Rules and tools

Place Value

The use of place value from earlier levels applies but is extended to all sizes
of numbers. The values of columns are:
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
H
u
n
d
r
e
d

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
T
e
n

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
H
u
n
d
r
e
d
s
T
e
n
s
U
n
i
t
s

t
e
n
t
h
s
h
u
n
d
r
e
d
t
h
s
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
t
h
s
1 2 3 4 ! " # $ 1
To ma%e readin& lar&e numbers easier di&its are &rouped in threes from the
decimal point so the number in the table is 'ritten:
1 234 !"#$1
(t is read aloud as:
)ne million* t'o hundred and thirt+,four thousand* five hundred and sixt+,
seven point ei&ht* nine* one
The number
1- 4-!-"
indicates that there are no ten,thousands* no hundreds and no tenths* but
these di&its ma+ not be removed as this information is important to the place
value of the other di&its.
Negative numbers
lo'er numbers hi&her numbers
.e&ative numbers are the numbers belo' zero.
/.&. , is smaller than 01.
,4 1 is colder than ,2 1
1
, ,4 ,3 ,2 ,1 - 1 2 3 4
Calculations with numbers
The methods for addition* subtraction* multiplication and division of 'hole
numbers and decimals are the same as for 2evel 1.
Multiples
The multiples of 12 are:
12* 24* 3!* 4# *!- *"233333.
Factors
4actors are numbers 'hich divide exactl+ into a &iven number.
/.&. The factors of 12 are: 1* 2* 3* 4* !* 12.
Prime numbers
.umbers that have no factors except the 1 and the number itself are called
prime numbers.
The prime numbers to 2- are: 2*3**"*11*13*1"*1$
The number 1 is a particular case and is defined not prime
Ratio and Proportion
5 ratio of 3 : 2 means that
for three measures of the first in&redient* 2 measures of the second
must be used
/.&. 5 concrete mix uses cement : sand in the ratio 3 : 2 means
Use 3 buc%ets of cement 'ith 2 buc%ets of sand or
Use 3 lorr+,loads of cement 'ith 2 lorr+,loads of sand or
Use $ shovelfuls of cement 'ith ! shovelfuls of sand
2
Parts
5 part+ drin% is made from a recipe that re6uires
pineapple : oran&e : 'ater in the ratio 2 :3 :
1- litres of drin% is to be made. Ho' much of each part 'ill be needed7
2 parts of pineapple 8 3 parts of oran&e 8 parts of 'ater
9 2 8 38 9 1- parts alto&ether
:o to ma%e 1- litres use:
2litres of pineapple* 3 litres of oran&e and litres of 'ater
To ma%e 2- litres use:
4 litres of pineapple* ! litres of oran&e and 1- litres of 'ater
Scale
5 scale of 1 : 1--- means that ever+ unit on the dra'in& represents 1--- of
the same units in real life.
1 cm on a dra'in& represents 1---cm ;'hich is 1-m< in real life.
5 scale of 1 : 1-- --- means that
1 cm on a map represents 1-- ---cm 9 1---m 9 1 %m on the &round
Formulae
2etters are used to represent variable ;chan&in&< 6uantities in formulae.
(f a represents the 6uantit+ of one item
2a represents t'ice that 6uantit+
The is understood and need not be 'ritten.
5ll other operatin& s+mbols ;8*,* < are al'a+s 'ritten.
:imilarl+
ab represents a b
and 2;a 8b < 9 2 ;a 8 b<
3
Fractions
=hen orderin& or comparin& fractions* the denominator ;number on the
bottom< of each fraction must be the same as it indicates the size of the
fraction of the 'hole.
/.&. =hich is the bi&&er
9
7
or
6
5
7
1han&e both to a common denominator.
18
14
9
7
=
18
15
6
5
=
so
6
5
is lar&er than
9
7
/.&. >lace these fractions in order of size starin& 'ith the smallest.
15
7
,
10
3
,
5
2
The lo'est common denominator is 3-.
30
12
5
2
=
30
9
10
3
=
30
14
15
7
=
so the order is
30
14
,
30
12
,
30
9
'hich is
15
7
,
5
2
,
10
3
4
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
4ractions decimals and percenta&es are all 'a+s of expressin& parts of a
'hole.
5 percenta&e is a fraction 'ith denominator 1--.
?ecause it is such a common fraction it is 'ritten in a particular 'a+:
1"@ is 1"
1--
Fractions to decimals
1han&e fractions to decimals b+ dividin& the numerator b+ the denominator
;use a calculator 'henever necessar+<
/.&.
8
5
9 # 9 -.!2
Decimals to percentages
1han&e decimals to percenta&es b+ multipl+in& b+ 1--:
-.!2 9 -.!2 A 1--@ 9 !2.@
Writing ractions in simplest orm
4ractions are e6uivalent if the+ can be simplified to the same fraction
/.&.
6
5
18
15
=
?ecause both the numerator ;1< and the denominator
;1#< have 3 as a factor.
:imilarl+
9
4
45
20
=
.umerator and denominator both have a factor of
:ome fractions 'ill not simplif+:
/xample:
40
17
The number 1" is a prime. Thus its onl+ factors are 1 and itself.
/xample:
22
15
5lthou&h neither 1 nor 22 are prime the fraction 'ill not simplif+ as 1
or 22 do not have a common factor ;other than 1<.
5
!ddition and subtraction o ractions
To add or subtract fractions the denominator must be the same
/xample 1:
3
1
2
1
+
The lo'est common denominator is !.
6
3
2
1
=
6
2
3
1
+
:o
3
1
2
1
+
9
6
2
6
3
+
9
6
5
/xample 2:
3
2
4
3

