Growing old in prison?

A review of national and international research on Ageing Offenders

prepared for Corrections Victoria by Shelley Turner BSW (Hons) and Chris Trotter BA BSW, TSTC MSW Ph Monash !ni"ersity Cri#inal $ustice %esearch Consortiu# chosen as the topic for the third paper in Corrections Victoria&s %esearch Paper series'

(ore)ord
An e*a#ination of the e"idence a"ailable on policy and practice in the #ana+e#ent of older prisoners )as of independence, isolation and loss of social support throu+h death of fa#ily and friends are so#e of the issues that can affect older prisoners'
as prisoner needs arisin+ fro# a+e in physical and #ental health' Chronic illness, reduced le"els of #obility, loss of hearin+, disability, de#entia, loss ,n particular, it hi+hli+hts the co#ple*ity and challen+es that can arise in the #ana+e#ent and rehabilitation of older prisoners, such The paper builds the e"idence base a"ailable to Corrections Victoria to +uide the correctional #ana+e#ent of a +ro)in+ and increasin+ly si+nificant cohort )ithin our prison population' , a# confident this research report )ill be a rele"ant and ti#ely resource that )ill encoura+e inno"ati"e approaches to policy and best practice in the #ana+e#ent of older offenders' While this paper did not e*tend to e*a#inin+ the factors behind +ro)th in the nu#ber of older prisoners, Corrections Victoria plans to further in"esti+ate this area in order to understand the underlyin+ factors dri"in+ this trend' , )elco#e any feedbac- or co##ents you #ay ha"e re+ardin+ this paper'

%.B/%T $ HAST,01S APM Co##issioner Corrections Victoria

DOJ_Corrections_Research Paper 3.indd 4

2' .utline of the 3iterature %e"ie) 4 5' Bac-+round 6 7' Who are .lder .ffenders8 29 :' ;ey ,ssues %elated to .lder .ffenders 27 2 5 7 Charts Victorian Prison Population A+ed ."er (ifty =ears 25 Approaches to Policy and Mana+e#ent of .lder .ffenders 2< Su##ary of Best Practice Principles 57 %eferences 54

.utline of the 3iterature %e"ie)

Ai#s of the %e"ie) This re"ie) )as co##issioned by Corrections Victoria, epart#ent of $ustice in 599> to e*a#ine national and international research and other rele"ant literature that deals )ith issues surroundin+ the effecti"e #ana+e#ent and care of old and a+ein+ offenders in prison and in the co##unity' ,t su##arises the -ey the#es e#er+in+ fro# the literature, notin+ a need for +reater international and local research, and identifies )hy this is a si+nificant issue' The re"ie) also e*a#ines inno"ati"e approaches to policy and the #ana+e#ent of older offenders and identifies best practice in relation to older prisoner detention, rehabilitation and post?release support' Structure of the %e"ie) efinition and description of @older offenders& iscussion and analysis of literature and findin+s on -ey issues related to older offenders iscussion and analysis of inno"ati"e approaches to policy and the #ana+e#ent of a+ein+ offenders ,dentification and su##ary of best practice principles in relation to a+ein+ prisoner detention, rehabilitation and post?release support iscussion of the need for +reater research into the issues related to older prisoners, particularly in Australia' Types of Material %e"ie)ed Preference has been +i"en (in order) to the follo)in+ types of #aterial as bein+ of "alue to accurately infor#in+ this literature re"ie)A Meta?analysis of rando#ised controlled trials ? none found At least one rando#ised controlled trial ? none found B At least one controlled study )ithout rando#isation ? none found At least one other type of Cuasi?e*peri#ental study

escripti"e studies, such as co#parati"e studies, correlation?based studies or case? control studies both' /*pert co##ittee reports or opinions, clinical e*perience or respected authority, or

Scope and Conte*t of the %e"ie) B Most of the literature and studies included in this re"ie) ori+inate fro# the !; (/n+land and Wales) and !SA, follo)ed by Australia, $apan and Canada D there is a dearth of pri#ary studies conducted in other parts of /urope and Australia' Studies )hich focused pri#arily on the health needs of older prisoners )ithout consideration of prison en"iron#ent or re+i#es ha"e been e*cluded fro# this re"ie) ("ery fe) )ere found)' The #aEority of pri#ary studies deal )ith older #ale prisoners, ho)e"er studies in"ol"in+ both #ale and fe#ale older prisoners ha"e been included in this re"ie)' .f note, is a 599: the#atic re"ie) by HM Chief ,nspector of Prisons entitled No

problems old and quiet: Older prisoners in England and Wales. The report is based on researcher obser"ations, e*a#ination of rele"ant docu#ents, and data fro# sur"eys, focus +roups and se#i?structured inter"ie)s )ith prisoners and staff' The sa#ple +roups includeA ::5 #ale prisoners a+ed o"er 49 years fro# fifteen different prisons (acco##odatin+ the lar+est nu#ber of #ales a+ed o"er 49 years), co#prisin+ 76 per cent of the o"er?49 #ale population and :< fe#ale prisoners a+ed o"er F9 years fro# three )o#en&s prisons, co#prisin+ 72 per cent of the o"er?F9 fe#ale population (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons)' A follo)?up re"ie) )as conducted in 5996, entitled, Older prisoners in England and Wales: a follow-up to the 2 ! themati" re#iew. Also of note are t)o publications by the Prison %efor# Trust (P%T)A $rowing Old in %rison: & '"oping 'tud( on Older %risoners , by ;en Ho)se, (5997), re"ie)s research and policy issues and pro"ides a profile of older prisoners in /n+land and Wales' )O*N$ +*,E: the e-perien"es and needs of older people in prison , (5996), a report based on findin+s fro# t)o focus +roups )ith fe#ale prisoners, inter"ie)s )ith <6 #ale prisoners and 26 e*?prisoners, and letters sent to the researchers and P%T&s ad"ice and infor#ation ser"ice' A co#prehensi"e and useful article is by $ohn $' ;erbs (599>), @ & "ommentar( on age segregation for older prisoners: philosophi"al and pragmati" "onsiderations for "orre"tional s(stems' This article pro"ides so#e conte*t for the a+ein+ of the prison population in the !SA and uses a @#ultidisciplinary literature re"ie)& to pro"ide a Eustification for a+e?se+re+ated prisons' /Cually of rele"ance in an Australian conte*t is an article by $ohn a)es (599>) @&geing %risoners: *ssues for 'o"ial Wor.' The article is based on a )ide?ran+in+ literature re"ie) and a s#all, e*ploratory study into a +roup of prisoners& indi"idual e*perience of a+ein+ in South Australian prisons and ar+ues for e*a#ination of and chan+es to current policy and practice around prison re+i#es, acco##odation, health care, sentencin+, i#prison#ent and release' B .f further and final note, particularly in relation to best practice principles, is the /andboo. on %risoners with spe"ial needs (599>), de"eloped and published by the !nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e, )hich outlines prison #ana+e#ent +uidelines for respondin+ to the special needs of older prisoners and pro"ides a set of reco##endations ai#ed at prison authorities, policy and la) #a-ers' efinition of Ter#s The follo)in+ ter#s are defined for the purposes of co#prehendin+ this literature re"ie)A @.lder .ffenders& D people a+ed at least fifty years and abo"e, subEect to either a co##unity?based cri#inal order, includin+ parole, or incarcerated in a prison D also referred to in the literature as @a+ed&, @a+ein+&, @elderly& and @+eriatric& @.lder Prisoners& D people a+ed at least fifty years and abo"e and incarcerated in a prison D this ter# is used to discuss issues that are solely rele"ant to people in a prison settin+ D also referred to in the literature as @a+ed&, @a+ein+&, @elderly&, @+eriatric& and @in#ates& @Post?release SupportG B2 plannin+ and preparation underta-en to assist prisoners to transition successfully fro# the custodial en"iron#ent to the co##unity by reducin+ the ris- of recidi"is# and re? incarceration and enhancin+ the prospects of successful co##unity inte+ration B5 also referred to in the literature as @e*it or re?entry plannin+&, @re?inte+ration&, @social care&, and @throu+h care&'

@HTIhe presu#ption that i#prison#ent is @a youn+ #an&s +a#e&

has #ar+inalised the di#ensions of a+e in both research and policy debate'&
(Cra)ley 599:) An a+ein+ society

The population of Australia is both increasin+ and a+ein+, #eanin+ that in the future there )ill be +reater nu#bers of older people than youn+ people' Accordin+ to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), @,n addition to the future siJe of the population, the #ost profound chan+e that is proEected to occur is the a+ein+ of the population (Australian Bureau of Statistics 599>)' The ABS proEections date fro# 5996 to 5292 for Australia and ha"e substantial i#plications for future econo#ic +ro)th and the @Kpro"ision of inco#e support, health and a+ed care ser"ices& (Australian Bureau of Statistics 599>)' Si#ilarly, prison populations are also a+ein+ and there is considerable e"idence to indicate that older prisoners are increasin+ in nu#ber across Western countries and the Asia?Pacific (Aday, 5997L Aleen et al' 5996L Allen 5997L APCCA 5992L Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y 599<L Bir#in+ha# 5996L Carlisle 5994L co##unitycare'co'u- 5997L Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 599FL obson 599:L /r+er 5995L /"ans 599FL (aJel, Hope, .& onnell M $acoby 5992L (aJel, Hope, .& onnell, Piper et al' 5992L 1rant 2>>>L Harrison, MT 5994L HM Prison Ser"ice Hno dateIL $ones 599<L ;e#p-er 5997L 3inder M Meyers 599<L McCaffrey 599<L Mit-a 599:L .nishi 5996L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, 5997b, 5997c, 599:, 5994, 5996bL %i-ard M %osenber+ 599<L %uddell M ;uhl#ann 599FL Valios 5996L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin M Aday 5994L Willia#s 5996L =orston M Taylor 5994)' ,n /n+land and Wales, there )as a threefold increase in the nu#ber of prisoners o"er the a+e of 49 bet)een 2>>9 and 5999 (co##unitycare'co'u- 5997) and fro# 2>>9 to 599:, a rise of 524 per cent (Cra)ley 599:)' This appears to be the fastest +ro)in+ a+e?+roup a#on+ prisoners in the !; (Valios 5996)' A threefold increase also occurred in prisoners o"er the a+e of 49, bet)een 2>>4 and 5994, in $apan (Bir#in+ha# 5996)' A 5994 $apanese 0ational Police A+ency report noted that the proportion of people a+ed 4F and o"er, arrested or ta-en into custody for offences (not includin+ traffic offences) rose fro# 5'5 per cent in 2>>9 to #ore than 29 per cent in 599F (%eynolds 5996)' ,n the !SA, bet)een 2>>9 and 2>>4, the nu#ber of prisoners a+ed :F to F: increased by <2 per cent (per 299,999 !SA residents) (1illiard M Bec- 2>>6)' ,n $une 5997, the co#bined total of people a+ed FF or older in !S federal, state and local prisons )as 44,599 (Harrison, PM M ;arber+ 599:)' ,n 599<, this fi+ure for the sa#e a+e +roup had increased to 6>,:99 (West M Sabol 599>)' ,t is predicted that by 5929, one?third of all prisoners in the !nited States )ill be a+ed F9 or older (0eeley, Addison M Crai+?Moreland 2>><) and by 5979, one? third )ill be o"er the a+e of FF years (;erbs 599>)' A 2>>6, Correctional Ser"ice of Canada report )arned to prepare for the @+rayin+ of Canada& in the prisons and reported that in $anuary 2>>4, 2,F5< people in prison )ere a+ed FF years or #ore (!Joaba 2>>6)' A #ore recent report, indicates that in 5996 this fi+ure increased to :,29>, al#ost 59 per cent of the federal offender population and it is i#portant to note that the definition of older prisoners e*panded to include those F9 years or older (Correctional Ser"ice of Canada 5996)' Accordin+ to a 599< prison census report fro# the 0e) Nealand epart#ent of Corrections, @1ro)th in o"erall nu#bers has al#ost entirely been a#on+st older offenders& (Harpha# 5996)' The report classifies @older prisoners& as those o"er the a+e of 79 years and notes that bet)een 2>69 and 599<, this a+e?+roup increased fro# co#prisin+ 59 per cent of the total prison population to F6 per cent' Moreo"er, accordin+ to a trend +raph detailin+ prison sentencin+ by a+e, there appears to be a clear trend since 2>6< to)ard increasin+ nu#bers for prisoners a+ed F9 years and o"er (Harpha# 5996)'
,n Australia, the situation #irrors that of these other Western countries' The Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y (A,C) (599<) has reported that despite an o"erall trend to)ards stabilisation of the prison populationL bet)een 2>6F and 5994, the nu#bers continued to increase for prisoners a+ed F9 years and abo"e' Moreo"er, )hile +ro)th "aried across older a+e +roups, the hi+hest rate of +ro)th (a #ean yearly increase of 24 per cent) )as in the +roup a+ed 49

? 4: years (Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y 599<)' Accordin+ to a)es& (599>) interpretation of ABS fi+ures fro# 599>, @At $une 5996, the i#prison#ent rate for )o#en )as 5: per 299,999 and, for Abori+inal people, the a+e standardised rate )as 2,<4> per 299,999 of the adult ,ndi+enous population (ABS, 599>)'& ,n Victoria, receptions into prisons of o"er?49?year?olds increased fro# F> in 599:, to 292 in 5996 (#ore than <9 per cent), and a#on+ current prisoners, nu#bers ha"e risen fro# 2:2 to 2<> (o"er 5F per cent) ( epart#ent of $ustice 599>)'

