshproud, sorccycd, scarproud,
a vocational killcr
in thc machismo ol scnility,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8o
lorctasting thc apogcc ol mayhcm
brcaking watcr to dcstroy his wakc.
Hc is ovcrsizc.
(Ulysscs and Circc, +)
Risk was his mticr: thc poct appropriatcly insists upon thc past tcnsc lor
his standin. lscwhcrc hc givcs us picturcs ol scncsccnt scxuality with a lull
undcrstanding ol its pathos, as in a portrait ol 8aron Philippc dc Rothschild
at tablc with a young girl who cannot curc his hallucination / hc can bribc
or starc / any woman hc wants into orgasm . . . // Hc lls hcr car / with his
old scxual gramophonc. // Likc bclicl, / hc makcs nothing happcn (ar ol
Corn, :). Likc bclicl : Also likc poctry in Audcns clcgy lor Ycats.
!n cath ol a Critic, Lowcll, now rcalizing that hc has bccomc onc ol
thc dull, disagrccablc, and dying . . . old mcn whom hc uscd to scorn, rccalls
his maidcn rcvicws. Likc him thcy arc now old and lalling apart: thcir
sti pagcs / chip likc dry lcavcs / ying thc trcc that lcd thcm (68).
!t is so hard to tcll cxactly .ho is spcaking this pocman old critic, an old
Lowcll, or a combinationthat ! am tcmptcd to think that Lowcll changcd
his locus whilc writing it (manuscript cvidcncc might bc hclplul hcrc), nd
ing himscll in anothcr pcrson whilc losing control ol his dircction. Mcta
phor and mctonymy work togcthcr: thc charactcrs arc old, and thc gcsturcs
and things that rcscmblc and stand in lor thcmpagcs, pocms, lcavcs ol
grassarc also old. Lowcll has in lact rcturncd to thc originary clcgiac tropc
ol Vcstcrn litcraturc: Homcrs as thc lcavcs to thc trccs so arc thc gcncra
tions ol mcn. Addrcssing his son Shcridan (as intcrcstcd in toy soldicrs as
young Cal was in his own youth), hc looks at a landscapc: Placcd chcstnut
trccs owcr midcowcld, / cvcn in harvcst timc, thcy swcar, / Vc always
had lcavcs and cvcr shall (). Lowcll is alcrt to thc commonncss ol our
dcstiny. Vc arc all standins lor onc anothcr. !n a touching clcgy about
(thc unnamcd) Audcn, hc announccs thcir conncctions ovcr and bcncath
thcir dicrcnccs: Hc was not my doublc, and haunts mc (+). Hc tclls
thc dcad 8crryman rcally wc had thc samc lilc, / thc gcncric onc / our
gcncration ocrcd (). And in Livcs hc statcs simply: My unhcalthy
gcncration / thcir livcs ncvcr stoppcd stopping (68). Tc ncw pocms
addrcsscd to his parcnts at last lorgivc thcm, hc rcalizcs that hc has bccomc
thcm. For a momcnt hc cvcn bccomcs his grandlathcr, in Phillips Housc
Rcvisitcd (whosc titlc cchocs Ycatss Tc Muncipal Gallcry Rcvisitcd),
whcn hc rcturns to thc sccnc ol thc old mans dcath lorty ycars bclorc and
rccalls how twicc hc was slippcd / champagnc and oystcrs / by a wild
hcnnadycd niccc by marriagc. And hc thcn conlcsscs scmiruclully: ! too
am passcd my hallbottlc . . . / no oystcr (8). nc cspccially touching
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:8+
dctail sccms to havc bccn borrowcd lrom his studcnt Sylvia Plaths most
mordant and anthologizcd pocm, addy:
!vc comc a third timc
to livc in your dour, luxurious 8oston,
! almost liltcd thc tclcphonc to dial you,
lorgctting you havc no dial.
(To Mothcr, 8)
Tc black tclcphoncs o at thc root, Plath announccd morc than a dccadc
bclorc. Tc old opprcssors arc unavailablc, cxccpt within oncscll. Lowcll has
outlivcd both his parcnts and thosc surrogatc childrcn, his studcnts.
Tc cntirc volumc sparklcs with incandcsccnt individual dctails, as bcauti
lul and poignant as thc lcavcs abovc, or as brisk as thc combination ol dour
and luxurious. Such dctails stand out as onc part ol Lowclls ncw cxpcri
mcntal poctics in this volumc. Truth is an acsthctic ccct crcatcd by lorm and
tcstcd by a rcadcrs rcsponsivcncss, and Day by Day marks both a changc ol
pacc and an cpitomc lor its author. !t has thc appcarancc ol spontancity and
qucstioning, but it also rcminds us ol whcrc Lowcll has comc lrom, ol what
hc has donc with thc samc charactcrs and thcmcs and situations in thc past.
Vc havc had clarity ol imagc and picrcing vision lrom him sincc Life Studies
(whcthcr uscd lor irony or moral outragc or sympathy). Hcrc hc cnlolds, or
juxtaposcs, such dctails into or against cpigrammatic simplicity and obliquc
or unclcar lcaps in syntax, rhctoric, vcrb tcnscs, and associativc conncctions.
!t is a poctics ol acccptancc and lorgivcncss, and also ol qucstioning. (Com
parc thc condcnt pronounccmcnts in Lord !eary to thc wondcrmcnt in Day
by Day, count thc qucstion marks pcr pagc in cach volumc.)
Prcciscly bccausc Lowcll rcvisits thc tcrrain hc has cxamincd in his carlicr
work, wc gct thc scnsc ol history rcpcating itscllnot rst as tragcdy and
thcn as larccbut oltcn in a diminishcd kcy. !n Grass Fircs, hc announccs
that wc cannot rccast thc laulty drama but scgucs, still in thc prcscnt tcnsc
(an cxamplc ol thc obliquity ! mcntion abovc), to a rccollcction ol his sctting
a grassrc at his grandlathcrs housc that thrcatcncd thc incxtinguishablc
roots ol a giant shadc trcc. Firc cngincs wcrc dcploycd with stagc bra
vado, hc rccalls, bclorc hc cnds by juxtaposing post hcroism with prcscnt
smallncss:
yct it was ! put out thc rc,
who slappcd it to dcath with my scarrcd lcathcr jackct.
! snucd out thc incxtinguishablc root,
!
rcally ! can do littlc,
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8:
as littlc now as thcn,
about thc inlcrnal rcs
! cannot blow out a match. (6)
Tc nakcd cgo! occupying a linc ol its ownis powcrlcss in thc lacc ol
his rcligious dcstiny (surcly onc mcaning ol inlcrnal) and his gcnctic onc:
inlcrnal hallrhymcs with intcrnal, and incxtinguishablc root tacitly
acknowlcdgcs an acccptancc ol thc Vinslow and Lowcll lamily mantlcs,
roots that cannot bc snucd out. ( To snu out a root sounds likc a sloppy
mixcd mctaphor but as an intcrcsting gurc ol spccch it ncatly combincs
two dicrcnt imagcs ol dcstruction.)
A caustic wit oltcn accompanics thc pathos, as in thc balanccd rhctoric
ol a concluding quatrain:
Vc lccl thc machinc slipping lrom our hands,
as il somconc clsc wcrc stccring,
il wc scc a light at thc cnd ol thc tunncl,
its thc light ol thc oncoming train.
(Sincc +, +)
Not just thc imagc but also thc rhythm ol this plcascs: ! hcar it as altcrnat
ing lour and thrcc strcsscs, likc an unrhymcd ballad quatrain. lscwhcrc
Lowcll can bccomc cvcn morc condcnscd and witty: !l you kccp cutting
your losscs, / youll havc no loss to cut (!n thc Vard, ). And gnomic:
Vhy docs a man lovc a woman / morc than womcn: (Vc Took ur Para
disc, 6). And haikulikc: Tis August is likc a woman / who gcts mcn
without moving (Livcs, 6). And labular: A man without a wilc / is likc
a turtlc without a shcll (Shadow, 8:6). Many ol thc pocms havc thc qual
ity ol latcMatissc cutouts, or Picassos last childlikc, cxubcrant distillations.
Tc mastcr knows how to do things with lcss cort now than at thc start.
Tc dicrcncc bctwccn Lowcll and thc oldcr paintcrs lics in his latiguc as
opposcd to thcir rcgistry ol joy. 8ut likc thc paintcrs hc has not lost his cyc:
thc somctimcs ickcring, somctimcs cxtcndcd dcscriptions ol thc cxtcrnal
world provc that his scnsitivity to lilc has incrcascd as his own cncrgics havc
wancd. Considcr Milgatc, about Carolinc 8lackwoods country housc in
Kcnt, in which aphoristic apcrus (Agc gocs lcss noticcd in humblcr lilc)
arc intcrwovcn with ravishing dcscriptions ol landscapc in a mcllow, almost
Ycatsian nostalgia:
Ycarly, connubial swallows ncst
in thc skyung guttcr and stop its mouth.
!t is a natural lilc. Ncttlcs
subduc thc lugitivc violcts bcd,
:nv ~cnivvv:vx: ov vonvv: iowvii (:oo)
:8
a bordcr ol thistlcs hcdgcs thc drivc,
childrcn dart likc minnows. Tcy danglc
ovcr thc warm, rccdy troutbrook.
!ts a crimc
to gct too littlc lrom too much. ()
Vhcrcas Lowcll thought in stanzas (in thc carly poctry), or in lincs (in thc
sonncts), hcrc hc rclrcshingly thinks in scntcnccs, somc ol which arc simplc
and somc morc complicatcd. Tc casy cnjambmcnt ol lrcc vcrsc draws us
lrom linc to linc. Vhcrc do thc swallows ncst: !n thc guttcr. Vhcrc do thc
childrcn danglc: vcr thc brook. Vhats a crimc: To gct too littlc lrom
too much. Suspcnsc coincidcs with acccptancc as thc pocm dctails natural
bounty and human lrailty.
At thc cnd ol his lilc, in rcsponsc to a symposium sponsorcd by thc quar
tcrly Salmagundi, Lowcll wrotc a bricl piccc, Altcr njoying Six or Scvcn
ssays on Mc (publishcd in +). Among scvcral signicant rcmarks, onc
stands out. Tinking ol thc Contradictory, muddlcd, and troublcd statc ol
contcmporary art (c.g., ol his own), hc rcgards thc sccular purgatory ol thc
currcnt sccnc, onc lor which thcrc is no carthly paradisc on thc horizon.
Hc tacitly conccdcs that lilc is not a drcss rchcarsal. (Vc arc poor passing
lacts, hc says in thc piloguc to Day by Day |88|.) Hc thcn makcs a list:
Var, nuclcar bombs, civil gangstcrism, racc, womanthc last has always,
bccn thc writcrs most unavoidablc, though not only subjcct, onc wc arc too
scriously cngagcd in to bc lair, or . . . salvationists (+). Awkward in syntax
and parallclism, this sounds likc a rctrospcctivc summary ol Lowclls carccr.
!l thcrc is any simplc, satislying answcr to thc qucstion that ! poscd at thc
start ol this cssayHow might lyric poctry accommodatc itscll to subjccts
drawn lrom public lilc:it might comc in this old, apparcntly random list,
which movcs lrom thc awlul and thc apocalyptic, through thc sccular and
socictal, to thc pcrsonal and crotic. Lowcll grants his own involvcmcnt in
his subjccts (thc writcr and wc arc both clcar standins lor !), cspccially
thc last onc. Hc knows that objcctivc judgmcnt and rcdcmption arc cqually
impossiblc. vcrything has a provisional rathcr than a providcntial cast.
