Paleolithic

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Jump to: navigation, search The Paleolithic (US spelling; ritish spelling: Palaeolithic! Age, Era or Period is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished "y the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered (#rahame $lark%s &odes ' and ''!, and covers roughly (() of human technological prehistory* 't e+tends from the earliest kno,n use of stone tools, pro"a"ly "y hominins such as australopithecines, -*. million years ago, to the end of the /leistocene around 01,111 /*203 The /aleolithic era is follo,ed "y the &esolithic* The date of the /aleolithic4&esolithic "oundary may vary "y locality as much as several thousand years* 5uring the /aleolithic, humans grouped together in small societies such as "ands, and su"sisted "y gathering plants and fishing, hunting or scavenging ,ild animals*2-3 The /aleolithic is characteri6ed "y the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used ,ood and "one tools* 7ther organic commodities ,ere adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegeta"le fi"ers; ho,ever, due to their nature, these have not "een preserved to any great degree* Surviving artifacts of the /aleolithic era are kno,n as paleoliths* 8umankind gradually evolved from early mem"ers of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis 9 ,ho used simple stone tools 9 into fully "ehaviorally and anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) during the /aleolithic era*2:3 5uring the end of the /aleolithic, specifically the &iddle and or Upper /aleolithic, humans "egan to produce the earliest ,orks of art and engage in religious and spiritual "ehavior such as "urial and ritual*2-32;32<3 The climate during the /aleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in ,hich the climate periodically fluctuated "et,een ,arm and cool temperatures* The term =/aleolithic= ,as coined "y archaeologist John >u""ock in 0?.<*2.3 't derives from #reek: @ABACDE, palaios, =old=; and BFGHE, lithos, =stone=, literally meaning =old age of the stone= or =7ld Stone Ige*=

Contents
0 8uman evolution - /aleogeography and climate : 8uman ,ay of life o :*0 5istri"ution o :*- Technology o :*: Social organi6ation o :*; Irt and music o :*< Jeligion and "eliefs o :*. 5iet and nutrition ; Kvents < See also . Footnotes L i"liography ? Further reading ( K+ternal links

Human evolution

This cranium, of Homo heidelbergensis, a >o,er /aleolithic predecessor to Homo neanderthalensis and possi"ly Homo sapiens, dates to sometime "et,een <11,111 and ;11,111 /* Main article: Human evolution 8uman evolution is the part of "iological evolution concerning the emergence of humans as a distinct species*

Paleogeography and climate

Main articles: Pleistocene#Paleogeography and climate, Pliocene_climate, and Pliocene#Paleogeography

The /aleolithic climate consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods* The climate of the /aleolithic /eriod spanned t,o geologic epochs kno,n as the /liocene and the /leistocene* oth of these epochs e+perienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies* 5uring the /liocene, continents continued to drift from possi"ly as far as -<1 km from their present locations to positions only L1 km from their current location* South Imerica "ecame linked to Morth Imerica through the 'sthmus of /anama, "ringing a nearly complete end to South Imerica%s distinctive marsupial fauna* The formation of the 'sthmus had maNor conseOuences on glo"al temperatures, "ecause ,arm eOuatorial ocean currents ,ere cut off, and the cold Irctic and Intarctic ,aters lo,ered temperatures in the no,Pisolated Itlantic 7cean* $entral Imerica formed completely during the /liocene, allo,ing fauna from Morth and South Imerica to leave their native ha"itats and coloni6e ne, areas*2L3 Ifrica%s collision ,ith Isia created the &editerranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys 7cean* 5uring the /leistocene, the modern continents ,ere essentially at their present positions; the tectonic plates on ,hich they sit have pro"a"ly moved at most 011 km from each other since the "eginning of the period*2?3

$limates during the /liocene "ecame cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates* 'ce sheets gre, on Intarctica* The formation of an Irctic ice cap around three million years ago is signaled "y an a"rupt shift in o+ygen isotope ratios and icePrafted co""les in the Morth Itlantic and Morth /acific ocean "eds*2(3 &idPlatitude glaciation pro"a"ly "egan "efore the end of the epoch* The glo"al cooling that occurred during the /liocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas*2L3 The /leistocene climate ,as characteri6ed "y repeated glacial cycles during ,hich continental glaciers pushed to the ;1th parallel in some places* Four maNor glacial events have "een identified, as ,ell as many minor intervening events* I maNor event is a general glacial e+cursion, termed a =glacial=* #lacials are separated "y =interglacials=* 5uring a glacial, the glacier e+periences minor advances and retreats* The minor e+cursion is a =stadial=; times "et,een stadials are =interstadials=* Kach glacial advance tied up huge volumes of ,ater in continental ice sheets 0<119:111 m deep, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 011 m or more over the entire surface of the Karth* 5uring interglacial times, such as at present, dro,ned coastlines ,ere common, mitigated "y isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions*

&any great mammals such as ,oolly mammoths, ,oolly rhinoceros, and cave lions inha"ited places like Si"eria during the /leistocene*

/aleoindians hunting a glyptodon* #lyptodons ,ere hunted to e+tinction ,ithin t,o millennia after humans% arrival to South Imerica* The effects of glaciation ,ere glo"al* Intarctica ,as iceP"ound throughout the /leistocene and the preceding /liocene* The Indes ,ere covered in the south "y the /atagonian ice cap* There ,ere glaciers in Me, Qealand and Tasmania* The no, decaying glaciers of &ount Renya, &ount RilimanNaro, and the Ju,en6ori Jange in east and central Ifrica ,ere larger* #laciers e+isted in the mountains of Kthiopia and to the ,est in the Itlas mountains* 'n the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one* The $ordilleran ice sheet covered the Morth Imerican north,est; the >aurentide covered the east* The FennoPScandian ice sheet covered northern Kurope, including #reat ritain; the Ilpine ice sheet covered the Ilps* Scattered domes stretched across Si"eria and the Irctic shelf* The northern seas ,ere fro6en* 5uring the late Upper /aleolithic (>atest /leistocene! c. 0?,111 /, the eringia land "ridge "et,een Isia and Morth Imerica ,as "locked "y ice,2?3 ,hich may have prevented early /aleoP'ndians such as the $lovis culture from directly crossing eringa to reach the Imericas*

Iccording to &ark >ynas (through collected data!, the /leistocene%s overall climate could "e characteri6ed as a continuous Kl MiSo ,ith trade ,inds in the south /acific ,eakening or heading east, ,arm air rising near /eru, ,arm ,ater spreading from the ,est /acific and the 'ndian 7cean to the east /acific, and other Kl MiSo markers*2013 The /aleolithic is often held to finish at the end of the ice age (the end of the /leistocene epoch!, and Karth%s climate "ecame ,armer* This may have caused or contri"uted to the e+tinction of the /leistocene megafauna, although it is also possi"le that the late /leistocene e+tinctions ,ere (at least in part! caused "y other factors such as disease and overhunting "y humans*200320-3 Me, research suggests that the e+tinction of the ,oolly mammoth may have "een caused "y the com"ined effect of climatic change and human hunting*20-3 Scientists suggest that climate change during the end of the /leistocene caused the mammoths% ha"itat to shrink in si6e, resulting in a drop in population* The small populations ,ere then hunted out "y /aleolithic humans*20-3 The glo"al ,arming that occurred during the end of the /leistocene and the "eginning of the 8olocene may have made it easier for humans to reach mammoth ha"itats that ,ere previously fro6en and inaccessi"le*20-3 Small populations of ,ooly mammoths survived on isolated Irctic islands, Saint /aul 'sland and Wrangel 'sland, till circa :L11 and 0L11 $K respectively* The Wrangel 'sland population ,ent e+tinct around the same time the island ,as settled "y prehistoric humans*20:3 There%s no evidence of prehistoric human presence on Saint /aul island (though early human settlements dating as far "ack as .<11 $K ,ere found on near"y Ileutian 'slands!*20;3 $urrently agreed upon classifications as /aleolithic geoclimatic episodes20<3 Age America Atlantic Maghreb Mediterranean (before) Europe Europe 01,111 years ?1,111 years Flandrian interglacial Wisconsin Flandriense Mellahiense Versiliense

Central Europe Flandrian interglacial Wisconsin tage Kemian Stage Wolstonian tage 8o+nian Stage "ansan tage $romerian $omple+ %eestonian stage

Devensiense

JegresiTn

JegresiTn !irreniense "" y """ JegresiTn

0;1,111 Sangamoniense 'ps,ichiense years -11,111 years !llinois Wolstoniense

Oul iense

JegresiTn

;<1,111 Uarmouthiense years <?1,111 years L<1,111 years 0,011,111 years "ansas

8o+niense

#n$atiense

!irreniense "