The lo'est common denominator is 12

12
9
4
3
=
12
8
3
2
=
:o
3
2
4
3

9
12
8
12
9

6
9
12
1
Rounding decimals
.umbers can be rounded to a specified de&ree of accurac+.
/.&. 123.4! is: 123.4! to 2 decimal places
123. to 1 decimal place
123 to the nearest 'hole number
12- to the nearest ten
1-- to the nearest hundred
Comparing Decimals
=hen +ou 'ant to compare lon& decimals* rearran&e the numbers in order of
size. 5rran&e these three numbers in order of size* startin& 'ith the smallest.
2#4.4!* 2"!."#* 31.4
To do this* compare the values of the di&its 'ith the same place value column
:tart 'ith the lar&est place value ;hundreds in this example<.
>ic% out the smallest value ;2<.
(f there is more than one of the same value
1ompare the di&its in the next place value
1olumn ;tens in this example<.
>ic% out the smaller value ;"<.
1ontinue until all comparisons have been made.
2 # 4 . # !
2 " ! . " #
3 1 . 4
)ri&inal .umbers
2 " ! . " #
2 # 4 . # !
3 1 . 4
.umbers in order of size
7
Calculating with decimals
There are man+ correct methods of carr+in& out calculations 'ith decimals.
5ns'ers should be chec%ed b+:
Usin& approximate calculations
)r b+ usin& inverse operations ;/.&. use addition to
chec% the ans'er to a subtraction<.
"sing percentages
Percentages o a #uantit$
Bules and tools for level 1 sho's ho' to find simple percenta&es of a
6uantit+.
These included:
To 4ind Method
-@ Civide b+ 2
1-@ Civide b+ 1-
@ Civide b+ 1-* then divide b+ 2
To find 1@ of a 6uantit+* divide b+ 1--.
This enables other percenta&es to be calculated
/xample 1: =or% out 23@ of D2- ;no calculator<
1-@ of D2- 9 D2 ;D2-E1-<
2-@ of D2- 9 2 x D2 9 D-
1@ of D2- 9 D2.- ;D2-E1--<
3@ of D2- 9 3 x D2.- 9 D".-
23@ of D2- 9 D- 8 D".-
9 D".-
/xample 2: =or% out $@ of D!2#.4" ;use a calculator<
$@ is $ hundreths
To find 1@ of D!2#.4" divide b+ 1--
Then to calculate $@ ;$ hundreths< multipl+ b+ $
8
:o enter ! 2 # . 4 " E 1 - - x $ 9 into the calculator
The calculator sho's D!.! ;to the nearest penn+<
Percentage increase
F5T ;Falue 5dded Tax< is 1".@.
(t is added to the basic cost before sellin& man+ items.
1".@ is made up of 1-@ 8 @ 8 2.@
=or% out F5T li%e this:
Falue 'ithout F5T 9 D1- F5T
1-@ D1 1G1- of 1-
@ D " - Half of 1-@
2.@ D 3 " Half of @
1".@ D2! 2 5dd 1-@ 8@ 8 2.@
The F5T to be added to D1- is D2!.2 so the cost includin& F5T is D 1"!.2
5lthou&h the rate of F5T is 1".@ in 2--3 it can be chan&ed at an+ time b+
the &overnment in a bud&et.
Percentage decrease
(f there is 3-@ off ;3-@ decrease< in a sale there is still "-@ to pa+ .
/.&. 5 coat* priced at D#-* is reduced in a sale b+ 3-@.
=hat is the sale price7
(f there is 3-@ off* there is "-@ to pa+.
1-@ of D#- 9 D#
"-@ of D#- 9 " A D# 9 D!
:o the sale price is D!
9
%valuating one number as a percentage o another
/.&.1 =hat is 3 as a percenta&e of "47
:tep 1: Ma%e a fraction of the t'o numbers:
the number that follo's Has a percenta&e ofI is the denominator:
3
"4
:tep 2: 1han&e the fraction to a percenta&e b+ multipl+in& b+ 1--.
Use a calculator to evaluate:
53 1-- @ ;3 "4 x 1-- 9<
"4
9 "1.!2@ correct to 2 decimal places
/.&. 2 (n a surve+ #- people 'ere as%ed 'hat their favourite soap 'as.
3 people li%ed 1oronation :treet best.

