F E A T U R E

40-
30-
20-
10-
A R T I C L E
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Stress Grading for High Voltage
Motor and Generator Coils
by
A. ROBERTS
Dowdmg and W s , Birmingham, UK
Non- l i near resistance tapes are
now t he al most universal choice
for stress grading mot or and
generator coils.
WHY STRESS GRADING IS REQUIRED
common configuration in most pieces of high voltage
electrical apparatus is that of an insulated electrical con-
A ductor passing through a grounded concentric screen.
This is the case, for instance, with high voltage cables, bushings,
and the coils of motors and generators. In all instances the
screen finishes short of the insulated conductor, for example,
at the termination of a cable, where the bushing passes through
the flange plate, or in the case of a motor, where the insulated
conductors leave the core. When voltage is applied between the
conductor and the screen, the discontinuity at the end of the
screen can result in a stress field along the insulation surface
beyond the screen. A typical configuration and potential distri-
bution is shown in Fig 1. If the stress exceeds the breakdown
stress of air, it can lead to damaging surface discharge. The
purpose of stress grading is to reduce this local surface stress so
that nowhere does it exceed the breakdown strength, thus
eliminating surface discharge.
The surface breakdown strength is found to be much lower
than it would be for a plain air gap, and it is found to be highly
dependent on humidity. The variation in breakdown potential
between electrodes [l] at 50% RH is shown in Fig. 2 with the
corresponding average field. In the ideal case in which we could
ensure a uniform surface field, the maximum voltage that could
be applied without flashover for a given graded length would
have a stress equal to the average breakdown stress, from Fig.
2, for that length. In practice, to cover the highest test voltages
likely, one would specify a system to give a constant surface
stress of 3-4 kV/cm. A completely uniform stress cannot be
achieved in practice, the stress nearer the edge of the semicon-
ducting coating generally being higher. However, some vari-
ation is permissible if the local stress does not exceed the average
breakdown stress over that region.
STRESS GRADING OF ROTATING MACHINE INSULATION
The normal configuration for an h.t. rotating machine
winding is shown in part in Fig. 3. The insulated conductor is
of rectangular cross-section that fits into a slot in a laminated
steel core. The portion that fits into the slot would normally
have an outer conducting coating, and the extension beyond
Copper conductors
Insulation
~
Sem,iconducting I Surface potential
coating
1ooi. 7
Fig. 1 Potential and stress distribution along the insulation surface due to the
termination of the semiconducting coating
0883-7554195'54 OOIC 1995
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine 26
50
lax. voltagi
40
--
>
x- 30
m
3
8
-
20
10
Endwinding Insulation
Laminated Steel Core
Copper Conductors
I w3
I I
Fig. 2 Variation of breakdown potential and surface stress with electrode separation
the slot would have an outer layer whose function would be to
control the surface stress. It is desirable in the design of
machines for the projection of the coil beyond the core to be
as short as possible. This places a premium on minimizing the
length required to grade the stress, which is not so much the
case with cables and bushings.
Before discussing the means of stress grading we should first
consider if stress grading is necessary and if so, under what
circumstances. After all, there are many low voltage machines,
i.e., below about 4ky and many older class B high voltage
machines that do not have stress grading yet have provided
many years of trouble-free service. Also, as grading has to be
applied to every coil, there is a significant cost involved.
Furthermore, only during the ac hipot test, which is one minute
in the life of the machine, is the grading fully utilized. In normal
operation, 70% of the length of the stress grading coating is
redundant. Thus, there is a strong incentive to use such coatings
only when absolutely necessary.
The basic criteria regarding the need for electric stress control
of the insulation systemis to eliminate its erosive effects on the
insulation. The first element in the stress control systemis the
semiconductive coating within the slot area. This only becomes
necessary if, without it, the stress would cause corona dwharge
between any gaps between slot walls and the adjacent coil, which
would cause significant surface erosion. The resistivity of this
coating is normally in the range 1OO-10,OOO Wsquare.
If voltage is applied to a coil with a semiconducting coating
but no stress grading, then typically for an 11kV section of bar,
diffuse discharge will be observed at the edge of the ends of the
semiconducting shield at around 5ky with visible sparking
around 1OkV and streamer discharges above 20 kV The effect
of diffuse discharge that would occur in service would be to
cause erosion at the edge of the semiconducting shield.