Likc history, poctry happcns (our insolublc livcs somctimcs comc clcarcr
in writing, hc says in thc lollowing scntcncc) and thcn movcs on, ocring
momcntary illumination at bcst. uring his carccr Lowcll lookcd within
and without, dcvising multiplc dcsigns lor his articulations. His stylc, likc
his subjccts, ncvcr stoppcd changing. Collected Poems cxpands and contracts
likc thc human hcart, altcrnating bctwccn closcd and opcn lorms, or tight
and cxpansivc oncs. Tc pocts history and his participation in history rcccivc
cquivalcnt attcntion, somctimcs simultancously, somctimcs scqucntially.
i:~cix~:ivv :v~xscviv:s
:8
8ut cvcn this largc book, likc thc supposcdly closcd rooms ol thc sonnct, has
an opcn door through which writcr and rcadcr must nally makc thcir cxit.
VRKS C!T
Axclrod, Stcvcn Gould. Te Critical Fesponse to Fobert Lo.ell. Vcstport, Conn.:
Grccnwood, +.
Fcnton, Jamcs. Tc Rcturn ol Robcrt Lowcll. Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books, Aug. +,
:oo, .
Halpcrn, Nick. E.eryday and Prophetic. Te Poetry of Lo.ell, mmons, Merrill, and
Fich. Madison: Univcrsity ol Visconsin Prcss, :oo.
Kalstonc, avid. Fi.e Temperaments. Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +.
London, Michacl, and Robcrt 8oycrs. Fobert Lo.ell: Portrait of the rtist in His
Time. Ncw York: . Lcwis, +o.
Longcnbach, Jamcs. Modern Poetry after Modernism. Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity
Prcss, +.
Lowcll, Robcrt. Collected Prose, cd. Robcrt Giroux. Ncw York: Farrar, Straus,
Giroux +8.
Montalc, ugcnio. Collected Poems, :,:c:,,, trans. Jonathan Galassi, Ncw York:
Farrar, Straus, Giroux +8.
Pcrlo, Marjoric G. Te Poetic rt of Fobert Lo.ell. !thaca: Corncll Univcrsity
Prcss, +.
Rilkc, Raincr Maria. Ne. Poems, trans. dward Snow. San Francisco: North Point
Prcss, +8.
\cndlcr, Hclcn. Tc Hurt Soul (rcv. ol Lowcll, Collected Poems), Ne. Fepublic,
July :8, and Aug. , :oo, o.
Ycnscr, Stcphcn. Circle to Circle: Te Poetry of Fobert Lo.ell. 8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol
Calilornia Prcss, +.
:8
NTS X
cn~v:vv :
+. rncst c Sclincourt, cd., Te Letters of !illiam and Dorothy !ords.orth:
Te Early Years (::c), :nd cd., rcv. Chcstcr Shavcr (xlord, +6),
6+.
:. rncst c Sclincourt, cd., Te Letters of !illiam and Dorothy !ords.orth:
Te Middle Years (xlord, +), !, 8n. Futurc rclcrcnccs will bc to this
cdition and will bc citcd in thc tcxt.
. ouglas 8ush, Mythology and the Fomantic Tradition (Cambridgc, Mass.,
+), 6:6, notcs that: Vhilc Tcnnyson is commonly acccptcd as thc
most \irgilian ol ninctccnthccntury nglish pocts, it is a lcss lamiliar lact
that his ncarcst rival is thc supposcdly unbookish Vordsworth, but mcn
tions Vordsworths eneid only bricy (+n). Mary Moorman, !illiam
!ords.orth: Te Later Years (xlord, +6), oo, mcntions thc transla
tion only to datc it. For a morc spccializcd study ol ccrtain aspccts ol thc
Latin background ol Vordsworths thought, scc Janc Vorthington, !ords-
.orths Feading of Foman Prose ( Ncw Havcn, +6). Tc onc writcr who
has commcntcd judiciously on \irgil and Vordsworth is Kcvin F. ohcrty,
S. J., n Vordsworths eneid, Te Classical !orld, (+6+), :++,
to which ! am indcbtcd. nc should consult as wcll his Tc \crgilian
Vordsworth, CJ (+), ::+:, lor a gcncral discussion ol thc \irgilian
clcmcnts in Laodamia.
. Cl., also, 8ushs commcnt about rydcn: rydcn sccms to bc most adc
quatc whcn \irgil is on his middlc lcvcl, in narrativc ol action and in many
passagcs ol clcvatcd rhctoric, +. Tc lcttcrs to Lord Lonsdalc, as thcy
:86
appcar in thc c Sclincourt cdition, arc misdatcd, as thc cditor latcr rcc
ognizcd. For propcr dating, scc Moorman, on, or rncst c Sclincourt
and Hclcn arbishirc, cds., Te Poetical !orks of !illiam !ords.orth, :nd
cd. (xlord, +8), !\, 6+.
. Jamcs Kinslcy, cd., Te Poems of John Dryden (xlord, +8), !!!, +o.
Futurc rclcrcnccs will bc to this cdition and will bc citcd in thc tcst.
6. All quotations arc lrom Locb Classical Library eneid, rcv. cd., trans.
H. Rushton Fairclough (Cambridgc, Mass., +).
. All quotations arc lrom c Sclincourt and arbishirc, Poetical !orks, !\.
8. . M. Tillyard, Te English Epic and its Background ( Ncw York, +), 8o.
. nc could also citc Crcusas spccch at thc cnd ol 8ook !!, or Andromachcs
in 8ook !!!, lor thc scnsc ol cxilc and sadncss, and a willing submission to
ncccssity.
+o. Christophcr Pitt, Te eneid of !irgil ( London, +o), is citcd by Vords
worth as an inucncc on his translation (hc copics Pitts opcning couplct,
among othcrs), but Pitt, likc rydcn, omits thc lacrimae rerum ( !.6+6:).
++. . L. Griggs, cd., Te Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (xlord,
++), \, .
+:. rncst c Sclincourt, cd., Te Letters of !illiam and Dorothy !ords.orth:
Te Later Years (xlord, +), !, +6:. ohcrty, n Vordsworths eneid,
:+, cstimatcs thc cnjambmcnt in Vordsworth to bc +/, in rydcn, +/,
and in Popc, ncgligiblc. !n Pitts translation, it is approximatcly +/. Morc
ovcr, Vordsworth sccms gcncrally morc concisc than rydcn, as thc lol
lowing chart makcs clcar:
!irgil !ords.orth Dryden
8ook ! 6 ll. +o +o6
8ook !! 8o ll. +o +o
8ook !!! +8 ll. 8: (++8 ll. missing)
+. Vordsworth ccrtainly might havc bccn cmbarrasscd by thc talc lor poctic
rcasons, thc cnd, cspccially, shows thc worst cxccsscs ol scntimcntal nar
rativc. 8ut what rcmains in thc +8o Prelude is lragmcntcd, tcasing, and
ultimatcly incomprchcnsiblc.
+. 8ush, 6.
+. Alcxandcr 8. Grosart, cd., Te Prose !orks of !illiam !ords.orth ( London,
+86), !!!, .
+6. For various classical inucnccs on Laodamia, scc, cspccially, ohcrty, Tc
\crgilian Vordsworth.
+. Pitts vcrsion is morc vivid than Vordsworths, and his last linc is
par ticu larly good:
Shc said, and turning round, hcr Ncck shc showd,
Tat with cclcstial Charms divincly glowd.
Hcr waving Locks immortal dours shcd,
xo:vs :o v~cvs :
:8
And brcathd ambrosial Sccnts around hcr Hcad.
Hcr swccping Robc traild pompous as shc trod,
And hcr majcstic Port conlcssd thc God.
( Lincs )
+8. Moorman, 6.
cn~v:vv
+. Although hc might rcjcct thc titlc, 8loom is probably thc most important
comparatist in Amcrica. Scc, cspccially, Te nxiety of Inuence: Teory of
Poetry ( Ncw York, +), Map of Misreading ( Ncw York, +), and Kab-
balah and Criticism ( Ncw York,+). Two cxcmplary works ol comparativc
tropic analysis arc Tomas M. Grccnc, Te Descent From Hea.en: Study
in Epic Continuity, ( Ncw Havcn, +6) and John Hollandcr, Te Figure of
Echo: Mode of llusion in Milton and fter ( 8crkclcy, +8+).
:. Harry Lcvin, Grounds for Comparison (Cambridgc, Mass., +:), .
. Gcorgc Santayana, Tree Philosophical Poets (Cambridgc, Mass., ++o), ,
Allrcd North Vhitchcad, Science and the Modern !orld ( Ncw York, +:),
++, +:+.
. !t is common to think ol Vordsworth as a Stoic, not an picurcan. Scc
Janc Vorthington Smyscr, !ords.orths Feading of Foman Prose ( Ncw
Havcn, +6), csp. Chap. iii, Vordsworth and Roman Stoicism.
. Phillip c Lacy, Proccss and \aluc: An picurcan ilcmma, TP 88
(+), +:6, G. M. Harvcy, Tc csign ol Vordsworths Sonncts, riel 6
(+), 8.
6. Harold 8loom, Figures of Capable Imagination ( Ncw York, +6), :8
and :.
. De Ferum Natura !.:. All rclcrcnccs arc to thc cdition ol Cyril 8ailcy
(xlord, +), hcrcaltcr citcd in thc tcxt as DFN. ! havc modicd 8ailcys
translations or clsc paraphrascd thcm in my argumcnt.
8. All quotations lrom Vordsworth arc lrom Te Poetical !orks of !illiam
!ords.orth, :nd cd., vols., cd. rncst dc Sclincourt, rcv. Hclcn arbishirc
(xlord, +:), hcrcaltcr citcd in thc tcxt as P!, and Te Prelude, :nd cd.,
cd. rncst dc Sclincourt, rcv. Hclcn arbishirc (xlord, +), citcd in thc
tcxt as P. ! havc uscd thc +8o vcrsion ol Te Prelude. A similar imagc ol a
philosophcrs journcy through thc innitc univcrsc occurs, mutatis mutandis,
in thc lamous dcscription ol thc statuc ol Ncwton as Tc marblc indcx ol a
mind lor cvcr / \oyaging through strangc scas ol Tought, alonc (P !!!.6:
6). A comparison is usually madc bctwccn thcsc lincs and thosc ol Jamcs
Tomsons A Pocm Sacrcd to thc Mcmory ol Sir !saac Ncwton: Tc
noisclcss tidc ol timc, all bcaring down / To vast ctcrnitys unboundcd sca, /
Vhcrc thc grccn islands ol thc happy shinc, / Hc stcmmcd alonc. ! won
dcr, howcvcr, to what cxtcnt Vordsworth was lamiliar with thc distinctly
xo:vs :o v~cvs 6o
:88
Lucrctian ring ol Grays homagc to Milton in Tc Progrcss ol Pocsy:
. . . hc rodc sublimc / Upon thc scraphwings ol cxtasy, / Tc sccrcts ol
thabyss to spy. / Hc passd thc aming bounds ol placc and timc.
. Samucl Taylor Colcridgc, Table Talk ( July :+, +8:), in Coleridges Miscel-
laneous Criticism, cd. T. M. Raysor (Cambridgc, Mass., +6), +:, and
Biographia Literaria, cd. J. Shawcross (xlord, +o), !!, +:. Scc, also,
Colcridgcs lcttcr to Vordsworth altcr thc publication ol Te Excursion
( May o, +8+), in which hc claims that whatcvcr in Lucrctius is Poctry is
not philosophical, whatcvcr is philosophical is not Poctry: and in thc vcry
Pridc ol condcnt Hopc ! lookcd lorward to thc Rcclusc, as thc rst and
only truc Phil. Pocm in cxistcncc. l coursc, ! cxpcctcd thc Colors, Music,
imaginativc Lilc, and Passion ol Poetry, but thc mattcr and arrangcmcnt
ol Philosophynot doubting lrom thc advantagcs ol thc Subjcct that thc
Totality ol a Systcm was not only capablc ol bcing harmonizcd with, but
cvcn calculatcd to aid, thc unity ( 8cginning, Middlc, and nd) ol a Poem,
in Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, cd. . L. Griggs, !\ (xlord,
+), 6. Colcridgc was disappointcd in his hopc.