Angliense

JegresiTn

JegresiTn

Iftoniense

$romeriense

Maari$iense

%iciliense

#ebras$a

%eestoniense

JegresiTn

JegresiTn

0,;11,111 years

interglaciar

>udhamiense Messaudiense

&alabriense

5onauP #Vn6

Human &ay of life

In artist%s rendering of a temporary ,ood house, "ased on evidence found at Terra Imata (in Mice, France! and dated to the >o,er /aleolithic (c. ;11,111 /! 5ue to a lack of ,ritten records from this time period, nearly all of our kno,ledge of /aleolithic human culture and ,ay of life comes from archaeology and ethnographic comparisons to modern hunterPgatherer cultures such as the WRung San ,ho live similarly to their /aleolithic predecessors*20.3 The economy of a typical /aleolithic society ,as a hunterPgatherer economy*20L3 8umans hunted ,ild animals for meat and gathered food, fire,ood, and materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters*20L3 8uman population density ,as very lo,, around only one person per sOuare mile*2-3 This ,as most likely due to lo, "ody fat, infanticide, ,omen regularly engaging in intense endurance e+ercise,20?3 late ,eaning of infants and a nomadic lifestyle*2-3 >ike contemporary hunterPgatherers, /aleolithic humans enNoyed an a"undance of leisure time unparalleled in "oth Meolithic farming societies and modern industrial societies*20L320(3 It the end of the /aleolithic, specifically the &iddle and or Upper /aleolithic, humans "egan to produce ,orks of art such as cave paintings, rock art and Ne,ellery and "egan to engage in religious "ehavior such as "urial and ritual*2-13

Distribution
It the "eginning of the /aleolithic, hominids ,ere found primarily in eastern Ifrica, east of the #reat Jift Xalley* &ost kno,n hominid fossils dating earlier than one million years "efore present are found in this area, particularly in Renya, Tan6ania, and Kthiopia* y 0*<P- million years "efore present, groups of hominids "egan leaving Ifrica and settling southern Kurope and Isia* Southern $aucasus ,as occupied "y 0*L million years /, and northern $hina ,as reached "y 0*.. million years /* y the end of the >o,er /aleolithic, mem"ers of the hominid family ,ere living in ,hat is no, $hina, ,estern 'ndonesia, and, in Kurope, around the &editerranean and as far north as Kngland, southern #ermany, and ulgaria* Their further north,ard e+pansion may have "een limited "y the lack of control of fire: studies of cave settlements in Kurope indicate no regular use of fire prior to :11,111P;11,111 /*2-03 Kast Isian fossils from this period are typically placed in the genus 8omo erectus* Xery little fossil evidence is availa"le at kno,n >o,er /aleolithic sites in Kurope, "ut it is "elieved that hominids ,ho inha"ited these sites ,ere like,ise Homo erectus* There is no evidence of hominids in Imerica, Iustralia, or almost any,here in 7ceania during this time period*

Fates of these early colonists, and their relationships to modern humans, are still su"Nect to de"ate* Iccording to current archeological and genetic models, there ,ere at least t,o nota"le e+pansion events su"seOuent to peopling of Kurasia -P0*< million years /* Iround <11,111 /, a group of early humans, freOuently called 8omo heidel"ergensis, came to Kurope from Ifrica and eventually evolved into Meanderthals* oth Homo erectus and Meanderthals ,ent e+tinct "y the end of the /aleolithic, having "een replaced "y a ne, ,ave of humans, the anatomically modern 8omo sapiens, ,hich emerged in eastern Ifrica circa -11,111 /, left Ifrica around <1,111 / and e+panded throughout the planet* 't is likely that multiple groups coe+isted for some time in certain locations* Meanderthals ,ere still found in parts of Kurasia :1,111 years "efore present, and engaged in a limited degree of inter"reeding ,ith Homo sapiens* 8ominid fossils not "elonging either to Homo neanderthalensis or to Homo sapiens geni, found in Iltai and 'ndonesia, ,ere radiocar"on dated to :1,111P;1,111 / and 0L,111 / respectively* The technological revolution of the &iddle and Upper /aleolithic allo,ed humans to reach places that ,eren%t accessi"le earlier* 'n the &iddle /aleolithic, Meanderthals ,ere present in /oland* y ;1,111P<1,111 /, first humans set foot in Iustralia* y ;<,111 /, humans lived at .0Y north latitude in Kurope*2--3 y :1,111 /, Japan ,as reached, and "y -L,111 / humans ,ere present in Si"eria a"ove the Irctic $ircle*2--3 It the end of the Upper /aleolithic, a group of humans crossed the ering land "ridge and Ouickly e+panded throughout Morth and South Imerica* Morthern Kurasia "ecame depopulated during the last #lacial &a+imum (-L,111 to 0.,111 /!, "ut ,as repopulated as the climate got ,armer and glaciers retreated* For the duration of the /aleolithic, human populations remained lo,, especially outside the eOuatorial region* The entire population of Kurope "et,een 0.,111P00,111 / likely averaged some :1,111 individuals, and, "et,een ;1,111P0.,111 /, it ,as even lo,er, at ;,111P.,111 individuals*2-:3

'echnology

T,o >o,er /aleolithic "ifaces

Stone "all from a set of /aleolithic "olas /aleolithic humans made tools of stone, "one, and ,ood*20L3 The earliest /aleolithic stone tool industry, the 7ldu,an, ,as developed "y the earliest mem"ers of the genus Homo such as Homo habilis, around -*. million years ago*2-;3 't contained tools such as choppers, "urins and a,ls* 't ,as completely replaced around -<1,111 years ago "y the more comple+ Icheulean industry, ,hich ,as first conceived "y Homo ergaster around 0*? or 0*.< million years ago*2-<3 The most recent >o,er /aleolithic (Icheulean! implements completely vanished from the archeological record around 011,111 years ago and ,ere replaced "y more comple+ &iddle /aleolithicZ&iddle Stone Ige tool kits such as the &ousterian and the Iterian industries*2-.3 >o,er /aleolithic humans used a variety of stone tools, including hand a+es and choppers* Ilthough they appear to have used hand a+es often, there is disagreement a"out their use* 'nterpretations range from cutting and chopping tools, to digging implements, flake cores, the use in traps and a purely ritual significance, may"e in courting "ehavior* William 8* $alvin has suggested that some hand a+es could have served as =killer Fris"ees= meant to "e thro,n at a herd of animals at a ,ater hole so as to stun one of them* There are no indications of hafting, and some artifacts are far too large for that* Thus, a thro,n hand a+e ,ould not usually have penetrated deeply enough to cause very serious inNuries* Mevertheless, it could have "een an effective ,eapon for defense against predators* $hoppers and scrapers ,ere likely used for skinning and "utchering scavenged animals and sharp ended sticks ,ere often o"tained for digging up edi"le roots* /resuma"ly, early humans used ,ooden spears as early as five million years ago to hunt small animals, much as their relatives, chimpan6ees, have "een o"served to do in Senegal, Ifrica*2-L3 >o,er /aleolithic humans constructed shelters such as the possi"le ,ood hut at Terra Imata* Fire ,as used "y the >o,er /aleolithic hominid Homo erectusZHomo ergaster as early as :11,111 or 0*< million years ago and possi"ly even earlier "y the early >o,er /aleolithic (7ldo,an! hominid Homo habilis andZor "y ro"ust australopithecines such as Paranthropus*2-3 8o,ever, the use of fire only "ecame common in the societies of the follo,ing &iddle Stone IgeZ&iddle /aleolithic /eriod*203 Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators*2-?3 Karly hominids may have "egun to cook their food as early as the >o,er /aleolithic (c. 0*( million years ago! or at the latest in the early &iddle /aleolithic (c. -<1,111 years ago!*2-(3 Some scientists have hypothesi6ed that 8ominids "egan cooking food to defrost fro6en meat, ,hich ,ould help ensure their survival in cold regions*2-(3 The >o,er /aleolithic hominid Homo erectus possi"ly invented rafts (c. ?11,111 or ?;1,111 /! to travel over large "odies of ,ater, ,hich may have allo,ed a group of

