Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

The Endocrine System

Overview of Endocrine System

* * *

Endocrine glands secrete into e tracell!lar s"ace# secretion $hormones% di&&!ses to circ!latory system 'ncl!des "rimary glands ( "it!itary# thyroid# "arathyroid# adrenal# ) "ineal glands *ccessory str!ct!res +ith gland!lar &!nction as +ell as others ( hy"othalam!s# thym!s# "ancreas# o,aries# testes# -idneys# small intestine heart ) "lacenta $and others% .ro,ides homeostasis control along +ith ner,o!s system

* /ormonal control !s!ally slo+er and longer lasting ( de"endent on blood

s!""ly and rece"tors

* Control metabolism# gro+th ) de,elo"ment and re"rod!ction

'n some cases the t+o interact together

* May stim!late or inhibit the other# or mod!late the e&&ect o& the other
$smooth ) cardiac m!scle# some glands %

* Some ne!rotransmitters are also hormones

Endocrine Tissues (graphic) Hormonal Chemistry

0i"id sol!ble ,s. +ater sol!ble hormones

* 0i"id sol!ble ( steroids# 12 ) 14 thyroid hormones# nitric o ide * 3ater sol!ble ( amines# "e"tides4"roteins# eicosanoids

May be circ!lating or local hormones

* 0ocal may be "aracrines or a!tocrines and are ty"ically short(li,ed * Circ!lating ty"ically destroyed by li,er and e creted by -idney
1

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

Steroids $li"id% ( deri,ed &rom cholesterol# di&&erences in side chains o& 4(ring str!ct!re

* Secretory cells deri,ed &rom mesoderm * .rod!ced by adrenal corte # -idneys# testes4o,aries

1hyroid hormones ( combination o& t+o molec!les o& tyrosine bo!nd to iodine

* .rod!ced by thyroid gland

* *

5itric o ide 56 synthase *mines ( deri,ed &rom amino acids

* Catecholamines $e"i# nore"i ) do"amine% ( deri,ed &rom tyrosine * /istamine ( deri,ed &rom histidine * Serotonin ) melatonin ( &rom try"to"han * .rod!ced by adrenal med!lla# mast cells# "latelets $serotonin%# "ineal

.e"tides4"roteins ( 2(277 amino acids# some are glyco"roteins $e.g. 1S/%

* .rod!ced by hy"othalam!s# "it!itary# "ancreas# "arathyroids# thyroid#

stomach# ) small intestine# -idneys and adi"ose tiss!e

Eicosanoids ( deri,ed &rom arachidonic acid $27(C &atty acid% incl!ding "rostaglandins and le!-otrines

* .rimary local acti,ity * .rod!ced by most cells $e ce"t 8BCs%

Hormone Types (graphic) Hormone Transport

* *

3ater(sol!ble &ree in blood 0i"id(sol!ble largely attached to trans"ort "roteins e ce"t &or a small &ree &raction $7.1(179%

* 1rans"ort "roteins "rod!ced in li,er

2

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* 3hen attached to trans"ort "rotein# hormone is less li-ely to lea,e C:

system $incl!ding loss in -idney% Hormonal Effects

E&&ects incl!de synthesis o& ne+ molec!les# changed membrane "ermeability# stim!lated trans"ort o& molec!les across cell membrane# rate o& metabolic reactions# contraction o& smooth or cardiac m!scle E&&ect de"endent on target cell ( those cells +ith rece"tors &or hormone

* E&&ect may change de"ending on target cells ( e.g. ins!lin synthesis o&
glycogen in li,er cells or triglycerides in adi"ose cells

* * * *

Some rece"tors on cell membrane ( +ater sol!ble hormones $catecholamines ) "e"tide4"roteins% Some rece"tors inside cells ( li"id sol!ble hormones $steroids ) thyroid hormones% Sol!bility and digestibility determines ho+ hormonal dr!gs are gi,en ( e.g. ins!lin is +ater sol!ble and digestible and m!st be in;ected 5!mber o& rece"tors changes ( altered le,el o& res"onse

* E cess hormone le,el ( do+n(reg!lation * De&icient hormone le,el ( !"(reg!lation * 'nteractions bet+een hormones may be related to !" or do+n(reg!lation
Lipid-solu le Hormones

