1

CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basic configuration

Heat sinks or liquid cooling plates are used as heat exchangers.










Figure -1.1 heat exchanger
1.1.1 Types
Depending on the used heat exchangers the cooling units are
distinguished:
air to air
air to fluid
fluid to fluid
direct to air (cooling plate to air)


2

Figure -1.2 air to air cooler




1.2 Thermoelectric Cooling?
French watchmaker, Jean Charles Athanase Peltier,
discovered thermoelectric cooling effect, also known as Peltier cooling
effect, in 1834. Peltier discovered that the passage of a current through a
junction formed by two dissimilar conductors caused a temperature change.
However, Peltier failed to understand this physics phenomenon, and his
explanation was that the weak current doesnt obey Ohms law. Peltier
effect was made clear in 1838 by Emil Lenz, a member of the St.
Petersburg Academy. Lenz demonstrated that water could be frozen when
placed on a bismuth-antimony junction by passage of an electric current
through the junction. He also observed that if the current was reversed the
ice could be melted. In 1909 and 1911 another scientist Altenkirch derived
the basic theory of thermoelectrics. His work pointed out that thermoelectric
3

cooling materials needed to have high Seebeck coefficients, good electrical
conductivity to minimize Joule heating, and low thermal conductivity to
reduce heat transfer from junctions to junctions. Shortly after the
development of practical semiconductors in 1950s, bismuth telluride began
to be the primary material used in the thermoelectric cooling.The passage
of an electric current through junctions of dissimilar metals causes a fall in
temperature at one junction and a rise at the other, the Peltier effect.
Improvements in this method of cooling have been made possible in recent
years by the production of suitable semiconductors. Applications are limited
in size, owing to the high electric currents required, and practical uses are
small cooling systems for military, aerospace and laboratory use.
The Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the
junctions of two different types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or
thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state active heat pump which transfers
heat from one side of the device to the other side against the temperature
gradient (from cold to hot), with consumption of electrical energy. Such an
instrument is also called a Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state
refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). The Peltier device is a heat
pump: when direct current runs through it, heat is moved from one side to
the other. Therefore it can be used either for heating or for cooling
(refrigeration), although in practice the main application is cooling. It can
also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or cools.

1.3 PELTIER HISTORY

Early 19th century scientists, Thomas Seebeck and Jean Peltier,
first discovered the phenomena that are the basis for todays
thermoelectric industry. Seebeck found that if you placed a temperature
gradient across the junctions of two dissimilar conductors, electrical current
would flow. Peltier, on the other hand, learned that passing current
through two dissimilar electrical conductors ,caused heat to be either
emitted or absorbed at the junction of the materials. It was only after
mid-20th Century advancements in semiconductor technology,
however, that practical applications for thermoelectric devices became
4

feasible. With modern techniques, we can now produce
thermoelectric modules that deliver efficient solid state heat-pumping for


both cooling and heating; many of these units can also be
used to Generate DC power at reduced efficiency. New and often
elegant uses for thermoelectric continue tube developed each day.

1.4 PELTIER STRUCTURE

A typical thermoelectric module consists of an array of Bismuth
Telluride semiconductor pellets that have been doped so that one type of
charge carrier either positive or negative carries the majority of current.
The pairs of P/N pellets are configured so that they are connected
electrically in series, but thermally in parallel. Metallised ceramic
substrates provide the platform for the pellets and the small conductive tabs
that connect them.






5


Figure -1.2 constriction








1.5 PELTIER THEORY

When DC voltage is applied to the module, the positive and negative
charge carriers in the pellet array absorb heat energy from one substrate
surface and release it to the substrate at the opposite side. The surface
where heat energy is absorbed becomes cold; the opposite surface where
heat energy is released, becomes hot. Reversing the polarity will result in
reversed hot and cold sides.





