Q.

1 To study communication guiding system

Guidance system A guidance system is a device or group of devices used to navigate a ship, aircraft, missile, rocket, satellite, or other craft. Typically, this refers to a system that navigates without direct or continuous human control. Systems that are intended to have a high degree of human interaction are usually referred to as a navigation system. One of the earliest examples of a true guidance system is that used in the German V ! during "orld "ar ##. This system consisted of a simple gyroscope to maintain heading, an airspeed sensor to estimate flight time, an altimeter to maintain altitude, and other redundant systems. A guidance system has three ma$or su% sections& #nputs, 'rocessing, and Outputs. The input section includes sensors, course data, radio and satellite links, and other information sources. The processing section, composed of one or more (')s, integrates this data and determines what actions, if any, are necessary to maintain or achieve a proper heading. This is then fed to the outputs which can directly affect the system*s course. The outputs may control speed %y interacting with devices such as tur%ines, and fuel pumps, or they may more directly alter course %y actuating ailerons, rudders, or other devices.

Guidance systems
Guidance systems consist of + essential parts& navigation which tracks current location, guidance which leverages navigation data and target information to direct flight control ,where to go,, and control which accepts guidance commands to effect change in aerodynamic and-or engine controls. Navigation is the art of determining where you are, a science that has seen tremendous focus in !.!! with the /ongitude pri0e. 1avigation aids either measure position from a fixed point of reference 2ex. landmark, north star, /O3A1 4eacon5, relative position to a target 2ex. radar, infra red, ...5 or track movement from a known position-starting point 2e.g. #6)5. Today*s complex systems use multiple approaches to determine current position. 7or example, today*s most advanced navigation systems are em%odied within the Anti %allistic missile, the 3#6 !8! Standard 6issile + leverages G'S, #6) and ground segment data in the %oost phase and relative position data for intercept targeting. (omplex systems typically have multiple redundancy to address drift, improve accuracy 2ex. relative to a target5 and address isolated system failure. 1avigation systems therefore take multiple inputs from many different sensors, %oth internal to the system and-or external 2ex. ground %ased update5. 9alman filter provides the most common approach to com%ining navigation data 2from multiple sensors5 to resolve current position. :xample navigation approaches&

(elestial navigation is a position fixing techni;ue that was devised to help sailors cross the featureless oceans without having to rely on dead reckoning to ena%le them to strike land. (elestial navigation uses angular measurements 2sights5 %etween the hori0on and a common celestial o%$ect. The Sun is most often measured. Skilled navigators can use the 6oon, planets or one of <. navigational stars whose coordinates are ta%ulated in nautical almanacs. =istorical tools include a sextant, watch and ephemeris data. Today*s space shuttle, and most interplanetary spacecraft, use optical systems to cali%rate inertial navigation systems& (rewman Optical Alignment Sight 2(OAS5,>?@ Star Tracker.>!A@ /ong range 1avigation 2/O3A15 & This was the predecessor of G'S and was 2and to an extent still is5 used primarily in commercial sea transportation. The system works %y triangulating the ship*s position %ased on directional reference to known transmitters. Glo%al 'ositioning System 2G'S5 & G'S was designed %y the )S military with the primary purpose of addressing ,drift, within the inertial navigation of Su%marine launched %allistic missile2S/46s5 prior to launch. G'S transmits B signal types& military and a commercial. The accuracy of the military signal is classified %ut can %e assumed to %e well under A.< meters. G'S is a system of BC satellites or%iting in uni;ue planes !A.? !C.C 1autical miles a%ove the earth. The Satellites are in well defined or%its and transmit highly accurate time information which can %e used to triangulate position. #nertial 6easurement )nits 2#6)s5 are the primary inertial system for maintaining current position 2navigation5 and orientation in missiles and aircraft. They are complex machines with one or more rotating Gyroscopes that can rotate freely in + degrees of motion within a complex gim%al system. #6)s are ,spun up, and cali%rated prior to launch. A minimum of + separate #6)s are in place within most complex systems. #n addition to relative position, the #6)s contain accelerometers which can measure acceleration in all axis. The position data, com%ined with acceleration data provide the necessary inputs to ,track, motion of a vehicle. #6)s have a tendency to ,drift,, due to friction and accuracy. :rror correction to address this drift can %e provided via ground link telemetry, G'S, radar, optical celestial navigation and other navigation aids. "hen targeting another 2moving5 vehicle, relative vectors %ecome paramount. #n this situation, navigation aids which provide updates of position relative to the target are more important. #n addition to the current position, inertial navigation systems also typically estimate a predicted position for future computing cycles. See also #nertial navigation system. 3adar-#nfrared-/aser & This form of navigation provides information to guidance relative to a known target, it has %oth civilian 2ex rende0vous5 and military applications. o active 2employs own radar to illuminate the target5, o passive 2detects targetDs radar emissions5, o semiactive radar homing, o #nfrared homing & This form of guidance is used exclusively for military munitions, specifically air to air and surface to air missiles. The missileDs seeker head homes in on the infrared 2heat5 signature from the targetDs engines 2hence the term Eheat seeking missileF5, o )ltraviolet homing, used in 7#6 ?B Stinger more resistive to countermeasures, than #3 homing system