=hat percenta&e of those surve+ed li%ed 1oronation :treet best7
3 1-- @ 9 43."@
#-
43."@ li%ed 1oronation :treet best.
"sing a calculator
(t is eas+ to ma%e a mista%e 'hen %e+in& numbers into a calculator so al'a+s
chec% calculations done on a calculator b+:,
10
Coin& the 6uestion t'ice* puttin& the numbers in to the calculator in a
different order if this is possible e.&. for additions or multiplications.
Usin& inverses to chec% b+ a different calculation e.&. doin& additions to
chec% subtractions or multiplications to chec% divisions.
Bound numbers to the nearest 'hole number or to the nearest 1- and do
the calculation in +our head or on paper to chec% the order ;approximate
size< of +our ans'er.
1alculators that have functions li%e memor+* fractions and brac%ets can be
useful but these functions often have different 'a+s in 'hich the+ must be
used. 2oo% at the handboo% that came 'ith the calculator for instructions
about ho' to use these functions or as% +our teacher for help.
The functions that +ou have to be able to use are + * * , , =, % and
11
Currenc$ conversion
?an%s* >ost )ffices and travel a&encies and some buildin& societies sell
forei&n currencies. The+ char&e for this service* it is called commission. The+
'ill bu+ forei&n mone+ from +ou at a lo'er rate than 'hen the+ sell it to +ou to
pa+ for the cost of doin& the business for +ou.
Pounds to %uros
To chan&e from one currenc+ to another +ou need to %no' the exchan&e rate
for that da+.
)n 24G-#G-2 the pound ;D< to euro ;J< exchan&e rate 'hat D1 9 J1.$ ;or J1
and $ cents<.
1onvert from D to J li%e this. 1hec% +our calculation b+ dividin& b+ J1.$.
D1 9 1 x 1.$ 9 J1.$ J1.$ J1.$ 9 D1
D2 9 2 x 1.$ 9 J3.1# J3.1# J1.$ 9 D2
D3 9 3 x 1.$ 9 J4."" J4."" J1.$ 9 D3
So multiply the number of pounds () by the exchange rate.
%uros to Pounds
)n 12G-$G-2 the euro ;J< to pound ;D< exchan&e rate 'as: J1 9 D-.!3
1onvert from J to D li%e this. 1hec% +our calculation b+ dividin& b+ D-.!3.
J1 9 1 x -.!3 9 D-.!3 D-.!3 D-.!3 9 D1
J2 9 2 x -.!3 9 D1.2! D1.2! D-.!3 9 D2
J3 9 3 x -.!3 9 D1.#$ D1.#$ D-.!3 9 D3
So multiply the numbers of Euros () by the exchange rate.
The box sho's the exchan&e rate for one pound ;D1<.
This indicates that:
Kou have to &ive the ban% J1."4 for
ever+ D1 the+ &ive +ou.
The ban% 'ill &ive +ou onl+ J1.$ for ever+ D1 +ou &ive them.
&ime
/arlier levels of rules and tools cover 'a+s of recordin& dates and times.
/xchan&e Bates
=e bu+ =e sell
1."4 /uros 1.$
12
The standard units of time are covered in rules and tools* 2evel 1.
&he Metric'(mperial s$stem
)ength
5n inch is about 2.cm ;2.4cm to 2 decimal places<
5 foot is about 3-cm ;3-.cm to 1 decimal place<
5 +ard is a bit less than 1 metre
1 +ard is 3! inches