+o. Te Letters of !illiam and Dorothy !ords.orth: Te Later Years, cd. rncst
dc Sclincourt (xlord, +), Pt. !, +:, hcrcaltcr citcd in thc tcxt as LY.
++. Te Prose !orks of !illiam !ords.orth, cd. Alcxandcr 8. Grosart ( London,
+86), !!!, 6 and 6, Ralph Valdo mcrson, Engilsh Traits ( 8oston,
+88), :.
+:. Critics ol both pocts routincly hcar two voiccs or scc two roads in cach.
Scc, c.g., Villiam S. Andcrson, iscontinuity in Lucrctian Symbolism,
TP + (+6o), +:, Charlcs Rowan 8cyc, Lucrctius and Progrcss, CJ 8
(+6), +6o6, and lizabcth M. McLcod, Lucrctius Carmen Dignum,
CJ 8 (+6), +6. For thc rhythm and voiccs in Vordsworth, scc
csp. avid Fcrry, Te Limits of Mortality ( Middlctown, Conn., +), +66,
Hcrbcrt Lindcnbcrgcr, On !ords.orths Prelude (Princcton, N.J., +6),
csp. , and Ncwton Stallknccht, Strange Seas of Tought ( 8loomington,
!nd., +8), 66.
+. Scxual passion lrcqucntly brings tragcdy in Vordsworths pocms: c.g.,
Ruth, Martha Ray, Laodamia, \audracour, haplcss llcn in Te Excursion \!!.
vcn Vordsworths rclusal to continuc his +8: translation ol thc eneid
owcs somcthing to his inability to sympathizc with idos passion, scc
Villard Spicgclman, Vordsworths eneid, CL :6 (+), +o. Tc
imagc ol an ascxual Vordsworth has bccn currcnt sincc Shcllcys Pctcr
8cll thc Tird, Colcridgc, lor whatcvcr rcasons (pcrsonal jcalously, his
painlul alicnation lrom Vordsworth), wrotc to Hcnry Crabb Robinson
in +8++ that Vordsworth is by naturc incapablc ol bcing in Lovc, tho no
man morc tcndcrly attachcd ( Letters, !!!, o). Tc lcast hostilc modcrn
critics to considcr thc abscncc ol scxual passion in Vordsworth arc F. R.
Lcavis, Fe.aluation: Tradition and De.elopment in English Poetry ( London,
+6),+6o, and Lioncl Trilling, Te Opposing Self ( Ncw York, +),
xo:vs :o v~cvs o:
:8
+6: Vordsworths gcnius dcpcnds upon thc supprcssion not only ol thc
scxual cmotions but also ol thc qualitics that arc associatcd with scxuality:
high hcartcdncss, wit, crcativc innovation, will. Tc rcccnt discovcry and
publication ol a scrics ol lovc lcttcrs bctwccn Villiam and Mary Vords
worth provcs that, in his lilc il not in his poctry, such tcndcr lccling and
scllasscrtivcncss playcd a positivc part, scc Te Lo.e Letters of !illiam and
Mary !ords.orth, cd. 8cth arlington (!thaca, N.Y., +8+).
+. !!.6+, also, !.+68, !!!.+, \!.+.
+. Vordsworths cpistcmology is dccply conncctcd to his lccling lor rctirc
mcnt. Scc Grosart, !!!, 66, whcrc hc talks ol thc dangcrs ol comlort and
worldlincss to scicntists: !l 8acon had dwclt only in thc court ol Naturc and
carcd lcss lor that ol Jamcs thc First, hc would havc bccn a grcatcr man, and a
happicr onc too. For Vordsworths scicntic cducation, scc 8cn Ross Sch
ncidcr Jr., !ords.orths Cambridge Education (Cambridgc, +), :8+.
+6. Tc importancc ol clinamen in rcccnt litcrary thcory, cspccially thc work ol
Harold 8loom, nccd not bc discusscd hcrc. For thc picurcan rclation ol
atomic swcrvc to human lrcc will, scc Cyril 8ailcy, Te Greek tomists and
Epicurus (xlord, +:8), .
+. 8ailcy, . For Lucrctiuss prool ol lrcc will, scc DFN !\.8o6: hc
cannot acccpt a univcrsc bascd cxclusivcly on nonhuman causality.
+8. Lucrctius, too, altcrnatcs bctwccn moods ol cxpansivcncss and limitation,
in \!.::8, c.g., hc praiscs picurus lor pointing us to thc straight and
narrow path: viam monstravit, tramitc parvo / qua posscmus ad id rccto
contcndcrc cursu.
+. Phillip amon, Modcs ol Analogy in Ancicnt and Mcdicval \crsc, Uni.er-
sity of California Publications in Classical Philology, + (+6+), :868.
:o. Vith its satyrs, nymphs, ccho and Pan, Te Excursion !\.88 corrc
sponds ncatly to Lucrctius, !\.:, on cchocs, and shows that pcrhaps
Vordsworth had it in mind. For anothcr Lucrctian scntimcnt, rclcrring in
part to Tantalus, scc thc Solitarys rcmark about ancicnt myth in \!.:
Fictions in lorm, but in thcir substancc truths.
:+. Tc notion ol unanxious inucncc has bccn proposcd by Jamcs Ricgcr,
Vordsworth Unalarmd, in Joscph Vittrcich, cd., Milton and the Line of
!ision ( Madison, Vis., +), +8:o8.
::. Hugh Sykcs avics, Notcs on Lucrctius, Te Criterion, ++ (++:),
6.
:. Scc avid Vcst, Te Imagery and Poetry of Lucretius (dinburgh, +6), ::
Lucrctius was an invctcratc anthropomorphizcr, writing about thc phc
nomcna ol naturc in living human tcrms.
:. Natural Supernaturalism ( Ncw York, ++), 6:.
:. Tis is thc gcncral thcsis ol Richard Minadco, Te Lyre of Science: Form and
Meaning in Lucretius c Rcrum Natura ( ctroit, Mich., +6).
:6. onald avic, rticulate Energy: n Inquiry into the Syntax of English
Poetry ( London, +), ++o++.
xo:vs :o v~cvs :+
:o
:. Tc bcst discussion ol things in Vordsworth is . . Hirsch Jr., !ords-
.orth and Schelling: Typological Study of Fomanticism ( Ncw Havcn,
+6o), 86+.
:8. Annc Amory, Obscura de re lucida carmina: Scicncc and Poctry in De Ferum
Natura, Yale Classical Studies :+ (+6), ++.
:. For important analyscs ol Lucrctiuss stylc, scc V. S. Maguincss, Tc Lan
guagc ol Lucrctius, in . R. udlcy, cd., Lucretius ( London and Ncw
York, +6), 6, . J. Kcnncy, Lucretius (xlord, +), :6, on rcp
ctition, 8ailcy (cd.), +66, on thc di culty ol writing in vcrsc ol prosaic
mattcrs, scc 8cyc, +6o.
o. avid Vcst, Lucrctius Mcthods ol Argumcnt, ClassQ, NS : (+),
++6.
+. Christophcr Ricks, Tc TwcnticthCcntury Vordsworth, in
T.entiethCentury Literature in Fetrospect, cd. Rcubcn A. 8rowcr, Harvard
nglish Studics : (Cambridgc, Mass., ++), 6.
:. John Joncs, Te Egotistical Sublime ( London, +), :o, scc also Michacl G.
Cookc, cts of Inclusion ( Ncw Havcn, +), +86:+, on Tc Modc ol
Argumcnt in Vordsworths Poctry. Cookc lollows what hc labcls thc
logical undcrvoicc.
. Cl. Joscphinc Milcs, thc normal structurc ol statcmcnt lor Vordsworth
|is| thc intcrconncction ol particular dcclarativc statcmcnt and ol phrasal
and clausal scrics with a lraming gcncral dcclaration or cxclamation (Eras
and Modes in English Poetry |8crkclcy, +|, +:).
. n rcpctition and tautology as signicant lorms ol cxprcssion, scc Fran
ccs Fcrguson, !ords.orth: Language as CounterSpirit ( Ncw Havcn, +),
+.
. Te Letters of !illiam and Dorothy !ords.orth: Te Middle Years, :nd cd.,
cd. rncst dc Sclincourt, rcv. Mary Moorman (xlord, +6), Pt. !, +.
6. . . Sikcs, Lucretius, Poet and Philosopher (Cambridgc, +6), +. Sikcs
translatcs cxccrpts lrom Vordsworth and Arnold.
. Paul Turncr, Shcllcy and Lucrctius, FES, NS +o (+), :68:.
8. T. S. liot, Te Sacred !ood ( London, +:o), +6+. liot is writing ol Lucrc
tius, but his judgmcnt applics to Vordsworth as wcll.
cn~v:vv
+. Harold 8loom, in Te nxiety of Inuence ( Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity
Prcss, +), bcgins his major thcorctical invcstigations with a dcnial: Tc
prolunditics ol poctic inucncc cannot bc rcduccd to sourccstudy, to thc
history ol idcas, to thc pattcrning ol imagcs (). For 8loom, in all his
work ol thc past dccadc, inucncc mcans misprision, strugglc, and mis
rcprcscntation. Such, ! hopc to show, is not always thc casc. For anothcr
rcccnt discussion ol litcrary cchoing, scc John Hollandcr, Te Figure of
xo:vs :o v~cvs :8
:+
Echo: Mode of llusion in Milton and fter ( 8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol Cali
lornia Prcss, +8+), which hclplully distinguishcs among quotation, allu
sion, and ccho.
:. Miriam Allott, cd., Te Poems of John Keats ( London: Longman, +o),
::, summarizcs thc major idcas conccrning thc pocms composition,
including Charlcs 8rowns lcttcr, now thought to bc a mistakcn rcminis
ccncc, about Kcatss casy mornings work. Additionally, Robcrt Gittings, in
John Keats: Te Li.ing Year (Cambridgc, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Prcss, +),
says Kcats bcgan to dralt thc odc on April o, and citcs his May rcmark,
in a journal lcttcr to thc Gcorgc Kcatscs, that thc violcts arc not withcrcd
bclorc thc pccping ol thc rst rosc (+:). Scc also M. R. Ridlcy, Keats
Craftsmanship (xlord: Clarcndon, +), :+o+.
. (+o). All Quotations lrom Kcatss poctry arc takcn lrom Te Poems
of John Keats, cd. Jack Stillingcr (Cambridgc, Mass.: Harvard Univcrsity
Prcss, 8clknap Prcss, +8), thosc lrom thc lcttcrs arc takcn lrom Te Let-
ters of John Keats, cd. Hydcr Rollins, : vols. (Cambridgc, Mass.: Harvard
Univcrsity Prcss, +8).
. Te Essays of Francis Bacon, cd. Mary Augusta Scott ( Ncw York: Scribncrs,
+o8), :++.
. A. . Housman, Complete Poems ( Ncw York: Holt, +), . Tc haw
thorn, too, bcars symbolic wcight: Hawthorn was supcrnaturally powcr
lul at all timcs and against a widc rangc ol cvil, not mcrcly against thc
malicc ol lairy and witch, and it can ncvcr bc salcly disturbcd: scc Gcol
lrcy Grigson, Te Englishmans Flora ( London: Hartavis, MacGibbon,
+), +8o8:.