/aser designation & A laser designator device calculates relative position to a highlighted target. 6ost are familiar with the military uses of the technology on /aser guided %om%. The space shuttle crew leverages a hand held device to feed information into rende0vous planning. The primary limitation on this device is that it re;uires a line of sight %etween the target and the designator. Terrain contour matching 2T:3(O65. )ses a ground scanning radar to ,match, topography against digital map data to fix current position. )sed %y cruise missiles such as the 4G6 !A? Tomahawk.

Guidance is the ,driver, of a vehicle. #t takes input from the navigation system 2where am #5 and uses targeting information 2where do # want to go5 to send signals to the flight control system that will allow the vehicle to reach its destination 2within the operating constraints of the vehicle5. The ,targets, for guidance systems are one or more state vectors 2position and velocity5 and can %e inertial or relative. Guring powered flight, guidance is continually calculating steering directions for flight control. 7or example the space shuttle targets an altitude, velocity vector, and gamma to drive main engine cut off. Similarly, an #ntercontinental %allistic missile also targets a vector. The target vectors are developed to fulfill the mission and can %e preplanned or dynamically created. Control. 7light control is accomplished either aerodynamically or through powered controls such as engines. Guidance sends signals to flight control. A Gigital Autopilot 2GA'5 is the common term used to descri%e the interface %etween guidance and control. Guidance and the GA' are responsi%le for calculating the precise instruction for each flight control. The GA' provides feed%ack to guidance on the state of flight controls.

Q.To Implement Dijkstra's And ellman! "ord Algorit#m

Dijkstra's algorit#m 1ot to %e confused with Gykstra*s pro$ection algorithm. Gi$kstra*s algorithm

Gi$kstra*s algorithm runtime Class Search algorithm Data structure Graph $orst case per%ormance Dijkstra's algorit#m, conceived %y Gutch computer scientist :dsger Gi$kstra in !?<8 and pu%lished in !?<?,>!@>B@ is a graph search algorithm that solves the single source shortest path pro%lem for a graph with nonnegative edge path costs, producing a shortest path tree. This algorithm is often used in routing and as a su%routine in other graph algorithms. 7or a given source vertex 2node5 in the graph, the algorithm finds the path with lowest cost 2i.e. the shortest path5 %etween that vertex and every other vertex. #t can also %e used for finding costs of shortest paths from a single vertex to a single destination vertex %y stopping the algorithm once the shortest path to the destination vertex has %een determined. 7or example, if the vertices of the graph represent cities and edge path costs represent driving distances %etween pairs of cities connected %y a direct road, Gi$kstra*s algorithm can %e used to find the shortest route %etween one city and all other cities. As a result, the shortest path first is widely used in network routing protocols, most nota%ly #S #S and OS'7 2Open Shortest 'ath 7irst5. Gi$kstra*s original algorithm does not use a min priority ;ueue and runs in O2HVHB5. The idea of this algorithm is also given in 2/ey0orek et al. !?<.5. The implementation %ased on a min priority ;ueue implemented %y a 7i%onacci heap and running in O2HEH I HVH log HVH5 is due to 27redman J Tar$an !?KC5. This is asymptotically the fastest known single source shortest path algorithm for ar%itrary directed graphs with un%ounded nonnegative weights. 27or an overview of earlier shortest path algorithms and later improvements and adaptations, see& Single source shortest paths algorithms for directed graphs with nonnegative weights.5