1 metre is about 3$ inches
Weight
5 %ilo&ram is Lust over 2 pounds ;about 2.2 pounds<
5 pound is about 4-&rams.
5n ounce is about 2&
Capacit$
5 pint is Lust over half a litre
5 &allon is about 4. litres
5 litre is Lust under t'o pints
&he Metric s$stem
The units used in the metric s+stem and information in ho' to convert
bet'een different units 'as covered in 2evel 1 rules and tools.
&he (mperial s$stem
Measure Units :hort 4orm /6uivalents
2en&th inch
foot ;feet<
+ard
mile
in
ft
+d
m
12 in 9 1 ft
3 ft 9 1 +d
1"!- +ds 9 1m
=ei&ht ounces
pounds
stones
tons
oz
lb
1! oz 9 1 lb
14 lb 9 1 stone
1apacit+ pints
&allons
# pints 9 1 &allon
13
&emperature
Temperature is measured in de&rees usin& either the 1elsius of 4ahrenheit
scales. The instrument used to measure temperatures is a thermometer.
Celsius
Ce&rees 1elsius are shortened to
o
1
=ater freezes at -
o
1
=ater boils at 1--
o
1
5 'arm summers da+ in /n&land 'ould be about 2-
o
1
Fahrenheit *h+,
Ce&rees 4ahrenheit are shortened to
o
4
=ater freezes at 32
o
4
=ater boils at 212
o
4
14
"sing ormulae
5 formula is a rule for 'or%in& out a calculation. 5 formula can be 'ritten in
'ord or in s+mbols.
&he rectangle
The perimeter of a shape is the distance around the ed&e of a shape.
To 'or% out the perimeter of a rectan&le add the len&th of all four sides
to&ether.
l
b b
l
4or rectan&le:
>erimeter 9 b 8 l + b + l
9 2 ;b 8 l<
5rea 9 l x b
Use the formulae to calculate the perimeter and area of this rectan&le.
3."cm
1.# cm
>erimeter 9 2 ;l8 l<
9 2 ;3." 8 1.#< cm
9 2 ;.< cm
9 11 cm
5rea 9 l x b
9 3." x 1.# cm
2
9 !.!! cm
2
15
&he Circle
The perimeter of a circle has a special name* Hthe circumferenceI.
diameter
circumference
radius
The formula for calculatin& the circumference ;perimeter< and area of a circle
are:
1ircumference 9 M x diameter
9 Md
5rea 9 M x radius
2
9 M r
2
M is also the number 3.142 ;to 3 decimal places<
Use the M button on +our calculator to see M to more decimal places.
Use the formulae to calculate the area and circumference of a circle 'ith
radius cm.
1ircumference 9 M d
9 3.142 x 1- ;r 9 cm so d 91-cm<
9 31.42cm
5rea 9 M r
2
9 3.142 x x
9 #.cm
2
16
Bemember measurements must be in the same unit
before substitutin& into a formula.
Composite shapes
The area of more difficult shapes can be calculated b+ brea%in& them up into
the simple shapes that 'e %no' ho' to calculate the area.
/.&.
1#cm
5 ? 1
$cm "cm
2cm
"cm
"cm
The shape sho'n can be divided into rectan&les as sho'n b+ the dotted lines.
.o' the area of each rectan&le ;5* ? and 1< can be calculated and the total
area calculated b+ addin& the three areas to&ether.
5rea 5 9 l x b 9 $ x " 9 !3 cm
2
5rea ? 9 l x b 9 x 4 9 2- cm
2
5rea 1 9 l x b 9 " x " 9 4$ cm
2