6. Christophcr Ricks (Keats and Embarrassment |xlord: Clarcndon, +|,
+) has thc lullcst trcatmcnt ol conccption in Kcats.
. Annabcl M. Pattcrson, in How to load and bcnd: Syntax and !ntcrprcta
tion in Kcatss To utumn, PML (+): 8, rclcrs to this lact,
but docs not considcr its thcmatic importancc in thc pocm.
8. Hclcn \cndlcr, Tc xpcricntial 8cginnings ol Kcatss dcs, SiF +:
(+): +6o6.
. .g., Paul Fry, Te Poets Calling in the English Ode ( Ncw Havcn: Yalc Uni
vcrsity Prcss, +8o), :: Tc nightingalc is a prophct by cxamplc, bcaring
witncss to summcr in midMay, as docs thc poct, Miriam Allott, John
Keats ( London: Longman, +6), :o: thc cclcbratcd stanza imagin
ing thc woods in an carly summcr night transmutcs with lamiliar Kcat
sian alchcmy passagcs about summcr swcctncss, scc also amon Grcnnan
(Kcatss Contemptus Mundi: A Shakcspcarian !nucncc on thc dc to a
Nightingalc, MLQ 6 |+|: :::) who undcrstands thc tcmporal
conlusions in thc stanza but not thcir sourcc, and Joscph Candido (
Midsummer Nights Dream and dc to a Nightingalc: A Furthcr !nstancc
ol Kcatss !ndcbtcdncss, N.Q +6 |+8|: +) who sccs thc sourcc
but not thc richncss ol mcaning.
xo:vs :o v~cvs 6
::
+o. dmund 8lundcn, Kcats and His Prcdcccssors: A Notc on thc Ode to a
Nightingale, Te London Mercury :o (+:), :8.
++. Fry, Te Poets Calling, :6.
+:. All rclcrcnccs arc to thc Pcnguin cdition, cd. Madclcinc oran ( 8altimorc,
+).
+. Scc Grcnnan, also, 8arry Gradman, Measure for Measure and Kcatss
Nightingalc dc, ELN +: (+): +8:, and Gradman, King Lear and
thc !magc ol Ruth in Kcatss Nightingalc dc, KSJ : (+6): +::.
R. S. Vhitc, in Shakcspcarcan Music in Kcatss dc to a Nightingalc, En-
glish o (+8+): :+:, compilcs a list ol cchocs in thc pocm lrom clcvcn
ol Shakcspcarcs plays but stops short ol analyzing thcir signicancc.
+. Vhitc makcs this suggcstion, and lists as wcll thc two othcr Shakcspcarian
uscs ol darkling (King Lear !.iv.:+, ntony and Cleopatra !\.xv.,::) as
possiblc inucnccs on Kcats. Tc crotic signicancc ol thc lincs in ntony
and Cleopatra and Midsummer Nights Dream, cspccially, corrcsponds
niccly to thc odcs spcakcrs invocation ol both nightingalc and dcath. John
Hollandcr (o) puts Kcatss linc within thc tradition ol pocts and birds
(Paradise Lost !!!.o, Hardys Tc arkling Trush) but, in dcal
ing cxclusivcly with thc motil ol thc songsung or hcardin darkncss,
ignorcs that ol thc abandoncd and longing lovcr.
+. Tc notion ol unanxious inucncc has bccn proposcd by Jamcs Ricgcr,
Vordsworth Unalarmd, in Joscph Vittrcich, cd., Milton and the Line of
!ision ( Madison: Univcrsity ol Visconsin Prcss, +), +8:o8. cpcnd
ing, howcvcr, on thc dcgrcc ol disappointmcnt onc hcars in thc spcakcrs
conlusion at thc cnd ol thc pocm, onc might wcll considcr thc translorma
tions ol Shakcspcarc in thc odc as cvidcncc ol litcrary anxicty.
+6. Horacc Howard Furncss, cd., Midsommer Nights Dreame ( Philadclphia:
Lippincott, +8), v, cvidcntly, Shakcspcarcs playlul handling ol daily, as
wcll as scasonal, timc, rcsults in Furncss worricd attcmpt to discovcr any
scmblancc ol probability in thc structurc ol a drama whcrc to lour days
thcrc is only onc night (xxviii).
+. C. L. 8arbcr, Shakespeares Festi.e Comedy ( Princcton: Princcton Univcrsity
Prcss, +), +:o. Tc lamous Pctcr 8rook production ol thc play dcmon
stratcd how closc drcaming is to nightmarc, how dangcrous, in lact, arc thc
gamcs ol midsummcr.
+8. Carolinc Spurgcon, Keatss Shakespeare (xlord: xlord Univcrsity Prcss,
+:8), :. nc should noticc, in addition, Vcrncr V. 8cycrs Keats and the
Daemon King ( Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +), 6o and passim, lor
Kcatss knowlcdgc ol thc bcron and Titania gurcs in Viclands Oberon.
+. Quotcd in avid P. Young, Something of Great Constancy: Te rt of A Mid
summcr Nights rcam ( Ncw Havcn: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss, +66), :o:+.
:o. 8arbcr, :.
:+. Villiam Hazlitt, Te Characters of Shakespeares Festi.e Comedy Plays, in
Complete !orks, cd. c P. P. Howc ( London: J. M. cnt, +o), ::8.
xo:vs :o v~cvs 668
:
::. Although Gradman, King Lear and thc !magc ol Ruth, takcs cmpcror
and clown as a rclcrcncc to Lear, thc phrasc could just as casily havc
occurrcd to Kcats in rcgard to Tcscus, 8ottom, and thc lairics at thc cnd
ol midsummer Nights Dream.
cn~v:vv
+. Scc Hans Kcllcr, Pctcr Grimcs, in onald Mitchcll and Hans Kcllcr, cds.
Benjamin Britten ( Ncw York: Philosophical Library, +), and Michacl
Kcnncdy, Britten ( London: cnt, +8+).
:. . M. Forstcr, Gcorgc Crabbc and Pctcr Grimcs, in T.o Cheers for Democ-
racy ( London: dward Arnold, +:) +, calls 8rittcns Pctcr thc misun
dcrstood 8yronic hcro, ric Valkcr Vhitc, Benjamin Britten: His Life and
Operas ( 8crkclcy: U ol Calilornia P, +o) +o:, calls him a 8orough 8yron,
too proud and scllwillcd to comc to tcrms with socicty, and yct su cicntly
imaginativc to bc lully conscious ol his loss, Philip 8rctt, cd. Benjamin
Britten, Peter Grimes (Cambridgc: Cambridgc UP, +8) :, cxtcnds thc
usual distinction bctwccn thc pocts harsh cightccnthccntury rcalism
and thc composcrs 8yronic gurc. Crabbcs Pctcr is an cmbodimcnt ol thc
dark sidc ol an uncaring and morally cnlccblcd socicty, whcrcas 8rittcns is
thc victim ol that socicty and a symbol ol its opprcssion.
. Gcorgc Crabbc, !orks ( London: John Murray, +8:) !!: xvii. Rclcrcnccs to
Crabbc arc takcn lrom this cdition.
. Pctcr Ncw, George Crabbes Poetry ( Ncw York: St. Martins, +6) +oo.
. Lcslic Stcphcn, Hours in a Library ( Ncw York: Knickcrbockcr, +o) !!: ::+.
6. !n George Crabbe, n nthology ( Ncw York: Farrar, ctagon, +) xxx.
. Patrick Cruttwcll, Tc Last Anglican, Hudson Fe.ie. (+): .
8. Ncw .
. Forstcr ++ and +6.
+o. Stcphcn :+.
++. !n Arthur Pollard, cd. Crabbe: Te Critical Heritage ( London: Routlcdgc,
+:) :oo.
+:. on 8ialostosky, Making Tales: Te Poetics of !ords.orths Narrati.e Exper-
iments (Chicago: U ol Chicago P, +8).
+. Forstcr +8.
+. Peter Grimes ( London: 8ooscy & Hawkcs, +, rcv. +6+). Tcrc arc lour
vcrsions ol thc tcxt, with minimal dicrcnccs among thcm. ! havc quotcd
lrom thc standard sourcc. !t is important to rccognizc that Montagu Slatcr,
8rittcns librcttist, has said that thc idca lor thc charactcr as wcll as thc
story camc lrom 8rittcn himscll (in Vhitc +o6).
+. Quotcd by Vhitc :.
+6. Scc Kcnncdy passim, Vhitc +oo+:o, Arthur ldham, Pctcr Grimcs, in
Mitchcll and Kcllcr +o++o.
xo:vs :o v~cvs o8o
:
+. Quotcd in M. Schalcr, British Composers in Inter.ie. ( London: Fabcr,
+6) ++6.
+8. !n Mitchcll and Kcllcr +++.
+. Tis is thc thrust ol thc provocativc analysis ol Philip 8rctt, 8rittcn
and Grimcs, originally printcd in Musical Times ++8, =+6+8 ( cccmbcr
+): +ooo.
:o. !n Mitchcll and Kcllcr +++.
:+. Scc, cspccially, Kcnncdy, and Alan Kcndall, Benjamin Britten ( London:
Macmillan, +) passim, lor 8rittcns placc in his community.
::. Vhitc +o:.
:. Vhitc ++6.
:. !n Mitchcll and Kcllcr +++.
:. !n avid Hcrbcrt, cd. Te Operas of Benjamin Britten ( Ncw York: Columbia
UP, +), Staging First Productions, :.
:6. Patricia Howard, Te Operas of Benjamin Britten ( Ncw York: Pracgcr, +6),
:. Philip 8rctt signicantly cdits this cvaluation whcn hc rclcrs to Patri
cia Howards prim littlc scntcncc, his is not a charactcr with whom wc can
admit to idcntilying oursclvcs (8).
:. Tcsc musical conciliations arc discusscd by Kcnncdy, +:. Additional
cxccllcnt tcchnical analysis may bc lound in Pctcr vans, Te Music of Ben-
jamin Britten ( Minncapolis: Univcrsity ol Minncsota Prcss, +).
cn~v:vv 6
+. Troughout this cssay, ! usc Audcn as shorthand lor thc poctic achicvc
mcnt, in thc librctti, ol Audcn and Kallman. Alan Anscn has donc a brcak
down ol thc work on Te Fake, nothing similar has bccn donc lor thc
Mozart opcras.
:. Scc my articlc, Te Fakes Progress: An pcratic \crsion ol Pastoral,
South.est Fe.ie. 6 (+8): :8o.
cn~v:vv
+. Howard Ncmcrov, Tc Pocms ol lizabcth 8ishop, Poetry 8 ( cccmbcr
+): +, onald Shcchan, Tc Silvcr Scnsibility: Fivc Rcccnt 8ooks
ol Amcrican Poctry, Contemporary Literature +: (++): +o.
:. M. H. Abrams, Structurc and Stylc in thc Romantic Naturc Lyric, in
From Sensibility to Fomanticism, cd. Frcdcrick V. Hillcs and Harold 8loom
( Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +6), ::8. nc should con
sult as wcll arl Vasscrman, Tc nglish Romantics: Tc Grounds ol
Knowlcdgc, in Studies in Fomanticism (+6), +, lor thc singlc most
cogcnt dcscription ol Romantic cpistcmological schcmcs in Vordsworth
and Colcridgc, and onald Vcsling, Tc !ncvitablc ar: Frccdom and
xo:vs :o v~cvs 8o+o6
:
Ncccssity in Lyric Form, Vordsworth and Altcr, ELH 6 (+6), 6+,
csp. : Romantic and post!magist pocts . . . rcquircd a causality which
would prcgurc in all its transitions thc ccct which was thc pocm. Tc
nccd to convcrt a scrics ol pcrccptions into a continuous pocm, and to
intcrrclatc part and wholc, dcscription and discoursc, obligcd thcm cntircly
to rcthink thc qucstion ol poctic structurc.