Prisoners a+ed o"er F9 years increased fro# :75 to 4F4 prisoners bet)een 79 $une 599F and 79 $une 599>' This is an increase of F5 per cent o"er a fi"e year period' ,n 599> the proportion of prisoners a+ed F9 years or #ore )as sli+htly hi+her for #en (2F'5 per cent) than for )o#en (27'F per cent)'
While ac-no)led+in+ the a+ein+ of the +eneral population and the reflection of this in prison populations, #any )riters su++est that this does not adeCuately or accurately account for older prisoner population +ro)th and that tou+her and #andatory sentencin+ la)s, as )ell as reduced options for early prison release, are the real underlyin+ cause of the increased nu#bers of older prisoners (Aday, 5994L BBC 5997L a)es 599>L ;e#p-er 5997L ;erbs 599>L Valios 5996)' A !; Prison %efor# Trust (5997a) report titled, )ouble punishment for older prisoners, su++ests the follo)in+A The increase in the elderly prison population is not e*plained by de#o+raphic chan+es, nor can it be e*plained by a so?called @elderly cri#e )a"e&' The increases are due to harsher sentencin+ policiesK HandI courts are also tendin+ to i#prison those older offenders )hose cri#es #ost challen+e society&s a+e?relate stereotypes' This is identified by the Prison %efor# Trust as @sentence inflation& and the build up of older prisoners sentenced to lon+ prison ter#s and to life sentences, co#bined )ith youn+ prisoners and first?ti#e older prison entrants ser"in+ lon+er sentences (in the case of the latter, freCuently for se*ual offences) is described by so#e )riters as a &stac-in+ effect& (Aday, 5997L ;erbs 599>L 3e Mesurier 5996)' Bet)een 2>>F and 5992, there )as a threefold increase in the nu#ber of older prisoners ser"in+ sentences in the !; of #ore than four years, an increase fro# 726 to >44, so that by 5992, of these older prisoners, 69 per cent )ere ser"in+ sentences of four or #ore years ( obson 599:)' Writers also point to li#ited rehabilitation fundin+ and inter"entions for older offenders as a reason for the increase in older prisoner populations, as these are #ore stron+ly tar+eted at youn+ offenders, )ho are percei"ed to reCuire +reater le"els of support and to ha"e +reater capacity for chan+e, resultin+ in their cri#es +enerally pro"o-in+ less puniti"e responses (BorJyc-i 599FL Bra#hall 5994L co##unitycare' co'u- 5997L ;erbs 599>)'

Who are .lder .ffenders8

The @A+ed& There is no clear a+ree#ent a#on+ researchers, policy?#a-ers and corrections ad#inistrators as to )hat constitutes an @older offender& and definitions "ary substantially throu+hout the literature, ran+in+ fro# :F years and abo"e to 4F years and abo"e (1alla+her 5992L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:L StoE-o"ic 599<L Tho#as, Tho#as M 1reenber+ 599FL Wahidin, 5997L =orston M Taylor 5994)' 1enerally, prisoners abo"e the a+e of F9 in the !nited States and Australia are defined as @older prisoners&, )hile in the !nited ;in+do#, this definition applies to those o"er the a+es of 49 or 4F years (!nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>)' Canada has a #ore detailed definition syste#, usin+ the ter# @older prisoners& to refer to those a+ed bet)een F9 to 4: years, @elderly prisoners& for those a+ed 4F or older and @+eriatric offenders& for those a+ed <9 or #ore, yet the ter#s are not used consistently and @older prisoners&L appears to be the preferred ter# for all these a+e? cate+ories (!nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>L !Joaba 2>>6)' The issue of definition is clearly proble#atic for co#parati"e research and can i#pede the de"elop#ent of a sound e"idence?base around the de#o+raphics of older prisoners and #a-in+ +eneralisations about related issues, such as offence types, recidi"is# rates and prison #ana+e#ent issues' efinitions can also be arbitrary, unrelated to the @operational realities of prisons& (StoE-o"ic 599<) and the sole reliance on chronolo+ical a+e as an indicator of ser"ice need appears #is+uided (=orston M Taylor 5994)' So#e definitions also clu#p @older prisoners& to+ether as an ho#o+enous +roup )ithout re+ard for indi"idual characteristics and needs (Hec-enber+ 5994)' (or e*a#ple, a si+nificant shortco#in+ to usin+ 49, rather than F9 years to define older prisoners, is that this e*cludes al#ost all fe#ale prisoners in /n+land and Wales (Ah#ed 5996L obson 599:L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 5996)' espite the "ariability of definition, #ost )riters and researchers a+ree that @older offenders& are at least F9 years of a+e (Correctional Ser"ice of Canada 5996L 1aseau 5995L ;erbs M $olley 599<L 3oeb M Abu a++a 5994L 3oeb, Steffens#eier M 3a)rence 5996L 3ondon (ree Press (Canada) 5997L Martin 5992, 5995bL Mit-a 599:L .-laho#a epart#ent of Corrections 5996L StoE-o"ic 599<L Wahidin, 5997)' This tends to "ary considerably fro# the definitions of old a+e used to refer to people in society +enerally, )here the cut?off a+e is typically related to the a+e of retire#ent fro# the )or-?force and eli+ibility for financial support' ,n #ost Western countries, includin+ Australia, @old a+e& is considered to start around the a+e of 49 ? 4F years (Australian Bureau of Statistics 599>L epart#ent of Health 5992L Health Canada 5995)' Many )riters su++est that F9 years is used as an appropriate +au+e for @old a+e& in prison because it is based on research findin+s that the a+ein+ process is accelerated by appro*i#ately 29 years in prison, as the #aEority of people )ho end up in prison are already in poor health, due to leadin+ li"es in"ol"in+ #alnutrition, lac- of #edical care and substance #isuse, and because prison en"iron#ents escalate a+e?related illnesses and other conditions (APCCA 5992L Carlisle 5994L Charleston aily Mail 5994L Correctional Ser"ice of Canada 5996L obson 599:L

/r+er 5995L /tter 5994L 1aseau 599:L 3ondon (ree Press (Canada) 5997L StoE-o"ic 599<L !nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>)' 3i-e)ise, #ost Australian researchers appear to prefer to li#it the definition of older offenders to those a+ed F9 years and o"er, in order to acco##odate research, )hich has identified @K an apparent 29?year differential bet)een the o"erall health of prisoners and that of the +eneral population& (1rant 2>>>)' .lder Prisoner 1roups

(urther underscorin+ the i#portance of considerin+ older prisoners as a di"erse, rather than ho#o+enous +roup, researchers ha"e identified the follo)in+ four #ain +roups of older prisoners (Aday, 5994L a)es 599>L 1rant 2>>>L Tho#as, Tho#as M 1reenber+ 599F)A (irst?ti#e prisoners, incarcerated at an older a+e A+ein+ recidi"ist offenders, )ho enter and e*it prison throu+hout their life?ti#e and return to prison at an older a+e Prisoners ser"in+ a lon+ sentence, )ho +ro) old )hile incarcerated Prisoners sentenced to shorter periods of incarceration late in life'

Accordin+ to StoE-o"ic (599<), @The e*perience of prison is different for each of these +roups of people, but lin-ed by the @o"er)hel#in+ stress& of incarceration'& A nu#ber of )riters ha"e noted the hi+h nu#ber of first?ti#e prisoners a#on+ older offenders' A 2>>: Correctional Ser"ices Canada report notes that F> per cent of prisoners a+ed bet)een F9?F> years and <5 per cent of those a+ed o"er 49 years )ere first?ti#e prisoners (Hec-enber+ 5994)' Accordin+ to Aday (5997), in the !SA #ore than F9 per cent of older prisoners )ere incarcerated for their first ti#e, )hile in Australia, 1rant (2>>>) indicated that 44'F per cent of the prison populations )ere ser"in+ their first custodial sentence' Tho#as et al' (599F) note that of the three #ain +roups of older offenders, the a+ein+ recidi"ists are #ore li-ely to @Kha"e syste#atically abused the#sel"es throu+h e*cessi"e drin-in+, ille+al dru+ usa+e, and a sedentary lifestyle that predisposes the# to lon+?ter# health proble#s'''& (StoE-o"ic 599<)' This e#phasises the i#portance of tailorin+ inter"entions to the specific needs of each older prisoner and treatin+ older prisoners as a di"erse +roup of indi"iduals )ith di"erse needs and accordin+ to their co#binations of +ender, ethnicity, cultural identification, health status, but not defined by their chronolo+ical a+e alone' Se* .ffenders Althou+h a @typical& older offender is not identified in the literature, the apparently increasin+ pre"alence of se* offenders a#on+ +roups of older, #ale prisoners and their uniCue set of needs is freCuently noted throu+hout the literature (APCCA 5992L Bra#hall 5994L Carlisle 5994L Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 5994L obson 599:L Hec-enber+ 5994L ."e 599FL Papani-olas 5994L Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, 5997b, 5994L !Joaba 2>>6L Valios 5996)' The !; Prison %efor# Trust reports an al#ost t)ofold increase in the nu#ber of older #ale prisoners bet)een 2>>: and 599: and of these 2,F9< older #ale prisoners, #ore than half )ere incarcerated for se* offences (Carlisle 5994)' Si#ilarly, the !; study by Ho)se (5997), found that @increasin+ a+e #ar-ed bi+ chan+es in the pattern of offences, )ith the proportion of #ale se*ual offenders in the prison population increasin+ )ith a+eK& (Hec-enber+ 5994)' Accordin+ to Hec-enber+ (5994), of all #ale sentenced prisoners o"er the a+e of :F in Tas#ania, South Australia, Victoria and 0e) Nealand, F9 per cent )ere i#prisoned for se*ual assault and ho#icide' ,t appears that in the !;, !SA, Canada and Australia, this rise in older se* offenders in prison could be due to #ore a++ressi"e policin+ practices and +o"ern#ent le+islati"e responses to public disCuiet about se* offenders and so?called lenient sentencin+ (BBC 5997L 1aseau 599:L Hec-enber+ 5994)' Contrary to other older offenders, se* offenders are a hi+hly "isible +roup and are freCuently cate+orised by their offence, rather than their a+e (Bra#hall 5994L obson 599:L Hec-enber+ 5994)' So#e )riters ar+ue that therefore, older se* offenders are subEected to the hi+hest le"el of discri#ination of any offender +roup, by "irtue of the co#bination of their a+e and offence cate+ory and the public attitudes that +o alon+ )ith these offenders (Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 5994L Hec-enber+ 5994L Prison %efor# Trust 5997a)' .lder .ffender Minority 1roups Within the #inority cate+ory of @older offenders& there are a nu#ber of s#aller #inority

+roups, loosely +rouped to+ether accordin+ to +ender, race, ethnicity and culture, that reCuire so#e co##entary' (or the purposes of this re"ie), discussion has been confined to the t)o #ost predo#inant +roups in AustraliaA older )o#en offenders and older Abori+inal offenders (includin+ )o#en)' Accordin+ to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (5996), of the total prisoner population (5<,42F) in Australia at 79 $une 5996, G< per cent (2,>F<) )ere fe#ale and 5: per cent (4,<94) )ere ,ndi+enous'&

A nu#ber of )riters dra) attention to older )o#en offenders +enerally as an i#portant, but often o"erloo-ed, +roup )ithin the lar+er #inority +roup of older offenders (Aday, 5997L Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L Codd 2>>4L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin, 599:L =or-e 599>)' The nu#bers of fe#ales in the cri#inal Eustice syste# +enerally is si+nificantly s#aller than the nu#bers of #ales and there is an increasin+ a)areness that this has resulted in a lac- of attention to their needs fro# the perspecti"es of researchers, correctional ad#inistrators, policy #a-ers and le+islators (Martin 5995a)' Wahidin (5994) asserts that @S#all nu#bers ()o#en and old prisoners, old )o#en prisonersK) His +i"enI as Eustification for lac- of discussion, debate, fundin+ and inter"entionK& The fi+ure for Abori+inal people in prison is close to ten ti#es their representation in the +eneral Australian population of )hich they represent appro*i#ately 5'F per cent (Willis M Moore 5996)'