Total area 9132 cm
3
17
Volumes
The volume of a cuboid is calculated usin& the formula:
h
b
l
len&th x breadth x hei&ht
/.&.
Folume 9 l x b x h
9 # x ! x
9 24- cm
3
The volume of a c+linder is calculated b+ multipl+in& the area of the base b+
the hei&ht.
:ince the area of the base is a circle the
formula for the area is M r
2
:o the volume of a c+linder is M r
2
h
/xample
23mm
2m
1alculate the volume of a drain pipe 'ith diameter 23mm and 2m lon&. Nive
+our ans'er in cm3
Folume 9 M r
2
h
9 3.142 x 1.1
2
x 2--
9 #31 cm
3
;to the nearest cm
3
<.
18
Bemember:
/nsure all len&ths are
in the same unit
before substitutin& in
the formula
height
base
Scale drawings
5 scale of 1 : " means that 1 mm on the scale dia&ram represents " mm on
the &round.
:cale measurement 9 32 mm
5ctual len&th is 32 x " x 9 24-- mm 9 2.4 m
:cale measurement 9 4! mm
5ctual len&th is 4! x " x 9 34- mm 9 3.4 m
Some ormulae

Formula to ind Formula "nits o
answer
>erimeter of rectan&le > 9 2;l 8 b< cm or m
5rea of rectan&le 5 9lb cmO or mO
5rea of trian&le 5 9 P bh cmO or mO h is the perpendicular
hei&ht
1ircumference of
circle
1 9 d cm or m
5rea of circle 5 9 rO cmO or mO 5 9 r r
Folume of cuboid F 9 lbh cmQ or mQ b is breadth* also called
'idth
Folume of c+linder F 9 rOh cmQ or mQ h is the perpendicular
hei&ht
19
-D or .D
2C shapes are shapes that are dra'n on paper ;or other materials<
3C shapes are solid. The+ can be pic%ed up
3C shapes can be represented as maps or plans in 2C on paper.
5 cardboard box is a 3C,shape* Most boxes are cut from a sin&le piece of
card and folded into the re6uired box. The shape of the box before it is folded
is called a net.
1-