Streamer discharge is only likely to occur during the hipot test
but can lead to rapid insulation failure. The voltages at which
these effects occur depend on the ratio of the thickness of the
insulation to its permittivity. Hence, in the older machines with
a thick insulation of low permittivity , discharge was not
significant at the voltages used. However, the modern trend is
for thinner insulations, generally of higher permittivity, and the
problem of surface discharge has become more severe and of
significance on lower voltage machines. The generally accepted
systemvoltage at which stress control becomes necessary is 5kV
and above. However, there are indications that with higher
insulation stresses, some manufactures are incorporating stress
control at lower systemvoltages.
While we have so far considered the harmful effects of
surface discharge to the insulation, there is another aspect that
should also be considered. External discharges generate ozone,
which is carried by the cooling air stream from an open
ventilated motor. Though short-lived, ozone has an associated
toxicity, and with an increasing emphasis on health and safety,
the manufacturer will need to ensure that ozone emissions are
kept within acceptable limits. Current World Health Organiza-
tion guidance is that levels exceeding 50 parts per billion over
an eight-hour period can cause respiratory discomfort.
METHODS OF SUPPRESSING DISCHARGE
The simplest method of suppressing discharge is to overtape
the end of the semiconductingscreen with a void-free insulating
layer. While this only gives a small reduction in stress, it excludes
the air from the most highly stressed region and therefore
increases the partial discharge inception voltage and decreases
the discharge intensity.
One unusual approach that has been used on VPI is to extend
the semiconducting coating over all of the coil endwinding
surfaces and connections. Stressgrading is still required but only
on the supply leads to the three phases, which is an easier
proposition than grading every coil. It does, however, require
confidence that the endwinding insulation is as good as the slot
and will not crack or deteriorate under the mechanical stresses
and movements imposed on the endwindings.
J Uly/AuguSt 1995 -Vol. 11, NO. 4 27
However, the more normal approach is to reduce the peak
surface stress on each coil. There are several methods by which
this can be achieved, using either capacitive or resistive ele-
ments.
CAPACITIVE STRESS GRADING
For example, if a layer of hghpermittivity material is applied
over the surface, this lowers the surface impedance and hence
reduces the stress, as shown in Fig. 4. The relative permittivity
values need to beof the order of >30. Ths method is widely used
on cable terminations, but it requires a relatively thick layer, which
may cause problems in windmg the stator. Also, hgh&electric
constant materials with class F temperature ratings, suitable for
motors and generators, are not widely avadable.
A second capacitive method is the use of stress cones, where
the insulation approachng the end of the semiconducting
coating is built up, reducing the stress in the insulation, which
reduces the stress on the surface (Fig. 5) . This method was
widely used on cable terminations, but again, is generally
unsuitable for machines because the increase in dimensions
cannot easily be accommodated in the endwindings.
One other capacitive method is the use of conducting foils
inside the insulation to spread the potential internal to the
insulation, as shown in Fig. 6. This method is widely used on
bushings and has been used on machines. However, there are
significant practical difficulties in manufacturing such a system,
and thus it is now rarely used.
In summary, capacitive methods, while delivering a good
electrical performance, can generally be seen to have a number
of significant practical difficulties.
RESISTIVE STRESS GRADING
These problems are not encountered with resistive grading,
which only requires a thin coating on the insulation surface,
which is easily applied.
With a normal resistive coating, as the current decreases
away from the edge of the semiconducting coating, the stress
will be at a maximum. This will require a low resistance to keep
the stress low, which in turn will require a long length of
grading. Toobtain a constant stress, which gives the minimum
grading length, it is necessary to increase the resistance away
from the semiconducting coating. This can be acheved with an
ohmic coating by grading the resistance along the surface, but
the necessary variation is difficult to achieve and needs to be
optimized for specific insulation thicknesses and voltages.