A 5994 Australian Hu#an %i+hts Co##ission %eport su++ested that indi+enous )o#en are the fastest +ro)in+ prison population' (indin+s fro# the %oyal Co##ission into Abori+inal eaths in Custody (2>6< D 2>>2) indicated that, Abori+inal )o#en and +irls )ere "astly o"er? represented at all le"els of the cri#inal Eustice syste# and that Abori+inal )o#en )ere #ore o"er?represented than Abori+inal #en in custody' (indin+s also sho)ed that ,ndi+enous )o#en co#prised close to 2: per cent of all fe#ale prisoners in Australia, yet accounted for less than 2'F per cent of the national fe#ale population' Throu+hout the four year period of the %oyal Co##ission, there )as a 47 per cent increase in the rate of i#prison#ent of Abori+inal )o#en nationally (Cunneen 2>>5A 1reen 3eft Wee-ly 2>>5)' 0e"ertheless the nu#ber of older abori+inal )o#en in custody is relati"ely s#all' ,n Victoria for e*a#ple the total nu#ber of abori+inal )o#en in custody "aried bet)een 79 and F9 in the years bet)een $uly 599: and $une 5996 ( epart#ent of $ustice 599>)' There )ere, ho)e"er no fe#ale abori+inal prisoners o"er the a+e of F9 recei"ed into Victorian prisons in that period ( epart#ent of $ustice 599>)' This no doubt reflects the lo)er life e*pectancy of abori+inal people (F>': years for #en and 4:'6 for )o#en in the years bet)een 2>>4?5992) and the fact that the a"era+e a+e of both abori+inal #en and )o#en prisoners in Australia is lo)er than the a"era+e a+e for other prisoners (Australian Hu#an %i+hts co##ission 5994)' ,t appears that the offendin+ path)ays or the reasons )hy older )o#en and Abori+inal )o#en end up in prison are different fro# those of #en' Accordin+ to Codd (2>>4), @.lder )o#en&s cri#inal beha"iour is usually lin-ed to psycholo+ical and physical factorsKHandI to the fa#ily circu#stances of the HoffenderI, includin+ do#estic dissatisfaction'& Aday (5997) ar+ues that older )o#en often co##it cri#es for the necessities of life such as shopliftin+ and other petty cri#es' Moreo"er, it appears that +i"en these differences, alon+side the differences bet)een #en and )o#en +enerally, a nu#ber of )riters ar+ue for +ender? and culturally?specific responses to offendin+ beha"iour by older )o#en, and older Abori+inal #en and )o#en (Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L Codd 2>>4L Cunneen 2>>5L Martin 5995aL Wahidin, 5997L Willis M Moore 5996)' (or e*a#ple, in an article on the particular needs of older )o#en offenders, Cald)ell et al' (5992) ar+ue that older )o#en offenders @Kpresent their o)n set of needs that should be addressed by desi+ners, architects, and en+ineers in concert )ith correctional a+encies so the result )ill be an attracti"e, safe, and functional en"iron#ent'

Health concerns As )ith older people in the )ider co##unity, the #ost i##ediate and ob"ious issues facin+ older prisoners are those related to a+ein+ and associated declines in #ental and physical health' Ho)e"er, as noted, considerin+ the ad"anced +ap bet)een the deterioration of prisoners& health and that of the +eneral population, a prisoner )ho nu#erically is F9 years of a+e, biolo+ically, has a body that is #uch older (up to 29 years), resultin+ in earlier onset of @a+e?related& health concerns (/tter 5994L 1aseau 599:L 1rant 2>>>)' These concerns can include, copin+ )ith chronic andOor ter#inal illness, deaths of friends and si+nificant others, social isolation, fear of dyin+, pain #ana+e#ent, reduced le"els of #obility, disability, loss of independence, co+niti"e i#pair#ents, depression and suicidal ideation (Aday, 5997L Aleen et al' 5996L Allen 5997L APCCA 5992L Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L Carlisle 5994L Colsher et al' 2>>5L co##unitycare'co'u- 5997L Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 599FL obson 599:L /r+er 5995L (aJel et al' 5992L (ry M Ho)e 599FL 1alla+her 5992L 1rant 2>>>L Harrison, MT 5994L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L Hobbs et al' 5994L $ones 599<L ;e#p-er 5997L 3oeb M Abu a++a 5994L McCaffrey 599<L Mit-a 599:L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, 5997b, 5994, 5996bL %osefield 2>>7L Taylor M Parrott 2>66L Valios 5996L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin, M Aday 5994L =orston M Taylor 5994)' (indin+s fro# a t)o? year study, conducted in four !; prisons, )hich e*a#ined the prison e*periences and post? release e*pectations of #ale prisoners a+ed 4F ? 6: years, su++est thatA

@H/Ilderly #en in prison often ha"e enor#ous difficulties si#ply copin+ )ith the prison re+i#e' ,n addition, #ost ha"e certain painful preoccupations, includin+ a fear of dyin+ in prison, the loss of fa#ilial contact, the loss of a @protector& role, the loss of a respectable (nonprisoner) identity and the loss of a coherent and satisfactory life narrati"e (Cra)ley M Spar-s 599F)'
A nu#ber of researchers also hi+hli+ht the particular health care needs of older )o#en in prisons and ar+ue for +ender?specific responses to address these (Aday, 5997L Ah#ed 5996L Bra#hall 5994L Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L obson 599:L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L McCaffrey 599<L Prison %efor# Trust 5997b, 5996bL Valios 5996L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin, M Aday 5994)' Accordin+ to ;erbs (599>), @%esearch by ;ratcos-i and Babb (2>>9) found that older fe#ale prisoners )ere t)o ti#es as li-ely as older #ale prisoners to report serious health proble#s such as cardiac, de+enerati"e, and respiratory illnesses'& Si#ilarly, Cald)ell et al' (5992) assert that, @Heart disease?particularly coronary artery disease and con+esti"e heart failure??is the #ost co##on illness of older fe#ale in#ates, follo)ed by cancers of the lun+, breast, and cer"i*'& .ther )riters ha"e noted that screenin+ and pre"entati"e healthcare is particularly poor for )o#en (Prison %efor# Trust 5996bL Wahidin, 5997)'

Mental health and adEust#ent %esearch su++ests that )hile older prisoners +enerally present as less disrupti"e and therefore, @better adEusted& to incarceration than youn+er prisoners, a considerable nu#ber e*perience depression and other psycholo+ical proble#s, su++esti"e of institutional adEust#ent difficulties (Aleen et al' 5996L Allen 5997L Carlisle 5994L co##unitycare'co'u5997L Cra)ley 599:L obson 599:L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:L Morton M Anderson 2>65L Prison %efor# Trust 5997b, 5994, 5996aL Valios 5996)' Historically, not #uch attention appears to ha"e been paid to these and other issues related to older prisoners, due in part to the perception of prison staff that older prisoners are @co#pliant& and therefore, not (o"ertly) a @proble#& (Cra)ley 599:L 1rant 2>>>L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L ;raEic- 2><>L Wahidin, 5997)' This issue is encapsulated by a report on a the#atic re"ie) of the treat#ent of older prisoners in /n+land and Wales, as follo)sA @0o proble#s D old and Cuiet& )as an entry that )e found in an older prisoner&s )in+ history sheet in the course of our field)or- for this report' ,t aptly su##arises the situation of #any of the 2<99 older prisoners no) held in our prisons' ,n +eneral, older prisoners pose no control proble#s for staff' But, because of that, prisoners& o)n proble#s, particularly as they +ro) older and less able?bodied, can easily be ne+lected (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:)' The report is based on researcher obser"ations, e*a#ination of rele"ant docu#ents, and data fro# sur"eys, focus +roups and se#i?structured inter"ie)s )ith prisoners and staff' The sa#ple +roups includeA ::5 #ale prisoners a+ed o"er 49 years fro# fifteen different prisons, (co#prisin+ 76 per cent of the o"er?49 #ale population) and :< fe#ale prisoners a+ed o"er F9 years fro# three )o#en&s prison, (co#prisin+ 72 per cent of the o"er?F9 fe#ale population) (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:)' Accordin+ to the @$rowing Old in %rison 0eport (Ho)se, 5997) o"er F9 per cent of older prisoners are e*periencin+ a #ental health disorder, the #ost co##on of )hich is depression (co##unitycare'co'u- 5997)' This appears to ha"e i#plications for older offenders )hen they e*it prison, particularly those )ith unidentified #ental health needs, as they are unable to access an assort#ent of health and social ser"ices, lea"in+ the# "ulnerable and at ris- of re? offendin+ (co##unitycare'co'u- 5997)' ,ncreasin+ costs Correspondin+ )ith the rise of older prisoners, #any researchers and )riters point to an increase in health?care costs as a concern for policy?#a-ers, prison ad#inistrators and the co##unity (Aday, 5997L Ah#ed 5996L APCCA 5992L co##unitycare' co'u- 5997L Cra)ley 599:L /r+er 5995L 1reen 599>L $ones 599<L ;e#p-er 5997L McCaffrey 599<L ."e 599FL Wahidin, M Aday 5994)' ,n the !SA, Aday (5997) and ;erbs (599>) su++est that the cost to acco##odate an a"era+e youn+er prisoner is about !SP55,999 per annu#, )hile it costs three ti#es #ore (bet)een !SP49,999 and !SP4>,999 per annu#) for the a"era+e older prisoner' They attribute this increase as partly due to the a#plified health care costs to #ana+e chronic illnesses' Accordin+ to a 2>>> report published by the Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y, health care costs for older prisoners )ere already appro*i#ately three ti#es +reater than for their youn+er counterparts (1rant 2>>>)' ,n addition, addin+ to actual and potential costs, #any prison ad#inistrators are considerin+ or ha"e responded to older prisoners& health needs throu+h hirin+ staff )ith specialised trainin+ (e'+' palliati"e care, +erontolo+y) andO or the creation of nursin+ or @older prisoner& units (Allen 5997L APCCA 5992L Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L Carlisle 5994L Cra)ley 599:L /r+er 5995L /"ans 599FL (ry M Ho)e 599FL 1rant 2>>>L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L ;erbs 599>L ;erbs M $olley 599<L ;raEic- 2><>L 3inder M Meyers 599<L Mit-a 599:L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997b, 5996bL Wahidin, 5997)'

Prison en"iron#ent and re+i#e Many researchers ar+ue that older prisoners& health concerns are e*acerbated, rather than relie"ed, by #ost prison en"iron#ents and re+i#es (Aday, 5994L Aleen et al' 5996L Allen 5997L Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y 599<L Carlisle 5994L Colsher et al' 2>>5L a)es 599>L epart#ent of Health 5992L obson 599:L /r+er 5995L (aJel 599:L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:L Prison %efor# Trust 5996bL %i-ard M %osenber+ 599<L Wahidin, 5997)' The HM ,nspectorate of Prisons report for /n+land and Wales (599:) concluded that, @Prisons are pri#arily desi+ned for, and inhabited by, youn+ and able?bodied peopleL and in +eneral the needs of the old and infir# are not #et&' There is considerable e"idence to support this and to further su++est that prison en"iron#ents and re+i#es do not cater for the needs of older prisoners )ith physical disabilities, such as, li#ited #obility (e'+' reCuirin+ the use of ra#ps, )heelchairs, )al-in+ fra#es or stic-s), hearin+ or "ision i#pair#ents, infir#ity or incontinency (Aday, 5997L Ah#ed 5996L Bir#in+ha# 5996L Carlisle 5994L Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 599FL a)es 599>L obson 599:L /r+er 5995L (ry M Ho)e 599FL 1alla+her 5992L 1rant 2>>>L Harrison, MT 5994L $ones 599<L

;e#p-er 5997L McCaffrey 599<L .nishi 5996L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, 5997b, 5997c, 599:, 5994L %uddell M ;uhl#ann 599FL Valios 5996L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin M Aday 5994L Willia#s 5996)' Many )riters point to clear issues of discri#ination a+ainst such older prisoners, notin+ difficulties or lac- of access to prison facilities, (such as libraries, sho)ers, baths, upper bunbeds, stored property), as )ell as to pro+ra#s and re+i#es, (such as, e*ercise, crafts, education) (APCCA 5992L Bir#in+ha# 5996L a)es 599>L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996)' /*a#ples pro"ided by )riters include @Ka deaf prisoner #issin+ out on e*ercise and education due to not hearin+ shouted instructions& (Prison %efor# Trust Hno dateI) and @Ka#on+ those )ith #obility proble#sKso#e prisonersKH)hoI )ere able to sho)er only e"ery #onth or t)o& (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:)' a)es (599>) notes thatA Althou+h prisoners in Australia are not @@ci"illy dead&& and enEoy so#e for# of li#ited citiJenship (Bro)n, 5995), there is no absolute ri+ht to obtain a publicly funded standard of health care and the +eneral public can easily see prisoners as less deser"in+' escribed as a @double punish#ent&, it appears that the poor #ana+e#ent of these issues facin+ older prisoners helps to create a harsher prison en"iron#ent for older prisoners than for youn+er prisoners (Allen 5997L co##unitycare'co'u- 5997L StoE-o"ic 599<)' A recent follo)?up study to the 599: HM ,nspectorate of Prisons the#atic re"ie), noted that @Kthe lacof adaptation #ade for those )ith a+e?related i#pair#ents and disabilities )as not only disad"anta+eous, but dan+erous in so#e cases& (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 5996)' Vulnerability to "icti#isation ,t is e"ident fro# the literature that older prisoners )ith li#ited #obility, frailty andOor disability are percei"ed by others and the#sel"es to be #ore "ulnerable to "icti#isation than their youn+er, +enerally stron+er counterparts (Cra)ley 599:L 1rant 2>>>L ;e#p-er 5997L ;raEic2><>L Prison %efor# Trust 5997b, 5996bL %osefield 2>>7L %uddell M ;uhl#ann 599FL StoE-o"ic 599<L =orston M Taylor 5994)' Ho)e"er, e#pirical data about "icti#isation of older prisoners is scarce' ,n a co##entary on a+e?se+re+ation for older prisoners, ;erbs (599>) outlines a nu#ber of studies (Bo)-er 2>69L Chaneles 2>6<L ;raEic- 2><>L Wei+and and Bur+er 2><>L Vito and Wilson 2>6F) that su++est older prisoners could be at ris- of "icti#isation and that this is considered to be a +enuine and critical proble# for older prisoners' (indin+s fro# a Carolina (!SA) study, (based on the content analysis of 4F face?to? face inter"ie)s )ith #ale prisoners a+ed F9 years and abo"e), support su++estions of the "icti#isation of older prisoners by youn+er prisoners (;erbs M $olley 599<)' .f additional rele"ance is a findin+ fro# the HM ,nspectorate report for /n+land and Wales (599:) that prison staff )ere not trained or )illin+ to push )heelchairs, thereby predisposin+ )heelchair?dependent prisoners to "icti#isation fro# other prisoners on )ho# they relied for assistance ? in so#e cases by @payin+& helpers' Accordin+ to e3uca (2>>6, ,n ;erbs 599>), @K li-e the elderly in society, older in#ates no lon+er +et the respect once accorded to the#, and also si#ilar to their counterparts in free society, are #ore li-ely to be "icti#iJed by youn+er, #ore a++ressi"e in#ates'& ;erbs (599>) also points out that as a lar+e nu#ber of older prisoners are also se* offenders, this predisposes the# to "icti#isation based on their offence cate+ory, +i"in+ the# a @lo)& and @despised& status a#on+ other prisoners' 3ac- of suitable prison pro+ra#s Many )riters note a lac- of appropriate and #eanin+ful pro+ra#s for older prisoners (1rant 2>>>L Harrison, MT 5994L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L HM Prison Ser"ice Hno dateI)' ,n e*a#inin+ the perspecti"es of older prisoners, Cra)ley (599:) notes that, @3i-e their youn+er counterparts, ho)e"er, older people also need to feel that they are @part of so#ethin+&L this entails en+a+ein+ in #eanin+ful acti"ities )ith others'& The issue of