Algorit#m

#llustration of Gi$kstra*s algorithm search for finding path from a start node to a goal node in a ro%ot motion planning pro%lem. Open nodes represent the ,tentative, set. 7illed nodes are visited ones, with color representing the distance& the greener, the further. 1odes in all the different directions are explored uniformly, appearing as a more or less circular wavefront as Gi$kstra*s algorithm uses a heuristic identically e;ual to A. /et the node at which we are starting %e called the initial node. /et the distance o% node & %e the distance from the initial node to L. Gi$kstra*s algorithm will assign some initial distance values and will try to improve them step %y step. !. Assign to every node a tentative distance value& set it to 0ero for our initial node and to infinity for all other nodes. B. 6ark all nodes unvisited. Set the initial node as current. (reate a set of the unvisited nodes called the unvisited set consisting of all the nodes except the initial node. +. 7or the current node, consider all of its unvisited neigh%ors and calculate their tentative distances. 7or example, if the current node A is marked with a tentative distance of 8, and the edge connecting it with a neigh%or 4 has length B, then the distance to 4 2through A5 will %e 8IBMK. #f this distance is less than the previously recorded tentative distance of 4, then overwrite that distance. :ven though a neigh%or has %een examined, it is not marked as visited at this time, and it remains in the unvisited set. C. "hen we are done considering all of the neigh%ors of the current node, mark the current node as visited and remove it from the unvisited set. A visited node will never %e checked againN its distance recorded now is final and minimal. <. #f the destination node has %een marked visited 2when planning a route %etween two specific nodes5 or if the smallest tentative distance among the nodes in the unvisited set is infinity 2when planning a complete traversal5, then stop. The algorithm has finished. 8. Set the unvisited node marked with the smallest tentative distance as the next ,current node, and go %ack to step +.

'seudocode
#n the following algorithm, the code u := vertex in Q with smallest dist[], searches for the vertex u in the vertex set Q that has the least dist[u] value. That vertex is removed from the

set Q and returned to the user. dist_between(u, v) calculates the length %etween the two neigh%or nodes u and v. The varia%le alt on line !< is the length of the path from the root node to the neigh%or node v if it were to go through u. #f this path is shorter than the current shortest path recorded for v, that current path is replaced with this alt path. The previous array is populated with a pointer to the ,next hop, node on the source graph to get the shortest route to the source.
! %unction Gi$kstra2Graph, source5& B %or eac# vertex v in Graph& // Initializations + dist>v@ &M infinity N // Unknown distance function from source to v C previous>v@ &M undefined N // revious node in optimal path from source < end %or N 8 dist>source@ &M A N // !istance from source to source . Q &M the set of all nodes in Graph N // "ll nodes in the graph are unoptimized # thus are in Q K (#ile Q is not empty& // $he main loop ? u &M vertex in Q with smallest distance in dist>@ N !A i% dist>u@ M infinity& !! )reak N // all remaining vertices are inaccessi%le from source !B end i% N !+ remove u from Q N !C %or eac# neigh%or v of u& // where v has not &et %een removed from Q' !< alt &M dist>u@ I distO%etween2u, v5 N !8 i% alt P dist>v@& // (elax )u*v*a+ !. dist>v@ &M alt N !K previous>v@ &M u N !? decrease key v in QN // (eorder v in the Queue BA end i% N B! end %or N BB end (#ile N B+ return dist>@ N BC end Gi$kstra.