Homo erectus to reach the island of Flores and evolve into the small hominid Homo $loresiensis* 8o,ever, this hypothesis is disputed ,ithin the anthropological community*2:132:03 The possi"le use of rafts during the >o,er /aleolithic may indicate that >o,er /aleolithic 8ominids such as Homo erectus ,ere more advanced than previously "elieved, and may have even spoken an early form of modern language*2:13 Supplementary evidence from Meanderthal and &odern human sites located around the &editerranean Sea such as $oa de sa &ulta (c. :11,111 /! has also indicated that "oth &iddle and Upper /aleolithic humans used rafts to travel over large "odies of ,ater (i*e* the &editerranean Sea! for the purpose of coloni6ing other "odies of land*2:132:-3 Iround -11,111 /, &iddle /aleolithic Stone tool manufacturing spa,ned a tool making techniOue kno,n as the preparedPcore techniOue, that ,as more ela"orate than previous Icheulean techniOues*2:3 This techniOue increased efficiency "y allo,ing the creation of more controlled and consistent flakes*2:3 't allo,ed &iddle /aleolithic humans to create stone tipped spears, ,hich ,ere the earliest composite tools, "y hafting sharp, pointy stone flakes onto ,ooden shafts* 'n addition to improving tool making methods, the &iddle /aleolithic also sa, an improvement of the tools themselves that allo,ed access to a ,ider variety and amount of food sources* For e+ample microliths or small stone tools or points ,ere invented around L1,111 or .<,111 / and ,ere essential to the invention of "o,s and spear thro,ers in the follo,ing Upper /aleolithic period*2-?3 8arpoons ,ere invented and used for the first time during the late &iddle /aleolithic (c*(1,111 years ago!; the invention of these devices "rought fish into the human diets, ,hich provided a hedge against starvation and a more a"undant food supply*2:-32::3 Thanks to their technology and their advanced social structures, /aleolithic groups such as the Meanderthals ,ho had a &iddle /aleolithic level of technology, appear to have hunted large game Nust as ,ell as Upper /aleolithic modern humans2:;3 and the Meanderthals in particular may have like,ise hunted ,ith proNectile ,eapons*2:<3 Monetheless, Meanderthal use of proNectile ,eapons in hunting occurred very rarely (or perhaps never! and the Meanderthals hunted large game animals mostly "y am"ushing them and attacking them ,ith m[l\e ,eapons such as thrusting spears rather than attacking them from a distance ,ith proNectile ,eapons*2-132:.3 5uring the Upper /aleolithic, further inventions ,ere made, such as the net (c. --,111 or -(,111 /!2-?3 "olas,2:L3 the spear thro,er (c*:1,111 /!, the "o, and arro, (c. -<,111 or :1,111 /!2-3 and the oldest e+ample of ceramic art, the Xenus of 5oln] X^stonice (c. -(,1119-<,111 $K!*2-3 Karly dogs ,ere domesticated, sometime "et,een :1,111 / and 0;,111 /, presuma"ly to aid in hunting*2:?3 8o,ever, the earliest instances of successful domestication of dogs may "e much more ancient than this* Kvidence from canine 5MI collected "y Jo"ert R* Wayne suggests that dogs may have "een first domesticated in the late &iddle /aleolithic around 011,111 / or perhaps even earlier*2:(3 Ircheological evidence from the 5ordogne region of France demonstrates that mem"ers of the Kuropean early Upper /aleolithic culture kno,n as the Iurignacian used calendars (c. :1,111 /!* This ,as a lunar calendar that ,as used to document the phases of the moon* #enuine solar calendars did not appear until the follo,ing Meolithic period*2;13 Upper /aleolithic cultures ,ere pro"a"ly a"le to time the migration of game animals such as ,ild horses and deer*2::3 This a"ility allo,ed humans to "ecome efficient hunters and to e+ploit a ,ide variety of game animals*2::3 Jecent research indicates that the Meanderthals timed their hunts and the migrations of game animals long "efore the "eginning of the Upper /aleolithic*2:;3

ocial organi(ation

Some or all of this article%s listed sources may not be reliable* /lease help this article "y looking for "etter, more relia"le sources, or "y checking ,hether the references meet the criteria for relia"le sources* Unrelia"le citations may "e challenged or deleted* '(ebruary )*+*)

8umans may have taken part in longPdistance trade "et,een "ands for rare commodities and ra, materials (such as stone needed for making tools! as early as 0-1,111 years ago in &iddle /aleolithic* The social organi6ation of the earliest /aleolithic (>o,er /aleolithic! societies remains largely unkno,n to scientists, though >o,er /aleolithic hominids such as Homo habilis and Homo erectus are likely to have had more comple+ social structures than chimpan6ee societies*2;03 >ate 7ldo,anZKarly Icheulean humans such as Homo ergasterZHomo erectus may have "een the first people to invent central campsites or home "ases and incorporate them into their foraging and hunting strategies like contemporary hunterP gatherers, possi"ly as early as 0*L million years ago;2:3 ho,ever, the earliest solid evidence for the e+istence of home "ases or central campsites (hearths and shelters! among humans only dates "ack to <11,111 years ago*2:32dead lin,3 Similarly, scientists disagree ,hether >o,er /aleolithic humans ,ere largely monogamous or polygynous*2;03 'n particular, the /rovisional model suggests that "ipedalism arose in /re /aleolithic australopithecine societies as an adaptation to monogamous lifestyles; ho,ever, other researchers note that se+ual dimorphism is more pronounced in >o,er /aleolithic humans such as Homo erectus than in &odern humans, ,ho are less polygynous than other primates, ,hich suggests that >o,er /aleolithic humans had a largely polygynous lifestyle, "ecause species that have the most pronounced se+ual dimorphism tend more likely to "e polygynous*2;-3 8uman societies from the /aleolithic to the early Meolithic farming tri"es lived ,ithout states and organi6ed governments* For most of the >o,er /aleolithic, human societies ,ere possi"ly more hierarchical than their &iddle and Upper /aleolithic descendants, and pro"a"ly ,ere not grouped into "ands,2;:3 though during the end of the >o,er /aleolithic, the latest populations of the hominid Homo erectus may have "egun living in smallPscale (possi"ly egalitarian! "ands similar to "oth &iddle and Upper /aleolithic societies and modern hunterPgatherers*2;:3 &iddle /aleolithic societies, unlike >o,er /aleolithic and early Meolithic ones, consisted of "ands that ranged from -1 to :1 or -< to 011 mem"ers and ,ere usually nomadic*2-32;:3 These "ands ,ere formed "y several families* ands sometimes Noined together into larger =macro"ands= for activities such as acOuiring mates and cele"rations or ,here

resources ,ere a"undant*2-3 y the end of the /aleolithic era, a"out 01,111 / people "egan to settle do,n into permanent locations, and "egan to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations* &uch evidence e+ists that humans took part in longP distance trade "et,een "ands for rare commodities (such as ochre, ,hich ,as often used for religious purposes such as ritual2;;32;<3! and ra, materials, as early as 0-1,111 years ago in &iddle /aleolithic*2-13 'nterP"and trade may have appeared during the &iddle /aleolithic "ecause trade "et,een "ands ,ould have helped ensure their survival "y allo,ing them to e+change resources and commodities such as ra, materials during times of relative scarcity (i*e* famine, drought!*2-13 >ike in modern hunterPgatherer societies, individuals in /aleolithic societies may have "een su"ordinate to the "and as a ,hole*20.320L3 oth Meanderthals and modern humans took care of the elderly mem"ers of their societies during the &iddle and Upper /aleolithic*2-13 Some sources claim that most &iddle and Upper /aleolithic societies ,ere possi"ly fundamentally egalitarian2-320L32:-32;:32;:3 and may have rarely or never engaged in organi6ed violence "et,een groups (i*e* ,ar!*2:-32;.32;L32;?3 Some Upper /aleolithic societies in resourcePrich environments (such as societies in Sungir, in ,hat is no, Jussia! may have had more comple+ and hierarchical organi6ation (such as tri"es ,ith a pronounced hierarchy and a some,hat formal division of la"or! and may have engaged in endemic ,arfare*2:-32;(3 Some argue that there ,as no formal leadership during the &iddle and Upper /aleolithic* >ike contemporary egalitarian hunterPgatherers such as the &"uti pygmies, societies may have made decisions "y communal consensus decision making rather than "y appointing permanent rulers such as chiefs and monarchs*2<3 Mor ,as there a formal division of la"or during the /aleolithic* Kach mem"er of the group ,as skilled at all tasks essential to survival, regardless of individual a"ilities* Theories to e+plain the apparent egalitarianism have arisen, nota"ly the &ar+ist concept of primitive communism*2<132<03 $hristopher oehm (0(((! has hypothesi6ed that egalitarianism may have evolved in /aleolithic societies "ecause of a need to distri"ute resources such as food and meat eOually to avoid famine and ensure a sta"le food supply*2;:3 Jaymond $* Relly speculates that the relative peacefulness of &iddle and Upper /aleolithic societies resulted from a lo, population density, cooperative relationships "et,een groups such as reciprocal e+change of commodities and colla"oration on hunting e+peditions, and "ecause the invention of proNectile ,eapons such as thro,ing spears provided less incentive for ,ar, "ecause they increased the damage done to the attacker and decreased the relative amount of territory attackers could gain*2;?3 8o,ever, other sources claim that most /aleolithic groups may have "een larger, more comple+, sedentary and ,arlike than most contemporary hunterPgatherer societies, due to occupying more resourcePa"undant areas than most modern hunterPgatherers ,ho have "een pushed into more marginal ha"itats "y agricultural societies*2<-3 Inthropologists have typically assumed that in /aleolithic societies, ,omen ,ere responsi"le for gathering ,ild plants and fire,ood, and men ,ere responsi"le for hunting and scavenging dead animals*2-32:-3 8o,ever, analogies to e+istent hunterPgatherer societies such as the 8ad6a people and the Iustralian a"origines suggest that the se+ual division of la"or in the /aleolithic ,as relatively fle+i"le* &en may have participated in gathering plants, fire,ood and insects, and ,omen may have procured small game animals for consumption and assisted men in driving herds of large game animals (such as ,oolly mammoths and deer! off cliffs*2:-32;L3 Idditionally, recent research "y anthropologist and archaeologist Steven Ruhn from the University of Iri6ona is argued to support that this division of la"or did not e+ist prior to the Upper /aleolithic and ,as invented relatively recently in human prePhistory*2<:32<;3 Se+ual division of la"or may have "een developed to allo, humans to acOuire food and other resources more efficiently*2<;3 /ossi"ly there ,as appro+imate parity "et,een men and ,omen during the &iddle and Upper /aleolithic, and that period may have "een the most genderPeOual time in human