prison re+i#es tar+etin+ the needs of the #aEority, youn+er prison population, to the e*clusion of the needs of older prisoners, is especially e"ident in the pro"ision of education, "ocational and e*ercise pro+ra#s ( obson 599:L 1rant 2>>>L ;raEic- 2><>L Prison %efor# Trust 599:, 5996bL %osefield 2>>7L Wahidin, 5997L Wahidin, M Aday 5994)' The follo)?up study of the 599: HM ,nspectorate of Prisons the#atic re"ie) hi+hli+hted t)o particular on+oin+ concernsA

There )as little appropriate acti"ity pro"ided for retired elderly prisoners )ho conseCuently spent lon+ periods loc-ed behind their doors durin+ )or-in+ hours' %etire#ent pay re#ained inadeCuate (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 5996)' The 599: re"ie), also identified si+nificant difference in le"els of retire#ent pay (freCuently insufficient to li"e on) and noted that so#e prisons )ere unclear about the official a+e of retire#ent (Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:)' ,n addition, a sur"ey conducted by the !; 0ational Ad"isory Council of ,ndependent Monitorin+ Boards, re"ealed that prison pro+ra#s pro"ided in education )ere often focused on basic literacy and nu#eracy s-ills, (tar+etin+ youn+er prisoners), and in physical education )ere too challen+in+ for #any older prisoners, (e"en for relati"ely healthy older prisoners), and concluded that a @substantial #inority& of older prisoners did not en+a+e in )or- throu+h choice or because of health issues ( obson 599:)' 3i-e)ise, in his e*ploratory study of older prisoners& e*periences in South Australian prisons, a)es (599>) found that e#ploy#ent )as i#portant as a source of pride and inco#e for older prisoners and to assist the# to #ore tolerably pass the ti#e' He Cuotes one in#ate as sayin+, @But , thin- #ost of us )ho are #y a+e, )ell )e are frustrated, frustrated in the sense, , accept the fact that ,&# here, , accept that 299 per cent, but for 1od&s sa-e let #e )or-Q Ma-e ti#e )or- for #eQ& ( a)es 599>)' 3ac- of post release support These issues relate closely to the o"er)hel#in+ e"idence of a broader issue of inadeCuate post?release plannin+ and support for older prisoners (Ah#ed 5996L Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y 599<L co##unitycare'co'u- 5997L Cra)ley 599:L Cra)ley M Spar-s 599F, 5994L epart#ent of Health 599<L epart#ent of $ustice 599>L obson 599:L 1rant 2>>>L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L Hobbs et al' 5994L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, 5997b, 599:, 5996bL %i-ard M %osenber+ 599<L StoE-o"ic 599<L Wahidin, M Aday 5994L Willia#s 5996)' Writers point to a nu#ber of reasons for this inadeCuacy includin+, lac- of coordination of fundin+, resources and ser"ice?pro"ision bet)een prisons, co##unity?based correctional ser"ices and co##unity a+encies (Ah#ed 5996L Prison %efor# Trust 5996b), priority bein+ pro"ided to youn+er offenders, )ho are percei"ed to ha"e +reater chances for successful rehabilitation and re?inte+ration (BorJyc-i 599F), and lac- of state or federal strate+ies to address the needs of older prisoners, co#bined )ith restricti"e criteria for the early #edical release of ter#inally or chronically ill prisoners (co##unitycare'co'u- 5997L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:L McCaffrey 599<L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997bL %i-ard M %osenber+ 599<L StoE-o"ic 599<)' (undin+ and inco#e?support issues are particularly pertinent to older prisoners upon release fro# prison, as for those )ith chronic illnessesL a pri#ary fear and concern is not bein+ able to access health care (Cra)ley 599:L Hobbs et al' 5994L Prison %efor# Trust 5997a)' .lder prisoners )ho ha"e been incarcerated for len+thy periods are li-ely to ha"e proble#s post? release, adEustin+ to li"in+ in the co##unity, particularly if they ha"e no supporti"e fa#ily or friends (Cra)ley 599:L 1rant 2>>>)' ,n addition, so#e older people, particularly those in co##unity or +o"ern#ent?funded housin+ lose their ho#es and possessions )hile in custody' (indin+s fro# the t)o?year !; study that e*a#ined the prison e*periences and post? release e*pectations of #ale prisoners a+ed 4F ? 6: years, su++ested thatA Since they had Rnothin+ to +o out toS (i'e' no relati"es, no friends, no ho#e and, because of their a+e, no chance of )or-) se"eral elderly HprisonerI inter"ie)ees said that they )ould rather Eust Rstay putS' They si#ply had insufficient years left in life (or the ener+y) to Rstart o"erS (Cra)ley 599:)'

Many )riters ha"e also hi+hli+hted the additional post?release issues and concerns facin+ older se* offenders, includin+ that so#e ha"e been char+ed )ith intrafa#ilial offences, and that #any feared bein+ assaulted by co##unity #e#bers and ne+ati"e

e*posure in the #edia (APCCA 5992L Cra)ley 599:)'

Many prison ad#inistrators are considerin+ or ha"e responded to older prisoners& health needs throu+h hirin+ staff )ith specialised trainin+ (e'+' palliati"e care, +erontolo+y) andOor the creation of nursin+ or @older prisoner& units or a+e?se+re+ated prisons (Allen 5997L APCCA 5992L Cald)ell, $ar"is M %osefield 5992L Carlisle 5994L Cra)ley 599:L /r+er 5995L /tter 5994, 599<L /"ans 599FL (ry M Ho)e 599FL 1aseau 5999, 599:L 1rant 2>>>L Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, 5996L ;erbs 599>L ;erbs M $olley 599<L ;raEic- 2><>L 3inder M Meyers 599<L Mit-a 599:L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997b, 5996bL Wahidin, 5997)' .ther prisons ha"e tac-led the issues by de"elopin+ a specific re+i#e, pro+ra# or set of policies for older and disabled prisoners (Cra)ley 599:L /"ans 599FL HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' @0ursin+ ho#e prisons& Accordin+ to 1aseau (5992b), @K by far the #ost specialiJed care ta-es place in facilities )here the #aEority of in#ates ha"e si#ilar health care and a#bulatory needs'& ,n the !;, the Ho)se (5997) study identified that althou+h four prisons had incarcerated #ore than F9 people o"er the a+e of 49 years, only one (HMP ;in+ston) had a special unit for older prisoners (Allen 5997)' Si+nificantly, a Chief ,nspector&s report on HMP ;in+ston fro# the sa#e year deplored the standard of care pro"ided to the older prisoners, declarin+ this to be a @double punish#ent of incarceration& and the standards )ere so lo) it )ould ha"e resulted in the @i##ediate closure of any other institution for the old and infir#& (Prison %efor# Trust 5997a)' The Ho)e (5997) report su++ested that the !; Prison Ser"ice consider constructin+ @nursin+ ho#e prisons& li-e those already established in the !SA (BBC 5997)' Such prisons, desi+ned to acco##odate older prisoners )ith chronic health concerns are also referred to as @special needs& prisons (corrections' co# 5997)' An e*a#ple of such a facility is 3aurel Hi+hlands in Central Pennsyl"ania, a @+eriatrics and special needs facility& ((ay 5999), built to acco##odate prisoners o"er the a+e of F9 years, )ho are chronically ill and reCuire intensi"e health care (1aseau 5992bL Pennsyl"ania epart#ent of Corrections 599>)' (ay (5999) pro"ides a description of the buildin+ proposal for the prisonA

The <46?bed, #ediu#?security facility )ill co#ply )ith standard prison re+ulations, but )ill also ser"e as a nursin+ ho#eO assisted li"in+ facility behind barsKWithin the facility there are plans to ha"e 59 -idney dialysis units, physical therapy roo#s and a 4:? bed s-illed care unit for in#ates )ho are bed ridden, or pre or post sur+ery'

Si#ilarly, a profile of eerfield, a @special needs& prison in Vir+inia dedicated to older prisoners and those )ith particular #edical reCuire#ents, sho)s that in 5996, of the 2,969 prisoners, 4F per cent )ere a+ed o"er F9 years, >9 people )ere dependent on )heelchairs for #obility, #ore than <F per cent had "iolent cri#inal records and al#ost 79 per cent )ere sentenced for se* offences (1reen 5996)' Hospices Aspects of these facilities could also be li-ened to a hospice and there are nu#erous references throu+hout the literature to in?prison hospice facilities, desi+ned specifically to deal )ith chronic and ter#inally ill prisoners (/tter 5994L 1aseau 5992aL Mara 599:L unsilent+eneration'co# 599>)' Supporters of in?prison hospices consider it a hu#ane approach to acco##odatin+ elderly, chronically andOor ter#inally ill prisoners durin+ their re#ainin+ prison ti#e, but critics su++est this approach could also be e*ploited to be used as a Eustification for lea"in+ people in prison, )ho could be #ore appropriately #ana+ed in the co##unity (1aseau 5992a)' (or e*a#ple, on the +rounds of the 3ouisiana State Penitentiary is a hospice, #ortuary and +ra"eyard and appro*i#ately, 6F to >9 per cent of the offenders )ho enter the facility, do not e"er lea"e a+ain (unsilent+eneration'co# 599>)' @Special needs& units ,n the !SA, )hile so#e states ha"e institutions that nearly e*clusi"ely deal )ith older prisoners, others ha"e established special units (1aseau 5992b)' A 2>>6 Council of State 1o"ern#ents report on the approaches to dealin+ )ith older prisoners in the southern states of the !SA, noted that #any #aintained special facilities or #edical units for in#ates reCuirin+ intensi"e care (/d)ards 2>>6)' The report hi+hli+hts benefits of these units, such as centralisation of resources in order to control and reduce costs related to staffin+ and in#ate transport, as )ell as isolatin+ older prisoners fro# the +eneral population and thereby actin+ as a protection #echanis# a+ainst "icti#isation (/d)ards 2>>6)' ;erbs (599>) su++ests that in addition, @Se+re+ation for older in#ates )ould support rehabilitation throu+h a+e? appropriate pro+ra##in+ and throu+h the pro"ision of an en"iron#ent )here basic sur"i"al is not the fore#ost tas- of the day' @Ho)e"er, a recent sur"ey, conducted by 1orre"tions +oda( (the #a+aJine of the A#erican Correctional Association), of :2 states of A#erica and the !SA Bureau of Prisons concluded that, althou+h appro*i#ately 25F,999 prisoners are a+ed F9 or older, there are less than 29,999 beds in institutions e*clusi"e to older prisoners (1reen 599>)' There are e*a#ples of e*istin+ @special needs& units in Australian prisons, includin+ the recently established Abori+inal !nit in South Australia&s Port Au+usta Prison (ABC 0e)s 599>L 1o"ern#ent of South Australia 599>) and in Victoria, the Port Phillip Prison and (ulha# Correctional Centre @youth units& (State of Victoria Australia 599>a, 599>b)' The Eustifications used to de"elop a+e?se+re+ated youth units, na#ely, that youn+ offenders sentenced to ser"e ti#e in adult prisons are "ulnerable to "icti#isation and e*ploitation by older, #ore e*perienced and physically stron+er prisoners )ho can socialise the# into a "iolent, prison culture, )ould appear to apply eCually to Eustifyin+ the de"elop#ent of a+e? se+re+ated, older prisoner units (Ca#pai+n for =outh $ustice 599<L 1odineJ 2>>>L ;erbs 599>L ;ury M S#artt 5995)' Accordin+ to ;erbs (599>)A ,n fact, e#pirically and theoretically, it )ould appear that older in#ates are in a uniCue position to benefit fro# the sa#e -ind of a+e?se+re+ated li"in+ arran+e#ents that ha"e been supported for Eu"enilesA en"iron#ents desi+ned to pro"ide a less "iolent, a+e appropriate conte*t suitable for rehabilitation' While these @special needs& units in prisons e*ist in Australia, a perusal of each of the official State and Territory prison ser"ice )ebsites did not re"eal the current e*istence of any a+e? specific units or prisons for older offenders' Ho)e"er, plans to establish an a+e?specific unit

for older prisoners appear to be under)ay in 0e) South Wales (0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices), )here an announce#ent has been #ade that the epart#ent of Corrections and $ustice Health 0SW are preparin+ to open an a+ed?care facility under the banner of @The $ustice Health A+ed Care ProEect& (!TSA 0ursin+ Mid)ifery and Health 599>)' This proEect includes an e"aluation of the unit, to be conducted in collaboration )ith the !ni"ersity of Technolo+y, Sydney&s (!TSA 0ursin+ Mid)ifery and Health) (aculty of 0ursin+ Mid)ifery and Health A+ed Care Professorial !nit' The e"aluation is described on the faculty&s )ebsite asA