NON-LINEAR RESISTANCE GRADING
Some use had previously been made of materials with
non-linear resistance characteristics, notably the use of asbestos
tape for stress grading. However, Kelen [2, 31 showed that in
taking non-linearity to the limit, that is, where there is a step
function change from a non-conducting to a conducting state
at a particular threshold stress, as shown in Fig. 8, this charac-
teristic would automatically adjust its resistance to ensure a
constant surface stress. While this behavior is not directly
realizable in practice, a similar characteristic is seen in surge
Copper conductors
Insulation
Semiconducting
coating
Fig. 4 Stress grading using high permittivity dielectric overtaping
Copper conductors
Insulation
Fig. 5 Stress grading using stress cones
37,.5% 150%
25%
\
\ , ,
\
I I
62.5%
/ /
Sem,iconducting \, I ; I /
' \ , i , / I /
/ , ,'
coating ,
Insulation
Semiconducting coating
Fig. 6 Stress grading using internal conductive foils
28 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
arrestors, which are based on silicon carbide particles [4]. It was
found that silicon carbide particles, or grits, suspended in a resin
paint base, also showed non-linear resistance and that a variety
of characteristics could be obtained depending on the type,
particle size, and proportions. These paints had several disad-
vantages in that they were prone to particle settlement and
solvent evaporation. Mechanically, such coatings were also
easily damaged by abrasion, and their effectiveness could be
severely reduced by any subsequent varnish treatment. More
recently, materials have been developed consisting of silicon
carbide particles suspended in a B stage epoxy resin carried
on a backing tape, usually of polyester. This material could be
applied to the end of the bar and pressed and cured with the
main insulation, giving a tough outer layer. Later developments
were to use fully cured, flexible polyester resins, which were
suitable for VIP applications.
The actual physical mechanism that gives rise to non-linear
conduction in silicon carbide systems is still being researched.
Various mechanisms have been proposed [5], including a Schot-
tky-type, field-aided emission at the grain contacts and a Poole
Frenckle field-aided emission, which is a bulk effect. Both of
these givea log VE current dependence.
However, it has been found that if the current and voltage
are plotted on a log /log scale, a straight line is obtained for a
wide variety of carbide-based products, as shown in Fig. 7.
This shows the characteristics can be represented by the
empirical equation
I =kV
over several orders of magnitude. Thls is the empirical formula
proposed by Kelen and also used by manufactures of surge sup-
pressers [4] to characterize their materials.
Hence, we are able to characterize any such material using only
two parameters-its gradient index n, and a resistivity constant
k. It can beseen from Fig. 8 that the hgher the index n, the closer
the characteristic converges to the step function proposed by
Kelen. Generally, a value of n of about 4-5 is acceptable for
practical purposes. While ths results in a hgher stress adjacent to
the semiconducting coating, the breakdown stress is also hgher
over short distances, so thls should not result in discharge. The
conductivity parameter k can begiven in absolute terms, but as
Kelen pointed out, it is more useful to express it in terms of the
stress required to produce a ked current density, whch gives a
direct relation to the threshold stress, whch will bedenoted as E.
Hence, the equation isthen of the form
E
Et
A=Ao-
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE MAGNITUDES
Having determined the defining equation we are now po-
tentially able to characterize any non-linear grading material by
only two parameters, which can be obtained from a graph of
the measured current and voltage characteristics. However, we
still need to know the range of current and voltage over which
measurements should be made to correspond to the magnitudes
that will occur in use.
J Uly/AUgUSt 1995 -Vol. 11, NO. 4
100
50
20
5 10
4
x
c
5 5
9)
U -
g 2
3 0
1
.5
.2
.1
I I
5. 10 . 5 1. 2.
Stress, kV/cm
.2
Fig. 7 Current density/stress plots for a variety of silicon carbide-based materials:
Paint-based (a); Epoxy resin /tape-based, manufacturer A; low stress (b); standard
(c); medium stress (d); Epoxy resin /tape manufacturer B standard (e)
Fig. 8 Convergence of characteristic to a step function with increasing value of index n
29
As the objective is to suppress discharge, the range of stress
is determined by the surface breakdown stress, which has been
shown previously not to exceed lOkV/cm at SO% RH. This sets
the upper stress of interest.
The magnitude of the current density will clearly depend on
the test voltage, the capacitance per unit area of the insulation,
and the threshold stress. The author has shown [6] that the
charge transfer for an ideal material is given by
c, 2 v y v f )
i
4E,
C,ii(2 - ( 1 - COSO$)
4E,
4=
For a sinusoidal voltage &IS becomes
q =
where V is the peak voltage.