. avid Kalstonc, Conjuring with Naturc: Somc Twcnticth Ccntury Rcad
ings ol Pastoral, Har.ard English Studies :, cd. Rcubcn A. 8rowcr (Cam
bridgc, Mass.: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, ++), :66.
. All rclcrcnccs arc to Te Complete Poems ( Ncw York: Farrar, Straus,
and Giroux, +6).
. Christophcr Ricks, Tc Twcnticth Ccntury Vordsworth, Har.ard En-
glish Studies :, cd. Rcubcn A. 8rowcr (Cambridgc, Mass.: Harvard Univcr
sity Prcss, ++), 6.
6. Abrams, Structurc and Stylc, +.
. Scc avid Kalstonc, All yc (rcvicw ol Te Complete Poems), Partisan
Fe.ie. (+o): +:: Tcrc arc in hcr pocms no nal visionsonly thc
saving, continuing prccisc pursuits ol thc travclling cyc.
8. Scc thc rcccnt book by Frcdcrick Garbcr, !ords.orth and the Poetry of
Encounter (Urbana: Univcrsity ol !llinois Prcss, ++).
. Tc Moosc, Te Ne. Yorker, + July +:, :.
+o. !n thc Vaiting Room, Te Ne. Yorker, July +, ++, .
++. Jan 8. Gordon, ays and istanccs: Tc Cartographic !magination ol
lizabcth 8ishop, Salmagundi, ::: (+): o:, Anthony Alvarcz,
!magism and Poctcsscs, Kenyon Fe.ie. + (+): :.
+:. All quotations arc lrom Te Collected Poems of !allace Ste.ens ( Ncw York: Knopl,
+). Tc pocms citcd arc Tc Comcdian as thc Lcttcr C, l Modcrn
Poctry, An rdinary vcning in Ncw Havcn, Tc Plain Scnsc ol Tings.
+. Scc Frcdcrick A. Pottlc, Tc yc and thc bjcct in thc Poctry ol Vords
worth, Yale Fe.ie. o (+o): ::, csp. : Looking stcadily at a subjcct,
thcn, lor Vordsworth mcans grasping objccts rmly and accuratcly in thc
modc ol common pcrccption and thcn looking at thcm imaginativcly.
+. Cl. Tc !maginary !ccbcrg, At thc Fishhouscs, and cspccially Capc
8rcton, in all ol which only what is on thc surlacc or thc pcrimctcr can
bc known or cxpcricnccd. Tc intcrior is gcncrally, lor 8ishop, a hcart ol
darkncss.
+. !n Crusoc in ngland, Te Ne. Yorker, Nov. 6, ++, 8, 8ishop playlully
rclcrs to thc aodills pocm, Crusoc, having rcturncd to his homcland,
discusscs all that hc had lorgottcn on his island: . . . ! tricd /rcciting to my
irisbcds, / Tcy ash upon that inward cyc, / which is thc bliss . . . Tc bliss ol
what / nc ol thc rst things ! did /whcn ! got back homc was look it up.
+6. Scc Gcorcy Hartman, !ords.orths Poetry :::, ( Ncw Havcn: Yalc
Univcrsity Prcss, +6), o6o.
+. Pocm, Te Ne. Yorker, Nov. ++, +:, 6.
xo:vs :o v~cvs +o6++
:6
cn~v:vv 8
+. Howard Ncmcrov, Tc Fascination ol Vhats i cult, in Feexions on
Poetry and Poetics ( Ncw 8runswick, +:), 8:.
:. Robcrt 8oycrs, To Conlront Nullity: Tc Poctry ol 8cn 8clitt, Te
Se.anee Fe.ie. 8+ (+): .
. Toward an !mpurc Poctry, in 8cn 8clitt, cd. and trans., Selected Poems of
Pablo Neruda ( Ncw York, +6+), .
. 8clitt has said that thc lormalization ol poctry in nglish is supposcdly
hostilc to ccrtain practiccsthc anapcst lor instanccwhich comc vcry
naturally to thc Romancc languagc poct, in Joan Hutton, An !ntcrvicw
with 8cn 8clitt Mid.ay +o no. ( Vintcr +o): .
. !n a lcttcr to thc author, 8clitt rcmarkcd: Nothing is rcally dcscriptivc,
cvcrything is a doubling in his poctry.
6. Joan Hutton Landis, A Vild Scvcrity: Towards a Rcading ol 8cn
8clitt, in Robcrt 8oycrs, cd., Contemporary Poetry in merica ( Ncw York,
+), ::.
. All quotations lrom 8clitts poctry arc takcn lrom cithcr No.here, but
Light (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +o) or Te Enemy Joy (Chi
cago: Univcrsity ol Chicago prcss, +6) which includcs most ol thc carlicr
pocms lrom !ilderness Stair ( Ncw York: Grovc, +) and Te Fi.eFold
Mesh ( Ncw York: Knopl, +8).
8. 8clitts scnsibility is Hcraclitcan. !n Vintcr Pond: Lakc Paran, part ol
Tc Grcat Cold in No.here but Light, thc spcakcr conlronts a lrozcn
lakc ol midsummcr dazzlc which momcntarily givcs thc illusion ol a
Hcraclitcan swimmcr who might dissolvc into light. Tc compulsivc
doublings in 8clitts poctry, a subjcct by thcmsclvcs, arc most brilliantly
displaycd in thc rcccnt Xcrox (Te Ne. Yorker, March , +, :), and
thc as yct unpublishcd 8lock !sland scqucncc which dcvclops claboratc
parallcls bctwccn vicws ol thc island and thc various charactcrs and thcmcs
lrom Te Tempest.
. Hutton, An !ntcrvicw with 8cn 8clitt, :.
+o. Tc lcrry in 8lock !sland Crossing (in No.here but Light) lacks thc
locobirds clcgancc, but has thc samc doggcd and tcntativc tcnaciousncss
in rcaching its objcct:
Somchow, in thc drcnchcd
displaccmcnt, a boat no biggcr than a haddock
asscrts its ungainly will to cross, with its gimrack
univcrsc intact, cndurcs its scllcaccmcnt and its loss
and hcavcs a hawscr to thc oppositc landing.
++. 8cn 8clitt, !n Scarch ol thc Amcrican Sccnc, in Howard Ncmcrov, cd.,
Poets on Poetry ( Ncw York, +66), 6.
+:. !bid., .
xo:vs :o v~cvs +:++:
:
cn~v:vv ++
+. Louisc Gluck, ducation ol thc Poct, Proofs and Teories: Essays on Poetry
( Ncw York: cco, +, ).
:. Gluck, !nvitation and xclusion, +.
. Gluck, ducation, .
cn~v:vv +
+. Tc lollowing wcrc winncrs ol thc National 8ook Award: Philip Lcvinc,
!hat !ork Is, Mary livcr, Ne. and Selected Poems, A. R. Ammons, Garbage,
Jamcs Tatc, !orshipful Company of Fletchers, Stanlcy Kunitz, Passing Trough,
Haydcn Carruth, Scrambled Eggs and !hiskey, Villiam Mcrcdith, Eort at
Speech: Ne. and Selected Poems, Gcrald Stcrn, Tis Time, and Ai, !ice: Ne.
and Selected Poems. And lor thc National 8ook Critics Circlc Award: Rod
ncy Joncs, Transparent Gestures, Amy Gcrstlcr, Bitter ngel, Albcrt Gold
barth, Hea.en and Earth: Cosmology, Haydcn Carruth, Collected Shorter
Poems, :,,&:,,:, Mark oty, My lexandria, Mark Rudman, Fider, Vil
liam Matthcws, Time and Money, Robcrt Hass, Sun Under !ood, Charlcs
Vright, Black Zodiac, and Maric Ponsot, Te Bird Catcher. nc noticcs that
Vright was thc only doublc prizcwinncr (lor thc samc volumc), and that
Lcvinc and Tatc won othcr prizcs during thc samc dccadc.
:. Scc Mona \an uyn, Lcda, in To See, to Take: Shc marricd a smallcr man
with a bcaky nosc, / and mcltcd away into thc storm ol cvcryday lilc (+:).
. Scc Te Ne. York Times Book Fe.ie., Apr. , ++, .
. For a discussion ol thc dicrcnt stylcs ol singing and saying, scc Vyatt
Pruntys Fallen from the Symboled !orld: Precedents for the Ne. Formal-
ism 8+:. Prunty makcs a usclul but too casy dichotomy: Two typcs
ol contcmporary poctry stand as oppositcsplainspokcn pocms that arc
rcticcnt about thcir intcnsity and lyrical pocms that arc both compulsivc
and musical (8). His ground docs not accommodatc ncw musical struc
turcs or tonalitics.
. Robcrt von Hallbcrg discusscs thc suburban naturc ol much postwar
Amcrican poctry (::8).
cn~v:vv +
+. Jamcs Longcnbach, Joric Grahams 8ig Hungcr in Tomas Gardncr,
cd., Jorie Graham: Essays on the Poetry ( Madison: Univcrsity ol Visconsin
Prcss, :oo), 8:+o+. Tis valuablc ncw volumc contains both prcviously
publishcd rcvicws and cssays and also ncw oncs, which trcat thc wholc ol
Grahams carccr thus lar.
xo:vs :o v~cvs +8:
This page intentionally left blank
:
!NX X
Abrams, M. H., 8, +o6
Achillcs, +o
Adam, +8, +:, +
addrcss
naming and, + 6o
poctic, ::
Acncas, , , , 8, ++, +, +, +,
+6, :
nal piccc ol wisdom lrom, :
lorging ol shicld, ::
pietas and, :8
spccch ol cncouragcmcnt,
Te eneid (\irgil), , , , , +o, +
civic disharmony in, +
lcssons taught in, :
musics rolc in, +:
Vordsworth, Villiam, and, :6
Alrican Amcricans, soldicrs, ++, +6
Altcr ark \apours (Kcats), 6:
Altcr njoying Six or Scvcn ssays
on Mc (Lowcll,), :8
Altcrwards (Graham), +6
Against Flight (ovc), +6
alcxandrincs, +:, +
allitcration, +o
ll Of Us Here (Fcldman), +8
All Souls (ovc), +
lturas de Macchu Picchu
(Ncruda), +:::
merican Smooth (ovc), +o, +:,
+, +6
Te merican Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language, +o
Ammons, A. R., +:+, +6, +, +8,
:+, :6
banality and, ::
as downtocarth, :
poct ol thc body and, :8
Amory, Annc,
Ancicnt Tcxt (Gluck), +6 66
Anchiscs, +:, +, ::
Tc Annivcrsarics ( Justicc), +8
Annunciation to Joscph (8clitt), +
Antoincttc, Maric, :o
rarat (Gluck), +8, +
Aristotlc, +o
Arnold, Matthcw, 8, +o
Arrival at Santos (8ishop), ++
ixbvx
oo
Ashbcry, John, , +, +6, +68, +6,
+8, :+o, :++, :+, ::6, :6
banality and, ::
opacity, surprisc and, : o
spects of the No.el (Forstcr),
assonancc, +o
At thc Young Composcrs Conccrt
( Justicc), +8
At thc Fishhouscs (8ishop), +o ,
++o, +++, +++
Aubadc (Gluck), +6
Audcn, V. H., 8o, +:, +, +8o, :o,
:+o, :
as librcttist, o +o
lovc lor opcra and, + :
translations ol Mozarts opcras
by, o
Augustinc. See St. Augustinc
Augustus, +6, ::
Aurclius, Marcus, +
8acon, Francis,
8ailcy, Villiam, :+
8alanchinc, Gcorgc, +
8alzac, Honor dc,
8arbcr, C. L., 6
8ards ol Passion (Kcats), o
8atc, V. J., +o, :
8attcry Park: High Noon
(8clitt), +
8attlcPiccc (8clitt), +:
8audclairc, Charlcs, +++, +, +6
8aylcy, John, :8
8cautilul Falsc Tings
(Fcldman), +:
8cautilul Falsc Tings (Fcldman), +
and passim.