Kusin+ a battery of assess#ents pre place#ent and si* #onths post place#ent to deter#ine if the chan+e to an a+ed care specific en"iron#ent in a prison has a Cuantifiable i#pact on in#ate health or Cuality of life (!TSA 0ursin+ Mid)ifery and Health 599>)'

,n contrast to the ar+u#ents supportin+ the de"elop#ent of a+e?se+re+ated units, so#e authors ha"e noted that in so#e cases, prison ad#inistrators ha"e deliberately ad"ocated for @#ainstrea#in+& or interspersin+ older prisoners )ith youn+er prisoners, as it is thou+ht that the older prisoners ha"e a cal#in+ or stabilisin+ effect on the youn+er prison population (Aday, 5994L Hec-enber+ 5994L StoE-o"ic 599<)' This appears particularly to be the case in )o#en&s prisons, )here older )o#en prisoners are seen to adopt a @#otherin+& position to)ards their youn+er counterparts (Codd 2>>4)' ,nterestin+ly, in his study on the e*periences of older prisoners in South Australia, a)es (599>) found that the prisoners he inter"ie)ed, reflected both of these opposin+ "ie)s' A+e?specific ser"ices, re+i#es or pro+ra#s Accordin+ to Cra)ley (599:), despite the lac- of an o"erarchin+ national strate+y for #ana+in+ older prisoners in the !;, the issues faced by local prisons in dealin+ )ith this +roup of prisoners, pro#pted a "ariety of practitioner?led initiati"es and chan+es, such as the de"elop#ent of an /lderly and isabled Prisoner re+i#e at HMP Wy#ott and i#pro"e#ents to the older prisoner unit at HMP ;in+ston' (ollo)in+ an inspection in 5992 at HMP 1artree, it )as identified that 27 per cent of its population )as o"er the a+e of F9 years and that a+e discri#ination )as occurrin+ a+ainst these prisoners (/"ans 599F)' ,n response to concerns, in collaboration )ith a co##unity +roup called A+e Concern /n+land, a support and ad"ocacy proEect for the older prisoners )as de"eloped and co##enced in Septe#ber 5997 (/"ans 599F)' The proEect e#ployed a screenin+ and assess#ent process to identify eli+ible prisoners and used #entorin+ and case #ana+e#ent approaches to assist older prisoners in areas such as de"elopin+ #ore appropriate e*ercise and day pro+ra#s (e'+' Tai Chi, readin+ +roup or social +a#es for retirees), e*it plannin+ and post?release support (e'+' access to the pension), dedicated "isit session ti#es for prisoners )ith elderly relati"es (e'+' to pro"ide a Cuieter and cal#er en"iron#ent) (/"ans 599F)' Si#ilarly and #ore recently, the elderly and disabled offender tea# at HMP Wa-efield has )on an a)ard for inno"ation at the Ci"il Ser"ice i"ersity and /Cuality A)ards (HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' This ser"ice pro"ides an assess#ent of each prisoner and older prisoners #ay opt to Eoin a re+ister for the elderly, )hile disabled prisoners can Eoin a re+ister for the disabled' As it is reco+nised that nu#erous prisoners fit in both cate+ories and the needs of these +roups are therefore, freCuently interrelated and si#ilar, the needs of prisoners are addressed indi"idually, rather than collecti"ely (HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' As noted by a staff #e#ber, R, found that e"en if t)o #en ha"e the sa#e disability their needs )ill differ' And that could be anythin+ fro# their culture to their a+eS (HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' The tea# assists to address issues facin+ indi"idual older and O or disabled prisoners, such as li#ited #obility and related li#ited access to prison ser"ices, learnin+ difficulties and #ental health issues, the reCuire#ent for rails so that frail or infir# prisoners can sho)er and use the toilet, and the de"elop#ent of suitable e*ercise pro+ra#s' ,n addition, the ser"ice trains prisoner representati"es as @e*perts& to pro"ide ad"ice on indi"idual units and )in+s, and also trains other prisoners as carers for prisoners )ith special needs' .f note, the issue of co#petition bet)een indi"idual prison units and across prisons is cited as an initial hindrance to establishin+ this ser"ice, as there )as reluctance to share -no)led+e and procedures (HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' Accordin+ to the sa#e staff #e#berA R, thin- bein+ co#petiti"e is helpful, but )hen you&re dealin+ )ith hu#an bein+s loo-in+ at +i"in+ prisoners a better life and treatin+ the# )ith hu#anity it shouldn&t be a co#petitionS (HM Prison Ser"ice 599>)' Victoria has a @$oint Treat#ent Pro+ra#& for offenders )ith an intellectual disability, based in the Marlborou+h !nit at Port Phillip Prison' The pro+ra# is @desi+ned to help #ale prisoners )ith a co+niti"e i#pair#ent successfully reinte+rate into the co##unity, the $oint Treat#ent Pro+ra# is a collaboration bet)een Corrections Victoria ( epart#ent of $ustice), State)ide

(orensic Ser"ice ( epart#ent of Hu#an Ser"ices) and Port Phillip Prison (1:S Pty 3td)' The pro+ra# ensures prisoners )ith a co+niti"e i#pair#ent ha"e access to appropriate pro+ra#s that )ill #a-e it easier for the# to brea- the cycle of cri#e' ,t does not, ho)e"er, focus particularly on a+ein+ prisoners& ( epart#ent of $ustice 599<)'

There is also reference in the literature to a @ isability Ser"ices !nit& )ithin the Western Australian (WA) epart#ent of $ustice (Prisons i"ision), but a closer readin+ of this #aterial e*plains that, rather than an actual unit, this is in fact a ser"ice, pro"ided by one person @Kto all proEects and co##ittees in"ol"in+ offenders )ith disabilities& (Tan+ 599F)' The WA isability Ser"ices !nit uses case #ana+e#ent and #entorin+ as )ays of assistin+ offenders )ith a disability (Tan+ 599F)' Australian Capital Territory Correcti"e Ser"ices Principal Psycholo+ist, %ichard Par-er, appears to support such +eneralist approaches )hen )or-in+ )ith offenders )ith special needs and calls for the use of intrinsically fle*ible pro+ra#s that per#it di"erse #ethods and styles of ser"ice deli"ery to a broad scope of offenders (Par-er 599F)' He su++ests thatA

HWhileIKit is i#portant to tailor pro+ra# deli"ery to #eet the special needs of offendersK in #any cases this has led to a profusion of specialised pro+ra#s )hich beco#e un)ieldy to operate and too e*pensi"e for the #aEority of correctional syste#s (Par-er 599F)'
Si#ilarly, in 0SW, )here offenders are suspected of ha"in+ a disability, they can be referred to State)ide isability Ser"ices (S S) for assess#ent (0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices 5996)' This ser"ice appears to use a t)o?pron+ed approachA in?prison case #ana+e#ent support and the use of special needs units )here reCuired' Accordin+ to the 599<?5996 Annual %eport of the 0SW epart#ent of Corrections, of 4<> referrals to the S S, 777 offenders )ere confir#ed to ha"e a disability, )ith 26: offenders assessed to ha"e an intellectual or other co+niti"e disability' The #aEority of disabled offenders )ere held in correctional facilities, )hile the ones dee#ed #ost "ulnerable )ere housed in @Additional Support !nits& (0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices 5996)' ,#portantly, the report notes that, @ urin+ the year, an increasin+ nu#ber of older offenders )ere referred to S S for assess#ent of a+e?related disabilities and input into case #ana+e#ent& (0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices 5996)' The S S reportedly contributed to institutionally?based case #ana+e#ent decisions and e*it plannin+, )here a nu#ber of offenders )ere accepted into the epart#ent of A+ein+, isability and Ho#ecare&s ( A HC) Cri#inal $ustice Pro+ra# (C$P), )hich @K offers lon+?ter# acco##odation and case #ana+e#ent for intellectually disabled offenders )ho are e*itin+ custody& (0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices 5996)' Specialised staff and trainin+ %elated to the de"elop#ent of special units for older prisoners and also to risin+ prison ad#inistration costs, is that of appropriate staff trainin+ to )or- )ith an older prisoner population' (or e*a#ple, #any prisons e#ploy nursin+ staff to #eet the health needs of older prisoners and deal )ith illnesses that are +enerally a+e?related, such as de#entia or AlJhei#er&s disease (1aseau 5995)' At the 52st Asian and Pacific Conference of Correctional Ad#inistrators (5992) it )as noted that Canada had opted to specifically see- out people )ith +erontolo+y e*pertise in staff recruit#ent ca#pai+ns' Ho)e"er, so#e )riters point out considerable challen+es to recruitin+ health care professionals such as, social )or-ers, re+istered and trained nurses, psychiatrists, and #edical doctors to )or- in the prisons (1orenstein 5996)' An article on +eriatric nursin+ in prisons in the !nites States, notes @Ka nation)ide shorta+e of re+istered nursesKHdue to aI di#inishin+ pool of ne) talent co#bined )ith the health care de#ands of a+ein+ baby boo#ers& (/r+er 5995)' The author su++ests that by 5959, based on current trends, there could be a shorta+e of F99,999 nurses in the !SA and #oreo"er, the retention of nurses in prisons is an on+oin+ issue of concern, o)in+ to the particular stresses and ris-s associated )ith )or-in+ in a prison en"iron#ent and re+i#e (/r+er 5995)'

0ot all correctional facilities are respondin+ to the issue of increased older prisoners by e#ployin+ staff )ith professional trainin+ in nursin+ or +erontolo+y, but are usin+ approaches to train +eneral staff to )or- #ore effecti"ely and appropriately )ith older prisoners' The Hoc-in+ Correctional (acility, part of the .hio epart#ent of %ehabilitation and Correction, acco##odates nu#erous older prisoners and reportedly specially trains staff to #eet the needs of this +roup throu+h @sensiti"ity trainin+& ai#ed to help staff co#prehend so#e issues encountered by older prisoners (1aseau 5992a)' A trainin+ course, -no)n as @Try Another Way&, reCuires staff to use props such as, ill?fittin+, bul-y +lo"es and blindfolds to assist the# to e*perience and e#pathise )ith the li#itations that affect older prisoners in co#pletin+ do#estic and daily tas-s and functions (1aseau 5992a)'

@An e*a#ple of this trainin+ is pro"ided by an e#ployee, as follo)s KHSItaff tape their fin+ers to+ether to try to feed Hthe#sel"esI or count out pills' We do this depart#ent?)ide' ,t isn&t #andatory, but those people )ho ser"e that population +et in"ol"ed& (1aseau 5992a)'
Sentencin+ refor# ,ssues of o"ercro)din+ and the +ro)in+ nu#bers of prisoners +enerally ha"e pro#pted so#e )riters to Cuestion the "alue to society of incarceratin+ #ore prisoners into their old a+e ( obson 599:L ;e#p-er 5997L StoE-o"ic 599<)' Sentencin+ refor# is pro#oted by so#e researchers and )riters throu+hout the literature as a #eans of controllin+ and ste##in+ the increase of older offenders enterin+ the prison syste# (Cra)ley M Spar-s 599FL 1reen 5996)' ,t also appears to ha"e so#e support fro# hu#an ri+hts +roups and prison ad#inistrators, but is rebu-ed by "icti#s& ad"ocacy +roups, policy #a-ers and le+islators' Perhaps as a result, si+nificantly #ore attention is +i"en in the literature to discussin+ )ays of #ana+in+ older offenders #ore effecti"ely in prison, rather than sentencin+ refor#' Parole and early release espite a )idespread reco+nition of the lo) ris- of recidi"is# for #ost older prisoners, there appears to be reluctance a#on+ politicians and prison ad#inistrators in an en"iron#ent of @+et tou+h& le+islation to +enuinely consider early release options for older prisons or pro#ote the use of co##unity sanctions as an alternati"e to i#prison#ent (co##unitycare' co'u- 5997L 1reen 5996L $ones 599<L ;e#p-er 5997L ;erbs 599>L McCaffrey 599<L ."e 599FL Prison %efor# Trust 5997aL Wahidin, 5997L Willia#s 5996)' There is "ocal opposition to early release and parole options fro# "icti#s& ad"ocacy +roups, "icti#s and their fa#ilies' They e*press the "ie) that re+ardless of a prisoner&s a+e or circu#stances, @if you do the cri#e, you should do the ti#e& (/tter 5994L 2ort Worth 'tar-+elegram 599:)' ,n support of their "ie), they point to the fact that Eud+es, #a+istrates and Euries are a)are of the offender&s a+e at sentencin+ and )ould or should ha"e considered the offender&s a+e at the e*pected release date (if any) (2ort Worth 'tar-+elegram 599:)' This is ans)ered by so#e )riters )ith the assertion that older offenders +o throu+h @cri#inal #enopause&, )here accordin+ to /tter (5994) @Kafter a certain a+e, in#ates )ill no lon+er feel the need to participate in cri#inal acti"ity&' 0ot)ithstandin+ research that su++ests older people are less li-ely to co##it cri#es, in so#e instances, older prisoners ha"e co##itted their cri#eOs )hen they )ere already considered @old&' Such statistical ano#alies, particularly those in"ol"in+ cri#es considered socially and #orally abhorrent, such as se* offences, appear to attract a disproportionate le"el of #edia attention' T)o such e*a#ples are that of the )ellpublicised case of a eerfield (Vir+inia, !SA) in#ate, )ho )as 4< )hen con"icted of @statutory rape, a++ra"ated se*ual battery and forcible sodo#y& (1reen 5996) and a case in South Australia )here Courts opted to sentence an older se*?offender to a co##unity?based order, rather than a prison ter#, based on concerns about the offender&s a+e (ABC 0e)s 599>a)' This sentence appeared to attract lar+ely ne+ati"e public attention, due to the percei"ed leniency of the sentence in relation to the seriousness of the cri#e (ABC 0e)s 599>a)' Many ad"ocate for @early& or @co#passionate release& or @#edical& or @+eriatric parole& on the +rounds of reducin+ costs associated )ith health care in prison (1aseau 5992a, 599:L ;e#p-er 5997)' (or e*a#ple, the Vir+inia le+islature passed a @+eriatric parole& pro"ision in 5992 to allo) the state parole board the discretion to release older prisoners (a+ed at least 4F years and ser"ed at least F years of a sentence or a+ed at least 49 years and ser"ed at least