#f we are only interested in a shortest path %etween vertices source and target, we can terminate the search at line !+ if u = target. 1ow we can read the shortest path from source to target %y iteration&
! B + C < 8 , &M empty se;uence u &M target (#ile previous>u@ is defined& insert u at the %eginning of , u &M previous>u@ end (#ile N

1ow se;uence , is the list of vertices constituting one of the shortest paths from source to target, or the empty se;uence if no path exists. A more general pro%lem would %e to find all the shortest paths %etween source and target 2there might %e several different ones of the same length5. Then instead of storing only a single node in each entry of previous[] we would store all nodes satisfying the relaxation condition. 7or example, if %oth r and source connect to target and %oth of them lie on different shortest paths through target 2%ecause the edge cost is the same in %oth cases5, then we would add %oth r and source to previous[target]. "hen the algorithm completes, previous[] data structure will actually descri%e a graph that is a su%set of the original graph with some edges removed. #ts key

property will %e that if the algorithm was run with some starting node, then every path from that node to any other node in the new graph will %e the shortest path %etween those nodes in the original graph, and all paths of that length from the original graph will %e present in the new graph. Then to actually find all these short paths %etween two given nodes we would use a path finding algorithm on the new graph, such as depth first search.

Q.I*'+,*,NTATI-N AND C-*'A.I/-N -" 0A.I-1/ T&',/ -" C.&'T-G.A'2& .

Di%%erent Types o% Cryptograp#ic Algorit#ms

3SA
3SA is a pu%lic key algorithm invented %y 3ivest, Shamir and Adleman. The key used for encryption is different from 2%ut related to5 the key used for decryption. The algorithm is %ased on modular exponentiation. 1um%ers e, d and 1 are chosen with the property that if A is a num%er less than 1, then 2Ae mod 15d mod 1 M A. This means that you can encrypt A with e and decrypt using d. (onversely you can encrypt using d and decrypt using e 2though doing it this way round is usually referred to as signing and verification5. Q The pair of num%ers 2e,15 is known as the pu%lic key Q The pair of num%ers 2d,15 is known as the private key and must %e kept secret. and can %e pu%lished.

The num%er e is known as the pu%lic exponent, the num%er d is known as the private exponent, and 1 is known as the modulus. "hen talking of key lengths in connection with 3SA, what is meant is the modulus length. An algorithm that uses different keys for encryption and decryption is said to %e asymmetric. Any%ody knowing the pu%lic key can use it to create encrypted messages, %ut only the owner of the secret key can decrypt them. (onversely the owner of the secret key can encrypt messages that can %e decrypted %y any%ody with the pu%lic key. Any%ody successfully decrypting such messages can %e sure that only the owner of the secret key could have encrypted them. This fact is the %asis of the digital signature techni;ue. "ithout going into detail a%out how e, d and 1 are related, d can %e deduced from e and 1 if the factors of 1 can %e determined. Therefore the security of 3SA depends on the difficulty of factori0ing 1. 4ecause factori0ation is %elieved to %e a hard pro%lem, the longer 1 is, the more secure the cryptosystem. Given the power of modern computers, a length of .8K %its is considered reasona%ly safe, %ut for serious commercial use !ABC %its is recommended. The pro%lem with choosing long keys is that 3SA is very slow compared with a symmetric %lock cipher such as G:S, and the longer the key the slower it is. The %est solution is to use 3SA for digital signatures and for protecting G:S keys. 4ulk data encryption should %e done using G:S.

Q.To Study Various Type Of Routers And Bridges.