Differentiating, we obtain
C,ir2(sincot - 1/2si n2mt)
2 4
A =
The peak value of current density is then
3\/6.C,VL.w
80.E,
A =
where A is in Wcm; E, in kV/cm,rms; V in kV rms; and C in
pF/cm2.
In practice, typically for an l l kV system, the maximum
voltage applied will be in the ac hipot test, usually about 23ky
and the capacitance per unit area will be about lpF/sq.cm . If
we take a figure of 3kV/cm as being typical for the stress
constant, the calculated peak current will be about 50 Wcm.
With higher system voltages, which may be up to 22 ky the
current will be higher but should not be more than 1.5 times
for a single layer, which gives us a maximum range of current
density of, say, 0-7SpNcm dc or 50 Wcm ac. Weare now able
to define our measuring range as up to 10kV/cm and up to SO
I.LA/cmac, whichever is reached first.
DETERMINATION OF n AND Et
Wemust now define the reference current for measurement of
the threshold stress, which clearly must lie between 0-50 pA. The
choice is to a degree arbitrary, but a value of 2 Wcm, 3 Wcm
dc is recommended, as this is found to give a good agreement
with the value obtained by loss tangent measurements [6].
By plotting the results of current voltage measurement on a log
linear basis, we are now able to determine the material charac-
teristics over the normal operating range. The n parameter is
obtained by measuring the gradient of the line and the threshold
stress from where the line cuts the 2 pi4 line abscissa.
MEASUREMENTS OF GRADING TAPE CURRENT/VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTICS
The measurement of stress grading characteristics is rela-
tively straightforward, knowing the measurement range. Sam-
30
ples are most commonly made up on insulating tubes of
between 25 to 40mm diameter, though strip samples are easier
to process. The grading material is applied to the surface by
either painting or molding, as appropriate, and circumferential
electrodes are applied, set normally 10mm apart.
Measurements of the current and voltage are a relatively
simple matter and may be made with either ac or dc voltage.
AC tends to be more widely used, though the form factor
produced by the non-linearity means the values vary depending
on whether peak, average, or r.m.s measurements are used. The
basic test configuration is shown in Fig. 9. A source of voltage
is required up to 10kV ac or 15 kV dc or pro rata if the electrode
spacing on the sample is greater than lcm. The current source
should be capable of about lmA, while the current measure-
ment requires a resolution of at least 0.1 p.A at the lowest range.
In addition, stability at the higher current levels should be
checked by holding the maximum test current for 10s to
monitor any change in current. Also, as proof testing is some-
times carried out on a hot winding, the characteristics should
be measured at elevated temperatures, though this is not the
usual practice at present.
DESIGN OF STRESS GRADING SYSTEMS
When information is provided on the grading charac-
teristics, the specification of the correct type of grading
length and thickness is relatively straightforward. The first
consideration is the choice of threshold stress. While a low
value will give good discharge suppression, it will need a
longer grading length, which might not be easily accommo-
dated on the coil overhang. However, non-linear gradings
affect the power factor tip-up, the effect being greater the
lower the value is [ 6] , so a high value is beneficial. Generally
a value of 3-4kV/cm is a reasonable compromise, which
suffices for most general requirements, but if abnormal
conditions are involved, such as high altitude, high humidity,
or unusually high test voltage, this value may need to be
reduced.
Insulating
Stress
6
Voltmeter
I
Voltage
source
Current
0-1 mA
Fig. 9 Testcircuit for measuring currentand voltage
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
To a first approximation, the voltage will increase linearly
along the surface, determined by the threshold stress of the
grading, so the length (1) required to grade fully the applied
potential will be
where V is the highest test voltage to be applied.
If space is limited, as discharge at an edge may be tolerated
for a short period in some circumstances, the voltage at the end
of the grading relative to the conductors could be as high as 10
kV without serious damage occurring. The length may be
reduced by a proportionate amount. If we assume a threshold
stress of 3 kVicm, we have
v-10
I =-
3
which is the original equation proposed by Kelen.