29 years of a sentence), )ho they do not consider to pose an on+oin+ ris- to the co##unity (1aseau 599:L 1reen 599>)' Three years after this, (accordin+ to the then Chair of the Vir+inia Parole Board), of the older prisoners )ho )ere eli+ible for @+eriatric parole&, #any had not yet #et the criteria for release because there had not been a chan+e in their circu#stances since sentencin+ (such as a serious health proble#) or their sentence had not been adeCuately ser"ed (1aseau 599:)' Si#ilarly, the epart#ent of Corrections& #edical reprie"e pro+ra# in 1eor+ia, !SA, for prisoners )ith a hi+hly resource?intensi"e illness, e*cludes prisoners con"icted of child #olestation and in Te*as, early release of con"icted se* offenders is forbidden by la) (2ort Worth 'tar-+elegram 599:L 1aseau 5992b)' ,t is also clear that public perception and opinion about the @early releaseGL of prisoners, particularly se* offenders, plays a role in the decision?#a-in+ of prison ad#inistrators (Papani-olas 5994)'

A recent ((ebruary 599>) report fro# the !nited States $ustice Policy ,nstitute, @ +he 0elease 3al#e: %arole in ,ar(land&, charts the pro+ress the state has #ade in alterin+ its parole practices and boostin+ dru+ treat#ent' The report found that so#e effecti"e pro+ra#s )ere already in place in Maryland, but that they )ere not bein+ used to their full potential and as a result, reco##ended the follo)in+A @KHTIhe state could e*pand the use of ris- assess#ent instru#ents to deter#ine those people in prison )ho could be placed on co##unity super"isionL since #ost people Ra+e outS of cri#e, #o"in+ older people fro# prison to parole could safely result in si+nificant sa"in+s' (or e*a#ple, by placin+ e"en half of the rou+hly :4F people in Maryland&s prisons that are o"er the a+e of 49 on parole, the state could sa"e o"er P27 #illion in the first year& ($ustice Policy ,nstitute 599>)' The use of such ris- assess#ent processes and tools is ad"ocated by others )ho consider this as a )ay to support and effecti"ely and safely ad#inister early release sche#es (1aseau 5992b)' The !SA has seen the for#ation of specific co##unity and non?+o"ern#ent ad"ocacy +roups to Eustify on a case?by?case basis to parole boards that certain prisoners no lon+er pose a si+nificant ris- to the co##unity and should therefore, be considered eli+ible for parole or alternati"e acco##odation (1aseau 5992a)' Althou+h the use of co##unity sanctions as an alternati"e to prison sentences is pro#oted throu+hout the literature, #any )riters also note that this is not )ithout its challen+es, such as those outlined in the section of this re"ie) on post?release support issues' .ne e*pert in the !SA ad"ocates for corrections a+encies to )or- in collaboration )ith co##unity?based ser"ices and a+encies to assist )ith acco##odatin+ older e*?prisoners in the co##unity (1aseau 5992b)' .ther su++estions include alternati"e super"ised release arran+e#ents, includin+ electronic bracelet #onitorin+ and intensi"e case #ana+e#ent and super"ision (unsilent+eneration'co# 599>)' An e*a#ple of this is the /lderly .ffender Ho#e etention Pilot Pro+ra#, launched last year by the federal !SA +o"ern#ent, )here older prisoners can be released into a type of @super"ised house arrest& (unsilent+eneration' co# 599>)' 1uidelines for pro+ra# eli+ibility are si#ilar to those outlined for the Vir+inia @+eriatric parole&A .ffenders #ust be o"er 4F, and #ust ha"e ser"ed at least 29 years and <F per cent of their sentencesL no lifers and no perpetrators of Rcri#es of "iolence,S includin+ se* cri#es and firear#s "iolations (unsilent+eneration'co# 599>)' ,t is anticipated that across the country, 69 to 299 people )ill participate fro# the 599,999 total federal prison populations' A si#ilar pilot pro+ra# has also been launched in Pennsyl"ania (unsilent+eneration'co# 599>)' %obust e"aluations of such pro+ra#s to +au+e recidi"is# rates of older offenders and to dra) co#parisons bet)een the health, social and cost outco#es of incarceratin+ rather than parolin+ older offenders, could pro"ide useful insi+hts into the benefits of e*tendin+ such sche#es' .lder prisoner detention Accordin+ to 1aseau (5992b), @The philosophies on best practices ran+e fro# early and co#passionate release pro+ra#s for older, lo)?ris- offendersKto specialiJed facilities +eared to)ard this population&s special needs'& As already outlined, a nu#ber of countries ha"e de"eloped a+e?se+re+ated li"in+ arran+e#ents for older prisoners in the for# of a separate prison or a separate unit on prison +rounds' ,n his co##entary on a+e?se+re+ation for older prisoners, ;erbs (599>) outlines the follo)in+ broadly rele"ant benefits for usin+ such an approachA Centralised health care ser"ices for older prisoners, resultin+ in cost sa"in+s %eductions in liti+ation costs resultin+ fro# la) suits ta-en a+ainst prisons for a+e? discri#inatory policy, procedures and practices ,#pro"e#ents in older prisoner safety and reduction in "icti#isation

 /ncoura+in+ rehabilitation as a central +oal )ith a +roup that has a lo) li-elihood of recidi"is# by pro+ressin+ )ith treat#ent opportunities' ,t )ould appear fro# the literature that a+e?se+re+ated units or prisons are currently the best a"ailable option to older prisoners in ter#s of detention, but care #ust be ta-en to ensure that this does not also se+re+ate older prisoners fro# access to pro+ra#s and acti"ities that )ould other)ise be a"ailable to the#, e"en if on a li#ited basis (Codd 2>>4)'

Practice Principles
A+e?se+re+ated units or prisons #ust not only se+re+ate older prisoners, but #ust also prioritise rehabilitation +oals for older prisoners and pro"ide pro+ra#s and acti"ities to address needs such as, health care, education, e#ploy#ent and inco#e support, acco##odation, physical fitness, #ental health, personal de"elop#ent, relapse pre"ention s-ills for substance #isuse and re?offendin+, and independent li"in+ s-ills' ,t is also )orth)hile notin+ that e"aluati"e research appears only to ha"e been conducted on #ale a+e?se+re+ated prison units and there is no a"ailable research that related to older )o#en in this area (Codd 2>>4)' Where, for reasons of cost or resourcin+ li#itations, prisons cannot create a+e?se+re+ated units, the inclusion of assess#ent procedures, specific pro+ra#s and suitable re+i#es, as )ell as specially?trained staff can assist to pro"ide a #ore a+e? appropriate en"iron#ent for older prisoners' ,n addition, prisons should consider #odifications to actual prison en"iron#ent to assist frail or infir# prisoners and those )ith disabilities or #obility issues' %ehabilitation and post?release support ,n order to be successful, the +oal of rehabilitation and ho) this is to be achie"ed should be clearly stated in corrections (BorJyc-i 599F)' Accordin+ to Cullen and 1endreau (5999, ,n BorJyc-i 599F) three co#ponents clearly identify and distin+uish rehabilitation fro# other types of inter"entionA 2' %ehabilitation is planned and does not Eust happen coincidentally 5' %ehabilitation specifically tar+ets offenders& beliefs and attitudes about anti?social and offendin+ beha"iour 7' The ai# of rehabilitation is to pre"ent recidi"is# throu+h #eans other than #erely deterrence' Accordin+ to BorJyc-i (599F), rehabilitation could also be ter#ed and fra#ed as preparation for release or e*it plannin+ and he notes that its success is inherently lin-ed by )hat bench#ar-s are used to deter#ine @success&' A report by the Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y that e*a#ined a"ailable inter"entions for prisoners e*itin+ prisons and re? enterin+ the co##unity found that client need (74 per cent) and a+e (7F per cent) )ere the #ost freCuently used #easures to deter#ine pro+ra# tar+et +roups (BorJyc-i 599F)' .f the pro+ra#s that used a+e as a deter#inin+ factor for eli+ibility, 42 per cent of those tar+eted people a+ed less than 79 years (BorJyc-i 599F)' Accordin+ to the report&s author, @This ser"es to underline the priority +i"en to the rehabilitation and reinte+ration of youn+ people early in their cri#inal careers' ,t also illustrates the interaction bet)een public opinion and correctional policy& (BorJyc-i 599F)'

The literature clearly indicates that rehabilitati"e efforts are disproportionately focused on youn+er offenders, encoura+ed by the +eneral belief that this +roup has #ore potential for positi"e chan+e in their li"es than older offenders' ,t is clear then, that if older offenders are to be rehabilitated at all, a #ore coordinated and articulated strate+y is reCuired across a )ide ran+e of correctional syste#s and the issue of harsher and lon+er sentencin+ as a #eans of deterrence that benefits the broader co##unity reCuires closer e*a#ination and re? e"aluation' Specifically, such a strate+y should be based on a needs assess#ent, underta-en at each indi"idual prison site, and should outline the processes for the i#ple#entation, deli"ery, #onitorin+ and e"aluation of rehabilitation practices and pro+ra#s, includin+ consideration of issues surroundin+ the a"ailability, e*pertise, and capacity of staff to deli"er such pro+ra#s (BorJyc-i 599FL Cra)ley 599:)' Considerably #ore )or- is reCuired in Australia and o"erseas to consult and partner )ith ser"ices in the co##unity to #eet the needs of older prisoners e*itin+ prison and on parole, #ost notably acco##odation, social and health care ser"ices (Colsher et al' 2>>5L co##unitycare' co'u- 5997)' A !; epart#ent of Health publication, & pathwa( to "are for older offenders: & tool.it for good pra"ti"e (599<) #a-es the follo)in+ three -ey reco##endations for successful e*it plannin+ and post?release support for older offendersA A case #ana+e#ent approach )hereby the pro+ress of released offenders is #onitored by a -ey )or-er to ensure their access to appropriate health, social, and )elfare ser"ices %e+istration )ith a local +eneral practitioner should be arran+ed for all older prisoners prior to their release All ser"ices and a+encies that pro"ide acco##odation, pri#ary and social care and )elfare support should reco+nise and adopt their role as partners in #ana+in+ and carin+ for older offenders in the co##unity' ,n addition to the abo"e, it )ould appear that an e"idence?based ris- assess#ent tool could assist correctional syste# ad#inistrators to #a-e obEecti"e and robust deter#inations re+ardin+ older offenders& ris- of recidi"is# and co##unity safety on a case?bycase basis (1aseau 5992bL $ustice Policy ,nstitute 599>L !nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>)' The afore#entioned approaches, co#bined )ith the de"elop#ent of a clearly articulated rehabilitati"e strate+y for older prisoners, should also assist to address the be)ilder#ent and frustration reportedly e*perienced by older prisoners durin+ the @resettle#ent process&, by pro"idin+ clearer and ti#ely, ad"ance e*planations of )hat ser"ices are a"ailable to the# on release and ho) their post?release needs can be #et, as )ell as )hat e*pectations and responsibilities )ill be placed on the# )hen they lea"e prison (Cra)ley 599:)' As noted in the !nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e, /andboo. on %risoners with spe"ial needsA Prison authorities, probation ser"ices, social )elfare a+encies and the co##unity need to increase assistance to prisoners& resettle#ent in order to reduce re?offendin+ and the har#ful i#pact of i#prison#ent, and especially in the case of +roupKHsuch as older offendersI, due to the particular difficulties they are li-ely to face durin+ this period (!nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>)' 0eed for further research ,t is e"ident fro# the literature that there are nu#erous and si+nificant issues facin+ older prisoners in Australia and o"erseas, pertinent to the prisoners the#sel"es, their fa#ilies, the )ider co##unity, corrections ad#inistrators, health care professionals and policy?#a-ers' As #ost of the currently a"ailable infor#ation has been collected throu+h s#all?scale studies, ne)spaper articles or +o"ern#ent reports, it is also e"ident that #ore syste#atic research is reCuired to pro"ide infor#ation that is useful for acade#ics, co##unity #e#bers and policy? #a-ers to better understand these issues and ho) best to address the# (/r+er 5995L StoE-o"ic 599<)'