* * *

'nteract +ith rece"tors in cytosol or n!cle!s *cti,ated rece"tor acti,ates or inacti,ates genetic e "ression Changed genetic e "ression# alters "rotein man!&act!re $!s!ally an en<yme% and !ltimately cell=s acti,ity related to "rotein

Lipid-solu le Hormone !ction (graphic) "ater-solu le Hormones

'nteract +ith s!r&ace rece"tors $&irst messenger% 2

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

*cti,ated e ternal rece"tor initiates second messenger

* >re?!ently c*M. ( &ormed &rom *1. by adenylate cyclase $acti,ated by @(

"roteins in cell membrane%

*cti,ity o& second messenger de"endent on target cell

* c*M. stim!lates brea- do+n o& triglycerides in adi"ose cells +hile

increasing secretion o& thyroid hormone in thyroid cells

* c*M. acti,ates "rotein -inase "hos"horylates target cell en<ymes +hich

acti,ates or inacti,ates en<yme altered cell acti,ity $reg!lation o& other en<ymes# secretion# "rotein synthesis# membrane "ermeability%

* .hos"hodiesterase !ltimately inacti,ates c*M. * Some hormones decrease c*M.

6ther secondary messengers incl!de Ca2A# c@M.# inositol tri"hos"hate $'.2%# and diacylglycerol $D*@%

"ater-solu le Hormone !ction (graphic) Other Hormone !ction

En<ymatic am"li&ication o& hormones

* single hormone molec!lem!lti"le @("roteins acti,ated adenylate cyclase

m!lti"le c*M. "rotein -inase

/ormonal interactions

* .ermissi,e e&&ect ( acti,ity o& some hormones re?!ires recent or

sim!ltaneo!s "resence o& another hormone $e.g. thyroid hormones and cortisol s!""ort action o& other hormones% ,ia !"(reg!lation or re?!ired "resence o& en<yme

* Synergistic e&&ect ( acti,ity o& t+o hormones together greater than either one
alone $e.g. estrogen and 0/ $or >S/% re?!ired &or oocyte "rod!ction%

* *ntagonistic e&&ect ( o""osite acti,ity o& hormone action $e.g. ins!lin

synthesis o& glycogen in li,er# gl!cagon catabolism o& glycogen in li,er% Hormone Secretion

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

>re?!ently in b!rsts rather than steady &lo+

* 3hyB ( delayed res"onse# minimi<es do+n(reg!lation

* *

Stim!l!s &or secretion ( ne!ral# sensed changes in blood# other hormones /omeostatic control mechanisms !s!ally negati,e &eedbac- systems

* B!t sometimes "ositi,e &eedbac- $e.g. o ytocin bringing on childbirth# 0/

bringing on o,!lation% Hypothalamus and #ituitary

* * * * *

.it!itary "rimarily controlled by hy"othalam!s ( ma;or lin- bet+een ne!ral and endocrine &!nction /y"othalam!s recei,es in"!t &rom limbic system# corte # thalam!s and 8*S# "l!s ,isceral sensory and "robable ,is!al in"!t /y"othalam!s controls *5S# reg!lates body tem"# thirst# h!nger# se !al beha,ior and de&ensi,e emotions *t least C hormones &rom hy"othalam!s# D &rom "it!itary

#ituitary *nterior and "osterior ( de,elo"mentally di&&erent $ectodermal hy"o"hyseal "o!ch and ne!rohy"hyseal b!d res"ecti,ely%# third "ars intermedia is embryonic S!s"ended in sella t!rcica by in&!ndib!l!m .osterior "it!itary "rimarily ne!rosecretory +ith cell bodies in hy"othalam!s

* * * *

!nterior #ituitary Secrete hormones !nder control o& releasing or inhibiting hormones o& the hy"othalam!s /y"othalamic hormones trans"orted ,ia s"eciali<ed hy"o"hyseal "ortal system