Figure -1.4 Theory
6








Benefits of thermoelectric coolers:-
Small size
Light in weight
No fluid
Independent from the working position
High reliability
Exact temperature control
Heating by changing the direction of the current








7






1.6 THERMOELECTRIC MODULE
In practical use, couples are combined in a module where they are
connected electrically in series, and thermally in parallel. Normally a module
is the smallest component commercially available. Modules are available in
a great variety of sizes, shapes, operating currents, operating voltages and
ranges of heat pumping capacity. The present trend, however, is toward a
larger number of couples operating at lower currents. The user can select
the quantity, size or capacity of the module to fit the exact requirement
without paying for excess power.


Figure -1.5

8




Figure -1.6









Figure -1.7

9




Figure -1.8

Interior structure of thermoelectric module





10


CHAPTER 2 :
LITERATURE REVIEW
Thermoelectric phenomenon was discovered nearly two hundred
years ago. The first breakthrough that would eventually be used to form the
thermoelectric effect was discovered in 1820 By William Thomson .

Thermoelectric property was also implemented in pick up refrigerated
trucks were conducted by Bulat and Nekhoroshev (2003).
Hyeung, (2007) have done a research on thermoelectric device to control
the temperature of car- seat surface.

Koetzsch and Madden (2009) examined on thermoelectric cooling
versus conventional cooling in industrial enclosures. It only requires TE
module, a fan and a power supply.

McStravick,et.al (2009) had invented a medical travel pack with
cooling system.
Bartlett and Sukuse (2007) have built an air-conditioned cooling helmet &
also discussed by Buist and Streitwieser(1988) with worked well to cool
the head of a race driver. The 225 grams helmet cooling system reduced 5
to 6 degree Celsius form ambient.

Lauwers and Angleo (2009) had conducted a study and
development of personal cooling vest which catered to maintain a core body
temperature even . So this was example, where they made use the
property of TEC to benefit for their countrys armed forces. One such
innovative is a thermoelectric air cooling device which is powered up by a
jack that is to inserted in to a cigarette lighter socket in a vehicle. It was
studied by Harrington (2009) and the device provided comfort cooling to a
persons head and face in a vehicle.


11


CHAPTER 3
WORKING PRINCIPLE

In a thermocouple, when a current is passed through the circuit, five
thermoelectric effects occur. Because of the Peltier Effect, the cold plate
will be cooled and the warm plate will be heated. Heat will flow from the
warm plate to the cold plate by Conduction. Heat will be generated in each
conductor and at each junction because of the Joule an Effect and part of
the Joule an heat will flow to each junction. It is usual to assume that one
half of the Joulean heat is transferred to each junction. Thomson Effect and
Seebeck Effect also occurs. The net Thomson coefficient (
p
-
n
) becomes
zero if (
p
-
n
) is considered constant. Therefore we neglect the Thomson
Effect and use mean thermoelectric power which gives results equivalent to
those obtained when the Thomson Effect is included. We also assume that
heat absorption and heat rejection occurs only at the junctions and that all
material property value are constants.
3.1 Peltier Effect- when a voltage or DC current is applied to two
dissimilar conductors, a circuit can be created that allows for continuous
heat transport between the conductors junctions. The Seebeck Effect- is
the reverse of the Peltier Effect. By applying heat to two different
conductors a current can be generated. The Seebeck Coefficient is given
by:

where is the electric field.The current is transported through charge
carriers (opposite the hole flow or with electron flow). Heat transfer occurs
in the direction of charge carrier movement.
12










Figure -3.1

Applying a current (e
-
carriers) transports heat from the warmer
junction to the cooler junction. Bismuth telluride (a semiconductor),

is
sandwiched between two conductors, usually copper. A semiconductor
(called a pellet) is used because they can be optimized for pumping heat
and because the type of charge carriers within them can be chosen. The
semiconductor in this examples N type (doped with electrons) therefore, the
electrons move towards the positive end of the battery.
The semiconductor is soldered to two conductive materials, like
copper. When the voltage is applied heat is transported in the direction of
current flow.

13



Figure -3.2

When a p-type semiconductor (doped with holes) is used instead,
the holes move in a direction opposite the current flow. The heat is also
transported in a direction opposite the current flow and in the direction of
the holes. Essentially, the charge carriers dictate the direction of heat flow.
To increase heat transport, several p type or n type thermoelectric(TE)
components can be hooked up in parallel.
However, the device requires low voltage and therefore, a large current
which is too great to be commercially practical.