,n addition, there is a clear lac- of conte#porary, local research into these issues and #ost of the a"ailable literature co#es fro# the !SA or !;' As stated by a)es (599>), @there is a dearth of Australian literature relatin+ to the older prisoner as a de#o+raphic +roup in our prisons that ha#pers the de"elop#ent of )ell?founded policies and practices addressin+ their needs'& The sa#e issue )as identified by 1rant (2>>>) ten years a+o in an Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y reportA

@Kfurther research into the issue of elderly in#ates in Australian correctional centres is reCuired' Such research can pro"ide an o"er"ie) of the current situation and ser"ices a"ailable, as )ell as the current #ana+e#ent response a#on+st Australian correctional ser"ices' ,t can also identify the +aps in ser"ice pro"ision to this increasin+ (and often disproportionately e*pensi"e) +roup of in#ates, and strate+ies for addressin+ the "arious issues''' (ailure to anticipateKpopulation and cost increases #ay place further constraints on correctional bud+ets in the near future& (1rant 2>>>)' Wahidin (5994) asserts that this lac- of research and infor#ation about older offenders echoes the poor state that research )as in 79 years a+o, in relation to fe#ale offenders' She adds that, @The lac- of research in this area is an i#plicit for# of a+eis# that i#plies that the proble#s of this +roup can be disre+arded, or that a+ein+ cri#inals are si#ply not )orth discussin+& (Wahidin, 5994)' Cra)ley and Spar-s (599F) also call for #ore attention to be focused not Eust on docu#entin+ and obser"in+ the speedy +lobal +ro)th in populations of older prisoners, but also on e*plainin+ this occurrence, as part of a broader @pheno#enon of #ass incarceration& and as particular area of concern related to specific nuances and practices in sentencin+ and parole, )ithin a conte*t of present?day political culture' Many )riters also caution researchers a+ainst treatin+ older prisoners as an ho#o+enous +roup and note that the di#ensions of +ender, ethnicity and culture #ust also be considered' Codd (2>>4) tac-les this dile##a in relation to research )ith older )o#en offenders and su++ests the follo)in+A ,f, on the +rounds of anti?a+eis#, a+e cate+orisation is reEected co#pletely, then certain #anifestations of a+eist and se*ist oppression #ay be i+nored' ,f, on the other hand older )o#en are identified as a specific +roup, then the researcher ris-s perpetuatin+ a+eist approaches' .ne )ay out of this RCatch?55S situation )ould be to root any future research fir#ly in an anti?a+eist, fe#inist approach' (inally, it is clear that in order for Australia and other countries to capably tac-le the issues associated )ith increasin+ nu#bers of older prisoners, #ore local and co#parati"e research is reCuired to better understand and respond to the specific needs of older prisoners as a +roup and as indi"iduals' This )ould be in ter#s of correctional pro+ra#s, public policy, sentencin+ practices and le+islation #ore appropriately directed to)ard the successful rehabilitation of older offenders'

ABC 0e)s 599>, New &boriginal unit opens at %ort &ugusta %rison, no' 52 $uly 599>' Aday, 5994, @A+ein+ Prisoners&, in B Ber-#an M S &A#bruoso (eds), /andboo. of so"ial wor. in health and ageing, .*ford !ni"ersity Press !SA, 0e) =or-' Aday, 5997, &geing %risoners: 1risis in &meri"an 1orre"tions, Prae+er Publishers, 1reen)ood Publishin+ 1roup, ,ncorporated, Santa Barbara, CA' Ah#ed, M 5996, @%risons and %1+s are funding older prisoners so"ial "are&, )))'co##unitycare'co'uAleen, %S, Phillips, 33, %off, 33, Ca"anau+h, % M ay, 3 5996, @%eli+iousnessOSpirituality and Mental Health A#on+ .lder Male ,n#ates&, +he $erontologist, "ol' :6, pp' 4>5?<' Allen, 5997, @Prisoners& healthA -ey concernsA the physical and #ental health needs of older people in prison are in ur+ent need of attention&, Nursing Older %eople, "ol' 2F, no' <, p' 2' APCCA, %ots 5992, @%ecord of the 52st Asian and Pacific Conference of Correctional Ad#inistratorsA The Mana+e#ent of Special 1roups of .ffenders&, in 1orre"tions in &sia and the %a"ifi", Chian+ Mai, Thailand' Australian Bureau of Statistics 5996, %risoners in &ustralia, Cat' no' :F2<'9, ABS, Canberra' D 599>, @(uture population +ro)th and a+ein+&, &ustralian 'o"ial +rends, no' :295'9, pp' 2 ? 4' A statistical o"er"ie) of Abori+inal and Torres Strait ,slander peoples in Australia ThttpAOO)))' hreoc'+o"'auOSocialU$usticeOstatisticsO inde*'ht#lVtoc:2WAustralian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y 599<, @.lder Australians in prison&, Cri#e facts info, no' 2:>, "ie)ed 9:O9:O9>, ThttpAOO)))'aic'+o"' auOpublicationsOcfiOcfi2:>'pdfW' BBC 5997, @Nursing home prisons in demand&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' Bir#in+ha#, ; 5996, @The s)ellin+ nu#bers of older prisoners in $apan&s prisons has pro#pted the +o"ern#ent to be+in a #aEor re"a#p of its Eails to pro"ide ele"ators, handrails and )heelchair ra#ps' (Brief article)&, Nursing Older %eople, "ol' 59, no' 2' BorJyc-i, M 599F, *nter#entions for prisoners returning to the "ommunit(, Co##unity Safety and $ustice Branch, Attorney?1eneral&s epart#ent, Canberra' Bra#hall, 1 5994, @.lder offenders and co##unity penaltiesA a fra#e)or- for thin-in+&, in A Wahidin M M/ Cain (eds), &geing4 "rime and so"iet(, Willan Publishin+, e"on' Cald)ell, C, $ar"is, M M %osefield, H 5992, @,ssues ,#pactin+ Today&s 1eriatric (e#ale .ffenders&, 1orre"tions toda(, "ol' 47, no' F, pp' 229?:' Ca#pai+n for =outh $ustice 599<, 5ailing 5u#eniles: +he )angers of *n"ar"erating 6outh in &dult 5ails in &meri"a, Ca#pai+n for =outh $ustice, Washin+ton, C' Carlisle, 5994, @So far, so blea-A increasin+ nu#bers of older prisoners in a prison estate, desi+ned essentially for fit youn+ #en, pose a proble# for health ser"ice pro"iders&, Nursing Older %eople4 "ol' 26, no' <' Charleston Centre' aily Mail 5994, @W3 inmate medi"al e-penses soaring&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s

Codd, H 2>>4, @(e#inis#, a+eis# and cri#inolo+yA To)ards an a+enda for future research&, 2eminist 7egal 'tudies, "ol' :, no' 5, pp' 2<> ? >:' Colsher, P3, % B Wallace, %B, 3oeffelholJ, P3 M Sales, M 2>>5, @Health status of older #ale prisonersA a co#prehensi"e sur"ey&, A#erican $ournal of Public Health, "ol' 65, no' 4, pp' 662?:'

co##unitycare'co'u- 5997, @%oor ser#i"es put older prisoners at greater ris. of ill-health4 sa(s report&, Co##unity Care, "ie)ed 55O97O9>, ThttpAOO)))'co##unitycare'co'u-O ArticlesO5997O9>O5FO:552:Opoorser"ices?put?older?prisoners?at?+reaterris-?of?ill?health?says'ht#lW' Correctional Ser"ice of Canada 5996, @'pea.ers 8inder: 'e"tion 9: 1'1 *ssues and 1hallenges, Publications, "ie)ed 72O9<O9>, ThttpAOO)))'csc?scc' +c'caOte*tOpblctOsb?+oO9<?en+'sht#lW' corrections'co# 5997, @+enn. 'tarting to &ddress &geing %rison %opulation&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' Cra)ley, / 599:, @%elease and %esettle#entA the perspecti"es of older prisoners&, 1riminal 5usti"e ,atters, no' F4, "ie)ed 9:O9:O9>, ThttpAOO)))'cri#eandEustice'or+'u-O opus2F>OcE#F4?cra)ley'pdfW' Cra)ley, / M Spar-s, % 599F, @.lder #en in prisonA sur"i"al, copin+ and identity&, in A 3ieblin+ M S Maruna (eds), +he effe"ts of imprisonment, Willan Publishin+, e"on' D 5994, @,s there life after i#prison#ent8 Ho) elderly #en tal- about i#prison#ent and release&, 1riminolog( and 1riminal 5usti"e, "ol' 4, no' 2, pp' 47?65' Cunneen, C 2>>5, @Abori+inal ,#prison#ent urin+ and Since the %oyal Co##ission into Abori+inal eaths in Custody&, &boriginal 7aw 8ulletin, "ol' 5, no' FF' a)es, $ 599>, @A+ein+ PrisonersA ,ssues for Social Wor-&, &ustralian 'o"ial Wor., "ol' 45, no' 5, pp' 5F6 ? <2' epart#ent of Health 5992, National ser#i"e framewor. for older people: e-e"uti#e summar(, epart#ent of Health, !; 1o"ern#ent' D 599<, & pathwa( to "are for older offenders: & tool.it for good pra"ti"e4 epart#ent of Health, !; 1o"ern#ent, 3eeds' epart#ent of $ustice 599<, 5oint +reatment %rogram at %ort %hillip %rison httpAOO)))'Eustice' "ic'+o"'auO)psO)c#OconnectO .$X,nternetOHo#eOPrisonsO %esearchXandXStatisticsO$!ST,C/X$o intXTreat#entXPro+ra#XatXPortXPhill ipXPrison epart#ent of $ustice 599>, Statistical Profile of the Victorian Prison Syste# 5997D 9: to 599<D 96, State 1o"ern#ent Victoria, Melbourne' epart#ent of $ustice 599>, 'tatisti"al %rofile of the 3i"torian %rison '(stem 2 obson, 1 599:, @1ro)in+ old in prison&, Elderl( 1lient &d#iser, "ol' >, no' F' /d)ards, T 2>>6, +he &geing *nmate %opulationOA Special Series %eport of the Southern 3e+islati"e Conference, Council of State 1o"ern#ents' Southern 3e+islati"e Conference, Atlanta, 1A' /r+er, $S 5995, @1eriatric nursin+ in prisons is a +ro)in+ concern&, 1orre"tions +oda(, "ol' 4:, no' <' /tter, S 5994, @Options for the elderl( @, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' D 599<, @$rowing burden for ageing population&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' /"ans, C 599F, @A+e Concern 3eicestershire and %utland ? HMP 1artree .lder Prisoner&s Ad"ocacy and Support ProEect&, %rison 'er#i"e 5ournal, no' 249' (ay, M 5999, @'pe"ial %opulation %risons: &re +he( /ere to 'ta(=@' (aJel, S 599:, @!n#et treat#ent needs of older prisonersA a pri#ary care sur"ey&, &ge and &geing, "ol' 77, no' :' !- : to 2 ;- <'

(aJel, S, Hope, T, .& onnell, ,, Piper, M M $acoby, % 5992, @Health of elderly #ale prisonersA )orse than the +eneral population, )orse than youn+er prisoners&, &ge and &geing, "ol' 79, pp' :97?<' (ort Worth Star?Tele+ra# 599:, @Elderl( inmates "osting +e-as millions @, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' (ry, 249' M Ho)e, H 599F, @,anageing Older %risoners at /,% W(mott&, no'

1alla+her, /M 5992, @/lders in prisonA health and )ell?bein+ of older in#ates @, *nternational 5ournal of %s("hiatr( and 7aw, "ol' 5:, no' 5?7, pp' 75F?77' 1aseau, M 5999, @1aring for $eriatri" *nmates&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' B2 B5 5992a, @1aring for the Elderl( 8ehind 8ars&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' 5992b, @,anaging Elderl( *nmates&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre'

B7 5995, @+he $ra(ing of %risons: /ow 1orre"tions is ,anaging &geing %risoners&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' B: 599:, @1aring for the &geing *nmate: 'olutions for 1orre"tions @, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' 1illiard, ; M Bec-, A$ 2>>6, %risoners in ><<94 !'S' epart#ent of $ustice, .ffice of $ustice Pro+ra#s, Washin+ton, 'C' 1odineJ, SA 2>>>, @Mana+ein+ $u"eniles in Adult (acilitiesA ,dentifyin+ Population and ,nstitutional Characteristics To eter#ine Staff Trainin+ 0eeds&, 1orre"tions +oda(, "ol' 42, no' 5, pp' 64?>2' 1orenstein, 5996, 0ise in /ealth"are +roubles 1orre"tions )epartment, $anuary 29, 5996, 0e) Ha#pshire Public %adio, 0e) Ha#pshire' 1o"ern#ent of South Australia 599>, @2resh start for &boriginal offenders&, Mi-e %ann Pre#ier of South Australia Webpa+e'

