KEEE 2276 EXPERIMENT E1.

07 ACTIVE FILTERS (ELECTRONIC LABORATORY) MOHD FUAD BIN SARMAN (KEE 120026) DEMONSTRATOR: MR. MOHAMMAD AL SAMMAN

ABSTRACT

This experiment is studying on the active filters which are low-pass filter, high-pass filter and band-pass filter in practical approach. Here we are analysing the properties of the frequency response of each filters and the properties of gain for low-pass and high-pass filter. We are also discussing about the theoretical realisation of another filter which is band-reject filter. The experimental results are recorded and calculated as follow in purpose of analysis.

INTRODUCTION

A filter is a circuit that has designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all signals outside this band. Active filters employ transistors or op-amps plus resistors, inductors, and capacitors. There are four types of filters; low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-elimination (also referred to as band-reject or notch) filters. Figure 1 illustrates frequency-response plot for the four types of filters. A low-pass filter is a circuit that has a constant output voltage from dc up to a cut-off frequency fc. As the frequency increases above fc, the output voltage is attenuated (decreases). Figure 1(a) is a plot of magnitude of the output voltage of a low-pass filter versus frequency. The range of frequencies that are transmitted is known as the pass-band. The range of frequencies that are attenuated is known as the stop-band. The cut-off frequency fc is also called the 0.707 frequency, the 3-dB frequency, the corner frequency, or the break frequency.

High-pass filters attenuate the output voltage for all frequencies below the cut-off frequency fc. Above fc the magnitude of the output voltage is constant. Figure 1(b) is the plot for ideal and practical high-pass filters. Band-pass filters pass only a band of frequencies while attenuating all frequencies outside the band. Band-elimination filters perform in an exactly opposite way; that is, bandelimination filters reject a specified band of frequencies while passing all frequencies outside the band. Typical frequency-response plots for band-pass and band-elimination filters are shown in Figure 1(c) and (d).

Figure 1 Frequency responses of low-pass, high pass, band pass and band reject filters.

Low-pass Filter

Figure 2 A low-pass filter circuit configuration.

A low-pass filter circuit passes frequencies below the cut-off frequency. Capacitors impedance will vary when the frequency varies. In this filter circuit, when the frequency of the signal is low, the impedance of the capacitor will be very high as related with the equation (1): f = 1 2RC (1)

Thus, the capacitor will act as an open circuit, and the op-amp will act as an amplifier with gain of R1 R . When the input signal frequency is high, the impedance of the capacitor will

be very low, makes it acts as a short. Thus the gain of the op-amp will be zero.

High-pass Filter

Figure 3 A high-pass filter circuit configuration.

A high-pass filter circuit allow signal with frequencies higher than the cut-off frequency to pass while blocking the signal with lower frequencies. In this filter circuit, when the input signal frequency is low, the impedance of the capacitor will increase as described in equation (1). This also causes the gain of the op-amp circuit is reduced due to the ratio of R2 R which is

also reduced. When the frequency is high, the impedance of the capacitor will decrease, thus capacitor acts as a short and the gain of the op-amp will be high.

Band-pass Filter

Figure 3 A band-pass filter circuit configuration.

For a low pass filter this pass band starts from 0Hz or DC and continues up to the specified cut-off frequency point at -3dB down from the maximum pass band gain. Equally, for a high pass filter the pass band starts from this -3dB cut-off frequency and continues up to infinity or the maximum open loop gain for an Active Filter. However, the Active Band Pass Filter is slightly different in that it is a frequency selective filter circuit used in electronic systems to separate a signal at one particular frequency, or a range of signals that lie within a certain band of frequencies from signals at all other frequencies. This band or range of frequencies is set between two cut-off or corner frequency points labelled the lower frequency (fL) and the higher frequency (fH) while attenuating any signals outside of these two points. The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off frequency of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at the -3dB point will determine the bandwidth of the band pass filter while attenuating any signals outside of these points.

OBJECTIVE

To calculate and measure the critical frequencies and to measure the AC voltages as a function of frequency of various types of active filter circuit.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

TEST 1: LOW-PASS FILTER

Given that R = R1 = 10 k and C = 0.01 F. Calculated cut-off frequency, fL = 1 2R1 C1 1 2(10 103 )(0.01 106 )

= 1 591.55 Hz Gain, K = R1 R 10 k 10 k

=1 Input signal = 1 Vrms = 1 2 VPP = 1.414 VPP

F (Hz) V0 (V)

100 1.01

500 0.92

1 000 0.78

1 500 0.62

2 000 0.54

3 000 0.40

4 000 0.32

5 000 0.26

6 000 0.22

Table 1 Tabulation of output voltage of low-pass filter with respective frequencies for gain, K = 1.