Network Devices
3outers, %routers, and gateways are inter networking devices used for connecting different networks. .epeaters A repeater connects two segments of your network ca%le. #t re times and regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments. "hen talking a%out, ethernet topology, you are pro%a%ly talking a%out using a hu% as a repeater. 3epeaters re;uire a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. 6any network architectures limit the num%er of repeaters that can %e used in a row. 3epeaters work only at the physical layer of the OS# network model. ridges A %ridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. #t reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets. 4ridges can %e programmed to re$ect packets from particular networks. 4ridging occurs at the data link layer of the OS# model, which means the %ridge cannot read #' addresses, %ut only the outermost hardware address of the packet. #n our case the %ridge can read the ethernet data which gives the hardware address of the destination address, not the #' address. 4ridges forward all %roadcast messages. Only a special %ridge called a translation %ridge will allow two networks of different architectures to %e connected. 4ridges do not normally allow connection of networks with different architectures. The hardware address is also called the 6A( 2media access control5 address. To determine the network segment a 6A( address %elongs to, %ridges use one of&

Transparent 4ridging They %uild a ta%le of addresses 2%ridging ta%le5 as they receive packets. #f the address is not in the %ridging ta%le, the packet is forwarded to all segments other than the one it came from. This type of %ridge is used on ethernet networks. Source route %ridging The source computer provides path information inside the packet. This is used on Token 3ing networks.

.outers A router is used to route data packets %etween two networks. #t reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going. #f it is destined for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet 2#' packet for example5, readdress the packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. #f it is destined for another network and must %e sent to

!. Static routers Are configured manually and route data packets %ased on information in a router ta%le. B. Gynamic routers )se dynamic routing algorithms. There are two types of algorithms& o Gistance vector 4ased on hop count, and periodically %roadcasts the routing ta%le to other routers which takes more network %andwidth especially with more routers. 3#' uses distance vectoring. Goes not work on "A1s as well as it does on /A1s. o /ink state 3outing ta%les are %roadcast at startup and then only when they change. The open shortest path first 2OS'75 protocol uses the link state routing method to configure routes or distance vector algorithm 2GVA5. (ommon routing protocols include&

#S #S #ntermediate system to intermediate system which is a routing protocol for the OS# suite of protocols. #'R #nternet 'acket :xchange. )sed on 1etware systems. 1/S' 1etware /ink Services protocol )ses OS'7 algorithm and is replacing #'R to provide internet capa%ility. 3#' 3outing information protocol uses a distance vector algorithm.

There is a device called a %router which will function similar to a %ridge for network transport protocols that are not routa%le, and will function as a router for routa%le protocols. #t functions at the network and data link layers of the OS# network model. Gate(ays A gateway can translate information %etween different network data formats or network architectures. #t can translate T('-#' to AppleTalk so computers supporting T('-#' can communicate with Apple %rand computers. 6ost gateways operate at the application layer, %ut can operate at the network or session layer of the OS# model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to the re;uired level and repackage the information and work its way %ack toward the hardware layer of the OS# model. To confuse issues, when talking a%out a router that is used to interface to another network, the word gateway is often used. This does not mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here, although it could %e.

Q.CA/, /T1D& -" 0-I' C-NC,'T. Internet

This article is a%out the pu%lic worldwide computer network system. 7or other uses, see #nternet 2disam%iguation5. The Internet is a glo%al system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard #nternet protocol suite 2often called T('-#', although not all protocols use T('5 to serve %illions

of users worldwide. #t is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, pu%lic, academic, %usiness, and government networks, of local to glo%al scope, that are linked %y a %road array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The #nternet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter linked hypertext documents of the "orld "ide "e% 2"""5 and the infrastructure to support email. 6ost traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are reshaped or redefined %y the #nternet, giving %irth to new services such as Voice over #nternet 'rotocol 2Vo#'5 and #nternet 'rotocol Television 2#'TV5. 1ewspaper, %ook and other print pu%lishing are adapting to "e% site technology, or are reshaped into %logging and we% feeds. The #nternet has ena%led or accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, #nternet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has %oomed %oth for ma$or retail outlets and small artisans and traders. 4usiness to %usiness and financial services on the #nternet affect supply chains across entire industries. The origins of the #nternet reach %ack to research of the !?8As, commissioned %y the )nited States government in colla%oration with private commercial interests to %uild ro%ust, fault tolerant, and distri%uted computer networks. The funding of a new ).S. %ack%one %y the 1ational Science 7oundation in the !?KAs, as well as private funding for other commercial %ack%ones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The commerciali0ation of what was %y the !??As an international network resulted in its populari0ation and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of BA!!, more than B.B %illion people S nearly a third of :arth*s population S use the services of the #nternet.>!@ The #nternet has no centrali0ed governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usageN each constituent network sets its own standards. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the #nternet, the #nternet 'rotocol address space and the Gomain 1ame System, are directed %y a maintainer organi0ation, the #nternet (orporation for Assigned 1ames and 1um%ers 2#(A115. The technical underpinning and standardi0ation of the core protocols 2#'vC and #'v85 is an activity of the #nternet :ngineering Task 7orce 2#:T75, a non profit organi0ation of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with %y contri%uting technical expertise

