SESSIONAL OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL

ON
NANO-COMPOSITES



SUBMITTED BY
SUBJECT NAME : COMPOSITE MATERIAL RAJNEESH PATEL 101116018
CORDINATOR NAME : Dr. RAJESH PUROHIT RINKU GUPTA 101116176
DEEPESH VISHWAKARMA 101116023
NANO-COMPOSITES

The field of nanotechnology is one of the most popular areas
for current research and development in basically all technical
disciplines. In the area of nanotechnology, polymer matrix based Nano
composites have generated a significant amount of attention in the
recent literature. This area emerged with the recognition that exfoliated
clays could yield significant mechanical property advantages as a
modification of polymeric systems
Nano-composite
A nanocomposite is a multiphase solid material where one
of the phases has one, two or three dimensions of less than
100 nanometers (nm), or structures having nano-scale repeat distances
between the different phases that make up the material.


In the broadest sense this definition can include porous
media, colloids, gels and copolymers, but is more usually taken to mean
the solid combination of a bulk matrix and nano-dimensional phase(s)
differing in properties due to dissimilarities in structure and chemistry.
In mechanical terms, nanocomposites differ from
conventional composite materials due to the exceptionally high surface
to volume ratio of the reinforcing phase and/or its exceptionally
high aspect ratio. The reinforcing material can be made up of particles
(e.g. minerals), sheets (e.g. exfoliated clay stacks) or fibres (e.g. carbon
nanotubes or electrospun fibres). The area of the interface between the
matrix and reinforcement phase(s) is typically an order of magnitude
greater than for conventional composite materials. The matrix material
properties are significantly affected in the vicinity of the reinforcement.
Ajayan et al. note that with polymer nanocomposites, properties related
to local chemistry, degree of thermoset cure, polymer chain mobility,
polymer chain conformation, degree of polymer chain ordering or
crystallinity can all vary significantly and continuously from the
interface with the reinforcement into the bulk of the matrix. This large
amount of reinforcement surface area means that a relatively small
amount of nanoscale reinforcement can have an observable effect on the
macroscale properties of the composite. For example, adding carbon
nanotubes improves the electrical and thermal conductivity. Other kinds
of nanoparticulates may result in enhanced optical properties, dielectric
properties, heat resistance or mechanical properties such
as stiffness, strength and resistance to wear and damage. In general, the
nano reinforcement is dispersed into the matrix during processing. The
percentage by weight (called mass fraction) of the nanoparticulates
introduced can remain very low (on the order of 0.5% to 5%) due to the
low filler percolation threshold, especially for the most commonly used
non-spherical, high aspect ratio fillers (e.g. nanometer-thin platelets,
such as clays, or nanometer-diameter cylinders, such as carbon
nanotubes).

Types of Nano-Composites
Ceramic-matrix nanocomposites
In this group of composites the main part of the volume is
occupied by a ceramic, i.e. a chemical compound from the group of
oxides, nitrides, borides, silicides etc.. In most cases, ceramic-matrix
nanocomposites encompass a metal as the second component. Ideally
both components, the metallic one and the ceramic one, are finely
dispersed in each other in order to elicit the particular nanoscopic
properties. Nanocomposite from these combinations were demonstrated
in improving their optical, electrical and magnetic properties as well as
tribological, corrosion-resistance and other protective properties. The
binary phase diagram of the mixture should be considered in designing
ceramic-metal nanocomposites and measures have to be taken to avoid a
chemical reaction between both components. The last point mainly is of
importance for the metallic component that may easily react with the
ceramic and thereby lose its metallic character. This is not an easily
obeyed constraint, because the preparation of the ceramic component
generally requires high process temperatures. The most safe measure
thus is to carefully choose immiscible metal and ceramic phases. A good
example for such a combination is represented by the ceramic-metal
composite of TiO
2
and Cu, the mixtures of which were found immiscible
over large areas in the Gibbs triangle of Cu-O-Ti.

The concept of ceramic-matrix nanocomposites was also applied to thin
films that are solid layers of a few nm to some tens of m thickness
deposited upon an underlying substrate and that play an important role in
the functionalization of technical surfaces. Gas flow sputtering by the
hollow cathode technique turned out as a rather effective technique for
the preparation of nanocomposite layers. The process operates as a
vacuum-based deposition technique and is associated with high
deposition rates up to some m/s and the growth of nanoparticles in the
gas phase. Nanocomposite layers in the ceramics range of composition
were prepared from TiO
2
and Cu by the hollow cathode technique that
showed a high mechanical hardness, small coefficients of friction and a
high resistance to corrosion.