1rant, A 2>>>, +rends ? *ssues in 1rime and 1riminal 5usti"eA 0o' 22FA /lderly in#atesA issues for Australia, Australian ,nstitue of Cri#inolo+y, 1riffith, ACT' 1reen, ( 5996, @1ro)in+ old behind bars&, 0i"hmond +imes-)ispat"h' D 599>, @/*penses hi+her for +eriatric prisoners&, 0i"hmond +imes )ispat"h (online), : $anuary 599>' 1reen 3eft Wee-ly 2>>5, @Abori+inal )o#en and the la)&, $reen 7eft Online, no' 44' Harpha#, 5996, Offender 3olumes: 0eport 2 Aotearoa, Wellin+ton' 9, epart#ent of CorrectionsA Ara Pouta#a

Harrison, MT 5994, @True 1ritA an inno"ati"e pro+ra# for elderly in#ates&, 1orre"tions +oda(, "ol' 46, no' <' Harrison, PM M ;arber+, $C 599:, %rison and 5ail *nmates at ,id(ear 2 Washin+ton, 'C'

@, !'S' epart#ent of $ustice .ffice of $ustice Pro+ra#s,

Health Canada 5995, @1anadas &geing %opulation&' Hec-enber+, 5994, @&$E*N$ %0*'ONE0': 'ignifi"ant "ohort or forgotten minorit(=& e+ree of Masters in Cri#inolo+y and Corrections thesis, !ni"ersity of Tas#ania' Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons 599:, @No problems old and quiet: Older prisoners in England and Wales: & themati" re#iew by HM Chief ,nspector of Prisons, Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons for /n+land and Wales (HM, Prisons), 3ondon' Y 5996, Older prisoners in England and Wales: a follow-up to the 2 ! themati" re#iew, Her MaEesty&s ,nspectorate of Prisons for /n+land and Wales (HM, Prisons), 3ondon' HM Prison Ser"ice 599>, @Chan+in+ li"es of disabled and elderly&, %rison 'er#i"e News (.nline Ma+aJine)' D Hno dateI, @Considerin+ older prisoners&, %rison 'er#i"e News (.nline Ma+aJine)' Hobbs, M, ;raJlan, ;, %idout, S, Mai, Z, ;nui#an, M M Chap#an, % 5994, %esearch and Public Policy Series 0o' <2A ,ortalit( and morbidit( in prisoners after release from prison in Western &ustralia ><<:2 @, <2, Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y, Canberra' $ones, B, (/d), 599<, @A+ein+ in#ates clo++in+ nation&s prisons&, A'& +oda(, 5> Septe#ber 599<' $ustice Policy ,nstitute 599>, +he 0elease 3al#e: %arole in ,ar(land4 Washington )1' ;e#p-er, / 5997, @1rayin+ of A#erican PrisonsA Addressin+ the Continued ,ncrease in 1eriatric ,n#ates&, 1orre"tions 1ompendium4 "ol' 56, no' 4, pp' 2?5' ;erbs, $$ 599>, @A co##entary on a+e se+re+ation for older prisonersA philosophical and pra+#atic considerations for correctional syste#s&, 1riminal 5usti"e 0e#iew, "ol' 7:, no' 2' ;erbs, $$ M $olley, $M 599<, @,n#ateon?,n#ate Victi#iJation A#on+ .lder Male Prisoners&, 1rime ?

)elinquen"(, "ol' F7, no' 5, pp' 26<?526' ;raEic-, ; 2><>, @1ro)in+ old in prison&, 1orre"tions ,agaBine, "ol' F, no' 2' ;ury, H M S#artt, ! 5995, @Prisoneron?prisoner "iolenceA Victi#iJation of youn+ offenders in prison' So#e 1er#an findin+s&, 1riminal 5usti"e, "ol' 5, no' :, pp' :22?7<' 3e Mesurier, 0 5996, @Older %eople and the %enal '(stem4 Older %eople in %rison' 3inder, $( M Meyers, ($ 599<, @Palliati"e Care for Prison ,n#atesA R on&t 3et Me ie in PrisonS @, +he 5ournal of the &meri"an ,edi"al &sso"iation, "ol' 5>6, no' >' 3oeb, S$ M Abu a++a, A 5994, @Healthrelated research on older in#atesA An inte+rati"e re"ie)&, 0esear"h in Nursing and /ealth, "ol' 5>, no' 4' 3oeb, S$, Steffens#eier, M 3a)rence, ( 5996, @Co#parin+ incarcerated and co##unity?d)ellin+ older #en&s health&, Western Cournal of nursing resear"h, "ol' 79, no' 5' 3ondon (ree Press (Canada) 5997, @&geing %rison %opulation a 1hallenge for 1anadian '(stem&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' Mara, CM 599:, @Chronic ,llness, isability and 3on+?Ter# Care in the Prison Settin+&, in P% ;atJ, M MeJey M MB ;app (eds), 3ulnerable populations in the long term "are "ontinuum, Sprin+er Publishin+ Co#pany, ,nc', 0e) =or-, 0=, "ol' F, pp' 7> ? F4' Martin, ; 5992, @+he %O%' %rogram: %ro#iding & 3oi"e 2or Older *nmates @, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' B2 5995a, ,anaging 2emale Offenders: %rin"iples and %ra"ti"es @, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre, "ie)ed 54O9<O9>, ThttpAOO)))' corrections'co#One)sOarticleO6957W' B5 5995b, @%enn. %rogram /elps Older Offenders +a.e a '+E% *n the 0ight )ire"tion&, The Corrections Connection 0e)s Centre' McCaffrey, S 599<, &geing inmate population "logging nations prisons, Associated Press' Mit-a, M 599:, &geing prisoners stressing health "are s(stem&, The $ournal of the A#erican Medical Association, "ol' 5>5, no' :' Morton, $ M Anderson, $ 2>65, @/lderly offendersA The for+otten #inority&, 1orre"tions +oda(, "ol' ::, no' 4' 0eeley, C3, Addison, 3 M Crai+?Moreland, 2>><, @Addressin+ the needs of elderly offenders&, 1orre"tions +oda(, "ol' F>, no' :, pp' 259?:'

0SW epart#ent of Correcti"e Ser"ices 5996, New 'outh Wales )epartment of 1orre"ti#e 'er#i"es: 2 9 - 2 ; &nnual 0eport, 0e) South Wales 1o"ern#ent, Sydney' .-laho#a epart#ent of Corrections 5996, @,anaging *n"reasing &geing *nmate %opulations: & )O1 DWhite %aperS' .nishi, 0 5996, @$apanA Prisons To Adapt To .lder ,n#ates&, New 6or. +imes' ."e, T 599F, @Pa' prison population +ro)in+ older, sic-er, costlier&, %ittsburgh %ost-$aBette, 4 March 599F Papani-olas, T 5994, @7arge Number of Elderl( *nmates are 'e- Offenders&, -sl'co#, ThttpAOO)))'-sl' co#O8nid[2:6Msid[F4<>F9W' Par-er, % 599F, @%risoners with 'pe"ial Needs: ,a.ing %rograms Wor., paper presented to Pacific %e+ional Heads of Prisons Meetin+, Brisbane, Zueensland, 2 ? 7 $une 599F, ThttpAOO )))'correcti"eser"ices'Cld'+o"'auO AboutU!sOTheU epart#entO;eyU ,nitiati"esOP%H.PMOpapersUprhop#9F' sht#lW' Pennsyl"ania epart#ent of Corrections 599>, '1* 7aurel /ighlands'

Prison %efor# Trust 5997a, @)ouble punishment for older prisoners&' B2 B5 5997b, @Elderl( prisoners negle"ted& 5997c, @*nspe"tion report of /,% 2ran.land&'

B7 599:, @'tatement on 'till life e-hibition: )OA87E %AN*'/,EN+ 2O0 E7)E076 %0*'ONE0'&&' B: BF B2 B5 5994, 8romle( 8riefings: %rison 2a"tfile: &pril 2 5996a, 8romle( 8riefings: %rison 2a"tfile: 5une 2 E, Prison %efor# Trust' ;, Prison %efor# Trust'

5996b, @)O*N$ +*,E: the e-perien"es and needs of older people in prison&' Hno dateI, @)isabled prisoners&, ThttpAOO)))'prisonrefor#trust'or+'u-O subsection'asp8id[5F9W'

%eynolds, , 5996, @5apans elderl( inmates to get barrier-free Cails&, %euters' %i-ard, %V M %osenber+, / 599<, @A+ein+ ,n#atesA A Con"er+ence of Trends in the A#erican Cri#inal $ustice Syste#&, 5ournal of 1orre"tional /ealth 1are, "ol' 27, no' 7, pp' 2F9 ? 45' %osefield, HA 2>>7, @.lder ,n#ateA Where do )e +o fro# here8& 5ournal of %rison and 5ail /ealth, "ol' 25, no' 2, pp' F2?6' %uddell, % M ;uhl#ann, % 599F, @/lderly $ail ,n#atesA Proble#s, Pre"alence and Public Health&, 1alifornian 5ournal of /ealth %romotion, "ol' 7, no' 5, pp' :>?49' State of Victoria Australia 599>a, epart#ent of $ustice, Victoria, Australia, %rison %rofiles 2ulham 1orre"tional 1entre' D 599>b, epart#ent of $ustice, Victoria, AustraliaA %rison %rofiles - %ort %hillip %rison'

StoE-o"ic, S 599<, @/lderly prisonersA a +ro)in+ and for+otten +roup )ithin correctional syste#s "ulnerable to elder abuse (%eport)&, 5ournal of Elder &buse and Negle"t, "ol' 2>, no' 7?:, p' 52' Tan+, $ 599F, @%resentation to the %a"ifi" /eads of 1orre"tions: Offenders with spe"ial needs

Fintelle"tual impairmentGA $une 599F&, paper presented to Pacific %e+ional Heads of Prisons Meetin+, Brisbane, Zueensland, 2 ?7 $une 599F, ThttpAOO )))'correcti"eser"ices'Cld'+o"'auO AboutU!sOTheU epart#entO;eyU ,nitiati"esOP%H.PMOpapersUprhop#9F' sht#lW' Taylor, P M Parrott, $ 2>66, @/lderly offenders' A study of a+e?related factors a#on+ custodially re#anded prisoners&,British $ournal of Psychiatry, "ol' 2F5, pp' 7:9?4' Tho#as, 3, Tho#as, $A M 1reenber+, S 599F, @The +rayin+ of correctionsA The #ana+e#ent of older in#ates&, in S StoE-o"ic (ed'), ,anaging spe"ial populations in Cails and prisons, Ci"ic %esearch ,nstitute, ;in+ston, 0$' !nited 0ations .ffice on ru+s and Cri#e 599>, /andboo. on %risoners with spe"ial needs, Sales 0o' /'9>' ,V':, 0e) =or-' unsilent+eneration'co# 599>, @&geing 8ehind 8ars' !TSA 0ursin+ Mid)ifery and Health 599>, 5usti"e /ealth Nursing %rofessorial Anit: 1urrent %ra"ti"e *mpro#ement %roCe"ts' !Joaba, $H/ 2>>6, ,anaging Older Offenders: Where )o We 'tand=, Correctional Ser"ice of Canada' Valios, 0 5996, @.lder people&s pli+ht in prison&, 1ommunit( 1are' Wahidin, A 5997, @@We are a signifi"ant minorit(: Old Women in English %risons&, in S Cottee, C S#ith M / Wincup (eds), British Cri#inolo+y Conference, Ban+or, "ol' 4' B2 599:, Older Women in the 1riminal 5usti"e '(stem: 0unning Out of +ime, $essica ;in+lsey Publishers, 3ondon' B5 5994, @&0o proble#s ? old and Cuiet&A i#prison#ent in later life&, in A Wahidin M M/ Cain (eds), &geing4 1rime and 'o"iet(, Willan Publishin+, e"on' Wahidin, A M Aday, 5994, @+he Needs of Older ,en and Women in the 1riminal 5usti"e '(stem: &n *nternational %erspe"ti#e @, /uropean Cri#e and /#ploy#ent Briefin+' West, HC M Sabol, W$ 599>, %rison *nmates at ,id(ear 2 ; - 'tatisti"al +ables4 !'S' epart#ent of $ustice, .ffice of $ustice Pro+ra#s, Washin+ton, 'C'

Willia#s, C 5996, @P%TA .lder prisoners face @isolation and discri#ination&&, 1ommunit( 1are' Willis, M M Moore, $?P 5996, 0eintegration of *ndigenous prisoners, Australian ,nstitute of Cri#inolo+y, Canberra' =or-e, P 599>, @,edi"al Needs for the &ged in 3i"torian Womens %risons&, Monash !ni"ersity' =orston, 1A M Taylor, P$ 5994, @Co##entaryA .lder .ffendersY0o Place to 1o8& 5ournal of the &meri"an &"adem( of %s("hiatr( and 7aw .nline, "ol' 7:, no' 7'

Ac-no)led+e#ents The authors )ould li-e to than- Helen Casey and Malcol# (einer, %esearch and /"aluation !nit, Corrections Victoria for input and co##ents on drafts of this paper'
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