Terminology
Computer net(ork types geograp#ical scope 1ear field 217(5 4ody 24A15 'ersonal 2'A15 1ear me 21A15 /ocal 2/A15 o =ome 2=A15 o Storage 2SA15 )y

(ampus 2(A15 4ack%one 6etropolitan 26A15 "ide 2"A15 Internet

#nterplanetary #nternet T#is )o34 vie( talk

edit See also& #nternet capitali0ation conventions

Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork,>B@ the result of interconnecting computer networks with special gateways or routers. The #nternet is also often referred to as the -et. The term the Internet, when referring to the entire glo%al system of #' networks, has %een treated as a proper noun and written with an initial capital letter. #n the media and popular culture, a trend has also developed to regard it as a generic term or common noun and thus write it as ,the internet,, without capitali0ation. Some guides specify that the word should %e capitali0ed as a noun %ut not capitali0ed as an ad$ective.>+@>C@ The terms Internet and .orld .ide .e% are often used in everyday speech without much distinction. =owever, the #nternet and the "orld "ide "e% are not one and the same. The #nternet esta%lishes a glo%al data communications system %etween computers. #n contrast, the "e% is one of the services communicated via the #nternet. #t is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked %y hyperlinks and )3/s.><@

.outing

#nternet packet routing is accomplished among various tiers of #nternet Service 'roviders. #nternet Service 'roviders connect customers 2thought of at the ,%ottom, of the routing hierarchy5 to customers of other #S's. At the ,top, of the routing hierarchy are ten or so Tier ! networks, large telecommunication companies which exchange traffic directly ,across, to all other Tier ! networks via unpaid peering agreements. Tier B networks %uy #nternet transit from other #S' to reach at least some parties on the glo%al #nternet, though they may also engage in unpaid peering 2especially for local partners of a similar si0e5. #S's can use a single ,upstream, provider for connectivity, or use multihoming to provide protection from pro%lems with individual links. #nternet exchange points create physical connections %etween multiple #S's, often hosted in %uildings owned %y independent third parties.>citation needed@

Q. To /tudy 0arious Types -% +an ,5uipments

A local area net(ork 6+AN7 is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer la%oratory, or office %uilding using network media. >!@ The defining characteristics of /A1s, in contrast to wide area networks 2"A1s5, include their usually higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. A3(1:T, Token 3ing and other technology standards have %een used in the past, %ut :thernet over twisted pair ca%ling, and "i 7i are the two most common technologies currently used to %uild /A1s. A conceptual diagram of a local area network using !A4AS:< :thernet The increasing demand and use of computers in universities and research la%s in the late !?8As generated the need to provide high speed interconnections %etween computer systems. A !?.A report from the /awrence 3adiation /a%oratory detailing the growth of their ,Octopus, network>B@>+@ gave a good indication of the situation. (am%ridge 3ing was developed at (am%ridge )niversity in !?.C>C@ %ut was never developed into a successful commercial product. :thernet was developed at Rerox 'A3( in !?.+T!?.<,><@ and filed as ).S. 'atent C,A8+,BBA. #n !?.8, after the system was deployed at 'A3(, 6etcalfe and 4oggs pu%lished a seminal paper, ,:thernet& Gistri%uted 'acket Switching 7or /ocal (omputer 1etworks.,>8@ A3(1:T was developed %y Gatapoint (orporation in !?.8 and announced in !?...>.@ #t had the first commercial installation in Gecem%er !?.. at (hase 6anhattan 4ank in 1ew Lork.>K@ Standards evolution The development and proliferation of personal computers using the ('-6 operating system in the late !?.As, and later GOS %ased systems starting in !?K!, meant that many sites grew to do0ens or even hundreds of computers. The initial driving force for networking was generally to