history*2;.32<<32<.3 Ircheological evidence from art and funerary rituals indicates that a num"er of individual ,omen enNoyed seemingly high status in their communities, and it is likely that "oth se+es participated in decision making*2<.3 The earliest kno,n /aleolithic shaman (c. :1,111 /! ,as female*2<L3 Jared 5iamond suggests that the status of ,omen declined ,ith the adoption of agriculture "ecause ,omen in farming societies typically have more pregnancies and are e+pected to do more demanding ,ork than ,omen in hunterPgatherer societies*2<?3 >ike most contemporary hunterPgatherer societies, /aleolithic and the &esolithic groups pro"a"ly follo,ed mostly matrilineal and am"ilineal descent patterns; patrilineal descent patterns ,ere pro"a"ly rarer than in the follo,ing Meolithic period*2-?32;<3

Art and music

The Xenus of Willendorf is one of the most famous Xenus figurines* Karly e+amples of artistic e+pression, such as the Xenus of TanPTan and the patterns found on elephant "ones from il6ingsle"en in Thuringia, may have "een produced "y Icheulean tool users such as Homo erectus prior to the start of the &iddle /aleolithic period* 8o,ever, the earliest undisputed evidence of art during the /aleolithic period comes from &iddle /aleolithicZ&iddle Stone Ige sites such as lom"os $ave in the form of "racelets,2<(3 "eads,2.13 rock art,2;;3 and ochre used as "ody paint and perhaps in ritual*2:-32;;3 Undisputed evidence of art only "ecomes common in the follo,ing Upper /aleolithic period*2.03 Iccording to Jo"ert #* ednarik, >o,er /aleolithic Icheulean tool users "egan to engage in sym"olic "ehavior such as art around ?<1,111 / and decorated themselves ,ith "eads and collected e+otic stones for aesthetic rather than utilitarian Oualities*2.-3 Iccording to ednarik, traces of the pigment ochre from late >o,er /aleolithic Icheulean archeological sites suggests that Icheulean societies, like later Upper /aleolithic societies, collected and used ochre to create rock art*2.-3 Mevertheless, it is also possi"le that the ochre traces found at >o,er /aleolithic sites is naturally occurring*2.:3 Xincent W* Fallio interprets >o,er and &iddle /aleolithic marking on rocks at sites such as il6ingsle"en (such as 6ig 6agging lines! as accounts or representation of altered states

of consciousness2.;3 though some other scholars interpret them as either simple doodling or as the result of natural processes* Upper /aleolithic humans produced ,orks of art such as cave paintings, Xenus figurines, animal carvings and rock paintings*2::3 Upper /aleolithic art can "e divided into t,o "road categories: figurative art such as cave paintings that clearly depicts animals (or more rarely humans!; and nonfigurative, ,hich consists of shapes and sym"ols*2::3 $ave paintings have "een interpreted in a num"er of ,ays "y modern archeologists* The earliest e+planation, "y the prehistorian I""e reuil, interpreted the paintings as a form of magic designed to ensure a successful hunt*2.<3 8o,ever, this hypothesis fails to e+plain the e+istence of animals such as sa"erPtoothed cats and lions, ,hich ,ere not hunted for food, and the e+istence of halfPhuman, halfPanimal "eings in cave paintings* The anthropologist 5avid >e,isPWilliams has suggested that /aleolithic cave paintings ,ere indications of shamanistic practices, "ecause the paintings of halfPhuman, halfP animal paintings and the remoteness of the caves are reminiscent of modern hunterP gatherer shamanistic practices*2.<3 Sym"olPlike images are more common in /aleolithic cave paintings than are depictions of animals or humans, and uniOue sym"olic patterns might have "een trademarks that represent different Upper /aleolithic ethnic groups*2..3 Xenus figurines have evoked similar controversy* Ircheologists and anthropologists have descri"ed the figurines as representations of goddesses, pornographic imagery, apotropaic amulets used for sympathetic magic, and even as selfPportraits of ,omen themselves*2:-32.L3 J* 5ale #uthrie2.?3 has studied not only the most artistic and pu"lici6ed paintings, "ut also a variety of lo,erPOuality art and figurines, and he identifies a ,ide range of skill and ages among the artists* 8e also points out that the main themes in the paintings and other artifacts (po,erful "easts, risky hunting scenes and the overPse+ual representation of ,omen! are to "e e+pected in the fantasies of adolescent males during the Upper /aleolithic* The Xenus figurines have sometimes "een interpreted as representing a mother goddess; the a"undance of such female imagery has led some to "elieve that Upper /aleolithic (and later Meolithic! societies had a femalePcentered religion and a femalePdominated society* For e+ample, this ,as proposed "y the archeologist &ariNa #im"utas and the feminist scholar &erlin Stone ,ho ,as the author of the 0(L? "ook -hen .od -as a -oman.2.(32L13 Xarious other e+planations for the purpose of the figurines have "een proposed, such as $atherine &c$oid and >eJoy &c5ermott_s hypothesis that the figurines ,ere created as selfPportraits of actual ,omen2.L3 and J*5ale #utrie%s hypothesis that the venus figurines represented a kind of =stone age pornography=* The origins of music during the /aleolithic are unkno,n, since the earliest forms of music pro"a"ly did not use musical instruments "ut instead used the human voice and or natural o"Nects such as rocks, ,hich leave no trace in the archaeological record* 8o,ever, the anthropological and archeological designation suggests that human music first arose ,hen language, art and other modern "ehaviors developed in the &iddle or the Upper /aleolithic period* &usic may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced "y daily activities such as cracking nuts "y hitting them ,ith stones, "ecause maintaining a rhythm ,hile ,orking may have helped people to "ecome more efficient at daily activities*2L03 In alternative theory originally proposed "y $harles 5ar,in e+plains that music may have "egun as a hominid mating strategy as many "irds and some other animals produce music like calls to attract mates*2L-3 This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, "ut it nonetheless provides a possi"le alternative* Inother e+planation is that humans "egan to make music simply "ecause of the pleasure it produced*

Upper /aleolithic (and possi"ly &iddle /aleolithic2L:3! humans used flutePlike "one pipes as musical instruments,2:-32L;3 and music may have played a large role in the religious lives of Upper /aleolithic hunterPgatherers* Is ,ith modern hunterPgatherer societies, music may have "een used in ritual or to help induce trances* 'n particular, it appears that animal skin drums may have "een used in religious events "y Upper /aleolithic shamans, as sho,n "y the remains of drumPlike instruments from some Upper /aleolithic graves of shamans and the ethnographic record of contemporary hunterPgatherer shamanic and ritual practices*2::32<L3

)eligion and beliefs

Main article: Paleolithic /eligion

/icture of a halfPhuman, halfPanimal "eing in a /aleolithic cave painting in 5ordogne* France* Ircheologists "elieve that cave paintings of halfPhuman, halfPanimal "eings may "e evidence for early shamanic practices during the /aleolithic* Iccording to James * 8arrod humankind first developed religious and spiritual "eliefs during the &iddle /aleolithic or Upper /aleolithic*2L<3 $ontroversial scholars of prehistoric religion and anthropology, James 8arrod and Xincent W* Fallio, have recently proposed that religion and spirituality (and art! may have first arisen in /reP/aleolithic chimpan6ees2L.3 or Karly >o,er /aleolithic (7ldo,an! societies*2.;32LL3 Iccording to Fallio, the common ancestor of chimpan6ees and humans e+perienced altered states of consciousness and partook in ritual, and ritual ,as used in their societies to strengthen social "onding and group cohesion*2.;3 &iddle /aleolithic humans% use of "urials at sites such as Rrapina, $roatia (c. 0:1,111 /! and `af6eh, 'srael (c. 011,111 /! have led some anthropologists and archeologists, such as /hilip >ie"erman, to "elieve that &iddle /aleolithic humans may have possessed a "elief in an afterlife and a =concern for the dead that transcends daily life=*2L?3 $ut marks on Meanderthal "ones from various sites, such as $om"eP#renal and I"ri &oula in France, suggest that the Meanderthals like some contemporary human cultures may have practiced ritual defleshing for (presuma"ly! religious reasons* Iccording to recent archeological findings from H. heidelbergensis sites in Itapuerca, humans may have "egun "urying their dead much earlier, during the late >o,er /aleolithic; "ut this theory is ,idely Ouestioned in the scientific community* >ike,ise, some scientists have proposed that &iddle /aleolithic societies such as Meanderthal societies may also have practiced the earliest form of totemism or animal ,orship, in addition to their (presuma"ly religious! "urial of the dead* 'n particular, Kmil achler suggested ("ased on archeological evidence from &iddle /aleolithic caves! that a