Graph 1 Graph of voltage gain versus log frequency for low-pass filter with gain, K = 1.

From the above graph, we can see that the low-pass filter is filtering the low frequency by maintaining the voltage gain, which in this case, gain, K = 1 theoretically and removing the high frequency gain part. After the cut-off frequency, the voltage gain is started to be reduced. At the cut-off frequency fc of a drop, the voltage V is always fallen to the value: 1 2 = 0.7071 70.71 %

and the voltage level is damped by 20 log ( 1 2 ) = ()3.0103 dB. 1 2 1 2

Thus, from the above graph, cut-off voltage, Vcut-off =

Vmax

Vin

= 0.7071 V

Measured low-pass cut-off frequency: Log10 FL = 3.082 FL = 1 207.81 Hz

Experimentally, the obtained value of cut-off frequency is almost close, thus the experiment is considered an approximation of the theoretical assumption. However the value obtained is not so accurate due to some factor such as noise in the electronic components due to manufacturer hardware architecture.

For gain, K = 10 R1 R =K

R1 = K R = 10 10 k = 100 k Calculated cut-off frequency, fL = 1 2R1 C1 1 2(100 103 )(0.01 106 )

= 159.15 Hz F (Hz) V0 (V) 100 7.5 500 2.25 1 000 1.17 1 500 0.84 2 000 0.64 3 000 0.44 4 000 0.36 5 000 0.32 6 000 0.28

Table 2 Tabulation of output voltage of low-pass filter with respective frequencies for gain, K = 10.

Graph 2 Graph of voltage gain versus log frequency of low-pass filter with gain, K = 10.

Measured low-pass cut-off frequency: Log10 FL = 2.0540 FL = 113.24 Hz

The above table shows a tabulation of voltage gain with respective frequencies for gain, K = 10 and graph 2 describes the characteristics of experimental cut-off frequency of the lowpass circuit. As compared from the gain, K = 1, the bandwidth of the frequency response with gain 10 will be smaller since the cut-off frequency is decreased. The cut-off frequency is smaller once the gain is increased. Practically, as R1C1 increases, the cut-off frequency decreases, thus the bandwidth of the frequency response also become smaller. In this test, to achieve gain 10, the value of the resistor is increased thus makes the R1C1 increases.

TEST 2: HIGH-PASS FILTER

Given that R = R2 = 10 k and C = 0.01 F. Calculated cut-off frequency, fH = 1 2R2 C1 1 2(10 103 )(0.01 106 )

= 1 591.55 Hz F (Hz) V0 (V) 100 0.105 500 0.406 1 000 0.660 1 500 0.800 2 000 0.880 3 000 0.950 4 000 1.000 5 000 1.010 6 000 1.020

Table 3 Tabulation of output voltage of high-pass filter with respective frequencies for gain, K = 1.

Graph 3 Graph of voltage gain versus log frequency for high-pass filter with gain, K = 1.

From the above graph, the high-pass filter is filtering the high frequency by maintaining the voltage gain, which in this case, gain, K = 1 theoretically and removing the low frequency part. Before the cut-off frequency, the voltage gain is increasing which means, the lower the frequency the more gain to be reduced.

From the above graph, cut-off voltage, Vcut-off =

1 2 1 2

Vmax

Vin

= 0.7071 V Measured high-pass cut-off frequency: Log10 FH = 3.053 FH = 1 129.8 Hz

Experimentally, the obtained value of cut-off frequency is almost close, thus the experiment is considered an approximation of the theoretical assumption. The result is not accurately same as the theoretical value because of the handling and also manufacturing of the components which cause loss of some output.

For gain, K = 10 R2 = K R = 10 10 k = 100 k Calculated cut-off frequency, fH = 1 2R2 C1 1 2(100 103 )(0.01 106 )

= 159.15 Hz F (Hz) V0 (V) 100 0.96 500 4.20 1 000 6.90 1 500 8.20 2 000 9.40 3 000 10.10 4 000 10.50 5 000 10.70 6 000 10.70

Table 4 Tabulation of output voltage of high-pass filter with respective frequencies for gain, K = 10.

Graph 4 Graph of voltage gain versus log frequency for high-pass filter with gain, K = 10.

Measured high-pass cut-off frequency: Log10 FH = 3.0189 FH = 1 044.48 Hz

The above table shows a tabulation of voltage gain with respective frequencies for gain, K = 10. As compared from the gain, K = 1, the bandwidth of the frequency response with gain 10 will be smaller since the cut-off frequency is decreased. In this test, to achieve gain 10, the value of the resistor is increased to 100 k thus makes the R1C1 increases which decrease the cut-off frequency.