4
5nother 'a+ of sho'in& this box ;or another 3C shape< as a 2C dra'in& is to
sho' ho' the box 'ould loo% if vie'ed from:
the front
the side
the top
These different vie's are called different elevation
Parallel
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR >arallel lines al'a+s sta+ the same
distance apart.
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR ;2i%e rail'a+ lines<.
20
10
5
4
4
10
5
10
5
4
Discrete and continuous data
Discrete data must have particular values. These values are usuall+ 'hole
numbers but sometimes fractions are involved.
5n example of discrete data 'ould be shoe size: /.&. !* $ or 41G2
Continuous data can have an+ value 'ithin a ran&e of values.
5n example of continuous data 'ould be the actual len&th of someoneIs foot.
This could be 24.43 cm or 2".1 cm* for example.
1ontinuous data can onl+ be &iven to a de&ree of accurac+* to 2 decimal
places for example* because it is measured.
&ables, diagrams, charts and graphs
The s%ills to extract* collect and or&anise data in tables* dia&rams* charts and
&raphs have been covered at earlier levels.
!verages and spread
Mean
The mean 'as defined at 2evel 1 as an avera&e.
To calculate the mean:
add up the values of all of the data
divide this total b+ the number of values.
/.&. The mean of !* #* "* 12 is
! 8 # 8 " 8 12 9 33 9 #.2
4 4
This ma+ not be the best avera&e to represent the data if there are man+
items of small value and one 'ith a ver+ lar&e value.
21
Median
The median is another avera&e.
The median is the middle score 'hen the scores are put in order
/.&. 4ind the median of 3*#*2**!*$*3*4*"
>ut the scores in order:
2* 3* 3* 4* * !* "* #* $
=rite do'n all scores* for example* there are t'o 3s.
:elect the middle score as the median. The median is
/.&. 2 (n this example there is no sin&le middle score:
1* 2* 2* 3* 4* * !* !* "* #* #* $
The median is 8 ! 9 11 9 .
2 2
Mode
The mode is also an avera&e.
The mode is the score that appears most often ;most fashionable<.
(n the data: 3*#*2**!*$*3*4*"
the mode is 3.
;?ecause there are t'o 3s and onl+ one of each of the other numbers<
:ome data ma+ have more than one mode.
(n the data: 2* 3* 2* 3* 1* * 3* !* 2
The modes are 2 and 3.
;:ince 2 and 3 both appear three times<.
22
!dvantages and disadvantages
Mean: This &ives a precise value* 'hich reflects ever+ score involved.
(t can be distorted b+ one or t'o ver+ lar&e or ver+ lo' values.
(t is used on lar&e populations e.&. if the avera&e famil+ is 2.21
children and there are 2--- families 443- school places 'ill be
needed.
Median: This can &ive a more understandable value.
(t i&nores the ver+ hi&h and ver+ lo' values e.&. in the example
above the mean of 2.21 children ma+ be useful but is not
realistic. The median &ives a 'hole number of childrenS
Mode: This avera&e is most useful 'hen suppl+in& &oods for sale e.&.
a shoe shop needs to order the most popular size of shoe: this
is the mode of size.
&he range
The ran&e is a measure of ho' the data spreads out.
1alculate the ran&e b+ subtractin& the smallest value from the lar&est value.
/.&. The ran&e of 2*$*4*1*3 is $ 0 1 9 #
23
Probabilit$
>robabilit+ is introduced in rules and tools at level 1.
(ndependence
/vents are independent if one event cannot affect the outcome of the other
event
/.&. 4lippin& a coin and rollin& a die
are independent since the outcome of one does not affect the
outcome of the other.
Combined probabilities
5 combined probabilit+ can be calculated for events that are independent.
/.&. The probabilit+ of scorin& t'o !s 'hen t'o dice are rolled.
Sample space tables and tree diagrams
5 sample space table can be useful to record all possible outcomes for t'o
independent events.
/.&. The results obtained 'hen the score on t'o dice are added:
)utcome of first die
)
u
t
c
o
m
e

o
f

s
e
c
o
n
d

d
i
e
+
/ - . + 0 1
/ 2 3 4 ! "
- 3 4 ! " #
. 4 ! " # $
+ ! " # $ 1-
0 ! " # $ 1- 11
1 " # $ 1- 11 12

24
&ree diagrams
Tree dia&rams can be used instead of sample space tables
)utcomes

HH
HT
TH
TT
4irst coin :econd coin
This tree dia&ram sho's all the possible outcomes of flippin& t'o coins.
Tree dia&rams can be used for more than t'o events but sample space tables
can onl+ sho' t'o events.
Tree dia&rams for more than t'o events can be ver+ lar&e.
25
Head
Tail
Head
Tail
Head
Tail