dc 8cauvoir, Simonc, :o
8cckctt, Samucl, :
8cdicnt, Calvin, +:
8clitt, 8cn, :o
accumulation ol things and, +
biblical cadcnccs and, +:
hardncss and, +:::, +, +
languagc ol, +::
naturc and, +::
pocm lorm ol, +o
poctry ol, +:+:
La 8cllc amc Sans Mcrci
(Kcats), 68
8cllini, \inccnzo,
8cnign bscurity ( Justicc), +
8cnjamin, Valtcr, +, +6
8cnnctt, Joscph, :6
8cntlcy, Richard,
8crryman, John, :oo, :, :
8ialostosky, on, 8
biblical cadcnccs, +:
8idart, Frank, +8, +8, :66
Tc 8ight (8ishop), ++o, +++
8intncr, Maric, , , , :
8irthday (Gluck), +6:
8ishop, lizabcth, +6, +:, +6, +8o,
+8, +8, +6, :, :o, :6o
blurring ol visual boundarics
and, +o6
landscapc, knowlcdgc and poctry
ol, +o:o
naturc and, +o, ++:, +::
rcpctition and, +o8
scparatcncss and, ++:
survcying ol dctails and, +o
8lackmur, R. P., +, +
8lackwood, Carolinc, :8, ::, :8
Black Zodiac (Vright), :++
8lakc, Villiam, +, +6+, +
8lizzard in Cambridgc
(Lowcll), :6
Bli..ard of One (Strand), :+++
Tc 8lock (\an uyn), :+o
8lock !sland: Altcr Te Tempest
(8clitt), +:
8lock !sland Crossing (8clitt), +:8
8loom, Harold, +o, :, , +:, :8
on comparativc litcraturc, 8
8loom, Molly, +
8lundcn, dmund, 6
8ly, Robcrt, +6, :
ixbvx
o+
8olcro (ovc), +
Te Borough (Crabbc), :,
Bosh and Flapdoodle
(Ammons), :6+
8ottom, 6, 68
8oycrs, Robcrt, +::
8razil, January +, +o:
(8ishop), ++6+
8rctt, Philip, 8o, 86
8right ay in 8oston (Lowcll), :
8rittcn, 8cnjamin, :, , 8, , 8o,
8+, 8
8rooks, Clcanth, :+
8rown, Charlcs, 6
8rutto Tcmpo: 8cllagio (8clitt), +o
bulls, in thc eneid, o +
thc burdcn ol thc past, :
8us Stop ( Justicc), +86
8yron, Gcorgc Gordon (Lord), +:
Cacsar, , :
Calvcrt, Raislcy, :
Te Cantos (Pound), +
Captivity (Mucllcr), :o6
Cassandra, +, +6
Catullus, , +o, :, o
Cclcbratcd Jumping Frog
(8clitt), +:6
Cclcstial Music (Gluck), +
Ccrcs, 6+, 66
Charwoman: :o \cscy Strcct
(8clitt, +)
Chauccr, Gcorcy, +
Chckhov, Anton, +, :6o
Christmas ast ol thc 8luc Ridgc
(Vright), :+
Churchill, Vinston, 8
Ciccro, , :
Clampitt, Amy, ++, +6, +8, :o, :+o,
::6, :, :8, :+
Clark, 8lair, :
Clark, Kcnncth (Sir), ++6
Tc Cold (8clitt), +:, +:
Colc, Nat King, +:
Colcridgc, Samucl Taylor, , +,
:, 6, 6, +o, ++, +:o, +,
::+, ::
Collected Poems ( Justicc), +, +8
Collected Poems (Lowcll), :, :8
Colwin, Lauric, +
Coma 8crcniccs (Ashbcry), ::
comparativc litcraturc, 8
Te Complete Poems (8ishop), ++:, +8
Tc Complcx Mcchanism ol thc
8rcak (Graham), +:
conccptual words, +
Condcmncd Sitc (\an uyn), :o
Conington, John,
Connaroc, Jocl, +
Corn, Allrcd, +8
Corncll, Joscph, :o
Counting at usk (Vhy Poctry
Mattcrs Vhcn thc Ccntury
nds), +
Couplcts Conccrning Timc
( Justicc), +88
Court ol thc Lions: Alhambra
(8clitt), +:, +
Covcnant (Graham), +68
Crabbc, Gcorgc, :, , , , 8,
8o, 8
Cranc, Hart, +::, +, +, +, +8,
:, :
Crcdcnccs ol Summcr
(Stcvcns), +6 o
Crcclcy, Robcrt, +6, +8, :
Crickct Hill: \crmont (8clitt), +:,
+:, +:6
Crozicr, ric, 8
Cruttwcll, Patrick,
Cyclops, , , +o, +
lorging ol shiclds, :::
dactyls, +o
acdalus, +
amon, Phillip,
ancc Lcssons ol thc Tirtics
( Justicc), ++
ixbvx
o:
dancc, poctry and, +o
antcAlighicri, 6,+6, , +:6, +:8,
+:, +:, +8
a Pontc, Lorcnzo, :, 8
Dark Harbor (Strand), :+
arwin, Charlcs, :8
avic, onald, +
avics, Hugh Sykcs,
awn ay nc (Graham),
:: o
Day by Day (Lowcll), :oo, :,
:88
Tc cath ol a Critic (Lowcll), :8o
c Carlo, Yvonnc, :6
c Chirico, Giorgio, +8:, :o, :+
cmocritus,
cnt, dward,
cparturcs (8clitt), +:, +:, +:
De Ferum Natura (Lucrctius), +,
:, 6
cscriptivc Skctchcs
(Vordsworth), o
csk rcams (ovc), +6
dctails, survcying ol, +o
deus absconditus, ::
ickcns, Charlcs, , :o
ickinson, mily, :+
ido, , +, +6, +, +8, +, :,
dcath ol, :
tragcdy ol, :
Ding-an-Sich, ++o
ircctivc (Frost), +8
discordia concors, +o
iscnchantmcnt (Graham),
:+:
isjccta Mcmbra (Vright),
:+6:+
ohcrty, Kcvin F., +
Te Dolphin (Lowcll), +8
Don Gio.anni (Audcn), o, 8
Don Gio.anni (Mozart),
onnc, John, :
oublc Pocm ol thc Vorlds
8urning (Rilkc), +
ouglas, Gavin,
ovc, Rita
dancc and poctry ol, +o
rcplicating dancc mcasurcs
and, +:
rhythm and, +
Tc rcam ol thc Unicd Ficld
(Graham), ::+
rydcn, John, , +, :+, :, o
goddcss dcscriptions,
Vordsworth, Villiam, and criticism
ol, :66
usk Shorc Praycr (Graham), +:
cchoing, litcraturc and, 8+
Vordsworth, Villiam, and, +6:
Eclogues (\irgil),
Ecclesiastical Sonnets
(Vordsworth), :6
ducation ol thc Poct (Gluck),
+8, +6
Tc cl (Montalc and
Lowcll), :
hrcnprcis, !rvin, :, :, :
liot, Gcorgc, :
liot, T. S., , +::, +:, +, +,
+8, ++, :o, :+, :, :6, :,
:, :6
mcrson, Ralph Valdo, o, :oo
Encyclopedia Britannica,
Endymion (Kcats), 68
Te Enemy Joy (8clitt), +:+
nnius, +o
picurus, , , , 6,
cpithcts, +o
Te Errancy (Graham), ::+
ssay on Criticism (Popc), +o
uryalus, :o, :+
urydicc, +88, ::
Tc vc ol St. Agncs (Kcats), +,
6, 6
Tc vcning ol thc Mind
( Justicc), +86
volution (Graham), +6
ixbvx
o
Te Excursion (Vordsworth), o, ,
:, 6
xit Vound (Graham), +
Fablc (Gluck), +6+
Faglcs, Robcrt, , +o, ++, +, +, +, +6,
:o, :+
Tc Fall ol Hypcrion: A rcam
(Kcats), 6:
Fancy (Kcats), 6+
Faulkncr, Villiam, ::
Fcldman, !rving, :
charactcrs ol, +
originalandcopy and, +
poctry ol, +66
Fcnwick, !sabclla, o
Figaro (Mozart),
gurcs ol spccch, +o
Tc Fish (8ishop), +++
Fitzgcrald, Robcrt,
Te Fi.e-Fold Mesh (8clitt), +:, +6
Florida (8ishop), +o +o
Flowcr Markct (8clitt), ++
owcrs, languagc ol, 8o, +o
Fog Gallcon (Komunyakaa), :o:
For a Frcshman Rcadcr ( Justicc), +8
For Li..ie and Harriet (Lowcll), +8
lormulas, +o
For Salc (Lowcll), :6
Forstcr, . M., , , 8+, 86
For thc Suicidcs ol +6:
( Justicc), +86
For the Union Dead (Lowcll), :o, :
Four Quartets (liot), ++, :+
Fox Trot Fridays (ovc), +:,
+, +
Fragmcnt: to a Mirror ( Justicc), +8+
Frcud, Sigmund, +o, +, :
Frost at Midnight (Colcridgc), ++
Frost, Robcrt, , +68, +8, :, :+
Funny 8oncs, r Larry awns
+oo+ Nights in Condolandia
(Fcldman), + o
Furncss, Horacc Howard, 6
Gayossos Ambulancc Scrvicc:
mcrgcncy (8clitt), ++
Georgics (\irgil), +, :,
Gicscckc, Carl Ludwig,
Ginsbcrg, Allcn, +:+, +6, +8,
:+, :
Gluck, Christoph Villibald, +, +o+
Gluck, Louisc, +, +8, +, +8,
:oo, :+
cchocs ol Vordsworth, Villiam,
in, +6:
mcmory and, +6+, +66
naming and addrcssing, + 6o
rcpctition and, +6 6
Gocthc, Johann Vollgang von, +, o
Goldbarth, Albcrt, +6
goldcn codgcrs, :
Tc Gold Lily (Gluck), :+8
A Good Mcmory (Komunyakaa), :o:
Goodman, Paul, +
Gorcy, dward, :+, ::
Tc Gorgc (8clitt), +:8, +:, +:
Grace Notes (ovc), +o, +
Gra ti (8clitt), +:
Graham, Joric, +, +8, +8, :oo,
:o+, ::o
joylcssncss and, ::6
poctic addrcss and, ::
praying and, ::
rcpcating titlcs and, ::
talking too much and, ::
as Vhitmancsquc, :: o
Grass Fircs (Lowcll), :8+8:
Gravcs, R. P., o
thc Grcat cprcssion, +, :
Tc Guanajuato Mummics
(8clitt), +:
Guide through the District of the Lakes
(Vordsworth), +
Gulls (Graham), +6
Gunn, Tom, +8
Hamilton, Saskia, :
Hamlet (Shakcspcarc), 8o
ixbvx
o
Hammcrstcin, scar, 86
Tc Handball Playcrs at 8righton
8cach (Fcldman), +
Handcl, Gcorgc Fridcric, +o+
Hands ( Justicc), +86
Hardwick, lizabcth, ::, :
Hass, Robcrt, +8
Hazlitt, Villiam, 6, 8
Hcancy, Scamus, +8
Hcarst, Patty, :o6
Hccht, Anthony, +8
Hcrbcrt, Gcorgc, :+
Hcrbcrt, Zbignicw, +68
hcrocs, +o, +. See also Acncas
8yronic,
dcvclopmcnt ol, :8
hard work dcmandcd ol, :
hcroic couplct, :6, +
Hcsiod, 6
hcxamctcrs, +o
High Tidc (Graham), +