share storage and printers, which were %oth expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from a%out !?K+ onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to %e Ethe year of the /A1F.>?@>!A@>!!@ #n practice, the concept was marred %y proliferation of incompati%le physical layer and network protocol implementations, and a plethora of methods of sharing resources. Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, ca%ling, protocol, and network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of 1ovell 1et"are which provided even handed support for do0ens of competing card-ca%le types, and a much more sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. 1etware dominated >!B@ the personal computer /A1 %usiness from early after its introduction in !?K+ until the mid !??As when 6icrosoft introduced "indows 1T Advanced Server and "indows for "orkgroups. Of the competitors to 1et"are, only 4anyan Vines had compara%le technical strengths, %ut 4anyan never gained a secure %ase. 6icrosoft and +(om worked together to create a simple network operating system which formed the %ase of +(om*s +IShare, 6icrosoft*s /A1 6anager and #46*s /A1 Server %ut none of these was particularly successful. Guring the same period, )nix computer workstations from vendors such as Sun 6icrosystems, =ewlett 'ackard, Silicon Graphics, #ntergraph, 1eRT and Apollo were using T('-#' %ased networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in this area continue to %e influential on the #nternet and in %oth /inux and Apple 6ac OS R networkingSand the T('-#' protocol has now almost completely replaced #'R, AppleTalk, 147, and other protocols used %y the early '( /A1s. a!ling :arly /A1 ca%ling had %een %ased on various grades of coaxial ca%le. Shielded twisted pair was used in #46*s Token 3ing /A1 implementation. #n !?KC, Star/A1 showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair %y using (at+ ca%leSthe same simple ca%le used for telephone systems. This led to the development of !A4ase T 2and its successors5 and structured ca%ling which is still the %asis of most commercial /A1s today. #n addition, fi%er optic ca%ling is increasingly used in commercial applications.

As ca%ling is not always possi%le, wireless "i 7i is now very common in residential premises and elsewhere where support for mo%ile laptops and smartphones is important.

Tec"nical aspects
1etwork topology descri%es the layout of interconnections %etween devices and network segments. At the Gata /ink /ayer and 'hysical /ayer, a wide variety of /A1 topologies have %een used, including ring, %us, mesh and star, %ut the most common /A1 topology in use today is switched :thernet. At the higher layers, the #nternet 'rotocol 2T('-#'5 has %ecome the standard, replacing 1et4:)#, #'R-S'R, AppleTalk and others. Simple /A1s generally consist of one or more switches. A switch can %e connected to a router, ca%le modem, or AGS/ modem for #nternet access. (omplex /A1s are characteri0ed %y their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their a%ility to manage differing traffic types via ;uality of service 2UoS5, and to segregate traffic with V/A1s. A /A1 can include a wide variety of network devices such as switches, firewalls, routers, load %alancers, and sensors.>!+@ /A1s can maintain connections with other /A1s via leased lines, leased services, or the #nternet using virtual private network technologies. Gepending on how the connections are esta%lished and secured in a /A1, and the distance involved, a /A1 may also %e classified as a metropolitan area network 26A15 or a wide area network 2"A15.