14

The TE components can be put in series but the heat transport
abilities are diminished because the interconnecting between the
semiconductor creates thermal shorting.





The most efficient configuration is where a P and N TE component is
put electrically in series but thermally in parallel . The device to the right is
called a couple. One side is attached to a heat source and the other a heat
sink that converts the heat away. The side facing the heat source is
considered the cold side and the side facing the heat sink the hot side.
Between the heat generating device and the conductor must be an
electrical insulator to prevent an electrical short circuit between the module
and the heat source. The electrical insulator must also have a high thermal
conductivity so that the temperature gradient between the source and the
conductor is small. Ceramics like alumina are generally used for this
purpose.






15

The most common devices use 254 alternating p and n type TE
devices. The devices can operate at 12-16 V at 4-5 amps. These values are
much more practical for real life operations
3.2 SEMICONDUCTORS FOR USE IN TE
REFRIGERATORS
The best thermoelectric materials currently available, compounds of
doped Bi
2
Te
3
, have ZT 1 at room temperature and attain maximum
temperature differential of 82K. Some of the commonly used conventional
thermoelectric materials are as follows:
Bi
2
Te
3,
Bi
2
Se
3
and Sb
2
Te
3
; ZnSb, PbTe and PbSe

The essence of a good thermoelectric is given by the determination of
the materials dimensionless figure of merit, ZT = (
2
/k)T, where is the
Seebeck coefficient, the electrical conductivity, and k the total thermal
conductivity (k = k
L
+ k
E
; the lattice and electronic contributions,
respectively). High mobility carriers which have the highest electrical
conductivity for a given carrier concentration are most desirable, and
typically the most promising materials have carrier concentrations of
approximately 10
19
carriers/cm
3
. The most promising thermoelectric
materials should behave as a phonon-glass/electron crystal (PGEC). The
paradigm of the PGEC material is that it should behave thermally as a glass
(large phonon scattering and thus low lattice thermal conductivity) and as
an electronic crystal (low scattering for the electrons, thus high electrical
conductivity).

3.2.1 Semiconductor Doping: N Type :
N doped semiconductors have an abundant number of extra
electrons to use as charge carriers. Normally, a group IV material (like Si)
with 4 covalent bonds (4 valence electrons) is bonded with 4 other Si. To
produce an N type semiconductor, Si material is doped with a Group V
16

metal (P or As) having 5 valence electrons, so that an additional electron on
the Group V metal is free to move and are the charge carriers


3.2.2 Semiconductor Doping: P Type:
For P type semiconductors, the dopants are Group III (In, B) which have 3
valence electrons, these materials need an extra electron for bonding which
creates holes. P doped semiconductors are positive charge carriers.
Theres an appearance that a hole is moving when there is a current
applied because an electron moves to fill a hole, creating a new hole where
the electron was originally. Holes and electrons move in opposite directions.


Thermoelectric Materials:
17

The most commonly used semiconductor for electronics cooling applications is
Bi
2
Te
3
because of its relatively high figure of merit. However, the performance of
this material is still relatively low and alternate materials are being investigated with
possibly better performance.
Alternative materials include:
Alternating thin film layers of Sb
2
Te
3
and Bi
2
Te
3
.
Lead telluride and its alloys
SiGe
Materials based on nanotechnology
A plot of various p-type semiconductor figures of merit times temperature vs.
temperature are shown. Within the temperature ranges concerned in electronics
cooling (0-200C) Bi
2
Te
3
performs the bes
Similar results are shown for n-type semiconductors:
Figure of Merit:
The figure of merit represents the quality of performance of a
thermoelectric material, sometimes it is multiplied by temperature. It is
defined as:


Where is the electrical resistivity, k is the thermal conductivity, and
is the Seebeck Coefficient.
Note: low electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity are required for high
high figure of merit. These values are temperature dependent therefore, the
figure of merit is temperature dependent. P and N type material have
different figures of merit and are averaged to determine a materials overall
quality.