"ear cult ,as ,idespread among &iddle /aleolithic Meanderthals*2L(3 I claim that evidence ,as found for &iddle /aleolithic animal ,orship c L1,111 $K originates from the Tsodilo 8ills in the Ifrican Ralahari desert has "een denied "y the original investigators of the site*2?13 Inimal cults in the follo,ing Upper /aleolithic period, such as the "ear cult, may have had their origins in these hypothetical &iddle /aleolithic animal cults*2?03 Inimal ,orship during the Upper /aleolithic ,as intert,ined ,ith hunting rites*2?03 For instance, archeological evidence from art and "ear remains reveals that the "ear cult apparently involved a type of sacrificial "ear ceremonialism, in ,hich a "ear ,as sliced ,ith arro,s, finished off "y a "last in the lungs, and ritualistically ,orshipped near a clay "ear statue covered "y a "ear fur ,ith the skull and the "ody of the "ear "uried separately*2?03 ar"ara Khrenreich controversially theori6es that the sacrificial hunting rites of the Upper /aleolithic (and "y e+tension /aleolithic cooperative "igPgame hunting! gave rise to ,ar or ,arlike raiding during the follo,ing KpiP /aleolithicZ&esolithic or late Upper /aleolithic period*2;L3 The e+istence of anthropomorphic images and halfPhuman, halfPanimal images in the Upper /aleolithic period may further indicate that Upper /aleolithic humans ,ere the first people to "elieve in a pantheon of gods or supernatural "eings,2?-3 though such images may instead indicate shamanistic practices similar to those of contemporary tri"al societies*2.<3 The earliest kno,n undisputed "urial of a shaman (and "y e+tension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices! dates "ack to the early Upper /aleolithic era (c. :1,111 /! in ,hat is no, the $6ech Jepu"lic*2<L3 8o,ever, during the early Upper /aleolithic it ,as pro"a"ly more common for all mem"ers of the "and to participate eOually and fully in religious ceremonies, in contrast to the religious traditions of later periods ,hen religious authorities and partPtime ritual specialists such as shamans, priests and medicine men ,ere relatively common and integral to religious life*20L3 Idditionally, it is also possi"le that Upper /aleolithic religions, like contemporary and historical animistic and polytheistic religions, "elieved in the e+istence of a single creator deity in addition to other supernatural "eings such as animistic spirits*2?:3 Xincent W* Fallio ,rites that ancestor cults first emerged in comple+ Upper /aleolithic societies* 8e argues that the elites of these societies (like the elites of many more contemporary comple+ hunterPgatherers such as the Tlingit! may have used special rituals and ancestor ,orship to solidify control over their societies, "y convincing their su"Nects that they possess a link to the spirit ,orld that also gives them control over the earthly realm*2.;3 Secret societies may have served a similar function in these comple+ OuasiP theocratic societies, "y dividing the religious practices of these cultures into the separate spheres of /opular Jeligion and Klite Jeligion*2.;3 Jeligion ,as possi"ly apotropaic; specifically, it may have involved sympathetic magic*2:-3 The Xenus figurines, ,hich are a"undant in the Upper /aleolithic archeological record, provide an e+ample of possi"le /aleolithic sympathetic magic, as they may have "een used for ensuring success in hunting and to "ring a"out fertility of the land and ,omen*2-3 The Upper /aleolithic Xenus figurines have sometimes "een e+plained as depictions of an earth goddess similar to #aia, or as representations of a goddess ,ho is the ruler or mother of the animals*2?032?;3 James 8arrod has descri"ed them as representative of female (and male! shamanistic spiritual transformation processes*2?<3

Diet and nutrition

/eople may have first fermented grapes in animal skin pouches to create ,ine during the /aleolithic*2?.3 /aleolithic hunting and gathering people ate varying proportions of leafy vegeta"les, fruit, nuts and insects, meat, fish, and shellfish*2?L32??3 8o,ever, there is little direct evidence of the relative proportions of plant and animal foods*2?(3 Ilthough the term =paleolithic diet=, ,ithout references to a specific timeframe or locale, is sometimes used ,ith an implication that most humans shared a certain diet during the entire era, that is not entirely accurate* The /aleolithic ,as an e+tended period of time, during ,hich multiple technological advances ,ere made, many of ,hich had impact on human dietary structure* For e+ample, humans pro"a"ly did not possess the control of fire until the &iddle /aleolithic,2(13 or tools necessary to engage in e+tensive fishing*2citation needed3 7n the other hand, "oth these technologies are generally agreed to have "een ,idely availa"le to humans "y the end of the /aleolithic (conseOuently, allo,ing humans in some regions of the planet to rely heavily on fishing and hunting!* 'n addition, the /aleolithic involved a su"stantial geographical e+pansion of human populations* 5uring the >o,er /aleolithic, ancestors of modern humans are thought to have "een constrained to Ifrica east of the #reat Jift Xalley* 5uring the &iddle and Upper /aleolithic, humans greatly e+panded their area of settlement, reaching ecosystems as diverse as Me, #uinea and Ilaska, and adapting their diets to ,hatever local resources availa"le* Inthropologists have diverse opinions a"out the proportions of plant and animal foods consumed* Just as ,ith still e+isting hunters and gatherers, there ,ere many varied =diets= P in different groups P and also varying through this vast amount of time* Some paleolithic hunterPgatherers consumed a significant amount of meat and possi"ly o"tained most of their food from hunting,2(03 ,hile others are sho,n as a primarily plantP"ased diet,2<:3 &ost, if not all, are "elieved to have "een opportunistic omnivores*2(-3 7ne hypothesis is that car"ohydrate tu"ers (plant underground storage organs! may have "een eaten in high amounts "y prePagricultural humans*2(:32(;32(<32(.3 The relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of /aleolithic people often varied "et,een regions, ,ith more meat "eing necessary in colder regions (,hich ,eren%t populated "y anatomically modern humans until :1,111P<1,111 /!*2(L3 't is generally agreed that many modern hunting and fishing tools, such as fish hooks, nets, "o,s, and poisons, ,eren%t introduced until the Upper /aleolithic and possi"ly even Meolithic*2-?3 The only hunting tools ,idely availa"le to humans during any significant part of the /aleolithic period ,ere handPheld spears and harpoons* There%s evidence of /aleolithic people killing and eating seals and elands as far as 011,111 years /* 7n the other hand, "uffalo "ones

found in Ifrican caves from the same period are typically of very young or very old individuals, and there%s no evidence that pigs, elephants or rhinos ,ere hunted "y humans at the time*2(?3 /aleolithic peoples suffered less famine and malnutrition than the Meolithic farming tri"es that follo,ed them*20.32((3 This ,as partly "ecause /aleolithic hunterPgatherers accessed to a ,ider variety natural foods, ,hich allo,ed them a more nutritious diet and a decreased risk of famine*20.320?32<?3 &any of the famines e+perienced "y Meolithic (and some modern! farmers ,ere caused or amplified "y their dependence on a small num"er of crops*20.320?32<?3 The greater amount of meat o"tained "y hunting "ig game animals in /aleolithic diets than Meolithic diets may have also allo,ed /aleolithic hunterPgatherers to enNoy a more nutritious diet than Meolithic agriculturalists*2((3 't is also unlikely that /aleolithic hunterPgatherers ,ere affected "y modern diseases of affluence and e+tended life such as Type - dia"etes, coronary heart disease and cere"rovascular disease, "ecause they ate mostly lean meats and plants and freOuently engaged in intense physical activity,2011320103 and "ecause the average lifespan ,as shorter than the age of commonP onset of these conditions*201-3201:3 >argePseeded legumes ,ere part of the human diet long "efore the Meolithic agricultural revolution, as evident from archaeo"otanical finds from the &ousterian layers of Re"ara $ave, in 'srael*201;3 &oreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed ,ild cereal grains as far "ack as -:,111 years ago in the Upper /aleolithic*201<3 8o,ever, seeds, such as grains and "eans, ,ere rarely eaten and never in large Ouantities on a daily "asis*201.3 Jecent archeological evidence also indicates that ,inemaking may have originated in the /aleolithic, ,hen early humans drank the Nuice of naturally fermented ,ild grapes from animalPskin pouches*2?.3 /aleolithic humans consumed animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and "rains* Upper /aleolithic cultures appear to have had significant kno,ledge a"out plants and her"s and may have, al"eit very rarely, practiced rudimentary forms of horticulture*201L3 'n particular, "ananas and tu"ers may have "een cultivated as early as -<,111 / in southeast Isia*2<-3 >ate Upper /aleolithic societies also appear to have occasionally practiced pastoralism and animal hus"andry, presuma"ly for dietary reasons* For instance, some Kuropean late Upper /aleolithic cultures domesticated and raised reindeer, presuma"ly for their meat or milk, as early as 0;,111 /*2:?3 8umans also pro"a"ly consumed hallucinogenic plants during the /aleolithic period*2-3 The Iustralian I"origines have "een consuming a variety of native animal and plant foods, called "ushfood, for an estimated .1,111 years, since the &iddle /aleolithic*