* 'nternal carotid and comm!nicating arteries s!""ly blood

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* .rimary "le !s ( ca"illary bed at base o& hy"othalam!s +here

ne!rosecretory cells release hormones

* /y"o"hyseal "ortal ,eins * Secondary "le !s in anterior "it!itary

>i,e secretory cell ty"es

* Somatotro"hs ( h@/ $somatotro"in% ( gro+th and metabolism thro!gh

intermediate '@>s

* 1hyrotro"hs ( 1S/ ( acti,ity o& thyroid glands * @onadotro"hs ( >S/ ) 0/ ( secretion o& estrogens ) "rogesterones and
mat!ration in o,aries or secretion o& testosterone and s"erm "rod!ction in testes

* 0actotro"hs ( "rolactin $.80% ( begins mil- "rod!ction * Corticotro"hs ( adrenocorticotro"ic hormone $*C1/% and MS/ ( secretion
o& gl!cocorticoids in adrenal corte and s-in "igmentation res"ecti,ely

/ormones that a&&ect other endocrine secretions ( tro"ins

* >S/# 0/# 1S/# *C1/ released by "it!itary * /y"othalamic tro"ins act on "it!itary ( hy"o"hysiotro"ic hormones

*nt. "it!itary secretion also a&&ected by negati,e &eedbac- &rom hormones o& target organs

#ituitary $lood Supply (graphic) Human %rowth Hormone (h%H)

Controls gro+th and metabolism o& cells

* M!ch o& h@/ e&&ect by secretion o& ins!lin(li-e gro+th &actors $'@>% &rom
li,er# m!scle# cartilage# bone# etc.

* May be carried by blood &rom li,er or act as a!tocrine or "aracrine

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* 'ncreases "ermeability o& cell membrane to amino acids# stim!lates "rotein

synthesis# inhibits "rotein catabolism ( res!lts in s-eletal and m!scle gro+th# tiss!e re"air

'@>s alters molec!lar energy so!rce by stim!lating ly"olysis $triglycerides% and red!cing !se o& gl!cose &or energy "rod!ction ( im"ortant &or "eriods o& star,ation * @l!cose in short s!""ly !sed by ne!rons * May stim!late gl!cose to be released by li,er cells ( ins!lin antagonist * E cessi,e secretion can be diabetogenic $beta cell b!rno!t% red!ced ins!lin secretion

/y"othalamic tro"in $@/8/ or @/'/% release reg!lated by blood gl!cose

* 0o+ gl!cose increases @/8/

6ther &actors that increase secretion

* Decreased &atty acids or ele,ated amino acids in blood * Stage 2 ) 4 58EM slee" * 'ncrease sym"athetic acti,ity * 6ther hormones ( gl!cagon# estrogens# cortisol# ins!lin

6ther &actors that decrease secretion

* 'ncreased &atty acids or lo+ered amino acids in blood * 8EM slee" * Emotional de"ri,ation * 6besity * 0o+ thyroid hormones

*bnormal secretory le,els

* .it!itary d+ar&ism ( lo+ d!ring childhood

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* @igantism ( high d!ring childhood * *cromegaly $thic-ened bones in hands# &eet and &ace# enlarged &acial
&eat!res# thic-ened s-in% ( high d!ring ad!lthood Hypothalamic Control of h%H (graphic) Thyroid Stim& Hormone (TSH)

* * *

*lso thyrotro"in Stim!lates secretion o& triiodothyronine $12% and thyro ine $14% by thyroid gland Secretion controlled by thyrotro"in releasing hormone $18/% &rom hy"othalam!s based on 1S/# 12# blood gl!cose le,el and metabolic rate

Hypothalamic Control of TSH (graphic) 'ollicle Stim& Hormone ('SH)

* * *

'n &emales ( stim!lates o,arian &ollic!lar gro+th in monthly cycle and &ollic!lar cells to secrete estrogen 'n males ( stim!lates s"erm "rod!ction Secretion controlled by gonadotro"in releasing hormone $@n8/% &rom hy"othalam!s based on blood estrogen or testosterone le,els

Luteini(ing Hormone (LH)

'n &emales ( stim!lates &ollic!lar cells to secrete estrogen# initiates o,!lation# &ormation o& cor"!s l!te!m in o,ary $a&ter o,!lation% and cor"!s l!teal release o& "rogesterone

* Both estrogen and "rogesterone im"ortant in de,elo"ment o& !terine lining

&or im"lantation o& egg and "re"aration o& mammary glands &or milsecretion

* *

'n males ( stim!lates testic!lar interstitial cell de,elo"ment and release o& testosterone Secretion controlled by @n8/