TEST 3: BANDPASS FILTER

Construction of bandpass filter with unity gain (K = 1) with the following criteria: Low Cut-off Frequency, fL = 159.15 Hz High Cut-off Frequency, fH = 1 591.55 Hz Using 0.01 F capacitors

Calculations

For low cut-off frequency, fL = 159.15 Hz fL = 1 2R1 C1 1 2fL C1 1 2(159.15)(0.01 106 )

R1 =

= 100 k

This R1 will be implemented into low-pass filter since the gain of the filter is decreasing after the cut-off frequency. This is to ensure that the band-pass filter can be created at in the region of when the gain of low-pass and high-pass filter is low.

For high cut-off frequency, fH = 1 591.55 Hz fH = 1 2R2 C1 1 2fH C1 1 2(1591.55)(0.01 106 )

R2 =

= 10 k

This R2 will be implemented into high-pass filter since the gain of the filter is decreasing before the cut-off frequency. This is to ensure that the band-pass filter can be created at in the region of when the gain of low-pass and high-pass filter is low.

F (Hz) V0 (V)

100 0.65

500 0.94

1 000 0.82

1 500 0.69

2 000 0.59

3 000 0.44

4 000 0.35

5 000 0.30

6 000 0.25

Table 5 Tabulation of output voltage of band-pass filter with respective frequencies for gain, K = 1.

Graph 5 Graph of voltage gain versus log frequency for band-pass filter.

Theoretically, band-pass filter is formed from the combination of low-pass and highpass filter which is connected in series and the value is the difference between both filter. It will results in the difference of both filter and thus the effective bandwidth is existed between the low and high cut-off frequency where the gain of both low-pass and high-pass filter is low. This is created due to the series connection of both low-pass and high-pass filter. From the above graph, cut-off voltage, Vcut-off = 1 2 1 2 Vmax

Vin

= 0.7071 V Measured high cut-off frequency: Log10 FH = 3.155 FH = 1 428.89 Hz

Measured low cut-off frequency: Log10 FL = 2.166 FL = 146.55 Hz

Experimentally, the obtained value of cut-off frequency is almost close, thus the experiment is considered an approximation of the theoretical assumption.

Discussion 1. PSpice verification: TEST 1: LOW-PASS FILTER

1.0V

0.8V 707.562mV

Cutoff Frequency = 1.598KHz

0.6V

0.4V

0.2V

0V 100Hz V(R3:1,0)

300Hz

1.0KHz Frequency

3.0KHz

10KHz

Cut-off voltage = 707.562 Cut-off frequency, fL=1.598 kHz

Gain 1

10V

6.01V 5V

Cutoff Frequency = 212.83Hz

0V 100Hz V(R3:1,0)

300Hz

1.0KHz Frequency

3.0KHz

10KHz

Cut-off voltage = 6.01 Cut-off frequency, fL=212.83 Hz

Gain 10

TEST 2: HIGH-PASS FILTER

1.0V

682.421mV

Cutoff Frequency = 1.490kHz

0.5V

0V 100Hz V(R3:1)

300Hz

1.0KHz Frequency

3.0KHz

10KHz

Cutoff Voltage = 682.421mV Cutoff Frequency, fL = 1.490kHz

Gain 1

10V

6.634V

Cutoff Frequency = 1.444kHz

5V

0V 100Hz V(R3:1)

300Hz

1.0KHz Frequency

3.0KHz

10KHz

Cutoff voltage = 6.634 Cutoff frequency, fL=1.444 kHz

Gain 10

TEST 3: BAND-PASS FILTER

1.0V 134.586Hz 1.885kHz

0.5V

Bandwidth = 1885 - 134.586 = 1.750kHz

0V 100Hz V(R3:1)

300Hz

1.0KHz Frequency

3.0KHz

10KHz

Cutoff voltage = 642.786 High cutoff frequency, fH = 134.586 Hz Low cutoff frequency, fL = 1.885 kHz

2. Construction of band-reject filter with the following criteria:

Low Cut-off Frequency, fL = 159.15 Hz High Cut-off Frequency, fH = 1 591.55 Hz Using 0.01 F capacitors. RLF = 100 k RHF = 10 k

To build a band-reject filter, the low-pass filter and high-pass filter are connected parallel to each other.

CONCLUSION
From the above experiment, it is known that the low-pass filter acts as high frequency blocker while keeping the low frequency, while for the high-pass filter, it acts vice versa from that low-pass filter in which block the low frequency and keep the high frequency. Band-pass filter is a filter that will amplify the difference of the low-pass and high-pass filters in which both are connected in series, while band-reject filter will produce the summation of both lowpass and high-pass filters.

REFERENCES
[1] J. W. Nilsson, S. A. Riedel, Active Filter Circuits, in Electric Circuits, vol. 9, Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey: 2011, pp. 580-625. [2] D. Vidyasagar, (2011 Dec 3). [online]. Available: http://vsagar.com/