Metal-matrix nanocomposites
Metal matrix nanocomposites can also be defined as
reinforced metal matrix composites. This type of composites can be
classified as continuous and non-continuous reinforced materials. One of
the more important nanocomposites is Carbon nanotube metal matrix
composites, which is an emerging new material that is being developed
to take advantage of the high tensile strength and electrical conductivity
of carbon nanotube materials. Critical to the realization of CNT-MMC
possessing optimal properties in these areas are the development of
synthetic techniques that are (a) economically producible, (b) provide
for a homogeneous dispersion of nanotubes in the metallic matrix, and
(c) lead to strong interfacial adhesion between the metallic matrix and
the carbon nanotubes. In addition to carbon nanotube metal matrix
composites, boron nitride reinforced metal matrix composites and
carbon nitride metal matrix composites are the new research areas on
metal matrix nanocomposites.
A recent study, comparing the mechanical properties (Young's modulus,
compressive yield strength, flexural modulus and flexural yield strength)
of single- and multi-walled reinforced polymeric (polypropylene
fumaratePPF) nanocomposites to tungsten disulfide nanotubes
reinforced PPF nanocomposites suggest that tungsten disulfide
nanotubes reinforced PPF nanocomposites possess significantly higher
mechanical properties and tungsten disulfide nanotubes are better
reinforcing agents than carbon nanotubes. Increases in the mechanical
properties can be attributed to a uniform dispersion of inorganic
nanotubes in the polymer matrix (compared to carbon nanotubes that
exist as micron sized agggregates) and increased crosslinking density of
the polymer in the presence of tungsten disulfide nanotubes (increase in
crosslinking density leads to an increase in the mechanical properties).
These results suggest that inorganic nanomaterials, in general, may be
better reinforcing agents compared to carbon nanotubes.
Another kind of nanocomposite is the energetic nanocomposite,
generally as a hybrid solgel with a silica base, which, when combined
with metal oxides and nano-scale aluminum powder, can
form superthermite materials

Polymer-matrix nanocomposites
In the simplest case, appropriately adding nanoparticulates to
a polymer matrix can enhance its performance, often dramatically, by
simply capitalizing on the nature and properties of the nanoscale
filler (these materials are better described by the term nanofilled
polymer composites ). This strategy is particularly effective in yielding
high performance composites, when good dispersion of the filler is
achieved and the properties of the nanoscale filler are substantially
different or better than those of the matrix.


An example of this would be reinforcing a polymer matrix by much
stiffer nanoparticles of ceramics, clays, or carbon nanotubes. It should
be noted that the improvement in mechanical properties may not be
limited to stiffness or strength. Time-dependent properties could be
improved by addition of the nanofillers. Alternatively, the enhanced
crystallization behavior under flow conditions and other physical
properties of high performance nanocomposites may be mainly due to
the high aspect ratio and/or the high surface area of the fillers, since
nanoparticulates have extremely high surface area to volume ratios when
good dispersion is achieved. Nanoparticle dispersibility in the polymer
matrix is a key issue, which limits the appliciable particle volume
fraction and there for also the multi-functionality of the composite
material. Recent research on thin films (thickness <50 micrometer) made
of polymer nanocomposites has resulted in a new and scalable synthesis
technique, which allows the facile incorporation of greater nano-material
quantities . Such advances will enable the future development of multi-
functional small scale devices (i.e. sensor, actuator, medical equipment),
which rely on polymer nanocomposites.



Advantages of Nanosized Additions
Properties which have been shown to undergo substantial
improvements include:
Mechanical properties e.g. strength, modulus and dimensional
stability
Decreased permeability to gases, water and hydrocarbons
Thermal stability and heat distortion temperature
Flame retardancy and reduced smoke emissions
Chemical resistance
Surface appearance
Electrical conductivity
Optical clarity in comparison to conventionally filled polymers

Disadvantages of Nanosized Additions
To date one of the few disadvantages associated with
nanoparticle incorporation has concerned toughness and impact
performance. Some of the data presented has suggested that nanoclay
modification of polymers such as polyamides, could reduce impact
performance. Clearly this is an issue which would require consideration
for applications where impact loading events are likely. In addition,
further research will be necessary to, for example, develop a better
understanding of formulation/structure/property relationships, better
routes to platelet exfoliation and dispersion etc.


Areas of Application
Such mechanical property improvements have resulted in
major interest in nanocomposite materials in numerous automotive and
general/industrial applications. These include potential for utilisation as
mirror housings on various vehicle types, door handles, engine covers
and intake manifolds and timing belt covers. More general applications
currently being considered include usage as impellers and blades for
vacuum cleaners, power tool housings, mower hoods and covers for
portable electronic equipment such as mobile phones, pagers etc.