>arge game animals such as deer ,ere an important source of protein in &iddle and Upper /aleolithic diets* /eople during the &iddle /aleolithic, such as the Meanderthals and &iddle /aleolithic 8omo sapiens in Ifrica, "egan to catch shellfish for food as revealed "y shellfish cooking in Meanderthal sites in 'taly a"out 001,111 years ago and &iddle /aleolithic Homo sapiens sites at /innacle /oint, in Ifrica around 0.;,111 /*2:-3201?3 Ilthough fishing only "ecame common during the Upper /aleolithic,2:-3201(3 fish have "een part of human diets long "efore the da,n of the Upper /aleolithic and have certainly "een consumed "y humans since at least the &iddle /aleolithic*2::3 For e+ample, the &iddle /aleolithic Homo sapiens in the region no, occupied "y the 5emocratic Jepu"lic of the $ongo hunted large .Pfoot (0*? m!Plong catfish ,ith speciali6ed "ar"ed fishing points as early as (1,111 years ago*2:-32::3 The invention of fishing allo,ed some Upper /aleolithic and later hunterPgatherer societies to "ecome sedentary or semiPnomadic, ,hich altered their social structures*2L;3 K+ample societies are the >epenski Xir as ,ell as some contemporary hunterPgatherers such as the Tlingit* 'n some instances (at least the Tlingit! they developed social stratification, slavery and comple+ social structures such as chiefdoms*2-?3 Inthropologists such as Tim White suggest that canni"alism ,as common in human societies prior to the "eginning of the Upper /aleolithic, "ased on the large amount of b"utchered human= "ones found in Meanderthal and other >o,erZ&iddle /aleolithic sites*20013 $anni"alism in the >o,er and &iddle /aleolithic may have occurred "ecause of food shortages*20003 8o,ever, it may have "een for religious reasons, and ,ould coincide ,ith the development of religious practices thought to have occurred during the Upper /aleolithic*2?03200-3 Monetheless, it remains possi"le that /aleolithic societies never practiced canni"alism, and that the damage to recovered human "ones ,as either the result of ritual postPmortem "one cleaning or predation "y carnivores such as sa"er tooth cats, lions and hyenas*2?03

Events

y 00,111 $K P /aleoP'ndians reach the Tierra del Fuego*2citation needed3

ee also

I""assia /luvial $aveman Japanese /aleolithic >ascau+ >ate #lacial &a+imum >ist of archaeological sites "y continent and agec/alaeolithic >u6ia Woman &odels of migration to the Me, World &ousterian /luvial 7rigins of society /alaeoarchaeology /aleolithic lifestyle Turkana oy Uear

*ootnotes
0* d Jump up to: a b Toth, Micholas; Schick, Rathy (-11L!* =8and"ook of /aleoanthropology=* 'n 8enke, 8*$* Winfried; 8ardt, Thorolf; Tatersall, 'an* Handboo, o$ Paleoanthropology* Xolume :* erlin; 8eidel"erg; Me, Uork: SpringerPXerlag* p* 0(;;* (/J'MT: 'S M (L?P:P<;1P:-;L;P; 7M>'MK: 'S M (L?P:P<;1P::L.0P;! d Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m &c$lellan (-11.!* %cience and !echnology in -orld History: #n "ntroduction* altimore, &aryland: J8U /ress* 'S M 1P?10?P?:.1P0* /age .90d Jump up to: a b c d e =8uman Kvolution,= &icrosoft Kncarta 7nline Kncyclopedia -11L $ontri"uted "y Jichard * /otts, *I*, /h*5* +ump up , /hillip >ie"erman (0((0!* 0ni1uely Human* $am"ridge, &ass*: 8arvard University /ress* 'S M 1P.L;P(-0?:P.* d Jump up to: a b Rusim"a, Si"el (-11:!* #$rican (oragers: 2nvironment, !echnology, "nteractions* Jo,man Iltamira* p* -?<* 'S M 1PL<(0P10<;Pe* +ump up , >u""ock, John (0?L-!* Pre3Historic !imes, as "llustrated by #ncient /emains, and the Manners and &ustoms o$ Modern %avages, Williams and Morgate (p L<! 'S M (L?P0;-0-L1:(<* d Jump up to: a b =University of $alifornia &useum of /aleontology ,e"site the /liocene epoch(accessed &arch -<!=* Ucmp*"erkeley*edu* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* d Jump up to: a b $hristopher Scotese* =/aleomap proNect=* !he 2arth has been in an "ce House &limate $or the last 4* million years* Jetrieved -11?P1:P-:* +ump up , Xan Indel, TNeerd 8* (0((;!* 5e6 Vie6s on an Old Planet: # History o$ .lobal &hange* $am"ridge: $am"ridge University /ress* pp* ;<; pp* 'S M 1P<-0P;;-;:P<* +ump up , Mational #eographic $hannel, %i7 8egrees &ould &hange !he -orld, &ark >ynas intervie,* Jetrieved Fe"ruary 0;, -11?* +ump up , =University of $alifornia &useum of /aleontology ,e"site the /leistocene epoch(accessed &arch -<!=* Ucmp*"erkeley*edu* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* d Jump up to: a b c d Rim"erly Johnson* =Mational geographic ne,s=* &limate &hange, !hen Humans, 8rove Mammoths 27tinct $rom 5ational geographic* Jetrieved -11?P1;P1;* +ump up , Mo,ak, Jonald &* (0(((!* -al,er9s Mammals o$ the -orld* altimore: Johns 8opkins University /ress* 'S M 1P?10?P<L?(P(* +ump up , =/hylogeographic Inalysis of the midP8olocene &ammoth from `agna+ $ave, St* /aul 'sland, Ilaska=* +ump up , #am"le, $live (0((1!, Kl po"lamiento /aleol]tico de Kuropa, arcelona: Kditorial $r]tica* 'S M ?;PL;-:P;;<Pe* d Jump up to: a b c d e >eften Stavros Stavrianos (0((L!* :i$elines $rom Our Past: # 5e6 -orld History* Me, Jersey, USI: &*K* Sharpe* 'S M 1P0:P:<L11<P:* /age L1 d Jump up to: a b c d e f g >eften Stavros Stavrianos (0((0!* # .lobal History $rom Prehistory to the Present* Me, Jersey, USI: /rentice 8all* 'S M 1P0:P:<L11<P:* /ages (90: d Jump up to: a b c =The $onseOuences of 5omestication and Sedentism "y Kmily Schult6, et al=* /rimitivism*com* Jetrieved -101P10P:0*