#rolactin (#)L)

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* *

'nitiates and maintains mil- "rod!ction E&&ect o& "rolactin only a&ter "re"aration o& mammary glands by other hormones $estrogen# "rogesterone# gl!cocorticoids# h@/# thyro ine and ins!lin% Secretion controlled by "rolactin inhibiting hormone $.'/# do"amine% &rom hy"othalam!s based on estrogen and "rogesterone le,els

* Declining estrogen and "rogesterone le,els as menstr!ation begins and

in&ant s!c-ling acti,ity retards secretion o& .'/

Secretion also controlled by "rolactin releasing hormone $.8/% &rom hy"othalam!s d!ring "regnancy

!drenocoticotropic Hormone (!CTH)

* * * *

*lso corticotro"in .rec!rsor to *C1/ $and MS/% is "ro(o"iomelanocortin $.6MC% "rod!ced by corticotro"hsG s!bse?!ently &ragmented to *C1/ $and MS/% Controls "rod!ction and release o& gl!cocorticoids $"rimarily cortisol% by adrenal corte Secretion controlled by corticotro"in releasing hormone $C8/% &rom hy"othalam!s based on gl!cocorticoid le,els

* *nd also lo+ blood gl!cose# "hysical tra!ma# and interle!-in "rod!ced by
macro"hages Hypothalamic Control of !CTH (graphic) *elanocyte-Stim& Hormone (*SH)

* * *

Dar-ens s-in thro!gh melanocyte acti,ity Secretion enhanced by C8/ and inhibited by do"amine &rom hy"othalam!s

#osterior #ituitary %land Site o& storage $in ner,e terminals% and release o& o ytocin $61% and antidi!retic hormone $*D/ or ,aso"ressin%

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* *

Secretory ne!rons descend &rom hy"othalamic n!clei ,ia hy"othalamohy"o"hyseal tract Blood &lo+ ( in&erior hy"o"hyseal arteries "le !s o& the in&!ndib!lar "rocess "osterior hy"o"hyseal ,eins

+eurosecretion (graphic) O,ytocin (OT)

* *

'ncreases contraction o& smooth m!scle in !terine +all d!ring childbirth in res"onse to stretching o& cer,i ( "ositi,e &eedbac'ncreases contraction o& smooth m!scle aro!nd mammary gland cells "ost"art!m ca!sing e;ection o& mil- in res"onse to ni""le stim!lation $+hich also enhances "rolactin release% Both are e am"les o& ne!roendocrine re&le 'm"ortance !nclear at other times and in males

* * *

!ntidiuretic Hormone (!-H) Conser,es +ater by increasing -idney reabsor"tion and red!ced s+eating

* 3itho!t *D/# -idneys +o!ld "rod!ce 27 liters o& !rine4day instead o& 1(2

* * *

'ncreases blood "ress!re by smooth m!scle ,asoconstriction in blood ,essels +hen blood ,ol!me has declined Secretion controlled by acti,ity o& osmorece"tors in hy"othalam!s Secretion a&&ected by other stim!li ( "ain# stress# nicotine# ,ario!s dr!gs and alcohol

* *lcohol inhibits *D/ secretion ca!sing dehydration

Diabetes insi"id!s +ith sym"toms o& s!bstantial# dil!te !rine "rod!ction

* 5e!rogenic $red!ced secretion% ,s. ne"hrogenic $red!ced -idney res"onse

to *D/% Hypothalamic Control of !-H (graphic) Thyroid 17

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* * * *

0ateral lobe and isthm!s +ith s!bstantial blood s!""ly ,ia branches o& internal carotid arteries and ;!g!lar ,eins Hltrastr!ct!re ( thyroid &ollicle +ith &ollic!lar and "ara&ollic!lar cells $C cells% >ollic!lar cells "rod!ce thyro ine $tetraiodothyronine or 1 4% and triiodothyronine $12%# "ara&ollic!lar cells "rod!ce calcitonin 1hyroid only gland to store s!bstantial ?!antities o& hormones $177 days%

Thyroid.#arathyroid %lands (graphic) Thyroid /ltrastructure (graphic) Thyroid 'ollicular Structure (graphic) #roduction of T0 and T1