k
Z

18

Thermoelectric Performance:
TE performance depends on the following factors:
The temperature of the cold and hot sides.
Thermal and electrical conductivities of the devices materials.
Contact resistance between the TE device and heat source/heat
sink.
Thermal resistance of the heat sink.
3.3 Coefficient of Performance:
In a thermocouple, when a current is passed through the circuit, five
thermoelectric effects occur. [2] Because of the Peltier Effect, the cold plate
will be cooled and the warm plate will be heated. Heat will flow from the
warm plate to the cold plate by Conduction. Heat will be generated in each
conductor and at each junction because of the Joulean Effect and part of
the Joulean heat will flow to each junction. It is usual to assume that one
half of the Joulean heat is transferred to each junction. Thomson Effect and
See back Effect also occurs. The net Thomson coefficient (
p
-
n
) becomes
zero if (
p
-
n
) is considered constant. Therefore we neglect the Thomson
Effect and use mean thermoelectric power which gives results equivalent to
those obtained when the Thomson Effect is included. We also assume that
heat absorption and heat rejection occurs only at the junctions and that all
material property value are constants.








19


The Coefficient of Performance of the system as a refrigerating device is
defined as-
C.O.P. = Q
O
/ W

Therefore For a completely reversible thermoelectric system (no Joulean
Effect and no Conduction Effects) above equation becomes,

0 1
0
T - T
T
C.O.P.

which is the Carnot cycle value.
A typical AC unit has a COP of approximately 3. TE coolers usually
have COPs below 1; 0.4 to 0.7 is a typical range.











20


CHAPTER-4
METHODLOGY

4.1 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:-
Thermoelectric cooler(2 MODULES OF 37watts)
Multi meter
Thermometer
Thermocouple
Water heat exchanger
Pump
Silicon grease
The experiment was started at room temperature (23C) and zero
current. A direct current was led through the Peltier element and increased
stepwise from 0 to 2.5A in steps of 0.1A. The voltage, current and
temperature in the cavity were registered after each step, giving sufficient
time for stationary temperature to establish. The current was increased until
the temperature reached its minimum value and started increasing.


21

CHAPTER 5
HEAT TRANSFER FORMULAE

1) Heat gained or lost through walls

Q = (A x T x K) / (X)
Where:
Q = Heat (Watts)

A = External surface area of container (m2)

T = Temperature difference (inside vs. outside of container)
(Kelvin)

K = Thermal conductivity of insulation (Watt / meter Kelvin)

X = Insulation thickness (m)

2) Time required to change the temperature of an object

t = (m x Cp x T) / Q

Where:

t = Time interval (seconds)

m = Weight of the object (kg)

Cp = Specific heat of material (J / (kg K))

T = Temperature change of object (Kelvin)

Q = Heat added or removed (Watts)

22



Note: It should be remembered that thermoelectric devices do not add or
remove heat

at a constant rate when T is changing.

An approximation for average Q is: Qave = (Q (T max) + Q (T min)) / 2

3) Heat transferred to or from a surface by convection

Q = h x A x T

Where:
Q = Heat (Watts)

h = Heat transfer coefficient (W / (m2 K)), 1 ~ 30 = Free
convection
gasses, 10 ~ 100 = Forced convection - gasses
A = Exposed surface area (m
2
)

T = Surface temperature - Ambient (Kelvin)








23



ADVANTAGES:
No moving parts make them very reliable; approximately 10
5
hrs of
operation at 100 degrees Celsius, longer for lower temps .
Ideal when precise temperature control is required.
Ability to lower temperature below ambient.
Heat transport controlled by current input.
Able to operate in any orientation.
Compact sizes make them useful for applications where size or
weight is a constraint.
Ability to alternate between heating and cooling.
Excellent cooling alternative to vapor compression coolers for
systems that are sensitive to mechanical vibration.