Hirsch, dward, +
History (Lowcll), +8, :6
Hitlcr, Adoll, :
Holmannsthall, Hugo von, +o:
Hollandcr, John, +8, :o, :
Holocaust, +
Homcr, 6, 8, , +o, +6, +, +, :,
:, :8o
Hopkins, Gcrard Manlcy, +:, ::,
:o, :6, :
Hoppcr, dward, +8+, :+
Horacc, :, o, +, +, +8:, +:, :
Horsc (Gluck), +
Housman, A. ., 6o, :6, :
Howard, Patricia, 8
Howard, Richard, ++, +8, +8,
:o, :
Howc, Susan, +8
Te Hudson Fe.ie., :6
Humanity (Vordsworth), 8
Humphrics, Rollc, , :o
Hungcr (Graham), +6 o
Hutchinson, Mary, :
Hybrids of Plants and of Ghosts and
Erosion (Graham), ::
Hymn to !ntcllcctual 8cauty
(Shcllcy), :+
iambic pcntamctcr, ++
Tc !diot 8oy (Vordsworth), 8
! Havc 8ccn a Strangcr in a Strangc
Land (ovc), +
Te Iliad (Homcr), , ::
Te Iliad of Homer (Popc), +o
Tc !maginary !ccbcrg (8ishop),
++:, ++, ++
Imitations (Lowcll), :o
!mprcssionism (Graham), ::o
!n thc Vaiting Room (8ishop), +8
!ncidcnt in a Rosc Gardcn
( Justicc), +8
Te Interpretation of Dreams
(Frcud), +o
!ntcrruptcd Praycrs (Fcldman), +o
!n Tcmc Park Amcrica
(Fcldman), +8
!shcrwood, Christophcr, 8o
Jamcs, Hcnry, :6
Jarrcll, Randall, +8:, :+o, :o, :, :
Johnson, Samucl, :o
Jokcr (Fcldman), +6
Joncs, John,
Julius Cacsar, +o
Justicc, onald, +6, ++, +8,
:++, :
collcctcd poctry ol, +8
nostalgia and mclancholy in, +8
poctic consistcncy ol, +6
rcpctition and, +8
rcticcncc and, +8o 8+
scll involvcmcnt and, +8:8
thickncss ccct and, +8
timc and, +
Kallman, Chcstcr, o, +, 8, , +o+
Kalstonc, avid, +o6
ixbvx
o
Kcats, John, +, :+, , +o, +,
+, +, +8, +, +6, +8o,
:o, :8
Shakcspcarcs prolound vcrdurc
and coming muskrosc ol, 8+
timc in poctry ol, 6+ 6
Kcllcr, Hans, 8o
Kcnncdy, Jackic, :o
Kcnncr, Hugh, +:
Kcrmodc, Frank, +, +, +
Kcrrigan, Anthony, +::
Kinncll, Galway, :
King Lear (Shakcspcarc), 6
Kiss and Tcll (Fcldman), +
Kizcr, Carolyn, :
Komunyakaa, Yuscl, +8, :oo, :o+,
:o:, :o, :o
Kousscvitzky, Scrgc, 8o
Krapps Last Tape (8cckctt), +o
Kubla Khan (Colcridgc), +
Landor, Valtcr Savagc, o
languagc
8clitt and, +::
owcrs and, 8o, +o
gcncral idcas, things and, +:
public /privatc arcna and, :6
Laocon, , +:
Laodamia (Vordsworth), :, :
Largc 8ad Picturc (8ishop), ++:, ++
lathe biosas (livc in obscurity), +
Latin, \irgil and, +o
Lawrcncc, . H., :6
Lcvinc, Philip, +8, :oo, :o+, :o, :
Lcvin, Harry,
Life Studies (Lowcll), +8, +8,
:6+ 6:, :6, :6, :6, :o,
: 8o, :8o
Tc Lilc and Lcttcrs (Fcldman), +
Tc LightningRod Man
(8clitt), +
Lincoln, Abraham, :
Lincs Lclt upon a Scat in a Ycw Trcc
(Vordsworth),
Lincs Vrittcn as a School
xcrcisc at Hawkshcad
(Vordsworth), :
Listener (Forstcr),
litcraturc
comparisons in,
cchoing in, 8+
Livcs ol thc Pocts (Fcldman), +
Lloyd, Harold, ++
Longcnbach, Jamcs, :, :6
Longlcllow, Hcnry Vadsworth, :
Lonsdalc (Lord), :6
Looking Up lrom thc Pagc, ! Am
Rcmindcd ol Tis Mortal Coil
(ovc), +6
Lrca, Garcia, +::
Lord !earys Castle (Lowcll), ++, :,
:, :6o, :6
Lost in the Stars, +:
Lost in Translation (Mcrrill), +:
Lowcll, Charlottc Vinslow,
:6:, :6
Lowcll, Robcrt, ++, +:+, +, +6, +,
+8o, +8, +8, :oo
achicvcmcnt ol, :8
changc in writing tcchniquc,
:8
gcncric scnsc ol lilc in, :
languagc ol public /privatc arcna
and, :6
lcttcrs, :
as major artist, :6o
manicdcprcssivc mood swing
and, :+:
as savior ol postVorld Var !!
Amcrican poctry, :
unchanging clcmcnts ol prosc and
pocms, :o
varicd stanzas and, :6
Lucas, F. L.,
Lucia di Lammcrmoor, 8
Lucrctius, o, +
conccptual words ol, +
on picurus, +o, 8,
ixbvx
o6
Lucrctius (continued )
languagc ol gcncral idcas and
things in, +:
physical world, mind and,
rcpctition and,
Vordsworth, Villiam, and clcmcnts
ol,
Lucy Gray (Vordsworth), :, 8
Lyrical Ballads (Vordsworth), +, ,
6, 8, ++, +
Macbeth (Shakcspcarc), , +
Machado, Antonio, +
Te Magic Flute (Audcn), o, 6
Te Magic Flute (Mozart),
Mahlcr, Gustav, :&
Mandclbaum, Allcn,
manic dcprcssivc, :+:
Mann, Villiam,
Tc Man Closing Up ( Justicc), +86
Tc Map (8ishop), ++:
March Villows (8clitt), +
Marmion (Scott),
Mason, Jackic, +6
Mastcrs, dgar Lcc, :6
Materialism (Graham), :o+, ::+, ::6
Mazzaro, Jcromc, ::
McCarthy, Mary, :o
McCroric, dward,
McFarland, Tomas, ::+
McGann, Jcromc, +
McGrath, Charlcs, :
McHugh, Hcathcr, +8
Measure for Measure
(Shakcspcarc), 6
Mclvillc, Hcrman, :8
Mcmmius, 6
Mcmoir (Gluck), +8
Mcmorial Hospital: utpaticnt
(8clitt), +:
mcmory, +6+, +66
Mcn at Forty ( Justicc), +886
Mcnoctcs, :o, :+
Mcnotti, Gian Carlo, +o:
Mcrrill, Jamcs, ++, +6, +:, +6, +8+,
+8, :+, ::o, :, :o
Mcrwin, V. S., +:+, :
Metamorphoses (vid), :
Midsummer Nights Dream
(Shakcspcarc), 6, 6, 6, 6, 68, +
Milgatc (Lowcll), :8:8
Millcr, J. Hillis, :+o
Mills, John Stuart, 8
Te Mills of the Ka.anaughs
(Lowcll), :6
Milton, John, ++, +6, , , , 6,
+:, +, :+, ::, :
Mirror (Mcrrill), +8+
Tc Missing Pcrson ( Justicc), +86
Mitosis (Gluck), +6 6
Mock rangc (Gluck), +8
Moonbcam (Gluck), +
Moorc, Mariannc, +o, +::
Moorc, Mcrrill, :
Moorman, Mary, 6
Moss, Howard, :+o
Mothcr and Child (Gluck), +6o 6+
Movictimc (Fcldman), +
Mozart, Vollgang Amadcus, o, +,
:, , 6, +o+, +o:
Mucllcr, Liscl, +8, :oo, :o+, :o
Tc Musc ol Happincss (Gluck), +8
music, +o, +:, 88
muskrosc. See owcrs
Mussolini, 8cnito, +, :
My Early Life (Churchill), 8
My Fathcr Vith Cigarcttc
Twclvc Ycars 8clorc thc Nazis
Could 8rcak His Hcart
(Lcvinc), :o o
My Last Altcrnoon with
Unclc cvcrcux Vinslow
(Lowcll), :6 6
My Papas Valtz (Rocthkc), ++
My Sccrct !dcntity !S (Simic), :o8
Nabokov, \ladimir, +6
naming, addrcssing and, + 6o
ixbvx
o
naturc, +, +o, +o, ++:, +::
romantic lyrics and, +o6
Vordsworth, Villiam, and, +
nature morte, :+
Near Changes (\an uyn), :o
Near the Ocean (Lowcll), :
Ncar thc Unbalanccd Aquarium
(Lowcll), :6 66
Ncmcrov, Howard, +o, +:+, +, +:,
:+o, ::o, ::, :
Ncruda, Pablo, +:8
ambiguous syntax and, +::
Ne.er (Graham), +, ::6, ::
Ne. and Selected Poems ( Justicc),
+8:, +86
Ne. Latin Dictionary, 6
Te Ne. York Times Book Fe.ie.,
:o
Ne. Yorker, +
Ne. York Times Sunday Maga.ine,
:
Tc Ncxt Timc (Strand), :++
nightingalcs, 6 68
Night Light ( Justicc), +8
Nightwords (Fcldman), +8
Nijinsky, \aslav, +:
thc Ninctics
poctry and rcvisiting, +8::
Y:K and, +
+ Rcvcrc Strcct (Lowcll),
:6+ 6, :6
Norton, mily Te !hite Doe of
Fylstone, Vordsworth), 6
Nostalgia ol thc Lakclronts
( Justicc), +8
Notebook (Lowcll), +8, :
Notcs on thc Rcality ol thc Scll
(Graham), ::+
Notcs toward a Suprcmc Fiction
(Stcvcns),
Not Vclcomc Hcrc (ovc), ++
No.here but Light (8clitt), +:8
Tc Nurscs (Fcldman), +
Nutting (Vordsworth), ++6, +
atcs, Joycc Carol, :
bcron, 6, 66, 6, o
dc on Mclancholy (Kcats), :+
dc to a Nightingalc (Kcats), 8, 6:,
6, o
dc to uty (Vordsworth),
dc to Psychc (Kcats), 6, 66
Odyssey,
cdipus Host (Fcldman), +
l Gardcns (8acon),
Ccntral Park (Lowcll), :6:
Hara, Frank, +6, :
livicr, Laurcncc, 8o
nc Art (8ishop), +8o |shouldnt
this comc, alphabctically AFTR
somcthing that bcgins with n:|
n Quaking 8og (8clitt), +:8
n Rccciving a Curious Shcll, and
a Copy ol \crscs, lrom thc Samc
Ladics (Kcats), o
n thc cath ol Fricnds in
Childhood ( Justicc), +8
pcration vcrlord, ::
Tc rangc Trcc (8clitt), +, +
Tc rphaning (8clitt), +, +
rphcus. urydikc. Hcrmcs (Lowcll
and Rilkc), :+
sbornc, Charlcs,
ur Mastcrpiccc !s thc Privatc Lilc
(Strand), :+++:
vcr :ooo !llustrations and
a Complctc Concordancc
(8ishop), ++:, ++, ++
O.erlord (Graham), ::
vid, :, :, 66
Papcrmill Gravcyard (8clitt), +:
Paradisc (ovc), +
Patcr, Valtcr,
pathos, :o
patriotism, local, :o
Pcars, Pctcr, :
People, :
Pcrlo, Marjoric, :o
ixbvx
o8
Pctcr Grimcs
bad sccd taking root in hcalthy
soil,
dcvclopmcnt ol a hcro, :8
dulling ol, 6
madncss ol, 6
music in, 88
Peter Grimes (8rittcn), 8+, 8, 86, 88
Pcyton, rval, +
Philological Museum, 6
Philosophcrs Stonc (Graham), +6
pietas, :8
Pinsky, Robcrt, +:, +8
Tc Plain Scnsc ol Tings
(Stcvcns), +8
Tc Planct on thc Tablc
(Stcvcns), +6
Plath, Sylvia, +:+, +, :oo, :8+
Plato, +8
Pliny,
Pocm (8ishop), ++ :o
Pocm ( Justicc), +8:
Tc Poct at Scvcn ( Justicc), +8
Poetics (Aristotlc), +o
poctry
addrcss and, ::
8clitt and, +:+:
body, :8
dancc and, +o
Fcldmans, +66
Justiccs, +8
landscapc, knowlcdgc and, +o:o
Lowcll, Robcrt, and, :
rcvicw, :6
rcvisiting thc Ninctics, +8::
sadncss and, +
spcaking voicc in,
timc in, 6+ 6
Tc Pond (Gluck), +
Popc, Alcxandcr, , +o, +6, , +o:,
+o, ++, ::
Postcrity (Graham), ::, ::
Pound, zra, +, +, +, +, :o,
:8, :6
Praising ark Placcs
(Komunyakaa), :o:
Praycr (Graham), +68 6, ++, +
Praying (Graham), ::, :o +
Prclacc to Lyrical Ballads
(Vordsworth), :6
Te Prelude (Vordsworth), +, 6, ++8,
+8, :o+
prosody, +o
Proust, Marccl, ::
Prunty, Vyatt, :o
Puck, 6, 6, 6
Tc Quakcr Gravcyard in Nantuckct
(Lowcll), :8
Qucstions ol Travcl (8ishop), +++8
Questions of Tra.el (8ishop), ++,
++, +6
Te Fakes Progress (Audcn), o,
+, +o+
Ransom, John Crowc, :
Te Fecluse (Vordsworth), +
Fegion of Unlikeness (Graham), :o+
rcpctition, , +o8, +6 6, +8
singularity and, +
Rclay Station (Graham), +
Rcsolution and !ndcpcndcncc
(Vordsworth), +o
Rcvcric in pcn Air (ovc), +6
Rhumba (ovc), +
Rich, Adricnnc, +:+, +6, +8, +8,
::6, :, :, :o
Fichard III (Shakcspcarc),
Ricks, Christophcr, , 6+, +o
Rilkc, Raincr Maria, +, +, :+,
::, :
Rimbaud, Arthur, :+, :o
Ripc Pcach (Gluck), +6+ 6:
Robinson, dwin Arlington, +, :6
Rodgcrs, Richard, 86
Rocthkc, Tcodorc, ++, +:, +,
::, :
romantic naturc lyric, +o6
ixbvx
o
Rorcm, Ncd, +o
Rossctti, antc Gabricl, +
Rossini, Gioachino, +o+
dc Rothschild, Philippc (8aron), :8o
Ruskin, John, :+
Sadncss ( Justicc), +8, +
Salcm (Lowcll), :
Salmagundi, :8
Santayana, Gcorgc, 8, :
Scarry, lainc, +
Schadcnlrcudc, :
Schikancdcr, manucl, :, ,
Schlicmann, Hcinrich, +
Scott, Valtcr, :
Scrccncd Porch (Gluck), +6
Scascapc (8ishop), ++:
Scbald, V. G., +6
sccondary world, +
scllinvolvcmcnt, +8:8
ScllPortrait as Still Lilc
( Justicc), +8:
Scllar, Villiam Young,
Tc Scnsual Vorld (Gluck), +
scrpcnts. See snakcs
Tc Scvcn Agcs (pocm, Gluck), +6+
Te Se.en ges (volumc, Gluck), +8
and passim
Scxton, Annc, :
Shakcspcarc, Villiam, , 8, , +6, +:,
+, +, ++, +, :+6, :, :o
coming muskrosc ol Kcats and
prolound vcrdurc ol, 8+
Shaw, Robcrt, :oo
Shcchan, onald, +o
Shcllcy, Pcrcy 8ysshc, , +:,
::, :+
Shropshire Lad (Housman), 6o
Sicsta: Mcxico / \crmont
(8clitt), +:
Simic, Charlcs, +8, :oo, :o+, :o6,
:o, :o
similcs, ++
Simon, John, :o
Simon Lcc (Vordsworth), 8
Sincc + (Lowcll), :8:
singularity, +
Sisyphus,
Sitting at usk in thc 8ack
Yard Altcr thc Mondrian
Rctrospcctivc (Vright), :+6
Skunk Hour (Lowcll), :6o
Slccp and Poctry (Kcats), 6
snakcs, +:, :, o
Snodgrass, V. ., :
Snydcr, Gary, +6, +6, +8
Socratcs, +, +8, :
Somc Rccctions on Music and
rama (Audcn), +
Sondhcim, Stcphcn, :6
Songs lor My Fathcr
(Komunyakaa), :o
Sonnct ( Justicc), +8. See also
Tc Vall
Southcrn Gothic ( Justicc), +8
spcaking voicc, in poctry,
Spcnscr, dmund, ,
Spokcn lrom thc Hcdgcrows
(Graham), ::
spondccs, +o
Staord, Jcan, :8
stanzas, varicd, :6
Stars (Gluck), +6o
St. Augustinc, +, +8, +:
Stcin, Gcrtrudc, +:
Stcphcn, Lcslic,
Stcvcns, Vallacc, , , ++, +::, +:,
+:, +, +, +:, +, +8+, +8:,
+88, :+, :, :6
Stcwart, Susan, +6
Strand, Mark, +8+, +8:, +8, :oo, :o,
:++, :+:
Stravinsky, !gor, o, +, :, +o+, +o:
Surl (Graham), +6
Summcr Night (Gluck), +6, +6
Te Summer nni.ersaries ( Justicc),
+88
S.arm (Graham), ::+
ixbvx
+o
Swilt, Jonathan, +
syntax, ambiguous, +::
Tacitus, :
Tc Takcnown God
(Graham), +68
Tantalus,
Tape for the Turn of the Year
(Ammons), :6
Tarn, Nathanicl, +:
Tatc, Allcn, +:+, +, :o+, :, :,
:, :68
Tatc, Jamcs, +8, :oo
Tcnnyson, Allrcd (Lord), , :o,
+, :++
Tere is a gold light in certain old
paintings ( Justicc), +888
thickncss ccct, +8
Tings (Mucllcr), :o6
Tis LimcTrcc 8owcr, My Prison
(Colcridgc), ++, +:o
Tis Living Hand (Kcats), +
Tis Rock (8clitt), +, +8
Tomas and Beulah (ovc), +
Tomas, Lcvi, :6
Torcau, Hcnry avid, :o, :
Trcc Ycars Shc Grcw in Sun and
Showcr (Vordsworth), :
6th Rcgimcnt ol Alrican Amcrican
soldicrs, ++
timc, +, 6+ 6, +6
Timc (Gluck), +6:
Tc Timc 8cing (Graham), +6
Tintcrn Abbcy (Vordsworth), +,
, :, , , +o6
Titania, 6, 6, 66, 6, o
To a Fricnd Vho Scnt Mc Somc
Roscs (Kcats), 6, o
To Autumn (Kcats), 6+, 6:, +:6
To clmorc Schwartz
(Lowcll), :6 6
Tolstoy, Lco, :6o
Tomlinson, Charlcs, ::
To Mothcr (Lowcll), :8+
To My 8rothcr Gcorgc (Kcats), 6o
To See, To Take (\an uyn), :o
Tourist and Turtlc (8clitt), +:
Tradc Vind: Kcy Vcst (8clitt), +:
Trojan horsc,
Trojans, , :,
Troy, , , +, +, +, +6, :
Truclovc, Annc, 8
Turnus, :o, :
Tutankhamcn, +
Twclvc Chairs (ovc), ++, +
Ulysscs (Tcnnyson),
Ulysscs and Circc (Lowcll), : 8o
Uncle !anya (Chckhov), +88
thc Undcrworld, , +
dcsccnt into, :
Unpaintcd oor (Gluck), +6
Untitlcd Strand, :++
Upon mcrgcncc (Graham), :+
\aguc Mcmory lrom Childhood
( Justicc), +868
\alry, Paul, +:6, +8:
\allon, Anncttc, :
\an uyn, Mona, +8, :oo, :o+,
:o, :+o
\aughan, Hcnry, +6
\cndlcr, Hclcn, 6, :
\cnus, :, +o
dcscription comparisons ol,
\crdi, Giuscppc, , +o+
\crmccr, :
\crmont Quarry (8clitt), +:
\csuvius,
\ia Ncgativa (Graham), +68
\ickcrs, Jon, :
\icbahn, Frcd, +:
Tc \icw (Strand), :+
\irgil, , , 6, , 8, , +, +6, +, :+, o,
, +o, :++
allitcration and, +o
assonancc and, +o
cmptincss ol worldly things and, +
ixbvx
++
Latin and, +o
local patriotism and, :o
as mastcr ol public art, ::
nostalgia and, +
placidas auris, +8
poct ol sadncss and cvcning, +
timc and, +
usc ol past and prcscnt, +
virtucs, Roman, :
Tc \isiblc Vorld (Graham),
++, ::+visual boundarics,
blurring, +o6
!ita No.a (Gluck) +
Vakoski, ianc, :
Valcott, crck, +8
Tc Vall ( Justicc), +8
Varm nough (Fcldman), +
Varrcn, Robcrt Pcnn, +:
Vcbcr, Carl Maria von, +o+
Vciss, Tcodorc, +
!elt.schmer., +
Vharton, dith, :6
Vhcrc: thc Pcrson (Graham), +:
!here Shall I !ander
(Ashbcry), :+6
Te !hite Doe of Fylstone
(Vordsworth), 6
Vhitman, Valt, +, +:, :oo, :o,
::, ::6, ::, :6, :8, :6
Vilbur, Richard, ++, +:, :++
!ilderness Stair (8clitt), +:
Te !ild Iris (Gluck), +,
+, :+:o
Villiams, Villiam Carlos, :, :6o
Villiam thc Conqucror, :
Tc Vithdrawal (Lowcll), :
Te !orld Doesnt End (Simic), :o6
words, conccptual, +
Vordsworth, Christophcr, o
Vordsworth, orothy, :
Vordsworth, Villiam, 6, +, 6o, 8,
+o, ++, ++, +, +, +o, +6:,
+, +8, +, ::8, :, ::
Te eneid ol, :6
conccptual words ol, +
criticism ol rydcn by, :66
goddcss dcscriptions,
languagc ol gcncral idcas and
things in, +:
Lucrctian clcmcnts in,
naturc and, +
rcpctition and,
scparatcncss and, ++:
Vorld Var !, ++, +, +6
Vorld Var !!, +, :o, ::o, :
Vright, Charlcs, +6, +6, +, +8,
:oo, :++, ::+, ::
Vright, Jamcs, +::, :
!uthering Heights (8ront), :
Vyatt, Tomas, +o
Xcrox (8clitt), +, +
Ycats, Villiam 8utlcr, :, +:+, +,
+, +o, +8, +88, :
Ycnscr, Stcphcn, :o
Young, \crnon, +