* * * *

>rom blood ( acti,e trans"ort o& iodide $27(47 times greater% 3ithin &ollic!lar cells ( "rod!ction o& "rec!rsor ( thyroglob!lin $1@B% and o idation o& iodide to iodine >ollic!lar l!men $storage site% ( iodination o& tyrosine "ortion o& 1@B +ith 1 or 2 iodine $11 or 12% and co!"ling to &orm 12 and 14 $1I4 ratio% 3ithin &ollic!lar cells ( lysosome digestion o& 1@B to clea,e o&& 1 2 ) 14# remnants recycled

* 12 more acti,e than 14

* *

Secretion ,ia li"id sol!ble di&&!sion into blood and trans"orted in blood by thyro ine(binding glob!lin $1B@% H"on entering target cell# 14 &re?!ently con,erted to 12

T0.T1 #roduction (graphic) T0 and T1 !ction

'ncrease BM8 $!se o& 62% ,ia increase "rod!ction o& 5aA4JA *1.ase &or electrogenic "!m"# heat increases body tem"erat!re $calorigenic e&&ect%

11

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

'ncreased cell!lar metabolism ,ia increased "rotein synthesis# increased !se o& gl!cose as *1. so!rce# increased li"olysis $incl!ding ele,ated cholesterol in bile +hich enhances li"id digestion% 8eg!lates gro+th and de,elo"ment $in addition to h@/ ) ins!lin%# "artic!larly the ner,o!s ) re"rod!cti,e system H"(reg!lates rece"tors o& catecholamines $e"i ) nore"i% Secretion controlled by hy"othalam!s based $thryrotro"in 8/% on lo+ metabolic rate or lo+ le,els o& 12 or 14 in blood Chec- e&&ects o& hy"o( or hy"ersecretion

* * * * * *

Calcitonin (CT) .rod!ced by "ara&ollic!lar cells 0o+ers blood calci!m and "hos"hates by decreasing acti,ity o& osteoclasts

* 0oss o& calcitonin "rod!ction has little e&&ect ( reason !n-no+n

#arathyroid %lands

* *

Bilateral s!"erior and in&erior "arathyroid glands attached to thyroid Com"osed o& t+o cell ty"es ( "rinci"al and o y"hil cells

* .rinci"al cells "rod!ce "arathyroid hormone $.1/ or "arathormone% * >!nction o& o y"hil cells !n-no+n
#arathyroid Hormone (#TH)

* * * *

'ncreases bone reabsor"tion $and calci!m and "hos"hate in blood% ,ia increased osteoclasts and their acti,ity 'ncreases -idney reabsor"tion o& Ca2A and Mg2A 'nhibits -idney "hos"hate $/.642(% reabsor"tion ( e&&ect !ltimately lo+ers "hos"hate le,el in blood Stim!lates -idney man!&act!re o& calcitriol &rom :it. D +hich enhances Ca 2A# /.642(# and Mg2A absor"tion by digesti,e tract 12

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

Secretion controlled by Ca2A le,el in blood

Ca23 Homeostasis (graphic) !drenal Corte,

* * *

*drenal gland str!ct!rally and &!nctionally di,ided into corte and med!lla De,elo"s &rom mesoderm Corte consists o& three layers# each secreting di&&erent hormones

* 6!ter layer ( zona glomerulosa "rod!ces mineralocorticoids that control

mineral homeostasis

* Middle layer ( zona fasiculata "rod!ces gl!cocorticoids that control gl!cose

homeostasis

* 'nner layer ( zona reticularis "rod!ces androgens $male se hormones%

Layers of !drenal Corte, (graphic) *ineralocorticoids

* * * * *

.rimarily $CE9% aldosterone 'ncreases -idney t!b!lar reabsor"tion o& 5aA +hich secondarily increases reabsor"tion o& Cl( and /C62( and +ater retention 'ncreases -idney e cretion o& JA and /A Secretion controlled by renin(angiotensin "ath+ay based on dehydration# lo+ 5aA or hemorrhage 6r JA at adrenal corte