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+ump up , Felipe Fernande6 Irmesto (-11:!* "deas that changed the 6orld* Me,york: 5orling Rindersley limited* p* ;11* 'S M (L?P1PL<..P:-(?P;*; /age 01 d Jump up to: a b c d e 8illary &ayell* =When 5id =&odern= ehavior Kmerge in 8umansf=* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1-P1<* +ump up , =7n the earliest evidence for ha"itual use of fire in Kurope=, Wil Joe"roeks et al, /MIS, -100 d Jump up to: a b John Weinstock* %ami Prehistory /evisited: transactions, admi7ture and assimilation in the phylogeographic picture o$ %candinavia* +ump up , JeanP/ierre ocOuetPIppel et al (-11<!* =Kstimates of Upper /alaeolithic metaPpopulation si6e in Kurope from archaeological data=* ;ournal o$ #rchaeological %cience* +ump up , Rlein, J* (0(((!* !he Human &areer* University of $hicago /ress* +ump up , Joche 8 et al*, -11-, :es sites archa<ologi1ues pio3pl<istoc=nes de la $ormation de 5achu,u >>4?>@4, 1td in %carre, )**A +ump up , $lark, J5, Variability in primary and secondary technologies o$ the :ater #cheulian in #$rica in &illiken, S and $ook, J (eds!, -110 +ump up , Jick Weiss, =$himps 7"served &aking Their 7,n Weapons=, !he -ashington Post, Fe"ruary --, -11L d Jump up to: a b c d e f &arlo,e FW (-11<!* =8unterPgatherers and human evolution= (/5F!* 2volutionary #nthropology -. (-!: 0<-(;* doi:01*011-Zevan*-11;.* d Jump up to: a b Wrangham J, $onklinP rittain M* (Septem"er -11:!* =$ooking as a "iological trait= (/5F!* &omp Biochem Physiol a Mol "ntegr Physiol -/0 (0!: :<9;.* doi:01*010.ZS01(<P.;::(1:!111-1P<* /&'5 0;<-L.-?* d Jump up to: a b c =First &ariners /roNect /hoto #allery 0=* &c-*vicnet*net*au* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* +ump up , =First &ariners P Mational #eographic proNect -11;=* &c-*vicnet*net*au* -11;P01P1-* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* d Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n &iller, ar"ra; ernard Wood, Indre, alansky, Julio &ercader, &elissa /anger (-11.!* #nthropology* oston &assachusetts: Illyn and acon* p* L.?* 'S M 1P-1<P:-1-;P;* d Jump up to: a b c d e f g h =8uman Kvolution,= &icrosoft Kncarta 7nline Kncyclopedia -11L $ontri"uted "y Jichard * /otts, *I*, /h*5* d Jump up to: a b Inn /arson* =Meanderthals 8unted as Well as 8umans, Study Says=* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1-P10* +ump up , ogda K*, #eneste J*&*, #riggo $*, &ercier M*, &uhesen S*, Jeyss J*>*, Taha I* h Xalladas 8* (0(((! I >evallois point em"edded in the verte"ra of a ,ild ass (KOuus africanus!: 8afting, proNectiles and &ousterian hunting* #nti1uity, L:, :(;9;1+ump up , $ameron al"irnie (-11<P1-P01!* =The icy truth "ehind Meanderthals=* BB& 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1;P10* +ump up , J* $havaillon, 5* >avall\e, i ola j, in 8ictionnaire de la Pr<histoire, /UF, 0(??* d Jump up to: a b >loyd, J h &itchinson, J: =The ook of #eneral 'gnorance=* Fa"er h Fa"er, -11.* +ump up , $hristine &ellot* =stalking the ancient dog= (/5F!* %cience ne6s* Jetrieved -11?P10P1:* +ump up , Felipe Fernande6 Irmesto (-11:!* "deas that changed the 6orld* Me, Uork: 5orling Rindersley limited* p* ;11* 'S M (L?P1PL<..P:-(?P;*; 203 d Jump up to: a b Mancy White* ='ntro to archeology The First /eople and $ulture=* "ntroduction to archeology* Jetrieved -11?P1:P-1* +ump up , James UrOuhart (-11LP1?P1?!* =Finds test human origins theory=* BB& 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1:P-1* d Jump up to: a b c d e f $hristopher oehm (0(((! =8ierarchy in the Forest: The Kvolution of Kgalitarian ehavior= page 0(?9-1? 8arvard University /ress d Jump up to: a b c Sean 8enahan* = lom"os $ave art=* %cience 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1:P 0-* d Jump up to: a b Felipe Fernande6 Irmesto (-11:!* "deas that changed the 6orld* Me,york: 5orling Rindersley limited* p* ;11* 'S M (L?P1PL<..P:-(?P;*; 2-3 d Jump up to: a b J 5ale #utrie (-11<!* !he 5ature o$ Paleolithic art* $hicago: University of $hicago /ress* 'S M 1P--.P:00-.P1* /ages ;-1P;-d Jump up to: a b c ar"ara Khrenreich (0((L!* Blood /ites: Origins and History o$ the Passions o$ -ar* >ondon, United Ringdom: &acmillan* 'S M 1P?1<1P<L?LP1* /age 0-: d Jump up to: a b Relly, Jaymond (7cto"er -11<!* =The evolution of lethal intergroup violence=* P5#% -12 (;:!: 0<-(;9?* doi:01*01L:Zpnas*1<1<(<<01-* /&$ 0-..01?* /&'5 0.0-(?-.*

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+ump up , Relly, Jaymond $* Warless societies and the origin of ,ar* Inn Ir"or : University of &ichigan /ress, -111* +ump up , &ar+, Rarl; Friedrich Kngels (0?;?!* !he &ommunist Mani$esto* >ondon* p* ?L* 'S M (L?P0P<((?.P((<PL* /age L0 +ump up , Jig"y, Stephen 8enry (0(((!* Mar7ism and History: # &ritical "ntroduction, p000 h p:0; &anchester University /ress, ('S M 1PL0(1P<.0-P?!* d Jump up to: a b Thomas &* Riefer (Spring -11-!* =Inthropology KP-1=* :ecture C %ubsistence, 2cology and (ood production* 8arvard University* Jetrieved -11?P1:P00* d Jump up to: a b 5ahl"erg, Frances (0(L<!* -oman the .atherer* >ondon: Uale university press* 'S M 1P:11P1-(?(P.* d Jump up to: a b Stefan >ovgren* =Se+P ased Joles #ave &odern 8umans an Kdge, Study Says=* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1-P1:* +ump up , >eften Stavros Stavrianos (0((0!* # .lobal History $rom Prehistory to the Present* Me, Jersey, USI: /rentice 8all* 'S M 1P0:P:<L11<P:* =the se+es ,ere more eOual during /aleolithic millennia than at any time since*= /age ( d Jump up to: a b &useum of IntiOuites ,e" site * Jetrieved Fe"ruary 0:, -11?* d Jump up to: a b c Tedlock, ar"ara* -11<* The Woman in the Shaman%s ody: Jeclaiming the Feminine in Jeligion and &edicine* Me, Uork: antam* d Jump up to: a b c Jared 5iamond* =The Worst &istake in the 8istory of the 8uman Jace=* 8iscover* Jetrieved -11?P10P0;* +ump up , Jonathan Imos (-11;P1;P0<!* =$ave yields %earliest Ne,ellery%=* BB& 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1:P0-* +ump up , 8illary &ayell* =7ldest Je,elryf = eads= 5iscovered in Ifrican $ave=* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1:P1:* +ump up , =8uman Kvolution,= &icrosoft Kncarta 7nline Kncyclopedia -11L $ontri"uted "y Jichard * /otts, *I*, /h*5* d Jump up to: a b Jo"ert #* ednarik* = eads and the origins of sym"olism=* Jetrieved -11?P1;P1<* +ump up , Jichard #* Rlein, =The 5a,n of 8uman $ulture= 'S M 1P;L0P-<-<-Pd Jump up to: a b c d e Xincent W* Fallio (-11.!* 5e6 8evelopments in &onsciousness /esearch* Me, Uork, United States: Mova /u"lishers* 'S M 0P.11-0P-;LP.* /ages (? to 01( d Jump up to: a b c Jean $lottes* =Shamanism in /rehistory=* Bradsha6 $oundation* Jetrieved -11?P1:P00* +ump up , =/aleolithic Irt,= &icrosoft Kncarta 7nline Kncyclopedia -11L http:ZZencarta*msn*comZencyclopediakL.0<L?.L.Z/aleolithickIrt*html &icrosoft Kncarta d Jump up to: a b &c5ermott, >eJoy* =SelfPJepresentation in Upper /aleolithic Female Figurines=* $urrent Inthropology, Xol* :L, Mo* -, Ipril*, 0((.* pp* --L9-L<* +ump up , J* 5ale #uthrie, !he 5ature o$ Paleolithic #rt* University 7f $hicago /ress, -11.* 'S M (L?P1P--.P:00-.P<* /reface* +ump up , &erlin Stone* (0(L?!* -hen .od -as a -oman* 8arcourt race Jovanovich* p* -.<* 'S M 1P0<P.(.0<?Pe* +ump up , &ariNa #im"utas 0((0* The $ivili6ation of the #oddess +ump up , Rarl Vcher* 'raba3o y ritmo* i"lioteca $ient]ficoPFilosTfica, &adrid* +ump up , $harles 5ar,in* 'he origin of man* Kdimat "ooks, S* I* 'S M ?;P?;1:P 1:;P-* +ump up , Melson, 5*K*, /adiocarbon dating o$ bone and charcoal $rom 8iv e babe " cave, cited "y &orley, p* ;L d Jump up to: a b ahn, /aul (0((.! =The atlas of ,orld archeology= $opyright -111 The ro,n Jeference #roup />$ +ump up , =I"out 7riginsMet "y James 8arrod=* 7riginsnet*org* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* +ump up , =Ippendices for chimpan6ee spirituality "y James 8arrod= (/5F!* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* +ump up , =7ldo,an Irt, Jeligion, Sym"ols, &ind "y James 8arrod=* 7riginsnet*org* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* +ump up , phillip lie"erman (0((0!* 0ni1uely Human* $am"ridge, &ass*: 8arvard University /ress* 'S M 1P.L;P(-0?:P.* +ump up , Wunn, 'na (-111!* = eginning of Jeligion=, Mumen, .4(;!, pp* ;:;9;:< +ump up , Jo""ins, >a,rence 8*; Ilec$* $amp"ell, #eorge I* rook, &ichael >* &urphy (June -11L!* =World%s 7ldest Jitual Sitef The =/ython $ave= at Tsodilo 8ills World 8eritage Site, ots,ana=* 5D#M2 #E0M#, the Bulletin o$ the %ociety o$ #$ricanist #rchaeologists (.L!* Jetrieved 0 5ecem"er -101* d Jump up to: a b c d e f Rarl J* Marr* =/rehistoric religion=* Britannica online encyclopedia )**C* Jetrieved -11?P1:P-?*