DISADVANTAGES:
Able to dissipate limited amount of heat flux.
Lower coefficient of performance than vapor-compression
systems.
Relegated to low heat flux applications.
More total heat to remove than without a TEC.








24


APPLICATIONS { Cooling purpose}:
Electronic enclosures
Laser diodes
Laboratory instruments
Temperature baths
Refrigerators
Telecommunications equipment
Temperature control in missiles and space systems
Heat transport ranges vary from a few milliwatts to several thousand
watts.
Demand for vaccine storage in developing Demand for vaccine
storage in developing communities communities
Way to store other perishable items in remote Way to store other
perishable items in remote locations locations









25


CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

The study shows how the manufacturers data for the thermo-electric
cooler can be used to extract the parameters of the pro-posed model. The
model could be helpful for analysing the drive requirements of the TEC.
Another important application of the
proposed model is to analyse the performance of the TEC under specic
conditions such as thermal leakage, non ideal thermal insulation, etc. Using
the model, one can analyse not only existing modules, but also specify an
optimal TEC for a specic problem.
The paper is based on data given by many different manufacturers
that were used to reproduce accurately the performance of commercial
TEMs. An important feature of the model is its ability to generate small-
signal transfer functions that can be used to design a feedback network in
temperature-control application. Obtained changes in resistance and Z
factor lay in the range of random error of measurements. temperature
cycles from 10 to 55C do not affect TECs efficiency.










26


CHAPTER 7
REFERANCE

Goldsmid H... Thermoelectric Refrigeration.

Lasance, C.J.M., and Simmons, R.E. Advances In High-
Performance Cooling For Electronics. Electronics Cooling.

Goldsmid H. J Electronic Refrigeration. Englewood Clis (NJ):
Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1986. (chapter 8).

Andersen JR. Thermoelectric air conditioner for sub-marines. Adv
Energy Conv 1962;2:2418.

Gray PE. The dynamic behavior of thermoelectric devices. New
York and London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1960.

Stoecker WF, Chaddock JB. Transient performance of a
thermoelectric refrigerator under step-current control.ASHARE
1963;5:617.

Bywaters RP, Blum HA. The transient behavior of cascade
thermoelectric heat pumps. Energy Conversion1970;10:193200.

Hoyos GE, Rao KR, Jerger D. Numerical analysis of transient
behavior of thermoelectric cooler. Energy Con-version 1977;17:239.

Soo SL. Direct energy conversion. Englewood Clis (NJ):Prentice-
Hall Inc., 1968 (chapter 5).

Phelan RM. Feedback control system. Cornel University, Itheca
(NY): Sibley School of Mechanical and Aero-nautical Engineering,
(privately published notes),
27


Leu MC. PDF subvariable control and its application to robot motion
control. ASME Journal of Dynamic System,

Measurement, and Control. 1989; 45261.

4.0 Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling
4.1
The use of thermoelectric modules often provides solutions,
and in some cases the ONLY solution, to many difficult thermal
management problems where a low to moderate amount of heat must
be handled. While no one cooling method is ideal in all respects and
the use of thermoelectric modules will not be suitable for every
application, TE coolers will often provide substantial advantages over
alternative technologies. Some of the more significant features of
thermoelectric modules include:
No Moving Parts: A TE module works electrically without any moving
parts so they are virtually maintenance free.
Small Size and Weight: The overall thermoelectric cooling system is
much smaller and lighter than a comparable mechanical system. In
addition, a variety of standard and special sizes and configurations
are available to meet strict application requirements.
Ability to Cool Below Ambient: Unlike a conventional heat sink
whose temperature necessarily must rise above ambient, a TE cooler
attached to that same heat sink has the ability to reduce the
temperature below the ambient value.
Ability to Heat and Cool With the Same module: Thermoelectric
coolers will either heat or cool depending upon the polarity of the
applied DC power. This feature eliminates the necessity of providing
separate heating and cooling functions within a given system.
28