Q. To study various types of errors correcting techniques

It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific method in linguistics. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48 ! "it was not until the

#$%&s that EA 'ecame a recogni(ed part of applied linguistics! a de)elopment that owed much to the wor* of Corder". +efore Corder! linguists o'ser)ed learners, errors! di)ided them into categories! tried to see which ones were common and which were not! 'ut not much attention was drawn to their role in second language ac-uisition. It was Corder who showed to whom information a'out errors would 'e helpful (teachers! researchers! and students and how. .here are many ma/or concepts introduced 'y S. P. Corder in his article ".he significance of learners, errors"! among which we encounter the following0 # It is the learner who determines what the input is. .he teacher can present a linguistic form! 'ut this is not necessarily the input! 'ut simply what is a)aila'le to 'e learned. 1 2eeping the a'o)e point in mind! learners, needs should 'e considered when teachers3linguists plan their sylla'uses. +efore Corder,s wor*! sylla'uses were 'ased on theories and not so much on learners4 needs. 5 6ager (#$71 points out that the learners, 'uilt8in sylla'us is more efficient than the teacher,s sylla'us. Corder adds that if such a 'uilt8in sylla'us e9ists! then learners4 errors would confirm its e9istence and would 'e systematic. 4 Corder introduced the distinction 'etween systematic and non8 systematic errors. :nsystematic errors occur in one4s nati)e language; Corder calls these "mistakes" and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. <e *eeps the term " errors" for the systematic ones! which occur in a second language. = Errors are significant in three ways0 8 to the teacher0 they show a student4s progress 8 to the researcher0 they show how a language is ac-uired! what strategies the learner uses. 8 to the learner0 he can learn from these errors. 7 >hen a learner has made an error! the most efficient way to teach him the correct form is not 'y simply gi)ing it to him! 'ut 'y letting him disco)er it and test different hypotheses. (.his is deri)ed from Carroll,s proposal (Carroll #$==! cited in Corder ! who suggested that the learner should find the correct linguistic form 'y searching for it.

% 6any errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his nati)e language. Corder claims that possession of one4s nati)e language is facilitati)e. Errors in this case are not inhi'itory! 'ut rather e)idence of one4s learning strategies. .he a'o)e insights played a significant role in linguistic research! and in particular in the approach linguists too* towards errors. <ere are some of the areas that were influenced 'y Corder,s wor*0 STUDIES OF E!"#E" E""O"S

Corder introduced the distinction 'etween errors (in competence and mistakes (in performance . .his distinction directed the attention of researchers of S?A to competence errors and pro)ided for a more concentrated framewor*. .hus! in the #$%&s researchers started e9amining learners4 competence errors and tried to e9plain them. >e find studies such as Richards,s "A non8contrasti)e approach to error analysis" (#$%# ! where he identifies sources of competence errors; ?# transfer results in interference errors; incorrect (incomplete or o)er8 generali(ed application of language rules results in intralingual errors; construction of faulty hypotheses in ?1 results in de)elopmental errors. @ot all researchers ha)e agreed with the a'o)e distinction! such as Aulay and +urt (#$%4 who proposed the following three categories of errors0 de)elopmental! interference and uni-ue. Stenson (#$%4 proposed another category! that of induced errors! which result from incorrect instruction of the language. As most research methods! error analysis has wea*nesses (such as in methodology ! 'ut these do not diminish its importance in S?A research; this is why linguists such as .aylor (#$87 reminded researchers of its importance and suggested ways to o)ercome these wea*nesses. As mentioned pre)iously! Corder noted to whom (or in which areas the study of errors would 'e significant0 to teachers! to researchers and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error categori(ation and analysis! )arious studies concentrated on these three different areas. In other words! research was conducted not only in order to understand errors per se! 'ut also in order to use what is learned from error analysis and apply it to impro)e language competence.

Such studies include 2roll and Schafer,s "Error8Analysis and the .eaching of Composition"! where the authors demonstrate how error analysis can 'e used to impro)e writing s*ills. .hey analy(e possi'le sources of error in non8nati)e8English writers! and attempt to pro)ide a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help achie)e 'etter writing s*ills. .hese studies! among many others! show that than*s to Corder,s wor*! researchers recogni(ed the importance of errors in S?A and started to e9amine them in order to achie)e a 'etter understanding of S?A processes! i.e. of how learners ac-uire an ?1.