+ump up , Steven &ithen (0((.!* !he Prehistory o$ the Mind: !he &ognitive Origins o$ #rt, /eligion and %cience* Thames h 8udson* 'S M 1P<11P1<1?0P:* ?:* +ump up , >erro, ruce (-111!* (rom earth spirits to s,y gods %ocioecological Origins o$ Monotheism* >anham &5: >e+ington /ress* p* :-L* 'S M 1PL:(0P11(?Pe* pages 0L9-1 ?;* +ump up , $hristopher >* $* K* Witcom"e, =Women in the Stone Ige,= in the essay =The Xenus of Willendorf= * Jetrieved &arch 0:, -11?* +ump up , =Upper /aleolithic Irt, Jeligion, Sym"ols, &ind y James 8arrod=* ?<* 7riginsnet*org* Jetrieved -101P10P:0* ?.* d Jump up to: a b William $ocke* =First Winef Irchaeologist Traces 5rink to Stone Ige=* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1-P1:* ?L* +ump up , #o,lett JIJ (-11:!* =What actually ,as the Stone Ige 5ietf= (/5F!* ; 5utr 2nviron Med -/ (:!: 0;:9L* doi:01*01?1Z0:<(1?;1:01110.0(::?* +ump up , Weiss K, Wetterstrom W, Madel 5, arPUosef 7 (June -(, -11;!* =The "road ??* spectrum revisited: Kvidence from plant remains=* Proc 5atl #cad %ci 0%# -1- (-.!: (<<09<* doi:01*01L:Zpnas*1;1-:.-010* /&$ ;L1L0-* /&'5 0<-01(?;* ?(* +ump up , Jichards, &/ (5ecem"er -11-!* =I "rief revie, of the archaeological evidence for /alaeolithic and Meolithic su"sistence=* 2ur ; &lin 5utr 50 (0-!: 0-L190-L?* doi:01*01:?ZsN*eNcn*0.10.;.* /&'5 0-;(;:0:* +ump up , Johanson, 5onald; lake, Kdgar* (rom :ucy to :anguage: /evised, 0pdated, (1* and 27panded* erlin: Simon h Schuster* pp* (.9(L* 'S M 1L;:-?1.;;* (0* +ump up , $ordain >* 'mplications of /lioP/leistocene 8ominin 5iets for &odern 8umans* 'n: Karly 8ominin 5iets: The Rno,n, the Unkno,n, and the Unkno,a"le* Ungar, / (Kd*!, 7+ford University /ress, 7+ford, -11., pp :.:9?:* (-* +ump up , Mature%s &agic: Synergy in Kvolution and the Fate of 8umankind y /eter $orning (:* +ump up , >aden #, Wrangham J (7cto"er -11<!* =The rise of the hominids as an adaptive shift in fall"ack foods: plant underground storage organs (US7s! and australopith origins= (/5F!* ;. Hum. 2vol. .6 (;!: ;?-9(?* doi:01*010.ZN*Nhevol*-11<*1<*11L* /&'5 0.1?<-L(* (;* +ump up , Wrangham JW, Jones J8, >aden #, /il"eam 5, $onklinP rittain M (5ecem"er 0(((!* =The Ja, and the Stolen* $ooking and the Kcology of 8uman 7rigins=* &urr #nthropol .1 (<!: <.L9(;* doi:01*01?.Z:111?:* /&'5 01<:((;0* +ump up , Ueakel J5, ennett M$, Roch />, 5ominy MJ (July -11L!* =The isotopic (<* ecology of Ifrican mole rats informs hypotheses on the evolution of human diet= (/5F!* Proc Biol %ci. 24. (0.0(!: 0L-:9:1* doi:01*01(?Zrsp"*-11L*1::1* /&$ -;(:<L?* /&'5 0L;L-(0<* (.* +ump up , 8ernande6PIguilar JI, &oore J, /ickering TJ (5ecem"er -11L!* =Savanna chimpan6ees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants= (/5F!* Proc 5atl #cad %ci 0 % #. -15 (;(!: 0(-0190:* doi:01*01L:Zpnas*1L1L(-(01;* /&$ -0;?-.(* /&'5 0?1:-.1;* +ump up , J* I* J* #o,let (Septem"er -11:!* =What actually ,as the stone age dietf= (L* (/5F!* ;ournal o$ environmental medicine -/ (:!: 0;:90;L* doi:01*01?1Z0:<(1?;1:01110.0(::?* Jetrieved -11?P1<P1;*! (?* +ump up , 5iamond, Jared* !he third chimpanFee: the evolution and $uture o$ the human animal* ((* d Jump up to: a b Sharman Ipt Jussell (-11.!* Hunger an unnatural history* asic "ooks* 'S M 1P;.<P1L0.<P0* /ages 011* +ump up , $ordain >, Katon S , Se"astian I, &ann M, >inde"erg S, Watkins I, 7%Reefe J8, randP&iller J (-11<!* =7rigins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the -0st century=* #m. ;. &lin. 5utr. 7- (-!: :;09<;* /&'5 0<.((--1* 010* +ump up , Thor"urn IW, rand J$, Trus,ell IS* (0 January 0(?L!* =Slo,ly digested and a"sor"ed car"ohydrate in traditional "ushfoods: a protective factor against dia"etesf=* #m ; &lin 5utr .5 (0!: (?901.* /&'5 :<;0<.<* 01-* +ump up , 8illard Raplan, Rim 8ill, Jane >ancaster, and I* &agdalena 8urtado (-111!* =I Theory of 8uman >ife 8istory Kvolution: 5iet, 'ntelligence and >ongevity=* 2volutionary #nthropology 6 (;!: 0<.90?<* doi:01*011-Z0<-1P.<1<(-111!(:;l0<.::I'5PKXIM<m:*1*$7;-PL* Jetrieved 0- Septem"er -101 01:* +ump up , $aspari, Jachel h >ee, SangP8ee (July -L, -11;!* =7lder age "ecomes common late in human evolution=* Proceedings o$ the 5ational #cademy o$ %ciences -1- (-1!: 01?(<901(11* doi:01*01L:Zpnas*1;1-?<L010* /&$ <1:L0.* /&'5 0<-<-0(?* Jetrieved 0Septem"er -101 01;* +ump up , Kfraim >ev, &ordechai K* Rislev, 7fer arPUosef (&arch -11<!* =&ousterian vegetal food in Re"ara $ave, &t* $armel=* ;ournal o$ #rchaeological %cience /2 (:!: ;L<9;?;* doi:01*010.ZN*Nas*-11;*00*11.* 01<* +ump up , /iperno 5J, Weiss K, 8olst ', Madel 5* (Iugust <, -11;!* =/rocessing of ,ild cereal grains in the Upper /alaeolithic revealed "y starch grain analysis= (/5F!* 5ature ./1 (L111!: .L19:* doi:01*01:?Znature1-L:;* /&'5 0<-(<<(?*

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+ump up , >inde"erg, Staffan (June -11<!* =/alaeolithic diet (=stone age= diet!=* %candinavian ;ournal o$ (ood G 5utrition .6 (-!: L<9LL* doi:01*01?1Z001-.;?1<011:-1;:* 01L* +ump up , Icademic Imerican Kncyclopedia y #rolier 'ncorporated (0((;!* #cademic #merican 2ncyclopedia By .rolier "ncorporated* University of &ichigan: #rolier Icademic Jeference*; p .0 +ump up , John Mo"le Wilford (-11LP01P0?!* =Rey 8uman Traits Tied to Shellfish 01?* Jemains=* 5e6 Dor, times* Jetrieved -11?P1:P00* 01(* +ump up , Ifrican one Tools 5ispute Rey 'dea I"out 8uman Kvolution Mational #eographic Me,s article* 001* +ump up , Tim 5* White (-11.P1(P0<!* =7nce ,ere $anni"als=* 2volution: # %cienti$ic #merican /eader* 'S M (L?P1P--.PL;-.(P;* Jetrieved -11?P1-P0;* +ump up , James 7,en* =Meandertals Turned to $anni"alism, one $ave Suggests=* 000* 5ational .eographic 5e6s* Jetrieved -11?P1-P1:* +ump up , /athouP&athis & (-111!* =Meanderthal su"sistence "ehaviours in Kurope=* 00-* "nternational ;ournal o$ Osteoarchaeology -1 (<!: :L(9:(<* doi:01*011-Z01((P 0-0-(-1111(Z01!01:<l:L(::I'5P7I<<?m:*1*$7;-P;*

01.*

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