Precise Temperature Control: With an appropriate closed-loop
temperature control circuit, TE coolers can control temperatures to better
than +/- 0.1C.
High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very high reliability due to
their solid state construction. Although reliability is somewhat application
dependent, the life of typical TE coolers is greater than 200,000 hours.
Electrically "Quiet" Operation: Unlike a mechanical refrigeration system,
TE modules generate virtually no electrical noise and can be used in
conjunction with sensitive electronic sensors. They are also acoustically
silent.
Operation in any Orientation: TEs can be used in any orientation and in
zero gravity environments. Thus they are popular in many aerospace
applications.
Convenient Power Supply: TE modules operate directly from a DC power
source. Modules having a wide range of input voltages and currents are
available. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) may be used in many
applications
Spot Cooling: With a TE cooler it is possible to cool one specific
component or area only, thereby often making it unnecessary to cool an
entire package or enclosure.
Ability to Generate Electrical Power: When used "in reverse" by applying
a temperature differential across the faces of a TE cooler, it is possible to
generate a small amount of DC power.
Environmentally Friendly: Conventional refrigeration systems can not be
fabricated without using chlorofluorocarbons or other chemicals that may be
harmful to the environment. Thermoelectric devices do not use or generate
gases of any kind.



29


Application Market
Infrared Detectors Military guidance systems
Environmental analyzers
Night vision systems
Black Body References Military
Air to Air Exchangers Portable cool boxes
Small refrigerators
Electronic cabinets
Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Commercial and military cameras
Space telescopes
Satellites
Liquid Exchangers Semiconductor processing equipment
Constant temperature baths
Blood analyzers
Laser Diodes Telecommunications switching
Medical diagnostics equipment
Commercial electronic scanners
Guidance systems
High Speed Integrated Circuits Commercial, Military
30

5conversion efficiency also increases with increase in the strength of the
applied electric field strength. Hence the research work provides the way to
overcome the energy crisis in future without any special production of heat but
only by the utilization of the available waste heat by the proper selection of
materials and operating parameters; which is free from any type of the pollution
or complexities. The reliable thermoelectric equipments/modules can be
framed of these materials in the selective orientations of electric or magnetic
fields. (b) Precise Measurements by RTD Materials There is a
variety of temperature sensing systems in each of the engineering and
industrial areas which can be categorized according to the requirements and
the range of temperatures to be measured. In high temperature situations
(molten state of materials, separation of ores etc.) the Resistive Temperature
Detective (RTD) materials are generally used which are basically
thermocouples, works on Seebeck Effect. This research work puts a protest for
the alteration of these temperature accuracies due to the effect of electric and
magnetic fields, which are generally present in such operating conditions and
affect the thermoelectric properties. Hence, this research work inspires for the
consideration of effect of such external parameters for the precise
measurements; to seek the reliability of a system. (c) Refrigeration
Thermoelectric devices achieved an importance in recent years as viable
solutions for applications such as spot cooling of electronic components,
remote power generation in space stations and satellites etc. These solid state
thermoelectric devices are free from moving parts, having good reliability
however their efficiency depends on the selection of materials. Such devices
with higher efficiency can be implemented for refrigeration also. Actually the
combination of Seebeck Effect and Peltier Effect is the 122
absolute advent for such refrigeration. If heat from solar energy is provide as
the input to this implementation the cooling will be the output. Surely this
research work will be an idea for better refrigeration and becomes an effort to
overcome the energy crisis by the means of refrigeration from waste heat. In
the instruments like computers, laptops, dynamos and vehicles the low grade
waste heat can be utilized for cooling and can also be recycled to improve their
performances. To reduce the thermal conductivity the heat resistant
membranes can also be used. In a large number of devices metallic blocks are
31


used, which causes eddy currents due to non uniform magnetic fields. If these
magnetic fields are synchronized to the thermo coupled devices then it is
observed that the thermo emf will enhanced. This results to more cooling
without any extra input. Such thermoelectric cooling devices can be applied to
industries, buildings of hot regions and to the houses in summer. However,
they require some modifications related to their size and the selection of
materials but their cheapness, eco friendly nature, no cause to global warming
are enough inputs to motivate the engineers for their implementations in almost
all the suitable applications of daily life in near future.