Gas Barriers
The gaseous barrier property improvement that can result from
incorporation of relatively small quantities of nanoclay materials is
shown to be substantial. Data provided from various sources indicates
oxygen transmission rates for polyamide-organoclay composites which
are usually less than half that of the unmodified polymer. Further data
reveals the extent to which both the amount of clay incorporated in the
polymer, and the aspect ratio of the filler contributes to overall barrier
performance. In particular, aspect ratio is shown to have a major effect,
with high ratios (and hence tendencies towards filler incorporation at the
nano-level) quite dramatically enhancing gaseous barrier properties.
Such excellent barrier characteristics have resulted in considerable
interest in nanoclay composites in food packaging applications, both
flexible and rigid. Specific examples include packaging for processed
meats, cheese, confectionery, cereals and boil-in-the-bag foods, also
extrusion-coating applications in association with paperboard for fruit
juice and dairy products, together with co-extrusion processes for the
manufacture of beer and carbonated drinks bottles. The use of
nanocomposite formulations would be expected to enhance considerably
the shelf life of many types of food.
Oxygen Barriers
Honeywell have also been active in developing a combined
active/passive oxygen barrier system for polyamide-6 materials. Passive
barrier characteristics are provided by nanoclay particles incorporated
via melt processing techniques whilst the active contribution comes from
an oxygen scavenging ingredient (undisclosed). Oxygen transmission
results reveal substantial benefits provided by nanoclay incorporation in
comparison to the base polymer (rates approximately 15-20% of the
bulk polymer value, with further benefits provided by the combined
active/passive system). Akkapeddi suggests that the increased tortuosity
provided by the nanoclay particles essentially slows transmission of
oxygen through the composite and drives molecules to the active
scavenging species resulting in near zero oxygen transmission for a
considerable period of time.


Food Packaging
The requirement here is for a non-refrigerated packaging system capable
of maintaining food freshness for three years. Nanoclay polymer
composites are currently showing considerable promise for this
application.
It is likely that excellent gaseous barrier properties exhibited by
nanocomposite polymer systems will result in their substantial use as
packaging materials in future years.
A somewhat more esoteric possibility arising from enhanced barrier
performance recently suggested has been blownfilms for artificial
intestines!
Fuel Tanks
The ability of nanoclay incorporation to reduce solvent transmission
through polymers such as polyamides has been demonstrated. Data
provided by De Bievre and Nakamura of UBE Industries reveals
significant reductions in fuel transmission through polyamide6/66
polymers by incorporation of a nanoclay filler. As a result, considerable
interest is now being shown in these materials as both fuel tank and fuel
line components for cars. Of further interest for this type of application,
the reduced fuel transmission characteristics are accompanied by
significant material cost reductions.
Films
The presence of filler incorporation at nano-levels has also been shown
to have significant effects on the transparency and haze characteristics of
films. In comparison to conventionally filled polymers, nanoclay
incorporation has been shown to significantly enhance transparency and
reduce haze. With polyamide based composites, this effect has been
shown to be due to modifications in the crystallisation behaviour
brought about by the nanoclay particles; spherilitic domain dimensions
being considerably smaller. Similarly, nano-modified polymers have
been shown, when employed to coat polymeric transparency materials,
to enhance both toughness and hardness of these materials without
interfering with light transmission characteristics. An ability to resist
high velocity impact combined with substantially improved abrasion
resistance was demonstrated by Haghighat of Triton Systems.
Environmental Protection
Water laden atmospheres have long been regarded as one of the most
damaging environments which polymeric materials can encounter. Thus
an ability to minimise the extent to which water is absorbed can be a
major advantage. Data provided by Beall from Missouri Baptist College
indicates the significant extent to which nanoclay incorporation can
reduce the extent of water absorption in a polymer. Similar effects have
been observed by van Es of DSM with polyamide based
nanocomposites. In addition, van Es noted a significant effect of
nanoclay aspect ratio on water diffusion characteristics in a polyimide
nanocomposite. Specifically, increasing aspect ratio was found to
diminish substantially the amount of water absorbed, thus indicating the
beneficial effects likely from nanoparticle incorporation in comparison
to conventional microparticle loading. Hydrophobic enhancement would
clearly promote both improved nanocomposite properties and diminish
the extent to which water would be transmitted through to an underlying
substrate. Thus applications in which contact with water or moist
environments is likely could clearly benefit from materials incorporating
nanoclay particles.
Flammability Reduction
The ability of nanoclay incorporation to reduce the flammability of
polymeric materials was a major theme of the paper presented by
Gilman of the National Institute of Standards and Technology in the US.
In his work Gilman demonstrated the extent to which flammability
behaviour could be restricted in polymers such as polypropylene with as
little as 2% nanoclay loading. In particular heat release rates, as obtained
from cone calorimetry experiments, were found to diminish substantially
by nanoclay incorporation. Although conventional microparticle filler
incorporation, together with the use of flame retardant and intumescent
agents would also minimise flammability behaviour, this is usually
accompanied by reductions in various other important properties. With
the nanoclay approach, this is usually achieved whilst maintaining or
enhancing other properties and characteristics.