)enin.!ngiotensin #athway (graphic) %lucocorticoids

* * *

.rimarily $CE9% cortisol $hydrocortisone% 'ncreases "rotein catabolism "rimarily in m!scle# amino acids in blood Stim!lates gl!coneogenesis in li,er &rom amino acids or lactic acid 12

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* *

Stim!lates ly"olysis in adi"ose cells .ro,ides an anti(in&lammatory e&&ect by red!cing K o& mast cells that "rod!ce histamine# decrease lysosomal release o& en<ymes# lo+er "ermeability o& ca"illaries and retard "hagocytosis and th!s also slo+ +o!nd healing De"ress imm!ne res"onse $decreases tiss!e re;ection in trans"lant cases% Secretion controlled by hy"othalam!s $corticotro"in releasing hormone $C8/%% based on cortisol le,el in blood 'ncreased release in res"onse to stress# increasing a,ailability o& *1. and heightened res"onse to ,asoconstrictors /y"osecretion ( *ddison=s disease /y"ersecretion ( C!shing=s syndrome

* * * * *

)egulation of Cortisol (graphic) !ndrogens

* *

.rimarily dehyroe"iandrosterone $DE/*% *ndrogen secretion a""ears more signi&icant in &emales $se dri,e and beha,ior%# "ost(meno"a!sal estrogen so!rce $con,erted% and in "re"!bertal gro+th and "!bertal mat!ration in both se es Secretion "robably controlled by *C1/ 'n males# largest "ro"ortion o& androgens &rom testes

* * * *

!drenal *edulla De,elo"s &rom ectoderm Com"osed "rimarily o& chroma&&in cells +hich are inner,ated by "reganglionic ne!rons o& sym"athetic 5S $th!s chroma&&in cells are s"eciali<ed "ostganglionic cells% 5e!rotransmitter e"i $879% and nore"i 'ncreases blood "ress!re $increased /8# &orce o& contraction# ,asoconstriction in some areas% 14

* *

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* * * * * * *

:asodilation in heart# li,er# s-eletal m!scle and adi"ose tiss!e Dilates air "assages to l!ngs Decreases digestion# increase blood gl!cose# and stim!late metabolism Secretion based on ne!ral in"!t &rom hy"othalam!s

#ancreas Both e ocrine $str!ct!rally as acini# digesti,e &!nction% and endocrine &!nction *bo!t 19 o& cells are "ancreatic islets $islets o& 0angerhans% >o!r di&&erent hormone secreting cell ty"es

* *l"ha $*% cells $279% ( gl!cagon

* 'ncreases blood gl!cose

* Beta $B% cells $D79% ( ins!lin

* Decreases blood gl!cose

* Delta $D% cells $E9% ( somatostatin $same as @/'/%

* 'nhibits release o& ins!lin ) gl!cagon $"aracrine acti,ity on al"ha ) beta cells%# and retards n!trient absor"tion in @' tract

* > cells ( "ancreatic "oly"e"tide

* 'nhibits release o& somatostatin# gallbladder contraction# and "ancreatic digesti,e en<ymes

* *

*ntagonistic control o& blood gl!cose by gl!cagon and ins!lin Diabetes mellit!s ( re,ie+ ca!ses and sym"toms &or 1y"e ' ) ''

#ancreatic /ltrastructure (graphic) 4slet of Langerhans (graphic) %lucose )egulation (graphic) *any Other Hormones

1E

Zoology 142

Endocrine System Ch 18

Dr. Bob Moeng

* * * * * * *

6,aries ( estrogens# "rogesterone# inhibin# rela in 1estes ( testosterone# inhibin .ineal gland ( melatonin 1hym!s ( thymosin# thymic h!moral &actor $1/>%# thymic &actor# thymo"oietin Eicosanoid $largely "rostaglandins and le!-otrienes% secretors * ,ariety o& gro+th &actor so!rces ( mitogenic

Hormones 5 Stress /omeostatic control ,s. res"onse to "rolonged or e treme stress $general ada"tation syndrome ( @*S%

* @*S res!lts in resetting o& normal control conditions ,ia hy"othalam!s

* * *

*larm reaction ( sym"athetic action 8esistance reaction ( hy"othalam!s4anterior "it!itary action starting +ith C8/# @/8/# and 18/ E ha!stion

%eneral !daptation Syndrome (%!S) (graphic)

1F