Up to this point only ac voltage has been considered with a
maximum proof voltage of twice plus 1kV However, there are
now requirements in standards, particularly IEC 34-15 [7],
which require sample insulation to be tested at twice this ac
voltage, or with an equivalent impulse voltage. As the frequency
components in an impulse are much higher, the current loading
on the grading will be higher by a factor of >1000 for a 1 ps
rise time impulse, and hence, the surface stress will also be
significantly increased. The grading length will then need to be
reasonably generous to cope with these tests, though no major
difficulties have been met as yet.
The designer should also be aware when making his or her
choice of material that proof testing is sometimes done with dc
voltage, most often on site, as the test equipment is both lighter
and requires less power than the equivalent ac test. The nor-
mally accepted voltage for new insulation is 1.7 times the
normal r.m.s test voltage.
Resistive gradings do not function at dc voltages as the dc
resistance of the bulk insulation is usually greater than that of
the surface, which allows the insulation capacitance to charge
up through the residual resistance. Discharge may then occur
at the end of the stress grading but is not usually a problem as
the high series resistance presented by the stress grading pre-
vents significant discharge currents.
However, dc hipot tests result in a stress on the endwinding
insulation that does not occur normally during ac operation.
This is sometimes given as a reason for not carrying out dc
testing, and it is therefore desirable that the residual ohmic
resistance of the grading coating be as high as possible to keep
the endwinding stresses to a minimum.
CONCLUSIONS
Stress grading on high voltage motor and generator stator
windings is becoming more important as the electrical stress in
the ground insulation is increased. While there are a variety of
possible ways to relieve surface stress, non-linear resistive tapes
have been almost universally adopted because of their simplicity
and efficiency. However, selection and quality control on these
materials has been problematic, as the means to characterize
these materials has not been clearly set out. Most types of
material can be characterized in terms of two parameters, a
threshold stress and a gradient index, which can be determined
from simple current and voltage measurements.
It is hoped, therefore, that manufactures of grading products
will adopt such measurements and publish these values as a
matter of course. This will enable coil manufacturers to improve
the specification and quality control of stress grading coatings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figs. 1,4 and 5,3M data sheet, LA 1080 Scotch 2220.
A. ROB EKE^, since graduating wi th a degree in
applied physics, has been involved in the meas-
urement and evaluation of high voltage insula-
tion, both in the laboratory and under field
condtions, and has made contributions at IEE
conferences on the subject. He is a test engineer
with Dowding and Ml s, Camp Hill, Birrmng-
ham, dealing primarily wi ththe insulation of hgh
voltage rotating machmes. Previously he worked in the insulation
research laboratory of GEC Large Machines, Rugby. He may be
reached at Dowdmg &Mills (Wdlands) Ltd., Camp Hill, Birming-
hamB12 OJJ, UK.
REFERENCES
1. R.L. Provos, Dielectric Stress Along Insulating Surfaces, 7th BEMA
International Electrical Insulation Conference, Brighton, England, 1993.
2. Andreas Kelen and L. Virsburg, Discharge Suppression on the Surfaceof
H.V Insulation, Eleknik, No. 4, pp. 59-65, 1967.
3. Andreas Kelen, On the Theory of Non-Linear ResistiveField Grading on
Insulating Surfaces, Eleknik, No. 6, 1967, pp. 109-112.
4. Norton Crystolon 179, Bulletin E and E1.3.2, Norton High Temperature
Materials.
5. J . Wood, R.T. Hindmarsh, and W K. Hog, The Useof Loaded Resins for
Controlling Electrical Stress in Turbo Generator Insulation, IEE Coni
Publication No. 177, 1979, pp. 144-148.
6. A. Roberts, The Calculation of the Increase in Integrated Energy and Loss
Tangent ValuesArising fromthe Useof Non-Linear Stress Grading Materials on
the Coils of High VoltageRotating AC Machines, IEE Dielectric Materials
Measurements and Applications Conference, University of Lancaster, 1984, pp.
263-266.
7. IEC 34-15 (1995), Impulse VoltageWithstand Levels of Rotating AC
Machines with Form-Wound Stator Coils.
%
J Uly/AUgUSt 1995 - Vol. 11, NO. 4 31